Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies

Series Editor: Oliver P. Richmond, Professor, School of International Relations, University of St. Andrews, UK Editorial Board: Roland Bleiker, University of Queensland, Australia; Henry F. Carey, Georgia State University, USA; Costas Constantinou, University of Keele, UK; A.J.R. Groom, University of Kent, UK; Vivienne Jabri, King’s College London, UK; Edward Newman, University of Birmingham, UK; Sorpong Peou, Sophia University, Japan; Caroline Kennedy-Pipe, University of Sheffield, UK; Professor Michael Pugh, University of Bradford, UK; Chandra Sriram, University of East London, UK; Ian Taylor, University of St. Andrews, UK; Alison Watson, University of St. Andrews, UK; R.B.J. Walker, University of Victoria, Canada; Andrew Williams, University of St. Andrews, UK.

Titles include:

Roland Bleiker AESTHETICS AND WORLD POLITICS Morgan Brigg THE NEW POLITICS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION Responding to Difference Susanne Buckley-Zistel CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN UGANDA Remembering after Violence Jason Franks RETHINKING THE ROOTS OF TERRORISM Vivienne Jabri WAR AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF GLOBAL POLITICS James Ker-Lindsay EU ACCESSION AND UN PEACEMAKING IN CYPRUS Roger MacGinty NO WAR, NO PEACE The Rejuvenation of Stalled Peace Processes and Peace Accords Carol McQueen HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION AND SAFETY ZONES Iraq, Bosnia and Rwanda Sorpong Peou INTERNATIONAL DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCE FOR PEACEBUILDING Cambodia and Beyond Sergei Prozorov UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE EU The Limits of Integration Oliver P. Richmond THE TRANSFORMATION OF PEACE Bahar Rumelili CONSTRUCTING REGIONAL COMMUNITY AND ORDER IN EUROPE AND SOUTHEAST ASIA Chandra Lekha Sriram PEACE AS GOVERNANCE Power-Sharing, Armed Groups and Contemporary Peace Negotiations Stephan Stetter WORLD SOCIETY AND THE MIDDLE EAST Reconstructions in Regional Politics

Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies Series Standing Order ISBN 978–1–4039–9575–9 (hardback) & 978–1–4039–9576–6 (paperback) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Aid, Peacebuilding and the Resurgence of War Buying Time in Sri Lanka

Sarah Holt © Sarah Holt 2011 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-24027-8 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2011 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978-1-349-31647-2 ISBN 978-0-230-30634-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230306349 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

10987654321 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 In Memory of My Mother, Morag (1951–2008)

Contents

Lists of Maps, Tables and Figures ix Preface x Acknowledgements xi Glossary xii Acronyms xiii Introduction: Peacebuilding and War 1 Peacebuilding and peace processes 2 Methodology 6 The outline of the book 15 Chapter 1 Peacebuilding and Economic Recovery 18 Defining peacebuilding 18 The timing of peacebuilding 25 Theories of peacebuilding 27 Peacebuilding since World War II 36 Conclusion 45 Chapter 2 Sri Lanka’s ‘Liberal’ War 48 Ethnic demography 48 Efforts to resolve the Sri Lankan conflict 1948–2002 61 A Sri Lankan peace 70 Conclusion 75 Chapter 3 The 2002–2006 Sri Lankan Peace Process 77 The Norwegian mediated peace process 77 Peacebuilding as a policy approach in Sri Lanka 84 The practicalities of prioritising economic recovery 93 issues Conclusion 103 Chapter 4 Peacebuilding at the Grassroots 106 Mannar district 107 Before and after the MoU – Mannar’s changing 110 situation Searching for the link between peace and development 128 Conclusion 135

vii viii Contents

Chapter 5 The Resurgence of War 136 The politics of war 136 The LTTE 141 The Government of Sri Lanka 143 International involvement 145 Return to Mannar 150 A negative peace 152 Conclusion 157 Chapter 6 Building Peace or Buying Time? 159 Peacebuilding in theory 160 Peacebuilding in practice 161 What kind of peace? 162 The challenges of transforming a state 163 The prioritisation of economic recovery 166 Notes 169 Index 216 List of Maps, Tables and Figures

Maps Map 1 Sri Lanka xvii Map 2 Mannar District xviii

Tables Table 2.1 Rapid Socio-economic Changes in Sri Lanka 50 1832–1906 Table 4.1 Economic Activities of the Population in 1997 108 Table 4.2 Mannar District Populations by Religion 1981 109 Table 5.1 SLMM Ruled Ceasefire Violations 2002–2005 142

Figures Figure 3.1 ‘Sri Lanka strategy Market Outlook’ report published 89 on 2 December 2002 by CLSA, Asia’s leading independent brokerage and investment group Figure 4.1 IDP Returns Mannar 2002–2005 112 Figure 4.2 Total IDP Returns to Mannar 2002–2005 113

ix Preface

This book is concerned with how wars end and the role of the external actors in that process. After four years of ceasefire and an internation- alised peace process, Sri Lanka saw the resumption in 2006 of bloody hos- tilities between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of the Tamil Eelam (LTTE). This peace process saw the prioritisation of economic recovery and development programmes by both the govern- ment and the international community. The outcome was the bloodiest episode in the history of the conflict and the military defeat of the LTTE. Since the 1990s there has been increasing international support for an approach to ending wars through addressing the root causes; an approach commonly described as peacebuilding. This book asks whether the prior- itisation of economic recovery issues can help sustain a peacemaking process. This empirical research employs a case-study approach, using primary and secondary material investigating the activities of develop- ment actors at the elite and grassroots level. It examines the conceptual- isation, theorisation and operationalisation of peacebuilding, and finds peacebuilding to be conceptually vague where there is a significant gap between theory and practice. Having analysed the Sri Lankan conflict and identified the changes necessary for a peaceful end, this books asks why previous efforts to resolve the conflict were unsuccessful and how this most recent peace process differed. Despite the focused attention of inter- national donors and the application of significant funds, the inter- national community was incapable of applying the pressure needed to instigate necessary political reform. Foreign-funded recovery pro- grammes implemented in the war-affected North-west did improve people’s general welfare, and did not touch upon the core-issues of the war, namely issues of rights, political representation and security. The prioritisation of economic recovery issues in Sri Lanka may have resulted in one of Sri Lanka’s most enduring ceasefires; it did not, how- ever, lead to a negotiated settlement.

x Acknowledgements

The impetus for this research came from the people of Sri Lanka. The resilience and optimism that I encountered, in spite of terrible hard- ship, has provided me with some invaluable perspectives on life. This book is based on research undertaken at the Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit at the University of York. My thanks start with the friends and colleagues from my time there; especially Alp Özerdem, Christine Hamieh, Chrissie Steenkamp, Helen Matheson and Basel Almisshal. Thanks are also due to Andy Williams for his encourage- ment over the last couple of years. Special thanks must go to Roger Mac Ginty, who continues to be an inspiring mentor. I am very grate- ful to Iseabail MacLeod for her encyclopaedic knowledge of the English language and help with proofing the final draft. I owe a great debt of thanks to Simon Weatherbed, whose friendship, insight and experi- ence helped me through my fieldwork. I am also grateful for all the assistance I received from Raji and the staff at FORUT Sri Lanka. In Mannar I am eternally grateful to Raga and Nusia Alphonsus, without whom I would probably have met with disaster. Special thanks are also due to the staff at ZOA, Mr Paul Sinclair of CHA, Miss Antonipillar and Paul Master. I was warmly received in Mannar, and I am fortunate that all the people whom I encountered on my visits were willing to indulge my questions, and share their insights. These include officials past and present of the Sri Lankan Government, civil servants, diplo- mats, those working for NGOs and donors, people from the LTTE, but most of all the people whose lives have been irrevocably changed by this war. The National Library of Scotland has provided me with a very studious environment and an excellent catalogue. I am extremely grateful for the financial help provided to me over the years, from the Economic and Social Research Council, the Gerald Bailey Award and the British International Studies Association. My research would not have been possible without the unconditional support and encourage- ment of my family: I am thankful to my parents for giving me the confidence to go anywhere; my sister, without whom I could never have completed the research; and my grandmother who has been an ongoing academic inspiration and support.

xi Glossary

bhikkhu Buddhist monk cajan palm tree whose leaves are commonly used as a roofing material eelam homeland Government Agent the chief civil servant of each district Grama Sevika village headman goyigamas high-caste Sinhalese hartal general strike kachcheri local government administration karava Sinhalese caste kooli labourer Sangha Buddhist order of monks satyagraha non-violent protest originating from India Vanni area controlled by the LTTE

xii Acronyms

ACTC All Ceylon Tamil Congress ADB Asian Development Bank AGA Assistant Government Agent AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development CARP Conflict Area Rehabilitation Project CAS Country Assistance Strategy CBO community-based organisation CFA Ceasefire Agreement CHA Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies CNC Ceylon National Congress COI Commission of Inquiry CP Communist Party CPA Centre for Policy Alternatives CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CTC Ceylon Tamil Congress CWC Ceylon Worker’s Congress DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration DfID Department for International Development DRC Danish Refugee Council DS Divisional Secretary ECHO European Community Humanitarian Office EPDP Eelam People’s Democratic Party EPRLF Eelam People’s Revolutionary Liberation Front EROS Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation FDL Forward Defence Line FP Federal Party GA Government Agent GDP Gross Domestic Product GO Governmental organisation GoSL Government of Sri Lanka GS Grama Sevika GSP Generalised System of Preference GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency HDI Human Development Index

xiii xiv Acronyms

HSZ High Security Zones ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IDA International Development Association IDP Internally Displaced Person IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development IFI International Financial Institution IIGEP International Independent Group of Eminent Persons ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International Non-governmental Organisation IOM International Organisation for Migration IPKF Indian Peace Keeping Force ISGA Interim Self-Governing Authority ISPA Indo-Sri Lankan Peace Agreement JHU Jathika Hela Urumaya JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna LSSP Lanka Sama Samaja Party LTTE Liberation Tigers of the Tamil Eelam MARR Mannar Association for Refugee Rehabilitation MG Multilateral Group MoU Memorandum of Understanding MP Member of Parliament NECORD North East Community Restoration and Development project NEHRP North East Housing Reconstruction Programme NEIAP North East Irrigated Agriculture Project NEPC North-East Provincial Council NERF North East Reconstruction Fund NFRI Non-food Relief Items NGO Non-governmental Organisation NHA National Housing Authority ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ONUSAL United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador P-TOMS Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure PA People’s Alliance PDS Planning and Development Secretariat PLOTE People’s Liberation Organisation of the Tamil Eelam PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy Acronyms xv

PSC Protracted Social Conflict PSL Populations Services Lanka PTA Prevention of Terrorism Act RDF Rural Development Forum RDS Rural Development Society SCF Save the Children Fund SDN Subcommittee on De-escalation and Normalisation SIHRN Subcommittee on Immediate Human and Rehabilitations Needs in the North and East SLA Sri Lankan Army SLAF Sri Lankan Armed Forces SLFP Sri Lankan Freedom Party SLMC Sri Lankan Muslim Congress SLMM Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission SMS Sinhala Maha Sahba TELO Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation TNA Tamil National Alliance TNT Tamil New Tigers TRO Tamils Rehabilitation Organisation TUF Tamil United Front TULF Tamil United Liberation Front UAS Unified Assistance Scheme UF United Front UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNHCHR United Nations High Commission for Human Rights UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNP United National Party UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development UNRRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia UPFA United People’s Freedom Alliance US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics xvi Acronyms

UTHR University Teachers for Human Rights UXO Unexploded Ordinance WB World Bank Group WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation WRDS Women’s Rural Development ZOA Zuid Oost Azië (Dutch for South East Asia) Map 1 Sri Lanka

Map created by Prof. G.H. Peiris, Emeritus Professor of Geography, University of Peradeniya for ICES, Kandy.

xvii MANNAR DISTRICT Administrative Map

Name & P-code of DS Divisions Map Locator

Madhu 4209 Mannar Town 4203 Manthai West 4206 Thekampuddi Musalai 4215 • • Vellankulam Nanaddan 4212

• Mundampiddi •Tikali Kurunthankulam Iluppaikkadavai• TalaimannarMullitidal • • • Kannaddi MULLAITIVU Pesalai • Karisal MANTHAI WEST • • Komputukki Tayliankudiyiruppu • •Nakattaivu • Koyitkulam Olaittoduwai • Erukkilampiddi • Malivadi• • Vidattaltivu Toddaveli • Legend Tarakkundu • Pallamadu Talvupadu• • MANNAR TOWN DS Division Boundary • •Pappamoddai •Periyamadu • Thirukethiswaram Mantai Adampan Chinnavalayankaddu Main Road Talladi • •Puttukadu • ! Alkaddiveli Palampiddi Kavllanvaddathalvu • • • • Thirukesvaram Vilattikkulam Railway Line Vankalai • Udaiyadi MADHU • Uyilankulam•

xviii • Manalkulam • Vannankulam District HQ Uthuvayankulam • Pokkarvanni • Nochchikkulam • Nanaddan • • Madhukari • • Town Puvarasankandal • Murunkan• NANADDAN Field study villages Kovitkulam Malavarayankaddaiadampan Arippu • • • •Veppankulam Ilantaikkulam• Panikkapettankulam Pannaiyedduvan VAVUNIYA • Data Source: Saviriapuram Akattimurippu • Survey Department, Government of Sri Lanka Silavattural• Tandikulam Chinnakkunchukulam• • Airports: Air Broker Center 1998 Kondaichchi Indian Ocean Akattikkulam Navadantaivu • • Puliadimoddipulavu • • Periyakunchukkulam• Production Date: 05 Sep, 2005 MUSALAI •Periyamurippu Produced By: Humanitarian Information Center Sri Lanka

Version:02 Glide no: TS 2004-0001470LKA Karadikkuli • The boundaries and names and the designations used on this map do not imply Mullikkulam • official endorsement or acceptance by the Kilometers United Nations.

ANURADHAPURA © 2005 UN 0210 0 Humanitarian Information Center Sri Lanka

Produced through the generous support of:

Produced By: Humanitarian Information Center,Sri Lanka # 202-204, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7, Tel: +94 (11) 2504434 - 5, Fax: +94 (11) 2504433, Email: [email protected] Online: http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/srilanka Map 2 Mannar District