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Introduction Introduction 1. GOALS This monograph is an attempt at presenting the development of the Nile Delta in the Predynastic period. Particular attention will be paid to the role played by the contacts between the Delta communities and the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age societies from Southern Levant. Many researchers of the ancient Near East have already presented their interpretations of the Egyptian-Southern Levantine contacts. They concentrate primarily on analyzing im- ports from Southern Levant found in Egypt, dated to the Protodynastic period and the beginnings of the Early Dynastic period, as well as Egyptian imports in Southern Levant dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age I and Early Bronze Age II (i.e. Yadin 1955; Yeivin 1960; 1967; 1968; Ward 1963: 1-4; 1964: 121-135; Amiran 1970; 1974; Gophna 1976; 1987; 1992; 1995b; Ben-Tor 1982; 1986; 1991; Tutundžić 1985; 1989; Brandl 1992; van den Brink 1992b; 2002; Andelković 1995; de Miroshedji & Sadek 2000a; 2000b; 2005; de Miroschedji et al. 2001; Hartung 2001; Kansa & Levy 2002; Levy & van den Brink 2002; Paz et al. 2005; van den Brink & Gophna 2004; Braun 2004; 2011; van den Brink & Braun 2006; Braun & van den Brink 2008; Dessel 2009; Sowada 2009; Czarnowicz 2011). Thus far, more com- prehensive attempts at interpreting Egyptian-Southern Levantine relationships in the early Predynastic period have not been taken, mostly due to the scarcity of source materials. However, intensified excavations in the Nile Delta and today’s Israel and Jordan in the re- cent years have brought materials that shed new light on the origins of Egyptian-Canaanite contacts (Mączyńska 2006; 2008; Braun & van den Brink 2008; Czarnowicz 2012b). This monograph is intended to fill in the gap in the research on the prehistoric Nile Delta and its contacts with Southern Levant. The sources used by the author include materials from 24 sites in the Nile Delta, where traces of the Lower Egyptian culture have been discovered (Fig. 1; Tab. 1; cf. Mączyńska 2011: tab. 1). However, only 7 of those have seen a comprehensive publication of all mate- rials, addressing the most important aspects of the said culture. These are: Maadi – settle- ment and cemetery (Rizkana & Seeher 1987; 1988; 1989; 1990), Buto settlement (von der Way 1997; Faltings 1998ab; Köhler 1998), Tell el-Iswid (van den Brink 1989), Tell Ibrahim Awad (van den Brink 1992b), Tell el-Farkha (Chłodnicki et al. 2012) and cemeteries in Wadi 16 Lower EGYPTIAN COMMUNITIES AND THEIR Interactions WITH SOUTHERN Levant Figure 1. Lower Egypt in the Predynastic period. Digla (Rizkana & Seeher 1990), Heliopolis (Debono & Mortensen 1988). A considerable delay between the excavations on the one hand and the corresponding publications on the other causes certain difficulties e.g. in the cases of Maadi, Heliopolis and es-Staff sites (Debono & Mortensen 1988; Habachi & Kaiser 1985; Rizkana & Seeher 1987; 1988; 1989). Some materials from the most recent research projects still await proper publication and are currently available in the form of detailed excavation reports only, e.g. Tell el-Masha’la (Rampersad 2006), Kom el-Khilgan (Buchez & Midant-Reynes 2007; 2011; Midant-Reynes et al. 2004), Sais (Wilson & Gilbert 2003; Wilson 2006); Tell el-Iswid1 (Midant-Reynes 2007; 1 Excavations of the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology (IFAO) in Cairo under the direction of M. Beatrix Midant-Reynes. Introduction 17 Table 1. Sites of the Lower Egyptian culture. NO. SITE NAME SITE TYPE REFERENCES von der Way 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1992ab, 1993, 1997; 1 Buto I-IIIa settlement Faltings 1998ab, 2003; Faltings & Köhler 1996; Köhler 1998 2 Beni Amir cemetery el-Moneim 1996 3 Ezbet el-Qerdahi settlement Wunderlich 1988; Wunderlich et al. 1989 4 Giza settlement? Mortensen 1985; el-Sanussi & Jones 1997; Scharff 1928 5 Heliopolis cemetery Debono & Mortensen 1988 6 Kom el-Kanater settlement? Levy & van den Brink 2002 Buchez & Midant-Reynes 2007, Midant-Reynes et al. 2004; 7 Kom el-Khilgan cemetery Tristant et al. 2008; Menghin & Amer 1932, 1936; Badawi 1987, Rizkana & settlement, 8 Maadi Seeher 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990; Caneva et al. 1987, Watrin cemetery 2000; Hartung 2004 Hansen 1965, 1967; Brewer & Wenke 1992; 9 Mendes B3 settlement Friedman 1992 10 Merimde Beni-Salame cemetery? Badawi 1980 11 Mersa Matruh A/600 cemetery? Bates 1915; 1927; Levy & van den Brink 2002 12 Minshat Abu Omar I cemetery Kroeper & Wildung 1994; 2000; Kroeper 2004 13 Qasr Qarun settlement? Caton Thompson & Gardner 1934; Wenke et al. 1983 14 es-Saff cemetery Habachi & Kaiser 1985; 15 Sais settlement Wilson 2006; Wilson & Gilbert 2003 16 Sedment J settlement? Petrie & Brunton 1924ab; Williams 1982 17 Tell el-Fara’un – el-Husseiniya cemetery Levy & van den Brink 2002 18 Tell el-Masha’la settlement Rampersad 2006 19 Tell el-Murra settlement Jucha pers. comm. 20 Tell el-Farkha 1-3 settlement Chłodnicki et al. 2012 21 Tell Ibrahim Awad settlement van den Brink 1989, 1992b; van Haarlem 1998;. 22 Tell el-Iswid 7 settlement van den Brink 1992b; Tristant et al. 2011 23 Tura ? Junker 1912, 1928; Kaiser & Zaugg 1988 24 Wadi Digla cemetery Rizkana & Seeher 1990 Tristant et al. 2011; Guyot in press). An interesting case is that of the cemetery in Minshat Abu Omar, which had been considered as typically Naqadian for many years. Recently however some researchers have claimed that the two oldest groups of graves (I and II) could have belonged to a Lower Egyptian culture community who buried their dead right there, judging by the presence of specific grave goods, such as lemon shaped jars (Köhler 2008: 518-519; Mączyńska in press c). Materials from the other Lower Egyptian culture 18 Lower EGYPTIAN COMMUNITIES AND THEIR Interactions WITH SOUTHERN Levant Table 2. Sites intentionally excluded from this publication. NAME SITE CHRONOLOGY REFERENCES Mersa Matruh cemetery Merimde culture/Lower Bates 1915; 1927 A/600 (15 graves) Egyptian culture? Tell el-Fara’un/ cemetery Lower Egyptian culture? Levy & van den Brink 2002: 11 el-Husseiniya Kom el-Kanater settlement Lower Egyptian culture? Levy & van den Brink 2002: 11 sites relied on by the author have been published incompletely, with emphasis on selected aspects only (e.g. Engelbach 1923; Caton-Thompson & Gardner 1934; Badawi 1980; Wil- liams 1982 ; el-Moneim 1996). This results first of all from the fragmentary and accidental nature of the finds (Giza, Tura), small scale of research (Ezbet el-Qerdahi) or mistaken chronology of finds (Haraga, Qasr Qarun, Sedment J). In the last case, chronology was verified on the basis of pottery analysis, as no archive information about stratigraphy, con- text, etc. was available. Materials from sites of uncertain or unspecified chronology, only available as enigmatic or brief excavation reports, were not taken into account (Tab. 2). The Lower Egyptian culture, when identified in the 1930s, was first referred to as Maadi culture, named so after the first site bearing the traces of this culture’s activity. In this way it became one of the four cultural units discovered in the first half of the 20th century in the Nile Delta. Not unlike Faiyumian, Merimde and el-Omari cultures, Maadi units were known from a single site only and seemed a part of the cultural tradition of the first farming communities in Lower Egypt. This situation changed in the 1980s, when intensive surveys and excavations began in the Delta area. Traces of Maadi culture were then discovered on Buto site. Excavations by the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) showed that Maadi culture was much more diverse than originally believed. As a result, the name was changed to Maadi-Buto culture. The following years brought the discoveries of new sites of the same culture: Tell el-Iswid, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Tell el-Farkha, Sais and Kom el-Khilgan. Researchers quickly realized that the phenomenon in question was quite different from the three other Neolithic cultures, as it was strongly diversified and its geographic range covered nearly the entire Delta. When the original views on Maadi-Buto culture were revised, it was necessary to update its name, so reminiscent of the first farming communities in the Delta. The term “Lower Egyptian culture” was coined in the literature (cf. von der Way 1992b: 217; Ciałowicz 1999; 2001; Buchez & Midant-Reynes 2011; Mączyńska 2011), making it clearly different from the traditions of Faiyumian, Merimde and el-Omari cultures. Although the term “Maadi-Buto” is still used frequently, the author insists on using the name Lower Egyptian culture in this monograph, as it is more adequate for the culture’s character (see also Mączyńska 2011). Introduction 19 2. CHRONOLOGicAL RANGE The Lower Egyptian culture appeared in the Delta area in the beginning of the 4th millen- nium BC. Radiocarbon dating allows to see the culture in the period between 3800 and 3300/3200 BC, corresponding to the period from Naqada I to beg. Naqada IIIA in the rela- tive Upper Egyptian chronology (Ciałowicz 1999: 46; Watrin 2000: 170-173). The genesis of the Lower Egyptian culture has not been fully explained yet. There is no cultural continuity between the Lower Egyptian society and its predecessors, i.e. Faiyumian, Merimde and el- Omari communities. However, analyses of the oldest Lower Egyptian pottery from Haraga and Sedement J revealed coexistence of features associated with cultural traditions of early Predynastic Lower Egypt (Williams 1982: 216-219; 221). Most researchers believe that the beginnings of the Lower Egyptian culture are linked to the influence of multiple early Neo- lithic cultural traditions, including Merimde and el-Omari (Levy & van den Brink 2002: 10). An analysis of Lower Egyptian culture materials allows one to discern a clear develop- mental pattern. Table 3 presents the division of the said development as used herein. It is based on both the newest results of studies carried out on Tell el-Farkha site and on the results of analyses of materials from other, previously known Lower Egyptian sites.
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