F E N C E S G A T E S ,

A N D

E B RI D G S .

A P RA C T I C A L MA N U A L .

EDITED BY RG E A MA T I G E O . R N .

T HRE E HU ’ N D RE D

N E W Y O RK O RAN G E J U D D C O MP A Y N ,

1 8 9 2 . En ere accord in to Act of Con ress i n the ear 1887 b the t d, g g , y , y

' 0 DD CU . J U . ,

In the Offi e of the Librarian of Con r ess at Was hin ton c g , g . A ' RY E F T O .

“ It is authoritatively stated that the bu il din g and main ten an ce of the farm fences in the United State s have , i cost more than the construction of the farm bu ldings .

u . Be. this as it may, while large n mbers of works have been written upon rural architecture we believe this i s G the first publication specially devoted to Fences, ates

B It a . and ridges . ims to be a practical work, showing the “evolution ' of the fence from the road barrier of logs, brush or sods to the latest improved forms of Th barbed wire . e numerous illustrations are mainly representations of fences, gates , etc . , in actual use .

The chapter on fence law is n ecessarily condensed . The various judicial decisions upon the subject alone

u would fill a large vol me .

the This little work, first and only one of its char acter, is given to the public in the confident hope that it will prove specially u seful to farmers and village residents .

B E F EN TA L O CONT TS.

AP E I CH T R . Rail an d other Pri mitive Fen ces 7 17

‘ Vir n ia Ra il Fen ce ; La in g a Rai l Fen ce ; Staki ng an d ir in g ; A Fen ce of take s a n d Rider s ; A Pole c e ; Fen ces for Soil Li a ble to Heave ; Other Pr imi i n s t ve Fe ce .

A II CH PTER .

‘ Ston e an d Sod Fen ces 18 23 How a Ston e W a ll Shoul d be Bu ilt ; Bui ldi ng a Ston e Fen ce Tr u ck for Movin g Ston e s Re-in for cin g a Ston e n W a ll ; A Com posite Fen ce ; A Pr ai ri e Sod Fe ce .

A III CH PTER . Boar d Fen ces 24. 30 Bu il di n g Boar d Fen ces ; Fen ces for Lan d Su bject to Overflow A Fen ce-Boar d Holder Re-in forcing a Board n Fe ce .

PTE IV CHA R . Picket Fen ces 31 42 A Go od Gar den Fen ce ; A Sou thern Picket Fence ; Fen ces of Split Pickets ; O r n am enta l Picket Fe n ce s ; Ru stic Picket Fen ces ; Li ht Picket Fen ces ' Ha n d m a de W ire a n d Picket en ces ; Fen ce of Wire an d e s Pick t .

AP E V CH T R . Ba r b-Wir e Fen ce 61 Stati stics an d Form s of Bar b W ir e How to Set Bar b W i re Fe n ce ; U n r eelin an d Stretchin g Bar b W ir e ; W ir e tr etc her s ; Buil g Wir e Fen ce on Uneven éroun g

HAP E VI C T R . Fen ces of Bar b Wire an d Boar ds 62 67 Combin ed W ire an d Boar d Fen ce ; A Br acketed n c Do - r oof n c Fe e ; g P Fe e .

AP E VII CH T R .

The Best Hedge Plan ts ; Plan tin g an d Care of O sage Hed es ; Hedges for the Sou th ; Orn amental Hedges

an d cr ech e . T VI TA BL E OF CON ENTS .

Portable Fences an d Hurdles 75 85 Porta ble Boar d Fen ces ; Portable Fen ce s of Poles an d W ir e ; Porta ble Fen c es for W in dbr ea ks Poultr y Fen ces ' Porta ble Foldi ng Fen ce ; Tempo r ary n n s W ire an d Ir o e ce .

CHAPTER I'. Fen ces for Str ea ms an d Gulli es 85 95 Flood Fen ces ; Porta ble Wir e Fen ce W aterin g Pla ce in a Creek.

CHAP TER '. Maki ng an d Settin g Posts Ma kin g Fen ce Posts ; A Post Holder D riving Fen ce Posts by B an d To Drive Posts W ithou t S l itti r g ; A ‘ Pow er ful Post Dr iver Setting a Gate Po st ve fios ts ; Men di ng 3 Split Po st ; B oo k for W Posts Dr a w in g Fen ce Posts ; Li fting Po sts b an d ; Spli cing Fen ce Posts ; Applica tion of W oo d r vati ves Ir on n os s Fe ce P t .

Gates an d Fas tenings 117-164 W ooden Gates ; A Very Su bstan ti al Farm Gate ; A Str on g a n d Nea t Gate ; Light Iron Gates ; Self-closin g Gates Gate for a Vill age Lo t A Chi nese Doo r or Gate S ri ng ; Lifting Gates ; Rusti c Gate s Balan ce Gates ; te for Sno W ea ther ; W es t In dia Far m Gate s Ga te Hin ges of ood Dou ble Gate s Do u ble Latc hed Gates ; Im proved Sli de Gate ; A Com bi ned Hin g e an d Slidi n g Ga te ; Gates of W oo d a n d Wi re ; A Goo d an d Chea p Farm Gate ; An Im proved W ir e Gate ; Taki ng u th e Sag in Ga tes ; Goo d Gate Latches ; Top Hinge 0p arm Ga Ga e w a s in W n F te t y ire Fe ce.

Wi ckets an d Stiles 164-170

Iron Wickets ; W oo den W ickets ; Stil es for W ir e n Fe ces .

Fen ce La w

Fen cing Ou t or Fen cin g In Di vi sion Fen ces High w a n ces W ha is a a F n c Rai r oa n y Fe t Leg l e e ? l d Fe ces .

Coun try Bridges an d Culverts 176-188 Stren h of Bridges ; Brac es an d Trusses ; Abu t fi ers an d Railin gs ; Bri dges for Gul lies ; Road ATES A I F E G ND BRDGE . ENC S, S

HA P T E I C R .

RAIL AND OTHERPRIMTIVE W OOD FENCES .

IRGI I R L E E V N A AI F N C .

e _ The zigzag rail fence was almost universally adopt d by the settlers in the heavily timbered portions of the u country, and countless tho sands of miles of it still ex the ist, though increasing scarcity of timber has brought

u se . other styles of fencing largely into Properly built, on of good material, a clear, solid bed, kept free from w bushes and other gro th to shade it and cause it to rot, the rail fence is as cheap as any, and as effective and dur G able as can reasonably be desired . ood chestnut, oak, cedar, or juniper rails , or original growth heart pine, s r r will la t from fifty to a hund ed years, so that mate ial 1 en ei a of this sort, once in hand, will se ve one or two g 1 tions . This fence, ten ails high , and propped with two rails at each corner, requires twelve rails to the panel .

' If is fi ve the fence bed feet wide, and the rails are eleven d feet long, and are lappe about a foot at the locks , one panel will extend about eight feet in direct line . This a h w t kes seven thousand nine undred and t enty rails , or about . eight thousand rails to the mile . For a tempo u n a rary fence , one that can be put p and take down in (7) 8 E C E S GA TE B RID GE S. F N , S AND

i short time, for making stock p ens and d vision fences , t ac i e not in ended to remain long in pl e, noth ng is cheap r e n or bett r . The bed for a fence of this ki d should not be less than five feet across , to enable it to stand before i l l ev n f t . e e ee as the w nd The rai s are best cut _ long, thi s makes a lock neither too long nor too short ; and the for ward end of each rail should come under the next one that is laid . The corners , or locks , as they are r h called, should also be well propped with st ong, w ole

n ot e t . rails , with pi ces of rails , as is of en done The props should be set firmly on the ground about two feet r c f om the panel , and crossed at the lock so as to hold ea h

an d o o . other, the t p c urse of the fence firmly in place ac t c c They thus as bra es to the fen e , supporting it

s again t the wind . Bo th sides of the fence should be propped . The top course of rails should be the strong an d est heaviest of any , for the double purpose of weight in a nd g the fence down, to prevent breaking of rails by e u p rsons getting pon it . The four courses of rails near u of a l est the ground sho ld be the sm lest pi ece s, to pre a or e l vent making the cr cks, spaces b tween the rai s , too

. be h large They should also straig t, and of nearly even sizes at both ends . This last precaution is only necessary l n e where smal pigs have to be fe c d out or in , as the cas e

be . i a a may The fence, after it is finished, w ll h ve the p e ar an ce 1 l ‘ p of figure , wil be six rails high , two props at be each lock , and the worm will crooked enough to an l r stand y wind, that wil not prost ate crops , fr uit trees, e tc . A straighter worm than this will be eas y to blow down or push over. The stability of this sort of fence E ‘ P M T VE n E ES RAIL AND OTH R RI I I woo F NC . 9

d the the epends very largely on manner of placing props , both as to the d istance of the foot of the prop rail from

an d the the e . the fence panel, way it is locked at corn r

E E LAYIN G A RAIL F NC .

It u e o is m ch bett r, both for good lo ks and economy, to have the corners of a rail fence on eac h side in line with a e ch other . This may be accomplished by means of a -

very simple implement, shown in figure It 2 . consists of a small pole , eight the feet long, sharpened at lower end . A horizontal arm of a length equal to half the width of the fence from ex

treme outside of corners, is fastened to e the long pol at right angles, near the S m lower end . o etimes a sapling may be found with a limb growing nearly at ur right angles, which will serve the p B i n pose . efore beg nning the fe ce , stakes are ‘ set at intervals along the m iddle 2 Fig . . of the line it is to occupy . To begin , 2 the gauge , as shown in figure , is set in line with the the stakes, and horizontal arm is swung outwardly at

F —’ ‘HE i . 3. I FEN CE E E g GUN .

e Of righ t angles to the lin fence . A stone or block to support the first corner is laid directly under the end of h a t e horizont l arm, and the first rail laid with on e en d :

10 FENC E GATES AN D B I DGE . S, R S

In resting on the su pport. the same way the next corner b and all others are laid, the gauge eing moved from to n the corner cor er, set in the line of fence, and arm swung alternately to the right and left.

ST I G AND W IRI G AK N N .

A neater and more substantial method of securing the corners of a worm fence is by vertical stakes and wires, as i ’ shown in the accompany ng illustrations . Whe n the

a ar e . lower three rails are laid, the st kes driven in the

— ' - Fi . 4. STAE:ES IN K A A L OC . Fi 5 KE IN . . NG E g L g ST S S .

C b an angles lose to the rails, and secured y a band of

. i and nealed wire The work of lay ng the rails proceeds , on e i when within rail of the top , a second wire band s

. on put in place Or the upper wire may be put above ,

’

. An the top rail nealed wire is plentiful and cheap . ’ RAIL A ND OTHE R PRIMITIVE wOOD F E NCES . 1 1

DE A FE NCE OF STAKE S AN D RI RS . “ ' A ver y common method with the worm or Vir ' ginia rail fence is to dri ve slanting stakes over the corner - saw horse style, and lay the top rail into the angle

— RID ER EN E Fi 6 A AKE C . g . . ST AND F

n thus formed . The stakes , resting on the rails and sta d B fi . ut ing at angle , brace the fence rmly the feet of the stakes extending beyond the jagged corners formed by the en d s 'of th e e rail are objectionable . This is r medied in

' p a rt by putting the stakes over the midd le of the panel — at considerable distance apart— a n d layin g in them l ong In poles horizontally . this case the stakes should be set

' a t such a n angle as to prevent their moving sidewise

be . along the top rail , which should a strong one These stakes and long riders are frequently used to raise the o f l ow 6 a f n hight stone walls . Figure shows e ce nearly se all compo d of stakes and riders, which is straight and requires fewer rails than a worm fence . First, crotched stakes , formed by the forks of a branching tree limb, a foot or more long, are driven a foot or so into the ground at a distance apart corresponding to the length of poles

. Th wo used e bottom p oles are laid into these, and t 12 F ENCE GATE B I DGE S, S AND R S .

S r stakes, plit or round poles, are d iven over these and two the next poles laid in . Then more stakes and e u an d other pole, so on as high as the fence is required . a n This w ill nswer for larger animals, and be strong a d

i — A P LE ENCE F 7 O . g . . F

- ex en s1ve . not p For swine , and other small live stock , n the crotch stakes may be replaced by blocks or sto es , and u the lower poles be small and begin close to the g ro nd.

A LE E CE PO F N .

A fen ce which is cheaply constructed in a timbered region, and calls for no outlay whatever, besides labor, is

u ill strated at figure 7. The posts are set in a straight r an line, having p eviously been bored with inch augur to L AND OTHER RIMITI E W O E CE RAI P V O D F N S.

' cei e the . r e v pins When they are set, the pins are driven

diagonally into the posts, and the poles laid in place . It ad d the would much to its strength , if poles were laid so “ ' d e as to break joints . A mo ification of this fenc is sometimes made by using withes instead of pins to hold

. the poles in place The withe is made of a , young sap Of - ling or slender limb beech , iron wood, or similar tough

fibrous wood , with the twigs left on . This is twisted upon itself, a strong loop made at the top , through which the butt is slipped . When in place, the butt end is tucked un der the body of the withe .

E CES FOR S I LIABLE T HA F N O L O E VE.

The main point in such a fence is either to set the posts

10— E Fi . . ND IEW O F FE NCE g V . and e plac a pin through them near the bottom , so tha t the frost may not throw them out, or to so attach the 14 FE CE GATES AND B RIDGES N S, . b be -d i oards that the posts may re riven , w thout splitting fr Om the Th them , or removing the rails fence . e latter a is, perhaps , the best plan , and may be ccomplished in

Fi 11 — IDE e w r EN CE . . o F g S .

‘ e a fi s veral w ys, the most desirable of which is shown in g

e 10 . 11 . It r in ur s and The post, , is d iven the usual en manner, when a strip of board, g, is fast ed to it by r e S h h th e or four pikes, depending upon the ig t

12 — ENCE W ITH IRON HOOKS Fig . . F .

A fi ci d a d fence . space just suf ent to insert the en s of bo r s a r 11 e a , , figu e , is left between the post and outsid strip, M the ends of the boards resting upon the spikes . any R L A D OTHE R PRIMITIVE W OD FENCE AI N O S. 15

It miles of this fence are in use . looks neat ; besides any portion is easily removed, making a passage to and A f . rom the field new post is easily put in when required , - and an y m ay be re d riven when heaved by the frost .

thr eef ei hths Where iron is cheap, a rod about g of an inch in diamete r is cut in lengths of about seven and a ed half inches one end is sharpen , while the opposite A t r end, for three inches, is bent at right angles . f e the a b ooks u boards are pl ced in position , the sho ld be driven in so that they wil l firmly grasp the b oards and hold in n them place . The general appearance of the fi ished e 12 an d d al fenc is shown in figure , is one a apted to most any locality . A much better method is to fas ten the boards tempo raril in a e y pl ce, and th n bore a half inch hole through

—HORIZ O Fi 13. N AL E C ION g . T S T .

the both boards and post, into which a common screw te bolt is then inser d and the nut screwed on firmly . The two ends should, however , be put on opposite sides of the fi r m post . One bolt thus holds the ends of both boards 1 3 ly to the post, as shown in fig ure . With this style of s u be e fence , old rail or ro nd poles may used inst ad of boards .

HE R PRIMITI E FE CE OT V N S .

In the e heavily timbered parts of the country, wher

’ the settlers a fe w years ago were making far ms by felling w as t and burning the huge pine trees, a fence construc ed G TES BRD E FEN C S A I G S. 16 E , AND

“ 4 w 1 . S like the one sho n in figure ections of trees, about e four and a half fe t long and often as thick, were placed e l in line and morticed to receive from thr e to five rai s .

Fi 14 —LOG P O g . . STS . This style of fence could be used by the landscape gar d en er with fine effect for enclosing a park or shrubbery. In a e the the same regions, when farmer has pull d all stumps from a pasture that slopes toward the highway,

— l T MP E E . Fi . 5 S U NC g . F the stumps may be placed in line along the roa d with the top ends inside of the field . The gaps between can where the stumps not be rolled close together, are

16 —W ICRE R E NCE Fig . . F .

filled with b r ushwood . A portion of this fence is shown in figure 15.

Where other material is costly,or not to be obtained,

HA P T E R I I C .

N AND SOD FEN STO E CES.

HOW A STO E W ALL SHO BE N ULD B UILT.

i To build a stone wall, some sk ll is required . The n a u ee an d fou d tion sho ld be dug out a foot d p, the earth

— LL LAID W ALL Fi 18 WE . g . .

e te r thrown upon each side, which serv s to turn wa r f om h h c t e . L t e wall arge stones are bedded in tren h , and long stones placed crosswise upon them . As many whole c stones as possible Should be used in this pla e . The stones are then arranged as sh own in the engraving, breaking joints, and distributing the weight equally . An y small spaces Should be filled with chips broken off m in dressing the larger stones , so as to ake them fit il . A snugly s it is a work that w l last a century, it is worth doing well .

B I I G A STO E E C U LD N N F N E.

A pe rmanent stone fence should be built from four to

five feet high , two feet wide at the base and one foot at the n top , if the kind of stones available allow this co stru e (18) E A DSOD FE CE STON N N S. 9

i . If e d t on a high r fence is desired, the wi th should be

correspondingly increased . The surface of the soil along the line of the fence should be made smooth and as

nearly level as possible . The hight will depend upon the l ' situation , the anima s , the smoothness of the wall - (whether sheep can get foot holds to climb over) , and If the character of the ground along each side . the earth be off foundation rounded up previously, sloping to an e il be op n depression or gully, less hight w l needed . Such

‘ i 19 — rN F . . LAr G U P A ONE ENCE g ST F . an elevation will furnish a dry base not heaved by frost like a wet one . Without this , or a drain alongside or u a u nder the wall , to keep the soil always dry, the b se m st be sunk deeply enough to be proof against heavy frosts ,

‘ which will tilt and loosen the best laid wall on wet soil . The foundatio n stones should be the largest smaller stones packed between them are necessa ry to firmness . The mistake is sometimes made of placing all the larger l e stones on the outside of the wall , fil ing the cent r with

L - c a small ones . ong bind stones pla ed at frequent inter vals through the wall ad d grea tly to its strength . The top of the fence is most secure when covered with lar ger 20. E CES G TES BRI GES F N , A AND D .

-fi The n close ttin g; flat stones . engraving shows a woode frame and cords used as a guide in building a substantial u l stone fence . Two men can work together with mut a advantage on opposite sides of the stone wall .

T E TRUCK FORMOVING S ON S.

The small truck (figure 20) is not expensive,and may be made to save a great amount of hard lifting in build l It the S ing a stone wa l . is a low barrow, ide bars forming

Fi —T 20. B U K F . C OB STO E g N .

h the handles like a w eelbarrow . It rests upon four low

. A n iron wheels broad plank, or two arrow ones , are laid with one end against the wall and the other resting on the ground . A groove is cut at the upper end for the

. the wheels to rest in The stone is loaded on truck , ’ th moved to the place, and pushed up the plank until e e i ha wheels fall into the groov , when, by l fting on the n

l t . d es , the s one is unloaded

B EIN FORCIN G A STO E W N ALL.

A stone wall which affords ample protection against for sheep and hogs , may be quite insufficient horses and cattle . The deficiency is cheaply supplied in the manner E D OD E ES STON AN S F N C . 21

i b s a u 2 1 . ou ndicated ythe illu tr tion , fig re R nd poles or

il e ra s are used , and if the work is prop rly performed, the e t fence is very eff c ive .

A C MP SITE E CE O O F N .

The fence illustrated at figure 22 is quite common in t New E some par s of ngland . A ridge is thro wn up by

— Fi . 22 . Co os rm FE CE g m N .

- hack furrowing with a plow , and both that and the e i L ditches finish d by han d w th a shovel . ight po sts are TE RI GE 22 E CE S G S B S. F N , A AND D

r easily driven through the soft earth , and a boa d fence, only three boards high , made in the usual manner . Then as the stones, they are picked up in the field, are hauled ' to the fence and thrownupon the r idge . This clears the th field, strengthens e ridge, prevents the growth of ee the w ds, and assists in packing earth firmly around the bottom of the posts .

D A PRAIRIE SO FENCE .

A r sod fence, beside its other value, is a double bar ier against the prairie fires which are so sweeping and d estr u c tive to new settlers , if unobstructed, for a wide strip is

— ' ' Fi . 2 . soD C ur r EE g 3 .

the A 3 cleared of sods, fence standing in the middle of it . very convenient implement for cutting the sod is shown It l n 23 . a at figure is made of p a ks and sc ntling , the l The method of construction being c early shown . cut ting disks are four wheel-coulters from common b r eak

‘ a tee ing plows, all att ched to an iron shaft six n inches ou t apart . They are set to three or four inches deep .

This is run three times along the line of the fence, mak e ing nin e cuts, the cutt rs being held down by a man rid ing on the rear of the apparatus . Then with a breaking STO E AND SOD FE CES N N . 23

on e fu w i e the e plow rro is turned d rectly in the lin of f nce, th comp letely inverting the sod, the team turned to e w right, and a second or back furro is inverted on top of A the first . dditional furrows are cut, diminishing in S width to five or six inches on the outer ide, as shown in

24. A ar e the diagram , figure fter the two inner sods a turned, the rest are carried by hand, wheelbarrow or u e tr ck, (figur and laid on the sod wall , care being “ used to break joints and to taper gradually to the

Fi 4 -T T 23 . EE D C U g . SO .

' If a t more subs antial fence is wanted, a strip thirty-two inches wid e may be left as a part for the u n r u fence, the first two f rrows i ve ted upon the ncut por u tion , so that their edges j st touch . The sod fence is then continued to the summit just twice as thick as it A would be by the process just described . fter the fence r S S is laid, a deep fu row hould be run on each ide, throw b Of th A ef ing the earth against the ase e fence . very fective an d cheap fence is made by laying up a sod e d v dyke, as above described , three feet high , th n ri ing light stakes along the summit, and stringing two strands W m of barbed ire to the . I I I C H A P T E R .

BOARD FENCES.

B I I G B R E CES U LD N OA D F N .

ui an d In b lding a board fence, always start right, it u M will be li ttle tro ble to continue in the same way . uch of the board fencing erected is put together very care i the lessly, and the result is a very nsecure protection to A - field or crops . fence post should be set two and a half or three feet in the ground , and the earth should be h packed ar ound it as firmly as possible . For packing t e

— . 25 FE OF E ELY C ONSTE U CTED DOAED F Fi . E CE g N .

' Of soil there is nothing better than a piece oak, about

i s u a r c . on three nches q the lower end, and about six fee t Off long, rounded on the upper part to fit the hands eas r s w ily . P operly used, this in trument ill pack the soil w as In around a post as it before the hole was dug. put o n o ting fence b ards, most builders use two nails on the l ends of each board, and one in the midd e . Each board thr ee i should have at least na ls at the ends, and two in i t the m ddle, and these nails should never be less han ten S i pe nnys . maller nails w ll hold the boards in place for be in the awhile, but when they g to warp , nails ar e w the r dra n out or loosened, and boa ds drop off. This i r w ll rarely be the case where la ge nails are used, and a M much stiffer fence is secured. any fence builders do n o off the s e en but t cut the top s of p ost v ly, this should (24)

2 6 E CES G TE B RI GES F N , A S AND D .

the the w u ar ing set posts , the boards of lo er co rse e nailed on . Then , for the first length, the second board from t m the bot o and the top board are only eight feet long, reaching to the first post. For all the rest the boards - Of . B are the full length , sixteen feet y this means they ' . A te break joints f r the boards are nailed on , the top th a Off of e posts are s wed slanting, capped, if desired,

Fi 2 7 —A NE T FAEM FE CE g. . A N .

h e e and t e whol thing painted . A good coat of cru de p tr ol eu m i the , applied before painting, w ll help preserve

ee . fence, and save more than its cost in the paint n ded We see another style Of board fence now and then that is rather preferable to the ordinary one ; it looks better It than the old straight fence . saves one board to each an d length by nailing on the two upper boards, as Sh u fi 2 own in the ill stration, gure 7, great extra strength is given . These boards not only act as braces, but ties also, and a fence built on well set posts, and thoroughly n sa out ailed, will never g or get of line until the posts r ot off.

E CES FOR S BJ ECT TO R OW F N LAND U OVE FL .

28 2 9 30 The fence illustrated in figures , and has p osts ' u the us al distance apart, which are hewed on the front n d h side, a on t is are nailed three blocks, three by four c n the i ts in hes thick and six inches lo g first one, with E D E CE OAE F N S. 27 to u the the secon d on e p j st level with ground, , ten inches i in the clear above, and the third one, four nches less a than the desired height of the fence , me suring from

— 28 . P A E . N Fig L.

Of the . A t the top first block f er the panel is put in place, the rounded ends resting on the bottom blocks, nail a piece of board one and one -half by six inches on the . h t e . blocks, as shown in illustrations This board must fou r i n ches v project abo e the upper block , forming with it the rest and catch for the top framing piece of the pan Of t el . The panel is made a top and bot om piece of three

Fi . 30 29 . . Fig . g l by four scantling, on which nai ed palings . The top i p ece is left square , and projects three inches on each side, but on the bottom piece the projections are cut

the S . e round, so as to turn in lot The wat r will raise the Of a panel up out the upper catch , llowing it to fall down, RI E 28 E CES G TES B G S. F N , A AND D

ee 30 Off s t as s n at figure , so as to er no ob truction o the n or water, will it catch drift, as fences hung from the top

31 do . Figures to 35 represent a fence m ade somewha t like the trestle used for d rying clothes . The posts are

Fi 34 g . .

di bu t the usual stance apart, only extend a few inches Of d ffi u out the groun , just su cient to nail a hinge pon .

Of They must, however, be wide enough to admit nailing Th two hinges on each post . e fence consists of two p arts— E in figure 31 represents a cross-section of the E E BOARD F N C S. 29 f ce r er wo Of See in u 34 en p op , t panels which are n fig re ; D i of represents the back part of the fence, a sect on whi ch is shown in figure 35 a in figure 31 is the post hi Th e E and the nges . panel , , should always slope c ur r en t of with the _ the stream , that the water rushing 33 against it will place it in the position shown by figure , l n fla t Of Of w a yi g on the ground, and out the way both ' d or d in a r str a ter and rift. The hinges may be y p kind, be which can bought very cheap by the dozen , or they

“ be a Of may m de heavy iron hoop doubled, as shown at

u 32 i be a in a . fig re , wh ch can m de any bl cksmith shop

E CE B R H ER A F N OA D OLD .

Figure 36 Shows a contrivance for h old ing fence boards i t n i aga nst the pos s, at the right dista ces apart when na l

ing . A two and a half by two and a half inch piece of t h he a . A desired lengt is taken for the upright, bout its

C te c. A b en r is hinged the brace, strap hinge, , or a r B s u i fo . s to t p ece of leather a hinge, will answer lock d d d d a or stops, , , , , are nailed on the upright , at the r a t th requi ed distances, ccording to the space be ween e 0 FE E TES BRI E 3 C S G G S. N , A AND D

Of boards on the fence . The bottom boards the fence ar k r e nailed on first . The bottom bloc of the boa d holder rests upon the bottom board, and is held in posi ca n tion by the brace c. The boards be placed in the holder a ar e like putting up b rs, and guided to their places on

the d d . b e the post by blocks, , The boards can now nailed on the posts, and the holding devices moved for h . t e another length When boards are too long, they can en d be pulled forward a little, and the sawed, and pushed man . can back to place One using the contrivance, nail on nearly as many boards in a day, as two persons with u e 3 one to hold the boards in the old way . Fig r 7 shows a Of the m nner using the fence board holders .

REIN RCI G A B O R E CE FO N A D F N .

The old method of topping out a low board fence is m Shown at figure 38. Since barbed wire has beco e

— T E NGTHE NIN G BO R FE NCE 38 S R . Fig . . A A D

plenty, it is more usual to increase the height of the fence by stringing one or two strands of that on vertical '

. Y et slats nailed to the tops of the posts , in cases where m there are plenty of sound rails left from so e old fence, f or plenty p straight saplings, the old method is still a very cheap an d convenient one . C H E I A P T R V .

PICKET FENCES .

A G O G R E E CE O D A D N F N .

39 substan The engraving, figure , represents a good, c tial garden fen e, that, while somewhat more serviceable ‘ t l a ess . than the ordinary kind, may be constructed cost It does n ot materially differ fr om the common picket

3 — TE AND PI E T FE E Fi 9 A C C . g . . LA K N

' u u t fence, f rther than that the pickets are p five inches f O . apart, with strips lath nailed between The pickets give the necessary strength , while the lath , as a shield against poultry, or rabbits and other vermin , is equally as - h Ol d good at one sixt the cost . An picket fence sur “ ' a the rounding garden or yard, may be lathed in e manner here indicat d at little expense.

‘ E ET E E A SOUTH RN PICK F NC .

The pi cket fen ce in very general use in the So uthern 4 It 0. States, is shown in figure will be observed that e a n -S the pickets , instead of t rminating in equal ided (31) E G TE A RI G 32 FE C S S N D B ES. N , A D

is point, have but one slanting side, while the other S straight . uch a fence looks quite as well as one with an d the other style of points, and is exceedingly neat

s b Of e ervicea le along the line the stre t, or to b r TO ounda y between two estates . facilitate the sawing i e of the p ckets, the bench or horse represented in figur

41 — B E NC E F R W IN G P I T O S CKE S. fi g . . A 41 W is employed . This has a stop at one end, hile near the other end are two u pright pieces to serve as guides in sawing. The edge of one of these is far enough in

the S . In the rear of the other to give desired, lope saw

34 E CES G TES B RI GE F N , A A ND D S.

- Fi gure 43 represents a fence made entirely of split tim ber, the only cash outlay being for nails . This may be d made so as to turn , not only all kin s of stock , but

a s etc ; The e six r bbit , pickets are sharpen d, and driven

43 - E E F . CEEAF F NC O SP IT i . TIMBE F g L R. or eight inches into the ground , and firmly nailed to a - to strong string piece at p . Another good substantial fence is represented by figure e 44, which, though somewhat expensive, is specially

44 - m ION PI E T F i . C O C E F g . K NCE .

a e a i . hi dapt d for yard, orch rd and v neyard enclosure T s need s no explanation . The posts should not be set fur ther than eight feet apart ; two by four inch scantlings e li should be us d to nail to, and sp t palings should be n n ailed o with an nealed steel n ai ls.

T IC ET E ORNAMEN AL P K F NCES.

The fen ce shown in figu re 45 may be con structe d e e ee with flat pickets , thr e inches wide and thr e f t five Th e et s inches long . notc hes in the pick s are ea ily PICKET E C F N ES. 35

e sa w - - mad with a compass , or a foot power scroll saw . The top and bottom pieces between the pickets may be

— T PI E T E CE Fi 46 45 RN E C F N . . . Fi . O g . AM N AL K g

e SO . painted some other color than the fenc , if desired Any carpenter should be able to construct it at a small e r advance over a fenc made f om plain pickets, making 46 the pattern as in figure . A a n but e n e pl i er, still v ry eat form of picket fenc is

F 4 — A P N R PIC E T FENCE i 7 I E . g . . LA K

u e 4 ece illustrated at fig r 7. The intermediate pi s n otched at one end and square at the other. RI G 36 E ES G TES B ES. F NC , A AND D

T PIC ET E CES RUS IC K F N .

When the far mers on the prai ri es prevent the Spread ing of the prairie fires , young oak and hickory saplings spring up as if by magic near all the wooded streams . These saplings come from huge roots whose tops have

Fi - TI SAF E E 48. R S C LING C . g . U F N

In yearly been destroyed by fire . that section farmers of ten construct a ver y neat rustic fence from two or Ol d l h Of three year sap ings, aving the appearance figure 48 t SO th . The rustic picke s are trimmed as to leave e branches projecting about two inches, and are n ailed - on with four penny nails . A fence of this kind would ot e n last long, unless the pickets, posts, and rails wer d free of bark, or saturated with cru e petroleum . A very neat and picturesque fence for a garden or

Fi 49 — I P I E T FE NCE R ST C . g . . U C K

i s 4 It a lawn shown at figure 9 . is made of roun d e the ar a t pol s, with b k on, the posts being of simil r ma e IC ET E C P K F N ES . 3?

ar h rial . Three horizontal bars e nailed to t e posts at n equal intervals, the slats or pickets wove into them and

then nailed in place . One or two coats of crude petro l leum , app ied to this and other rustic work at first, and e n renewed every year , adds to its app ara ce and greatly its increa ses durability.

IGHT PIC ET E CES L K F N .

e c r For n losing poultry yards , garden and g ounds, a

' cheap fence w ith pickets of lath Often serves a good pur If pose . not very durable, the cost of repair or renewal 50 h is light . Figure shows one of this kind, w ich is suffi ciently high for the Asiatic and other heavy and

. a ar quiet fowls The panels are sixteen feet long, nd e

— Fi 50. P E OF PICKE T FE NCE g . AN L .

Of d - composed of two pieces or inary six inch fencing, for t i top and bot om ra ls , with lath nailed across two and a half inches apart ; the top ends Of the lath extending to ten inches above the upper edge of the p rail . Posts, three or four inches through at the top end , are large enough , and , after sharpening well, can be driven into the ground by first thrus ting a crow-bar d own and wrench t A s ing it back and for h . post is neces ary at the middle B n of eac h panel . oth rails of the pa el should be well n nailed to the posts . These panels may be neatly a d

mad . rapidly e in a frame, constructed for that purpose m 51 t Of This fra e, shown in figure , consis s simply - Si x b Six u three cross p ieces of y , fo r feet long, up on 38 E C ES G TES B RI G F N , A AND D ES. which are spiked two planks one foo t wide an d three feet

m . apart, fro outside to outside Four inches from the ' inner edge of each plank is nailed a straight str ip of inch tuff in i s , to keep the rails of the panel place wh le the

— 51 FR ME F ORM IN G FE CE . Fig . , A AK N l a A th are being nailed on . gainst the projecting ends of the - e cross pieces, spike two by six posts twelv inches long on the inside Of these p osts n ail a piece Of six-inch as fencing, to serve a stop , for the top ends of the laths to l n i . touch, when a ling them to the rails These pane s can a the be m de in the shop or on barn floor at odd times, and piled away for future use . Nail a wide bottom board around on the inside of the enclosure after the fence is in position . Figures 52 and 53 Show lath fences hi gh enough for 2 h all kinds of poultry. The posts in figure 5 are eig t e the feet apar t. A horizontal bar is nail d to posts six

53 52 Fi . Fig . . g . i he nches above the ground, a second one eighteen inc s, t i and a third four and a half feet. To two lower s r ps l d nail laths that have been cut to ha f length , first riving the lower p art of the laths two i n ches i nto the ground. “ ET E E PICK F NC S. 39

One advantage of this fence is, that the two strips near r the bottom, being so close together, sustain p essure from dogs or outside intruders better than any other fence con - structed of lath , and dispenses with a foot wide board, so generally used . The cheapest lath fence is m ade with the posts four fi i i n feet apart, st sawing them two lengthwise at a saw i mill, and nailing the lath d rectly to the posts without u the use of strips . The two pper laths have Short verti m cal pieces fastened to the with cleat nails , and present S points to prevent fowls alighting on the fence . uch a 53 u - fence (figure ) will cost, for fo r feet , one half post , r e t th ee c nts wenty laths, eight cents and the nails, on e- three cents , per running foot, six feet high , or half r cent p e squar e foot .

H -M E W IRE AN D IC ET E CE AND AD P K F N S.

A very desirable and popular fence is made of pickets or

. of e slats woven into horizontal strands plain wir . Sev

— . SID E VIEW OF BENCR. Fig 54. eral machines have been invented and patente d for doing this work, but it can be done by hand with the aid of the w bench illustrated here ith . The wire should be a little s larger than that used on harvesting machine , and an; i Of 54 nealed l ke it, The bench , which figure is a side 55 w view , and figure a top vie , should be about sixteen feet long and have a scre w at each corner for raising and w at he loweri ng the holding bars . For the scre s t ends ° 40 E CE G TE RI GE S S B S. F N , A AND D of the frame one -half to three-fourth-inch iron rod will Tfi e t answer . wire is twisted close and tigh to the slats, If and given two or three twists between them . the

— 55 TOP IEW OF B E CH. Fi . g . V N

u ff the slats are of green st , fasten wire to them with small S staples, to prevent their slipping when they hrink . The te fence is fas ned to the post with common fence staples .

— Fi 56 P ORTION OF THE FE N CE . g . .

Wh en this s tyle Of fence is used on one side of a pasture f e or highway, its e fectiveness may be increased by a singl

l 42 E C ES G TES B RI G F N , A A ND D ES.

s e s Of be fa t n the end two num r nine, unannealed wires to r it . St etch the wires along to the other end of the

line, and a few feet beyond the last post . One pair is to be stretched near the top of the posts and one near the d a groun When the wires are stretched taut, f sten them to some po sts or other weight that will drag on the ground the upp er and lower wires shoul d be fa stened to S to separate weights, and these hould be heavy enough

. e keep the wires at a great tension Having don this, you h are ready to commence building t e fence . One m an ds s sprea the trands, while another places the picket be tween them ; the other end Of the picket is the n raised i up and placed between the upper w res, and then driven In k s up with an axe or mallet . inserting the pic et , the i e w en w res are to be crossed alternat ly, as sho n in the be graving . The pickets should be dry and should about , It to three inches apart . takes two persons build this

fence successfully, but it can be built more rapidly by a i three ; one to spre d the w res , one to place the picket in

c d e . position , and one to riv it home This is espe ially ad ap ted for a line or other fence which is not requ ired It to be Often moved . is fastened to the post by nailing

one of the pickets to it with common fencing nails . i l Fences of this k nd are a so made with straight, round

limbs of willow or other trees in place of the sp lit pickets . Several different machines have been patented for m alf in g this style of fence. A E V C H P T R .

- R B A RB W I E F E N C E .

The invention of barb wire was the mos t importa nt olu tion of event in the s the fence problem . The question . r of providing fencing mate ial had become serious , even the in the timbered portions of the country, while great r eso u r ee prairie region was almost wholly without , save the slow and expensive process of hedging . At this juncture came barb wire, which was at once seen to make f a cheap, e fective, and durable fence, rapidly built and easily moved . The original patent for barb wire was 1868 l a 1a taken out in , but it was not unti six ye rs ter a? use that an attempt was made to introduce it into gener , and more than ten years elapsed before the industry at in e ta d any considerable magnitude . The rapidity and Of the extent _ its subsequent growth will be seen by fol t e e e lowing table, showing h estimat d amount of barb wir manufactured and in use during the years named, the estimated length being in mi les Of single strand

E R TONS . MI E S. YE R N Y . TO S A L A . .

TOTAL S

There are now fifty establishments engaged in the ac for 1887 e manuf ture, and the output is estimat d at

tons . Barb wire is not Wi thout i ts drawbac ks as a fenci ng Of material , the most common one being the liability seri (43) ' 4 RI E 4 E CES GATES B G S. F N , AND D

‘ ous injury to valuable domestic animals coming in con a th s M t ct with e sharp barb . any means have been de S vised for Overcoming this evil . ome of them are di s illustrated in the next chapter . The rect advantage

— B RE 58 TRE E B AR WI . Fig . . K LLY

— n in the com of barb wire are : First eco omy , not only l p ar ative cheapness of its first cost, but also in the smal S — f amount Of land covered by it . econd e fectiveness as a barr ier against all kinds of stock, and a protection — agains t dogs and wild beasts . Third rapidity of con — struction and ease of moving . Fourth freedom from — r . harboring weeds, and c eating snow drifts Fifth dura bil ity.

ir e he ar e sewin a , an d Bar b W e, lik t h v ster, the g m chine

— - RB 59 E ORSE N I B . Fig . . A L A

has n most other valuable inventions, attained its prese t

form from very crude begi n nings . The original barb - u wire consisted of double p ointed metallic discs, str ng B B-W R ‘ E AR I E FENC . 45

e w loosely upon plain wire . The next st p was to t ist this

S 58. with another wire , as hown in figure “ A e n r e-na a nother crude b gin ing was the ho s il b rb,

1 - TERL1NG RE 6 S BA WIRE. Fig . .

which consisted of a common horse -shoe n ail bent around the a plain wire, and whole wrapped spirally with a

w e S r 59 . V smaller ir , as hown in figu e arious forms of - - e W two pointed and four point d barb ire are manufactured , the principal difference being the shape of the barbs and

— R- Fi . 63 . IOW FO POI TED BARRW I g A U N RE .

the man ner of ce ilin g them arou nd one or both of the n A stra ds . few of the leading styles are illustrated here 60 61 S Of with . Figures and how two varieties two pointed bar b wi re . TE D Ri DGE 46 E CES G S AN B s . F N , A

th e - i re Of numerous styles of four pointed w re, th e typ ll e i n 62 63 ical forms are i ustrat d figures , , and The Glidden patent ste el barb wire is made in three

i n u e 65 66 67. styles, as shown fig r s , , and 65 - o shows the two p int wire, in which, like the others , l the barb is twi ste d around on y one of the wires .

Fi 65 — I E - . . G N P TE T STEE Tw POINT g L DD A N L o . “ ' 66 -se t e shows the thick which has barbs like the oth r, set e s but closer together for such purposes as sh ep fold ,

l w te . gardens, or other p aces, hich require extra pro ction

— T ' 66 G I E P TE T STEE THI C SE . Fig . . L DD N A N L K - w 67 has the The four point barb ire, figure , barbs of is r same form as the two other styles , that a sha ply prick i the ce r n ing barb attached to one of the w res of fen st a d, i i upon which the other wire is tw sted , hold ng the barb RB- IRE FE CE 4 BA W N . 7

fi i n e W rmly plac . The barb is at right angles to the ire,

d a h ook h . and oes not form , but a straig t short steel thorn A sharp point which inflict an instantaneo us prick repels

an animal more safely than a longer and duller barb . B arb wire of nearly, if not quite all the popular kinds, m c i is shipped fro the factory on strong spools, ea h hold ng

Fi 67 —G I E P TE N T FO R-POI T g . . L DD N A U N .

u s t . one h ndred pounds in weight, or eighty rod in leng h These spools are bored through the center to admit a stick or bar, which can be used as an axle in unreeling The e the wire . following tabl shows the weight of wire required for fencing the re spective areas named

W E IGHT OF W IRE .

1 S r an 3 S ra n d t d . t . LB S . LBS .

60 s Ro d .

20 Acres

40 c 1 Mi A res le.

80 Acres

2 Mi s le .

It will be observed that the larger the area enclosed , the smaller is the amount of fence required per a cre . The cost Of fence complete can be estimated by adding to the Of s the amount wire indicated in the la t column , cost of 48 E CES G TES AND BRI G F N , A D ES.

t an d e a sixty p os s, and three thr e qu rter pounds of staples , fo r s every sixty rods . To a certain the weight of wire re e u s quired for any desir d n mber of strand , mul tiply the

F —B RINKERROFF STEE STR P B R i . 68. D g L A AN AR .

figu res of the first column of weight of wir e by the numbe r of strands proposed to be used . There is a kind of barb fencing in which flat steel i Of In straps are employed nstead wire . the form shown 68 in figure , the barbs are bent around a plain strap and the whole is then galvanized , which firmly fixes the barb .

Another form shown at figure 69 consists of a solid Of l piece steel , ribbed through the midd e, and with barbs u n d c x c t o both e ges . These and similar forms are more n i i t pensive tha w re, and are employed only in lim ed quan

Fi 70— INKE . RHOFF E I TWISTE . BB F C NG g N D . d e tc . S e tities for enclosing lawns , pa docks , till anoth r l in 0 form is ike that shown figure 7 , withou t barbs, i and twisted . Th s is much used to enclose lawns and a u d It ornament l gro n s. is light, neat and strong, does

50 FE CES G TES AND BRI G N , A D ES.

HOW TO SET B RB W IRE E C E A F N .

The ti mber for posts should be ou t when the sa is M p dormant. idwinter or August is a good time to cut post timber . They should be split and the bark taken off b the b as soon as possi le after cutting tim er. For end t posts , select some of the best trees, about six een inches i in diameter, from wh ch take cuts eight and a half feet in length , splitting them in quarters for brace posts . as They should be set three feet in the ground, which is e - ily done with a post hole digger. When setting the tw o brace posts , take a stone eighteen inches to feet long, twelve inches wide, and six inches thick, which is ut a e on the O i e p down gainst the post dgewise, ppos t

si as 75 i de to the brace , seen in figure , putt ng it down about even with the surface of the ground . This A - ten holds the post solid against the brace . heart rail, feet in length makes a good brace . Put one of the long d posts every sixteen or twenty ro s along the line of fence , S as they help to strengthen it , and set lighter and horter Af the posts along the lin e about sixteen feet apart . ter posts are set , two or three furrows should be turned a i against them on e ch s de, as it helps to keep stock from

S d . the wire . uch a fence shoul be built of a good height It i s better to buy an extra wire than have stock injured 18 n o in e n d s There pull g over post or sagging wire . BARB-WIRE E CE - F N . 51

To make an extra solid wire fence , brace the posts, 6 i n as shown in figure 7 , on both sides, order to E res ist the tension in either direction . very eighth post be m should thus braced, and it makes a mark for eas u r

c r ing the length of the fen e, for eight posts set one e d apart, make eight rods , or a fortieth of a mile for each braced post . The braces are notched into the top of

Fi 76 —A W IRE . , FE CE W E BR CE g N LL A D . the e d posts , just b low the top wire, and a spike is riven a through both the br ce and the post . The brac es abut u n m po large stones which give the great firmness.

REE I G A D STRETC HI G B RB W IRE UN L N N N A .

The general in troduction of barb wire fencing has brought out a great variety of devices for handling the

S . wire . One of these is hown in the illustrations Two piec es of sca ntling are attached to the rear end of a wag w on from which the box has been removed, as sho n in

figure 77. A slot near the end of each admits the round stick thrust through the reel of barb wire, to serve as an . e axl e . The end of the barb wire is fastened to the fenc t post, the team in front of the wagon star ed up, and RI ENCES G TES B GES. 52 F , A AND D

h some three yards of wir e u nreeled. Then t e hi nd axle of the wagon is made fas t by a. ch ain or rope to the near e n s t est fence post, the hind wh el eare t the fence lif ed from the ground and held there by a wagon-jack or piece

— RO I G W IRE Fi E ICE FOR N . 77 . g . D V UN LL

’ r i e of board . One turn is then made in the ba b w r , as S w A 8 ho n at , figure 7 , to which is attached one end of a

e te n . pi ce of smooth wire, some feet long The other e e b b in the end is placed b tw en two screws, , end of the

in hub, as shown the illustration . The wire thus fas te d d d ne is coile aroun the hub, and the operator can i tighten it and the barb w re to which it is attached, by i l employ ng the leverage Of the spokes and fe l oes . A n u 9 It lighter form of reel holder is show at fig re 7 .

is made of two pieces Of two by four scantlings fas ten ed e to the axl of a sulky corn plow . They must be placed - B A RB WI RE F ENC E. 5 3

far en ough apart to allow the reel or spo ol to run between M 80 h them . ake a square axle, figure , of some ard t i ough wood, round ng it where it runs in the slots of the

Fi 80—TE E ' E g . . A L .

'

s . at cantling drive it through the hole in the spool , and

ac . In the s the t h the crank moving fence , place pool on ra Of e f me remove one end the wire from the post, fast n the an d it to spool, while one man holds the pole and — s te ers and steadi es the sulky he will have to p ull back t — s a li tle another turn the spool and winds up the wire . Wh ac the is en a corner is re hed, wire loosened, the sul k u i y t rned, and the w nding continued . When the end the a i t of wire is re ched, is carefully loosened from the s t post, and firmly fa ened to the spool . It r e is best to have a sepa ate spool for ach wire , espec iall y if they are of great length . The same contrivance be A may used for unreeling the wire . ttach a gentle r e u t ec the a s ho s to the s lky, fas en the pole s urely to h me ,

81 —A E W IRE- O ER Fi . D H S . g . L LD

’ and have a boy lead himslowly along the fence li ne . i n s the m once fifty yard stop the horse, g rasp handle, ove w the forward very slowly, and dra wire straight and

’

. If taut no sulky plow is at hand, a light double

e e u 81 be . A end d sl d, shown in fig re , may used man the t en d tead n holds shor p ole extending from one , s yi g 54 E CE S G TES B RI GES F N , A A ND D . an d the pushing a little, while the other winds reel . The sled is dr awn forward by the wire as it is wound on e S the reel . To unre l, attach a low

Fi 82 — AN T . O E E R S E F W IRE . g . L D OR

e e rop fasten d to the Opposite end of the Sled . ~ ea must walk behind the horse and hold the pole to , st dy th e M . Of a barbe sled anaged in this way, the removal d wire fence is not at all the formidable Operation that has a been supposed it can be taken down and set up ag in , a af 82 s an e sily , s ely, and quite rapidly . Figure hows

— F . 83 . TIGE TE NING TE E W IRE ig .

e- d d other form of hom ma e sle , which is very useful for i n carry ng rolls of wire for maki g a fence . The roll is has d the supported on a rod, which round en s to fit into

S . uprights , and which turns in the lots When the wire a e i is run out, the end is f st ned to the clev s on the centre e 83 beam , and a notch d stake, figure , being put under i r the w re, the sled is drawn up to tighten the wi e, which “ B RB -w1RE E CE A F N . 55

hen e . .is t stapl d This sled is useful for many other pur

, r poses and is large enough to ca ry five rolls of the wire , t so tha by going back and forth , the whole of the fence

“

. It one can be put up very quickly is drawn by horse, t s the draf chain being fa tened to the front bea m .

RE STRETC E W I H RS.

For stretching barb wire there are var i ou s implements and S f in the market, other quite imple and e fective de

vices can be mad e on the farm . Figu re 84 shows the

CLARK STRE TCHE R.

Clark stretcher an d the manner of using it . Another A ' 85 stretcher, called the Come long stretcher, figure ,

is used not only for tightening the wires, but also for h andling it, in building or moving fences. 56

The u W c seful ire stret her, i - mow ng machine knife guard , bolted

' COSiE ALONG

as en r avm i s one curved, shown in the lower g g, as i n t ble to a straight one , it will not turn h W i e S When using it, the r is held firmly in the may be e asily stretched by applying the s tick as

Fi —II ~ 86. OME BIAD E g . E W IR STRETcm s :

d Of te It woo or iron or s el bars . consists of three pieces , e two arms and a splicer, fast ned together in the manner S 87 S n n hown in figure , leaving a lot ear , one e d tb l ho d the wire . The longer arm is made immova ble u p On

58 E CES G TES BRI G S F N , A AND D E .

ae becomes u seless . The altern t contraction and exp an sion caused by chan ge of tempe rature soon stretch the

i . f w re, to say nothing of other causes The cheap and e

fective m ethod employed by telegraph companies is i llu s 90 It r tr ated in figure . consists of a pair of g ip ton gs - m and a set Of small tackle blocks . The tongs ay be d a ma e by any blacksmith , and the blocks are sold at ll is u hardware and tool stores . An iron hook sed to cou

F 90 ig . .

the bl ock as a n u ple tongs to the , and the wire is dr w p , the fre e end of the rope may be given a turn around the e a e sam post, to hold it while the st ple is tighten d to hold the wire .

SP ICI G B ARB W IRES L N .

The accompanying engravings Show an iron implemen t for splicing wire and the manner of using it . To make Of ni this splicer take a bar half inch round iron , ne e an d inches long. Heat about thre inches of one end - BARB W IRE FEN CE . 59

‘ hammer it flat until it is one inch wide . With a cold chisel cut a one-fourth inch Slot a quarter of an inch

e u from the right side and an inch deep , as se n in fig re

— fi s . 91 an d 92 . TEE SP ICE R g L .

B the d be 91. end part marked , so that it will a quar 92 ter inch from the flat part , as shown in figure . The ‘ lower part of the Slot 0 should be about a half inch from

h d . S t e bend at mooth with a file . To use it let 6 and

— RI 93 . G TE E SP I MA N L CE .

u 93 t o he w . B t f, fig re represent wires to be joined end

ends so they are nearly at right angles . Hold them with pincers at g place the he c k of the splicer on the t r 3 . wire f, while the wi e falls into the slot Twis the ' the wir e c ~ pieces around f, when one half of the spli e is 60 E CES G TE S B RI GES. F N , A A ND D

d O end . U ma e . Repeat the peration for the other se about four or five inches of eac h wire to twist around f c . A O 94 the other nother form spli er, shown in figure , e in a as is made of cast iron , and is us d the s me manner

i u 95 m the first . F g re shows the anner of holding the a wire with nippers m de for the purpose, and the fin

e i hed splice.

WIRE E CES ON E E GR B UILDING F N UN V N OUND .

One of the great perplexities about building wi re m fences on rolling ground, is how to ake the posts in ul Of r the hollows remain firm , for the p l the wi e in wet

— Fi . 96 E g . F NCE ON UNEVEN GROUND.

ea ou t t e an w ther, or when the frost is coming , lif s th m d a to c be fe i c uses the wire sag, and they ease to an ef ct ve a o b rrier. Posts should n t be used in the lowest depree FE CES OF B RB WIRE B R S N A AND OA D . 61

i b in their a. s ons , ut place at the lowest spots heavy stone ‘ c should be partially sunk into the ground, about whi h a h e 96 smoot fence wire has b en wrapped , as seen in figure . t t When the fence is buil , the fence wires are brough down to their place and the wire about the s tone is twisted first

about the lower wire , then the next, and so on to the s d top . This prevent the wire from raising , and oes away with all trouble of the posts bein g pulled out by the r ms h wires . In fencing across small st ea t e same plan is successful .

C H A P T E R V I .

FENCES OF BARB W IRE AND BOARDS.

A E CE C OMBIN ED W IRE AN D B O RD F N .

A very cheap fence is made of two boards below r r and th ee strands of barb wi e . To make the fence pig e proof without the boards, five strands of wire, three inch s

— MANNE B F - Fi . 97 . O B R C IN G E ND POST g A .

r the apart , would be requi ed at bottom . Two common wi fencing boards ll occupy the same space, when placed e Bu t thr e inches apart, and cost less . for the upper part of the fence , wire is much cheaper than boards . The most considerable item in this greater economy is the Of saving posts . The wire requires a post every sixteen A feet ; hence half the posts are saved . stout stake, 62 FE CES G TES BRI GES N , A AND D .

er driven midway between the posts, holds the cent of the s a e boards in place . The e st kes ne d extend only eigh teen t Off inches above ground . Posts that have rot ed in the l S ground wi l be long enough for these stakes . ome say ‘ e i that the posts can be set thirty f et apart , but s xteen be s feet is bette r. The posts should at lea t thirty inches i n It the ground and well tamped . is easy to stretch the

' It il Of wire . s durab ity depends upon the quality the

e . N wire and posts, and the prop r setting of them ail on the two boards, three inches apart the first strand is S ix e inches above the top board, the s cond strand is b ee in twelve inches a ove the first, and the third sixt n

e c . e e ch s above the se ond When bank d up, as hereaft r i e be i l c . A m d scri d, this fence w l turn all farm sto k n

— MP E TE i 98 SE C TION O F FENCE CO . F g . . L D

Of - portant point is the bracing the end posts . If this be wi re neglected or improperly done , the fence ll be a failu . 9 - Figure 7 shows how the end post should be braced . It should be a large post and set at least three feet in the h ground . The short post w ich holds the lower end of W l be . W e the brace, shou d also well set rap the ir - t around the end post several times , and drive s aples S If to hold it on all ides . the line of fence is more s than forty rods long , at lea t two posts at each end set t b e . A e a should be rac d ft r the posts are , and before i ur taching the boards or w re, plow a deep f row along

. is e each side, throwing the earth inward Th mak s a be s a bank along the line , allowing the fence to ever l in ches higher ; and the furrow drains the water a way WI B R S 63 FENCES OF B ARB RE A ND OA D .

the dsts from p , and also restrains an animal that may be tempted to jump the fence . A section of the completed Do u 98 . fence is shown in fig re not hang pieces of tin , as d d etc . , upon the top strands of wire, often recommen e , that the animals may see the fence, and be able to avoid it, because it is never necessary . A modification of this combined fence is Shown in fi g It e ure 99 . is mad of one rail along the top, and A t three wires below . fter setting the pos s plow a fur

Fi 99 —A CHE P GO O FEN E C . g . . A AND D row two feet from the posts on each side, throwing the S furrow lice towards the fence, and forming up the ridge neatly with a spade ; then stretch the three wires , and TO nail a two by four scantling edgewise . prevent an the unpleasant sagging of the rails, posts should be eight n feet apart, and the rails sixteen feet lo g . For common fencing, good straight poles will answer well .

A BR C TE E CE A KE D F N .

The u e u 100 : n feat r s shown in fig re are first , in havi g - . S n ac two six inch boards at the bottom eco d, in pl ing It the wires very close together. being necessar y to have c barbs only on one side of each spa e between the wires ,

' plain galvanised wire may be used for every alternate Thir d ° b strand, thus greatly lessening the expense . , y the h use of strips and s ort stakes , the posts may be placed the sixteen feet apart, and fence remain as perfect as if

e s ts . a h there were p every eight feet Fourth , to m ke t e RID E 4 FENCES G TE S AND B G S. 6 , A

- m ee- fence man proof, ake use of a bracket of thr eighth - inch iron , or of one by two inch wooden strips . The

101 102 103 . form of the brackets is shown in figures , and A - c the c barb wire is atta hed to short arm of the bra kets, whi ch are faste ned to the posts in such a manner as to

i 10 - NE P E F IMP R RE E CE F . 0 O O O ED W I F N g AN L V . fi f stretch two wires on the same horizontal plane, and m te teen inches ap art . The a rial required for each panel 100 : r ee of the fence shown in figure , are Two posts , th - r No . 12 barb wi es , two plain wires of galvanized iron , - e t two six inch boards , sixteen feet long, thr e stakes abou et three fe long, and sharpened at one end, four strips, - - four feet long and one and one half inch square . To ’ build the fen ce : Lay ofl the ground by setting small pegs e n di o ight feet apart, the g the holes , and set the p sts at

— 101 IRO BR CKE T. Fig . , N A

D n e the every fourth p eg. rive the sharpe ed stak s into e w ground at the three p gs bet een the posts, so that the top of the sta kes will be n ineteen inches above the N th e the the ground . ail boards on first stake near

E RI GE 66 E CES G T S B S. F N , A A ND D

“ the i the arm to p ost, and slip the w re into angle, and close the bracket by closing the arms on the wire . Figu re 102 shows the method Of attaching the ir on bracket to the post.

- E E DOG PROOF F NC S.

104 - Figu re shows a sheep yard fence , built of wire and

. It boards, as a safeguard against vicious dogs consists of

Fi 104 -A FEN E D . . C G I ST OGS g A A N . ordinary posts, and three lengths of boards, with an - equal number of barb wires for the upper portion , and a

Single strand placed near the ground . The sheep are in n o W e danger of injuring themselves ith such a fenc , and - it is an effective barrier to blood thirsty dogs . Fi gure 105 Shows a cheaper fence for the same pur It pose . has one strand of barb wire below the boards,

— 1 A OM AP EB FE NCE . 05. Fig .

re e which p v nts attempts of dogs to dig under it. ‘ “ - ' For fencing Sheep against dogs , the thick set barb

Wire is the most effective of any. H E C A P T R V II.

HEDGES.

THE B EST HE GE P T D LAN S.

The first emigrants from England to the American w m - shores brought ith them me ories of green hedge rows , B u t like those which still adorn the motherland . they found the country whither they had come covered with w a dense growth of timber, hich furnished abundant material for fences . Hedges were almost unknown i n this country until after civilization had reached the tree

. n r less prairies Then, the want of fe cing material tu ned h attention to edges, and they became so popular that r many miles of them were planted, not only in the prai ie S region , but also in the more eastern tates , where cheaper Now the Of fencing material was plenty . invention barbed wire supplies a material so cheap and easily put ‘ i n place , that hedges have ceased to be regarded as But economical for general farm purposes . they have by no m eans gone wholly out of use . As a boundary the i fence , especially upon roads de, there is much to be ' h N said i n favor of t e hedge . othing gives a neighbor a hood such finished rural aspect, as to have the roads bordered by hed ges . The grounds ar ound the summer New J u m cottages on the ersey coast, and other popular S h in mer resorts , are larg ely enclosed wit hedges . For teri or divisions, as they cannot be removed, they are not

be . A m t to commended n orchard, the most per anen of ' he l an tation s e all t p upon the farm, may be appropriat ly enclosed by a live fence . Hedges are either protective

r . In barrie s , really live fences , or merely ornamental e al prope rly regulated communities, wh re cattle are not ( 67) 68 RI GES r EN CRS G TES B . , A A ND D

s be a lowed to run at large, the road ide hedge may orn an S to mental , while one around orchard hould be able keep out animals and other intruders . After many ex e rim en ts r Ma el u m p and failures , the Osage O ange ( ’ k a u r a n tzcw a . ) , has been found to ma e the best hedges B A eing a native of rkansas, it has been found to be hardy N much farther orth, and may be regarded as the most useful hedge plant in all localities where the win ter is n ot severe . Where the Osage Orange is not hardy, B J L uckthorn , apan 'uince and Honey ocust are the best - . L substitutes Honey ocust is a most useful hedge plant,

“ s b a as it is readily rai ed from seed, grows rapidly, e rs i l a e a a e ha t cutting well, and in a few years w l m k b rri r t wi urn the ll t most Violent animal .

P TI G AND C RE S GE HEDG LAN N A OF O A ES.

The first requi si te for a hed ge of any kind is to secur e t n f t ar hrifty pla ts of uni orm size . Os age Orange plan s e and raised from seeds by nurserymen, when of the right

“ S ul be i n e . size, ho d taken up autumn and h eled in r s The g ound, which it is propo ed to occupy by the h i n r e hedge, s ould be broken up autumn and then plowed in spring, unless it is a raw prairie sod, which t It should be broken a yea r before the hedge is plan ed . bad e is a very usual , but very practice, to plow a ridg t - wi h a back furrow, as shown in figure This leaves an unplowed strip of hard soil directly under the line

’

ed . ha r r ovi ed upon which the h ge is to stand When , it c is u ex appears very fair on the surfa e, but it seless to E GE H D S. 69 peet young plants to thrive on such a bed of hard soil, - 1 and its result will be as seen in figu re 07. The first

e u a o growth is feebl , irreg lar, and many vacant spots p

Fi — . 107. HE GE P N T ON H R RI GE g D LA A D D .

. 10 pear The land should be plowed as in figure 8 . When the sod is rotted, the land should be harrowed lengthwise of the furrows, and the dead furrow left in the first

Fi 108 —PROPER P OW E GRO g . . LY L D UND.

plowing closed by twice turning back the ridge . There - is then a deep , mellow, well drained bed for the plants in which the roots have room to grow and gather ample 109 th nutrition . Figure shows e effect of this kind of

— Fi . 109 . EED GE P T IN E OW SOI g LAN M LL L .

n . A cultivatio s a barrier against stock, or a windbreak, it

is best to p lant in double rows, each row being set oppo

site the spaces in the other, thus a: a: a:

It is highly desirable that the hedge should be in true ,

uniform rows, either straight or in regular curves . to This can be done only by setting closely a line . Osage m a b m e but Orange plants y e raised fro s ed, as this is a 70 E CES GATES B RI GE F N , AND D S.

fi dif cult operation, it is usually best to buy young plants from a reliable nurseryman . They are best cut d own to about six inches high, and the roots partially trimmed . ' It u is an advantage to p ddle the roots , which is done by dipping them i n a mixture composed of one -half earth and half fresh manure from the cow stable , wet e to the consist ncy of a thin paste . There are various d n S metho s of setting the pla ts . ome use a trowel with a blade about ten inches long ; others a dibble, and a of d larger number than either the others, a spa e . For i n setting long lines, situations where appearances ar e of

— Fi . 110. EFFE C T OF C TI TION g UL VA .

S econdary importance, young Osage plants are set very rapidly by running a furrow where the rows are to stand, layi ng the plants with their roots spread on the mello w

. A w soil , one side of the furrow furro is next turned the d is upon roots, and the plants which may have been

A . arranged are restored by hand . tread of the foot will U consolidate the earth around each plant . nless the u subsoil is naturally very porous , the ground m st be thoroughly und erdrained . A line of tiles Should be laid Of six or eight feet from the line the hedge . The ground e S d for four or five fe t on either ide of the he ge, should be kept thoroughly cultivated the first three or four years after planting . This cultivation is to be done ac and c a the J the early e h season e se first of uly, to give E E H DG S. 71

n ew wood a chance to r ipen . The plants should be per m i d tted to grow the first year un isturbed . The following off spring, the hedge should be cut close to the ground

with a scythe or mowing machine, and all vacancies

where plants have died out or been thrown out by frost, h d should be filled . The ground on bot sides of the ri ge d 110 is to be kept well cultivate . Figure shows the dif ference in root growth in cultivated and uncultivated ground . A thick growth of young shoots will appear , and a these are to be cut b ck to four inches high, the middle i n Th of s ummer and again September. e object is to The obtain a dense growth close to the ground . third year the pruning is to be repeated, only the shoots must be left four to six inches above the last previous cutting.

The lateral shoots which are near the ground, are to be left undisturbed . The trimming should be such as to leave the hedge broad at the base, with a regular slope to d - the summit like a ouble span roof . Another method is to permit the hedge to grow un

fi ve . It e or trimmed for four or years is then plash d,

' i 111 — HE E P HE F . G S . g . D LA D d laid over sidewise . This is one by cutting the plants r about half through on one side with a sha p axe, and 1 11 bending them over as shown in figure . The hedge is first headed back and trimmed u p to reduce the top . In a short time n e w shoots will spring from the stubs and s an tems, making a dense growth of interlacing stems d 2 E CE S GATES B RI GES 7 F N , A ND D .

. A d i branches nother method of laying a hedge, is to g away a few inches of earth on one side of each plant to n loosen the roots . the lay the plant over to the desired angle and fasten it there . The earth is then replaced

a . round the roots, and tread down firmly We believe i that a patent is claimed for this process, but its valid ty is seriously questioned .

It ‘ is essential that hedges , whether planted for orna ‘ ment or utility, shall be kept in shape by trimming It every year . is less labor to trim a hedge three times i dur ng the year, when the branches are small and soft, ’ than once when the branches have made a full seas on s If J growth . the hedge is trimmed once in une and A again in ugust, it will be kept in good shape , and the labor will be less than if the trimming was put off until In u spring . Aug st the branches can be cut with shears The or a sharp corn knife . foliage on them will aid in e d their burning, wh n they have ried a few days in the Th sun . e thorns are not so hard as in the spring. The u on br sh will be less, and account of their pliability and If greater weight, will pack into the heap much better . A trimmed in ugust, the hedge will not make any con m sid er abl e growth d uring the fall . August trim ing does not injure the hedge, rather helps it, as it tends to ripen A the wood , preventing a late utumn growth to be injured The by the winter. loss of sap is less than when the t the d rimming is done in the early spring, as then woun s Do are larger, and do not heal before the sap flows . not neglect to burn the brush as soon as it has dried suffi i n tl If c e . y allowed to remain on the ground, it will har m bor m ice and other ver in . Trim the hedge in August and burn the brush . The trimming should be done in such a manner as to expose the greater amoun t of foliage d ew to the direct action of the light, air, rain and . This is attained by keep ihg the sides at every trimmin g in the form of sloping walls from the broad base to the summit

RI G 4 E C E S G TE S B ES. 7 F N , A A ND D

T in high . he plants that were the line of the fence were left growing, and those cleared from the field were woven into a formidable barrier to anything larger than a rab ar e bit . While no two rods in this fence alike, its general appearance is like that shown in the engraving .

ME T HE GES A D C REE S ORNA N AL D N S N .

Hedges and screens for ornamental purposes alone , do m not co e strictly within the scope of this work , but we will briefly mention a few desirable plants for the p ur

l l 3 —BR J P E Fi 114 — R IT Fi . . CH F N UI C . . . F F g AN O A A ' N g U AND LOWER.

n . J ' C doni a J a oni ca pose The apan ui ce, y p , of which 113 114 h ’ figures and show a branc , flower and fruit, is one of the best deciduous plants for an ornamental It hedge . will grow in almost any soil ; if left to itself d it forms a ense , strong bush, but it may be clipped or It trained into any desired form . s leaves are of d ark n glossy green , they come early in s p ring and remai until A t he h late in utumn , This is one of earliest s rubs to PORTABLE F EN C ES AN D HURDLE S . 75

o in s n e ar e n r e e blo m p ri g ; its flow rs ge e ally int ns scarlet, - though there are varieties with white, rose colored, or - l A salmon co ored flowers . hedge of this plant is not d m only highly ornamental , but its abun ant thorns ake Li u s tr u m vu l a r e a good barrier . Privet, g g , makes a very neat screen , but will not bear severe cutting back , and is therefore suita ble onl y for grounds of sufficient extent to ad mit of its being allowed to make u n r e w B ’ . B er ber z v strained gro th The common arberry, s u l a r i s di g , also makes an excee ngly pretty screen in time , '

. The B B Ske er ch a but it is of slow growth uffalo erry, p a r en tea g , has been tried for hedges, but for some reason t In S it has never a tained any popularity . the outhern St C ates , the herokee Rose has been found quite success i n ful for the purpose, and nothing the shape of a hedge ff can exceed , in striking e ect, one of these in full bloom .

For evergreen screens nothing is better than the Hemlock, N S Ts uga Ca n ad en si s . The orway pruce is of rapid Th . A V ae u growth and bears cutting well The rbor it , j a ’ occid en ta lzs the , is also very successfully employed for purpose .

E I I I C H A P T R V .

AN HURDLES PORTABLE FENCES D .

PORTA BLE B OARD F ENCES.

1 u Figure 18 shows a very strong and sec re board fence, composed entirely of ordinary fence boards . The trian e gular frames, which serve as posts , are each of two piec s

a 115. of inch boards , crossed and br ced as shown in figure 11 t The panels , figure 7, are sixteen fee long , each com

r o r d n . The a een p osed of fou b a s, six i ches wide sp ce betw 6 RI GES 7 E CE S G TES AN D B . F N , A D

‘ o d s the l wer two boar s is two and a half inches, econd w ay space three and a half inches . A convenient of u making the panels is to se three horses , like that shown 1 16 to a in figure , the length of each being equal the tot l

Fi Ha t -T E E P OST g . S.

r width of the panel , and the three short up ight strips marking the resp e ctive spaces between the boards . The top is covered with iron to clinch the nails used in put ting the panel together. The boards are laid on these - horses, and the upright cross pieces nailed on . The second n e board from the top of each panel is otched at both nds, e 11 A the tr a as shown in figur 7. good way to make i n

“ Fi 116 — HORSE S F ORM I G THE m g . . AK N an.

r to t gula frames alike, is cut the pieces by a uniform p a te rn . Then make one frame of the size and form de a c h sired, and at e ch of the three pla es w ere they are a h nailed together , f sten a plate of iron , thick enoug to pre vent the penetration of a common wrought nail drive n ow l a r m o against it . N y this pattern f a e on the flo r with RT B E E CES HUR LE PO A L F N AND D S. 77 the iron bolts uppermost. Then lay three pieces on this

in exactly the right position , drive wrought nails through . the two pieces and against the iron plates, which will

clinch the nails firmly as fast as they are driven . This will enable the m an to nail the frames together qui te

Fi 117 —A SING E . . P E g L AN L. l . In rapid y setting up the fence, each triangular frame supports the ends of two panels . The upper and lower i boards of each panel nterlock with the frame, as shown 118 in figure , making a very strong fence . On open - prairie or other wind swept situations, it may be n eces r sa y to stake down some of the frames, to prevent their blowing over . This is quickly done by sharpeni ng pieces

Fi 1 8 — g . 1 . T EE FE NC E IN P OSI N TIO .

i t . an d one of nch boards welve inches long, inch wid e, and driving one beside the foot of the triangle, where it e - r sts on the ground, and putting an eight pe nn y nail through both

PORT B E E CES O F PO ES ORW A L F N L IRE .

i u 1 19 120 e F g res and show styles of portable fenc s, i In ‘ wh ch are used to some extent the territories. The 8 E CES G TES BRI GES 7 F N , A AND D .

e l base of ach is the half of a smal log, split through

. 119 the center For the fence shown in figure , two u a aug r holes are bored a few inches part, and small poles

' driven to serve as posts . Rails or round poles of the u sual length are laid to the desired height, and the top

Fi 1 — FE N E 1 9. P E P E C g . ORTAB L OL . of the In u posts tied together with wire . sit ations u where timber is less plentif l, a single stake is set into 120 e the base, as in figure , braced, and barbed or plain wir a B t ttached by staples . esides the advan age of being

— RT B E W IRE E CE F 120 P O F N . ig . . A L e i asily moved, these fences can be prepared in w nter, d o when there is little else to , and rapidly set in place at w any time when the ground is clear of sno . 12 1 ff Figure is a fence made of either sawed stu , or of A rails or poles , having their ends flattened and bored . n - e iron rod, or piece of gas pipe , any wher from half an to the inch an inch in diameter, is run through holes, an d through a base block into the ground as far as nec E R LES PORTABLE FE NC S AND HU D . 79

. A u essary round stick of tough d rable wood , an inch i n d The or more iameter, will answer . size of this rod an d its s trength will depend upon the amount of zigzag

l l — P ORT B E FE NCE OF PO E S ORR I S Fi . 2 . g A L L A L . If tha t is given to the lengths . the corners are one foot l on each side of a central ine, the fence firmly held to f a gether by the rods , will in e fect st nd on a two feet wide

. L t base ess than this would perhaps some imes answer, and there are no sharp corners, or deep recesses for weeds and rubbish .

RT B E E CES FOR W I BREA S PO A L F N ND K . A fence that can be easily moved and quickly set up is 122 It shown in figure . consists of panels made of strips

— 122 . PO RT B E E CE Fi . F N g A L . TE RI GE 0 FE C ES G S B S. 8 N , A AND D

te n eight or feet long, nailed to two by four posts, which en d are beveled to a sharp corner at the lower . These n panels are supported by posts, placed as shown in the e graving , and pinned to the fence posts by wooden pins, driven in by a light mallet . The panels are light and c an be loaded upon a wagon from which the sides and d A ends of the box are remove . box of pins and the mallet are all the tools required to set up the fence . This n ot fence is easily overthrown by the wind, which holds it down firmly when blowing on the face of it . For this s n d rea on in wi y localities, the fence should be set facing r the windy qua ter . An otlier good form of movable fence is seen in fi g 12 It is a e e- a d e u e ur e 3. m de of common f nc bo r s, s c r ly

nailed on very light posts or on the edge of narrow boards and braced as shown in the engraving . This style of panel is largely employed by railroads as windbreaks l ‘ l winter to keep the tracks from becoming covered with It n te . th r drif d snow is equally convenient on e fa m, whe a e ar t mpor y inclosure is needed.

RT BLE PO TR E CES PO A UL Y F N .

It is often very convenient when poultry ar e inclosed during the growing season , to have a fence for the hen yard which can be readily moved from place to pl ace . C ut u 124 . The illustration, Fig re , shows one of these the s i the posts same length as the picket , and to the nner

ENCES G TES AND BRI G 82 F , A D ES.

u 125 on fence. Such a fence is shown in fig re ; preceding It in ‘ tw el ve c p age . is made or sixteen feet se tions by The nailing laths to light pieces of the proper length . uppe r end of the laths is sharpened the en d ones ar e of

— R - Fi 126 . C OSS SE TI N OF . C O O B E F E CE g M VA L N . double thickness . The section s are placed with the en d ' a n the six i n l ths i tercrossing at top , and about ches apart at - 12 6 the bottom , as in cross section, figure . They are u 12 held apart by blocks; fig re 7, which rest on the upper ed - a n d the ges of the cross pieces against laths . They to ar e held together, and the ground, by stakes drive n A against the outer side of the end laths . s these stakes have the same angle as the laths, they hold the sections a together, and also the fence in its pl ce and down to the r ground . The triangula space where the sections join is

1 7 — E OSS—E O C F ORFE Fi . 2 . C g L K NCE . closed by a lath driven in the ground or tacked to the - C block between the cross pieces . orners must be formed m of two sections inclined inward, and in the sa e way Th that sections are joined . e stakes are readi ly with ’ T B E FE CES AND H RD ES 83 PORA L N U L .

n an d the n are e ar ea draw , sectio s so light that th y e sily han dled .

RT BLE I G E CE PO A FOLD N F N .

A very convenient form of portable fence or hu rdle is e in 128 12 9 130 was illustrat d figures , and , which

— Fi . 128. FE CE IN P OSITIO g N N.

Fi 1 — FE NCE FO D E 29 . g . L D .

— Fi 130 As SI E HI FE NC E . g . . A D LL It brought ou t some fi ve or six years ago . may be constru cted with two or three u pright pieces of two RI GE 84 E CES G TES B S. F N , A AND D b - - u u e 128 d y four inch scantling, and fo r bars, fig r , hel i n n a together by carriage bolts such a ma ner, that e ch a u panel can be closed when desired, as parallel r ler A . e is folded together s the bars are on alternate sid s, the panel, when closed, takes up the space of two 129 r e bars only, figure . The fence may easily be ed - mov , and fits itself to rolling ground or side hill, as 1 shown in figure 30. When in position it may be sup ported by stakes of the same thickness as the upright

n e e . bars, and drive clos b side them

TEM R R W IRE A D IR E ES PO A Y N ON F NC .

Several Ends of wi re and iron fences are used in France to make temporary enclosures for exhi bi tion pur

. 131 poses Two forms are illustrated herewith . Figure

-’ ‘ l 1 1 E MP B AB Y W IRE FE NCE . Fi 3 . O g . is made of plain iron wire with cast or wrought iron posts .

Each post has a plate on i ts lower end, which is set eighteen inches below the surface of the ground, and the u earth filled in compactly about it . The front of the e t graving shows the holes in section , wi h the plates . The top stran d is a wire rope made by twisting several strands 1 32 e together . The fence seen at figure is mad of nar row E CES FOR STRE S G IES F N AM AND ULL . 85

strips of sheet iron attached to iron posts driven into the

. ground The gate, like that of the other form, is pro vid ed a with small wheels, which run on a tr ck . The two fences may be modified by using wooden posts sharpened

Fi 13 — TE P OR R RO E E . 2 I N F g M A Y NC . at w the lo er end, and driven into the ground , then fas tening to them with suitable staples strips of rather n b broad hoop iron at the top, with plai wire elow.

C A E I ' H P T R .

E FOR RE MS FENC S ST A AND GULLIES.

OO E CE FL D F N S.

In a situation where a line of fence crosses a stream or a gully liable to be flooded, it is necessary to make special provision for it . A fence extending down near the sur e s fi fac and uf ciently rigid to withstand the current , would arrest the drift wood and o ther objects floated down on the flood, and soon become a dam . The right kind of a fence must therefore yield to the force n d re of the flood, a renew its position, or be easily CE S G TES B RI DGES . 86 FEN , A AND

ed 133 f placed after it has subsid . Figure is a very e - fec tu l flood e . B B a gat for a running stream The posts , , , e A are firml y set on the bank , and a stick of timb r, , mor

— - Fi . 133 STE ONG F OOD G TE. g . L A

tise d . The (7 0 0 on the top of them three uprights, , , , to - d -fa are hinged the cross timber, and the boar s , E s te ned in place by tenpenny steel fence nails . The gate F 134 as i t D . a e ily sw ngs with the curren , igure shows in e the form which operates a similar manner lik other.

It n s o o i h co sist of two st ut p sts , five feet h g , a o -bar un e a end an d e heavy cr ss , ro d d at e ch , fitt d into E CES FOR STRE MS - G IE F N A AND ULL S. 7

s in - te e can socket , which the bar with ga attach d swing . The con struction of the gate is easily seen fr om the

engraving. - The above forms are s elf acting, and swing back to c te their pla es as the wa r subsides . For larger streams , it is necessary to construct fences that give way before

the flood, and can be brought into position again when it

. On e i is over of these, for a stream which is l able to

S w 135. bring down much drift wood, is ho n in figure

— RE F 135 FE CE F OR FOREST ST . ig . . N A AM

S e The logs are the trunks of traight trees , about eight en inches in diameter, which are hewed on two sides posts an d are mortised in each of these logs , on them planks

are firmly nailed . The logs are then linked together

with inch iron rods, and the first one connected by means of a long link to a tree or post firmly set in the ground The upon the banks of the stream . links must all work s freely. When high water occurs, the fence is wa hed around and left on the bank ; af ter the water has sub s uffi cien tl a a sided y, the logs may be dr gged b ck to their a as ea a e pl ces, shown in the engraving, by m ns of hors , RI GE E CES G TES B S. 88 F N , A A ND D

in i u 1 6 hi tc hed to a staple the end of the log. F g re 3 e c in s hows a light r fen e made of poles or rails, held by the ter liuki n staples to the posts on side of the stream . g , A s the floods come down , the rails are washed from the

— Fi . 136 . FE E OF MO S g NC VABLE RAIL .

e . cent r, and float freely at either side of the stream They can be laid up in plac e again when the water subsides . u 13 The fence shown in fig re 7, though rather rude and primitive, has the advantage of being cheaply con d v structed and permanent . Two strong posts are ri en into the banks on the margin of the stream, to which a log, e a a foot or more in diamet r, is f stened by pins, spikes or

e . en withes, about tw nty inches above low water mark Th

— - Fi . 137 AN E 'TEMPORISE F OO FE N E . C g D L D .

r on e en d dr fence ails are sharpened at , iven into the l o i stream above the g, upon wh ch the other ends rest, proj ecting about a foot. They are then s ecurely spiked

an d . p r pinned to the log, the work is done The pointed

90 E CES G TES BRI G F N , A AND D ES.

fi i se e _the n otches the ate i l b suf ciently to d ngag y g w l e. the e moved by the force of wat r, and if sticks or rubbish of any kind float down agains t it they will be swept u e . W e u nder it by the wat r hen the wat r s bsides, the l c the e e 0 c h padd e swings ba k, pi c s, , catc and keep the ed m a Let gate clos at any height it y fall to . the cros s d fi t h piece, , is alved into the p osts, be about one foot

. ec r e re above the banks of the ditch The pi es, ffff, p e di t s nt the fence above the tch , the small pos s , 9 g, with i the p eces nailed to them , are to prevent the stock from e the passing when the gate is partly clos d, at same time c n a e h are an bra i g the posts, ; the holes at to raise d a lower the paddle ; if small , a cleat on one of the arms o h ec B up n w ich the pi e is hung, prevents the paddle from swinging towards the gate . Figure 139 shows a kind of fence used in Missouri to put across It is in effect two pan els of

— - F l A I I F OO D F ENCE . 39 . SSO R ig . M U L

’ s r ee ee portable fence . The post are set th to four f t the deep , with the tops about one foot above ground

h a . nai ed ar e t other pos ts, to w ich the pl nks are l , bol ed E RS RE S G IES E C S FO T M . 9 1 F N _ A AND ULL ,

h the i r o The d th to t e top of nse ted p sts . en s of e p an el that con nect with the post on the bank ar eslightly nailed - the as e with cross strips near top , so to b easily broke n e loose when the flood comes . Th re are also temporary in braces bearing upstream , put to prevent the fence the from falling, but are easily washed out, when fence fal ls down stream, and logs and other obstructions pass

i . A a by read ly s soon s the flood goes down, the fence is

s n . ea ily raised, a pa el at a time, to a proper place Figure 140 sho ws a cheap and effective form of flood ar e - ve fence . The material used square hewn timbers, se n

140 —FE E SRE T FEN E Fi . C . g . or n S ab u ten eight i ches for ills, stone pillars, split rails o t feet long . The rails are driven in the ground about two feet deep ; the u pper ends project above the sill two or e S e thre feet, and are piked down to the sill with larg r t- ar e spikes when the f eshet comes, logs and drif wood i b as carried over , and the fence w ll e left in good order o as bef re the high water . Figure 141 represents a gulch fence or gate which is It in common use in some parts of the Pacific Slope .

— 141 C IFOR I GULCR FE CE . Fig . . AL N A N is p articul arly adapted to the gulches of the foot hills a and the irrigating ditches of the pl ins . The whole ' RI GE 92 E CE S G TES N B S. F N , A A D D ga teswings fr eely by the upper pole, the rest in large holes in pos ts on either bank e be of stakes . The upright piec s may be or sawed lumber, as may the most r the stream is likely to car y floating brush , logs , etc the slats should be of heavier material than is necessary w hen t te this is not the case . When construc ed properly the ga i an d s w ll give, allowing rubbish freshets to pa s , and then e r esume its prope r position . The principal advantag claimed for this gate is that it is not apt to ga ther the i passing debr s . A u ll is f g y sometimes di ficult to fence properly, but an r as een by h ging a f ame over it, is s in figure

—~ Fi . 142 E E F R DRY a . F NC O w r g A .

the objec t may be quickly accomplished . The frame cane be if spiked together in a short time, or framed together a more elaborate one is desired. To make it se rve its e purpose complet ly, the rails must be closer together to o to near the bottom than at the p of the frame, in rder prevent small animals from going through it . A o fi m dification of this last named device, seen at g r e 143 S a r o u , gives greater pace for the pass ge of b ush wo d th or other large objects, which may be swept down on e

t S s flood . The wid h , strength and ize of the bas es sup S e i porting the ide posts , and of the brac s, w ll depend th n d th a T up on e width a dep th of e ch nnel. he W e RE S A D G LIES 93 FENCES FOR ST A M N UL . p ieces can be firmly anchored by stakes driven slanting he s : F over t ends and outsides, or by stone piled on or r e u wide, shallow st eams, three or even mor braced p rights can be anchored eight or ten feet apart in the bed heav ston es with y\ , with two or more swinging sections .

143 — A FRESHE T FEN E Fi . C g . . If small trees or long timbers are likely to float down , w d the swinging gate may be t elve or fifteen feet wi e . ea b n fi or x For smaller str ms, with strong high a ks, ve si feet wil l suffice.

P RT B E TI E E CE O A L D F N .

144 - I Figure represents a fence for tide creeks . t is made usually of pine, the larger pieces, those which lie

— Fi . 144. SE CTION O F TI E FE CE g A D N . 94 FE E T RI E C S GA ES D B S. N , AN DG

e on the ground and parallel with the run of the fenc , - are three by four inch pieces, hemlock or pine, and con n ected - e - by three cross bars , of thr e by four inch pieces, e I mortised in thre feet apart . nto the middle of these - three cross pieces, the upright or posts are securely s n mortised , while two common board are ailed under ue neath the long pieces, to afford a better rest for the str

th . ture, when floating on e water or resting on the ground B a the t arbed or plain wires are stretched long pos s, w c ar e hi h four feet high .

I A CREEK WATE RNG PLACE IN .

Cattle n aturally select a certain place in a water-cou rse

a . D to drink at, where the b nk is not precipitous uring ar the a un a good p t of year this bank is muddy, on cco t

- Fi . 145 A C E W TE RIN P CE g . L AN A G LA . of its moisture and trampling of the animals . As a r e sult, the horses get the scratches, the cows come to the milking pen with muddy udders, and frequently animals are injured by the crowding in the mud . Hogs are often seriously injured, because the mud becomes so deep and A tough , that they are well nigh helpless in it . nother objection is that the ani mal s wade to the middle of the as creek, and soon make its bottom as muddy the bank, n and the wate r becomes unfit for drinki g . The arrange ment shown in our illustration, which may be built of

an t e all . It heavy pl k, brick, or flat s ones, prev nts this AI EI A D ET I G A NG N S T N POSTS. 95 is constru cted by first making an incline to a level plat n form for the animals to sta d on while drinking . This l e e e an e p an t rminat s in abrupt desc nt, forming a trough for the wate r to flow through . The trough should not be more than two feet wide, that the animals may easily an i ni get across it . The level floor permits the al s to e S drink at their ease, oft n a matter of importance . uch a drinking place should be mad e at the upper en d of the e cre k, where it passes through a field to prevent the ani mals from soiling the water by standi n g in it above where e i th y dr nk.

C E ' H A P T R .

MAKING AND SETTING POSTS.

I E E P TS M AK NG F NC OS .

There is quite an art in splitting logs into posts . E e s the very post should have som heart wood , which la ts s : longer, for two rea ons That there may be durable d w e woo into which to drive the nails, and ithout it som s ts ' com osed - of the p o , p entirely of sap wood, will rot

‘ off long before others , making the most annoying of If the all repairing necessary . log is of a size to make t t 146 welve posts , spli along the lines of figure , which will wi give each post a share of heart wood . This ll make a be cross section of the posts triangular, the curved base ing somewhat more than half of either side . This is a fairly well shaped post, and much better than a square one having little or no heart wood . Although the log may be e large enough to make sixteen or eight en posts , it is tt It be er to spl it it the same way . should first be cut

then w t s . If at into halves, then quarters , t elf h it is 6 FE CES GATES RI G 9 B ES. N , AND D

e e S off the t mpt d to plit one post the side of a half, wood “ ' i r w ll d aw out, making the post larger at one end than — il be the other not a good shape, for there w l little heart l the wood at the sma l end . When log is too large to a d i t s t e mit of being pli in that way, ach post may never thel ess be given enough heart w ood by splitting along the

l 147. ines , shown in figure First cut the logs into halves,

te . off then quar rs , then eighths Then split the edge of a t— - e ch eighth , enough for a pos about one fourth only v of the wood , as it is all heart wood, and then hal e the A a balance . good post can be t ken off the edge , and yet the a en ough heart wood for remaining two posts rem in.

' T E A POS HOLD R.

A simple arrangement for holdin g a post while it 1s b n u 148. It ei g bored or mortised , is shown in fig re con

—A P T R 148 OS HO E . Fig . . LD

i tS u s s of two long pieces of ro nd or square timber, lying e n parallel upon the ground, and two shorter sticks r sti g

98 G TE BRI E E CES S G S. F N , A A ND D

r e to e the a d iv n. When one post is driven its plac , w gon

s an d e . i moved to the next place, this op ration repeated

r . To d ive posts, a wooden maul should be used This

‘ is made of a section of an elm trunk or branch, eight or 150 A d e . nine inches in iamet r, figure n iron ring is driven on each end, and wedged all around, the wood at the edge being beaten down over the rings with a hammer or the poll of an axe . To prevent the posts from splitting s or being battered too much , the end of the maul s u b e e un e out a d ho ld e hollowed a little, and n v r ro d d , n

i — R F . l 5o. FO T g MAUL DRIVING POS S.

t S e a u The the ends of the pos s hould be b veled all ro nd . hole in the maul for the handl e should be made larger an d ha on one side, and lengthwise of the maul, the n dle spread by two wedges driven in s uch a way as not to split the m aul .

TO RI E P STS W ITH T SP ITTI G D V O OU L N .

t i i Pos s are very liable to split in dr v ng, unless some prec aution is used . This damage and loss can be avoided in a great measur e by prope r preparation of the posts be o fore they are driven . The t ps of sawed p osts should S e 151 have the ides cut off, as in figur , or simply cut off as 1 53 each corner, in figure , while a round post should be shape d as in figu re 152 . The part of the p ost r e

‘ e n ot a n in ch c s moved n ed be more than half in thi knes , but when the corners only are cut away, the chip should In i . t be thicker driv ng, it is very important to s rike the post squarely on the top, and not at one corner or MAKI G D G P STS N AN SETTIN O . 99

d e In N si . most soils at the orth, the frosts heave posts o a m re or less each se son , and they need to be drive n down to the usual depth . To do this with little in i S jury to the post, the dev ce hown in figure 154 may

Fi 153 g . .

be u e . It s d is a piece of tough hard wood scantling, e,

e . It ighteen inches in length , with tapering ends is v w h e in pro ided ith a handle, , thre feet length , of quite

if b . In i small size, and possi le , of green timber us ng it, let on e person (a boy will do) lay the bit of scantling on the be r e- the e top of post to driven, when, with beetl or

— F . 154 SC NT ING w rm D E IN PO SITIO . ig . A L HAN L N

sledge , the scantling, instead of the post is struck , thus th th preventing e Splitting of e post . When the top of a n fence is surmounted by a stringer, as in the engravi g, ff d the e ect of the blow is istributed over a large space, TE B RI GES 100 E ES G S . F NC , A AND D

and both stringer an d post escape injury . The attend h the ant should keep hold of the handle , , while posts are being driven, and move the scantling from post to post as required .

A OW E R RI ER P FUL POST D V .

For a farmer who has a large number of posts to set, a S ll be u pecial apparatus for dr iving them wi found seful .

i 155 -THE P - R F . . OST I ER g D V . The accompanying illustrations show a machine of this d . A a 155 kind n axle, , figure , of hard woo , eight and - n It one half feet lo g ; a hickory sapling will do . has S spindles haved to fit the hind wheels of a wagon, which e i - be are fasten d by l nch pins, leaving about six feet space - the . A b ee tween hubs coupling pole, , thirt n feet long,

GATE S B RI GE E CES S. 102 F N , A ND D

m an ] r e 157 t ee rections . The , , fi gur , of ough oak, fourt n t by eighteen inches, by two feet long, weighs abou two hundred pounds , is grooved to fit smoothly between the l s en guides the fo lower, , is more plainly shown in the graving, also the simple latch, by which the follower and maul are connected and disconnected . The square elev is t - e r , , is of three quart r i ich iron, suspended from the

—TOP F RI T 157. O P H Fi . G g U .

u v It same iron pin , , on which the pulley , , is placed. w is partly imbedded in the wooden casing, , which is eight by eighteen inches ; this casing serves to inclose v the pulley, , and also to trip the latch when brought to t gether ; the clevis, , is caught under the hook fastened in the maul , is pressed into place by a small hickory z a spring, y, acting on a small iron pin, when it re ches 1 th the top , the crotch, , suspended from e top, comes in c t the in 2 an d the t s ontac with p , , clevis, , is p res ed, I ETTI G P STS. MA K NG AND S N . . O 103

b b ook 93 the ack, and releases the , , when maul drops . W 3 155 The indlass, , figure , has two cranks, and a

ratchet for convenience . The rope passes from the wind a t lass over the pulley the top , down and under the pul c n 7 ley, , then up, and is faste ed at , on the cap, j ,

8 . B wire braces at y releasing the cranks and ratchet, i the follower will run down the guides, and , str king the “ ' m an aul , will click the latch into place, ready for

other hoist . For two men it is easy work , and can be D handled q uite rapidly . rive astride the proposed line of fence lay a measuring-pole on the ground to mark the spot for the next post drive forward with the post

driver, having the maul partly raised, set up a post, and

proceed to drive it .

ETTI A TE T S NG GA POS .

No matter how strong or how well braced a gate may r be, it will soon begin to sag and catch on the g ound, if

— Fi . 158 A G TE E T P ST E CE . g . A O S T IN M N

e S the gat post is not firmly planted . ometimes, owing to th n s e e soft ature of the ground, it is almost impo sibl RI GE 104 E CES G TES AN D B S. F N , A D to the plant the p ost firmly , but in such cases work can generally be done satisfactorily by packing medium-sized t s ones around the post, in the hole , as shown in figure 8 If t s u fli 15 . it is thought tha this will not insure cient firmness, add good cement . Place in a layer of stones, then cement enough to imbed the next layer of t s ones, and so on , until the hole is full and the post Do planted . not cover up the stones with earth or dis h ' the a as . turb post for a few d ys, until the cement set Remembe r that the post must be set plumb while the as e f work is going on , it can never be straight ned a ter “ the cement has set . Only durable posts should be used , and this method of setting should only be followed with gate posts which are supposed to be permanent, and not wi th posts liable to be changed . A 59 B still better method is shown in figure 1 . efore the set post is into the hole , a flat stone is laid edgewise

Fi 159 — . . G TE NES g A POST BRACED W ITH STO .

th in the bottom , on the side which is to receive e est pressure from the foot of the post . When the post is set, and the hole half filled with earth , a second stone is placed against the post on the side to which it will be r b t d awn y he weight of the gate . The stones rece ive ‘ e n the pressur a d hold the post firmly in position.

06 E E G TES B RI GE 1 C S S. F N , A AND D

M s V e treeless regions of the issis ippi alley , wher it is dif fi cul t O to btain timber for posts, it is not an unusual prae tice to plant trees for the purpose on street boundaries, and other places where the fence is to be permanent . White willow is well ad apte d for the purpose on suitable soil s as b In , it grows rapidly and ears close pruning. . situations where the soil is even moderately damp, white willow posts , four inches in diameter, cut green and set

F 16 2 . ig .

in spring, will take root and grow . The new branches a bu sh a soon form y he d , which may be cut back from It n ot n l time to time . is advisable to ai boards or drive

i o the . staples d rectly int tree With a board fence, the swaying of the tree loosens the nails , and if barbed wire a is st pled to the tree, the bark and wood will in time 1 u 61 . grow over them as in fig re To obviate this, a t he 1 62 sti ck is n ailed to tree as in figure , and to this the e e th fence is attached . A still b tt r method is to secure e M KI G SETTI G POST A N AND N S. 107

strip of wood to the tree by tw o or three pairs of inter

locking staples .

E I G S T M ND N A PLIT POS .

e t Fenc pos s sp lit from a variety of causes , and when they are in this condition they make a very insecure

C

i 163 — ME N IN G SP IT F . . POST g D A L . fence . The usual way is to merely nail an old horseshoe the w or two across split part, just belo the holes in the posts . This answers fairly well , but does not draw the

n ot . cleft together, and horseshoes are always on hand A bette r method of doin g this is shown in figure

163 . A short, stout chain is put around the top of the post, just tight enough to admit of a strong lever. The parts of the posts are then brought together by a heavy

downward pressure of the lever and held there , while a

strip of good tin , such as can be cut from the bodies of f h ti n u t n e e . _I t e t cans, is p arou d and s curely nail d p os E ’ RI GES E CES G T S B . F N , A AND D

n is a heavy o e and the cleft large, it is well to take the entire body of a can and double it, to give it additional strength before nailing it on . The dotted lines show where the tin is nailed .

HOO FOR W IRI G P T K N OS S.

Figure 164 shows a modified cant-hook for d rawing to gether the upper extrem eties of fence stakes that are to be

1 — A ST KE IN W IRIN G FEN 64. R W E R SE CES A D A U D .

- wired, as in the engraving . The half moon shaped iron , a v e to the , is ri et d fast top end of the lever , and is to pre vent the end of the lever from slipping off the stake when Th e 6 -fi ve in use . second iron from the top, , is twenty en d W inches long, with two hooks at the , though one ill do this is to catch the stake on the Opposite side of the c i he i fen e. This iron is fastened n t lever by a bolt n a

110 F E RI E C S G TES B GES. N , A AND D

A s e d quickly and easily by this method . good t a y team of horses will do quite as well as oxen .

I TI G OSTS BY H L F N P AND .

A a convenient and sensible implement, for t king up W fence posts ithout the aid of a team , is shown at figure 1 66 It . consists of a sto ut pole of the size and

— Fi . 166 . A C O E IE T PO ST IFTE g NV N N L R.

. o a wagon tongue The thicker part of this p le, for about S fifteen inches from the end, is haped into a wedge . r This is sheathed with a f ame made of iron , half an inch thick and two and a half inches wide , and securely fast ened with screws or bolts . The end should be pointed and slightly bent upwards . The manner of using this convenient implement is shown in the illustration .

Frequently a farmer has occasion to lift posts, and has n ot time to wait for the construction of an iron-shod lev

. 1 67 er Figure shows a very simple, inexpensive con n tr i van ce for such cas es . A spadeful of earth is take r an d S n f om each side of the post, a hort, strong chai en d t e as far loosely fastened around the lower of h post , I D ETTI G O T MAK NGAN S N P S S. 111

it A — a down as can be placed . strong lever stout rail — is s will answer the purpose T pas ed through the chain, as the t shown in engraving, until the end of the rail ca ches B firm soil . y lifting at the other end of the lever the post is raised several inches, when both chain and lever are pushed down again for a second hold, which general

Fi 167 — IF TING POST g . . L A . l r the The s y b ings post out . chain is furni hed a ad stout hook at one end, m e to fit the links, so that it can be u ad i q ickly juste d to any ord nary post.

SPLICING FENCE POSTS.

are a e as n etc . There pl c s, crossi g over gullies , , where ar e unusually long posts desirable, though not always a In s easy to obt in . such ca es properly spliced posts Of are almost as dur able as entire ones . The engraving 1 68 the front and side views , figure , shows how the

Splice may be made to secure strength and durability . The splices should be made with a shoulder at the lower E C ES G TES AN D BRI GES 112 F N , A D .

' l a e on e end , and we l n iled together, aft r which or two bands of hoop-iron may be pas se d around the sp lice and

- securely faste ned . The hoop iron band is one of s t s mo t impor ant point in a splice of this kind .

IC TI W PRESE TI APPL A ON OF OOD RVA VE S.

e e a te as h To pr vent d c y at the cen r, as well of all t at a e r part of the post pl ced b low g ound, by use of wood w e preserving solutions , the follo ing syst m is both novel and valuable It is to have a hole in the center of the r ar post, f om the bottom upw d, to a point that shall be in above the ground when the post is position . Then bore another hole in the side of the post with a slight in clin ation w do nward , making an opening in the center 1 69 . A hole , as shown in figure wooden plug, two e y or thr e inches long, should be dri ven snugl into the t i n hole at the bot om of the post . order to prevent the escape of any liquid that may be used in the operation . the t are se t an u r i ht osition a e r When p os s in p g ‘p , pr se v

4 E CES G TES A D BRI GES. 11 F N , A N D and porous wood it is quite probable that a hole bored in n an d the side of the post and above the grou d, deep enough to hold a half pint or more of creosote or some e ca v other similar solution , would answer, but a c ntral t be e ity reaching to the bot om, would perhaps, b st.

IR E CE TS ON F N POS .

The advent of wire fences w as followed by a call for

h car ce . Sev posts in t e prairie regions, where timber is s

— Fi 171, g . DISC .

e th e ral forms of iron posts have b en devised , of which e 1 leadin g ones are illustrated herewith . Figure 70 is of iron , one quarter of an inch thick and two and a half h inc es wide, rolled to a curve and pierced at the proper l be interva s for the staples , which are to clinched on the

S e. 1 71 s w ed ed concave id The disc , figure , is g out of one It e a little fourth inch iron . is sunk n below the ground , d o en ih n an the post driven through the curved p g , i to _ KI G D ETTI G T MA N AN S N POS S.

i i 1 2 i W . 7 s h ch it fits closely F gure a flat iron bar , with W i slots cut diagonally into one side to receive the re . The post is supported by two tiles n ith holes to fit the post, which is thrust through them . Figure 1 73 is made of angle iron braced at the surfac e Of th e e ground, with an angular iron plat rolled for the a F r 1 4 purpose, and driven to its pl ce . igu e 7 shows an

— POST W ITH TI ES 172 L .

- d i iron post, with the ground piece and riv ng tube to the i . r w left of it The post is a round iro bar or tube , ith the notches for wires , which are held in place with short - pieces of binding wire , wound around the post . The w en ground piece , hich is shown in the middle of the graving, is of cast iron , eleven inches long, and five inches across the top, with two loops for inserting the iron post . i

This is driven into the ground, and the iron post driven A the through it . t the left of engraving is shown the It device for driving the post. is a piece of common - Sl gas pipe , just large enough to ip easily over the top of h v h t e post, and pro ided on the top wit an iron cap to receive the blow of the large hammer or maul used in 1 5 n . 7 driving Figure shows a cast iron grou d piece, and at the right is the lower end of a post resting in one of 16 E CES G TES AND B RI GES. 1 F N , A D

' flan SS in them . The three g are cast one solid piece, with a hole through the centre of any desir ed form an d

— P T W ITH IRON GRO P IE CE 74 OS . Fi 1 . g . UND

The size . wings or flanges are three inch plates, running to sharp edges on the bottom , so that they can easily be driven into the ground . They may be of any desired size, larger sizes being re quired for a light yielding soil

1 5 — T- R -PIE Fi . 7 C S I ON GRO E g . A UND C . 1 6 than for a stiff one . Figure 7 is an iron post on a t wooden base, for situations where the ground is sof and t w e . The base is preferably of cedar, three to four feet d It long, four inches thick, and four to six inches wi e .

118 E CES G TES AND B RI GE S F N , A D .

thick paint before it is placed in its mortise . Fasten the brace to the cross-piece with small bolts or wrought nails M well clinched . ortise the ends of the boards into the a end posts , and secure them in pl ce with wooden pins are' a wedged at both ends, or iron bolts . The best m de of pine fence-boards six inches wide the ends should be

Fi 177 g . .

w - four by t enty four inch scantling, although the one at - the latch may be lighter . Five cross pieces are enough .

The lighter the gate in proportion to strength, the better i t is . There is but one right way to brace a gate, and r to many wong ones. The object of bracing is strengthen G the gate, and also to prevent its sagging . ates sag in two ways by the moving to the one side of the posts

Fi 180 g . . upon which the gates are hung, and the settling of the U gates themselves . nless braced the only thing to hold the gate square is the perfect rigidity of the tenons in the s morti es ; but the weight of the gate will loosen these , ' and allow the end of the gate opposite the hinges to sag . It is plain that a brace placed like that shown in figure 177 w O will not prevent this settling do n . The only pposition e it can give is the resistance of the nails, and thes will G T STE I G AES AND FA N N S. 11 9

draw loose in the holes as readily as the tenons in the 1 8 mortises . A brace set as shown at figu re 7 is not much t n better, as the resistance mus depend upo the rigidity e of the upright pi ce in the middle, and the bolts or nails

holding it will give way enough to allow the gate to sag .

F i . 181 . 82 Fi . 1 g g .

S 179 The method hown in figure is fully as faulty, while 180 It the form shown in figure is even worse . seems e i n strang that any one should brace a gate these ways, Th but it is quite frequently seen attempted . e only 1 e right way to brace a gate is shown in figure 18 . The gat 1 82 Be may be further strengthened as shown in figure . e the for gate can sag, the brac e must be Shortened for

Fi 184 Fi 183 . . . g . g

h e the a 6 as t e gat settles , points and must come closer

f . together, and this the brace ef ectually prevents The posts should be set in such a way that they will The not be pulled to one Side and allow the gate to sag . post shou ld be put below the line of frost , or else it will be heaved ou t of position ; three feet in the e H e r t an d ground is non too deep . av a la ge pos ’ G TE D B RI 20 E CES S AN GES. 1 F N , A D

e . Be to set t make a big hol for it careful . the pos plumb — an d stamp the earth firmly in the hole i h cannot be stamped too hard . While stamping, keep walking

' around the post, so that the earth will be firmed on all B k be i n sides . loc s may arranged as shown figure 183

186 Fi . g . but n this is not really ecessary, when the , posts have been rightly set , although it may be advisable to take this further precaution .

To remove the pulling weight of the gate when closed, the Swinging end may rest upon a block ; or a pin in

Fi 187 g . . serted in the en d piece of the gate may rest in a slot i u sawed in the post, or on a shoulder of the post . F g re 184 shows one end of a combination of two plans— the iron rod from near the top of the high post holds the gate while the strain upon the post is lessened by the Oppo site end of the closed gate being supported on the other p ost,

122 E CES G TES BRI GES F N , A AND D .

' u be d to a e sho ld bore through the block, so as let wh t ver water coll ects in it pass away; the block should n ot be — d less than eighteen inches long four inches above groun .

I shows w ire fence connected . J is a strong wire carri ed

S BST TI G TE . Fi . 190 U AN AL A g . t fi K K an d secured to the bot om of the rst fence post . ar e cleats attached to posts to keep them more firmly in L A A . . ar e a the ground stones for posts , , to st nd on M a as t shows the hinge, m de so to take up the sag af er

the t an d as a . ga e settles, the wood we rs out

A STR G A D E T G TE ON N N A A .

t a a 1 92 o The pos s, , , figure , of oak or other durable w od, e are eight inches squar , and stand five and one half feet

. 6 6 above the ground The posts , , , three and one third t inches thick, four and three quar er feet long, are mor tised t c c ff o receive the slats , , , which are of inch stu ; three inches wide and ten feet four and three-quar ter

e n . I) b the inch s lo g They are let into posts, , , at dis TE I G GATES AND FA S N N S. 23

a e the . d ar e r tance m rk d in engraving The slats, , th ee an d a inches wide, and one inch thick , are pl ced opposite e e each other on front and back of the gate as braces , , are simply battens to make a straight surface for the an d hinges , f, f all except the upper lower ones are i very short and carried back to the post . The h nges, a m de by a blacksmith from an old wagon tire, are one - - and one half inch wide , three sixteenth inch thick, and are fastened by light iron bolts through the battens at the and to rear post .

— - Fi . 192 A W E E G TE . g . LL MAD A

The above describes a cheap , light, durable gate , which ’ - in over twenty three years use has never sagged , though standing in the thoroughfare of three farms, and also, for It years past, used for access to a sawmill . is made o f

. e t I the best pine The hing is an impor ant point . t is a not only cheap and easily made, but cts as a brace for e the gat at every point, and thus permits the gate to be

. i Is I A lightly made With this hinge sagg ng mpossible . gate of this kind will rot down first .

IGHT IR G TES L ON A .

Th e gate shown in figure 193 may be m ade of wrought iron an inch and a half wide and half an inch thick, or 4 E CES G TES B RI GES. 12 F N , A AND D preferably of iron gas -pipe of any diameter from half an In - inch to an inch . the vicinity of the oil regions, pipe can be bought very cheaply, which is in condition good

— R N G TE A IGHT I O . Fi . 193 g . L A

e e . nough for this purpos For guarding against hogs, it n th n on e should be hung ear e grou d, and have or two more hor izontal pipes near the bottom . Figure 194 shows the construction of a gate intended It for situations much exposed to trespassers . is made

— Fi . 194 HT N TE A W RO G IRO G . g . U A

Of upright strips of flat iron , pointed at the top , and - fastened by rivets to a stout frame work of iron . The as pickets are placed two to three inches apart, de the th sired, for the appearance of gate , or according to e the a n size of poultry or animals to be kept from p ssi g .

1 6 FE C ES G TES AN D BRI GE 2 N , A D S.

in the engraving . They are made to play one into the t u an o her . This style of hanging may be sed on y ordi

of e nary kind gate, but is specially us ful for a small - street gate opening into a door yard . - There is a style of gate for foot paths, which is not n u common , that keeps itself always closed and latched, by a d e means of single upper and oubl lower hinge, which

i 198 — SE - TE F . F N F C O SI R G . g . L L G A M A

ar e to beobtained at most hardware stores . The lower “ hinge has two thumbs , which are embraced by two d open sockets . When the gate is opene , it swings upon n o e socket and its thumb , and being thrown off the cen T TE I GS GA ES AND FA S N N . 127

d ter, the weight of the gate raws it back, and swinging A e l - too, it latches . farm gat , entire y home made, may 1 98 n d 199 S be constructed , of which figures a h ow the hi The gate and the nge . gate is braced and supported by - the a stay strip, extending to the top of upright, which e forms the upp r hinge, f being attached to the top of - the gate post, by an oak board with a smooth hole in it . 199 It The lower hinge is separately shown at figure . an 0 consists of oak board, , an inch and a half thick, into

Fi 1 — OW ER I F . 99 . H GE g L N O GATE.

e . In which the upright, , is mortised this, two sockets are cut, a foot from center to center. The sockets in m e this case are three inches in dia et r, and when the gate is in place and shut, they fit against two stakes of hard an d d wood (locust) , two a half inches in diameter, , - i b a . A wh ch eing curved, are nailed to the gate post, i smooth stone, la d across in front of these stakes , takes the weight of the gate, and relieves in a measure the pres sure ou the top of the post . The hinges must be kept ed - e well greas , and it is well to black lead th m also, to prevent creaking . 2 RI 1 8 E CES G TES AN D B DGES. F N , A

G TE FOR IL AGE LOT A V L .

ur 200 t f Fig e shows a light, strong ga e made o wood and wi wire . The top re is barbed to prevent s tock from . st an d e r i pressing again it, b aux and belles f om hang n g

i over it . The bottom w res are also bar be d pr event s cat , dogs, and fowls from creeping under . This gate is e cheap , may be easily construct d, and is suitable for e r ither f ont or bac k yard .

A CHI E E OR R G TE SP I N S DO O A RNG.

Fi gure 201 shows the manner in which the Chinese use a bow as a spring for closing the light doors and e gat s . The bow is fastened to the gate by a cord or A chain . nother cord or chain is attached to the middle bo w- en d of the string by one , and the other end is made the n the fast to gate post, in such a ma ner that when

130 E ES G TES B RI GES F NC , A AND D . which is peculiarly well adapted to a region visited by

‘ deep snows in winter . The post, firmly set, extends a In little higher than the length of the gate . front of this and firmly fastened to it at bottom and top, is a

‘ board at su fi i cien t distance from the post for the gate to bolt move easily between them . An iron through the large post and the lower end of the tall , upright gate A bar, serves as a balance for the gate to turn on . rope attached to the bottom of the gate runs over the

Fi 203 — . G TE OPE . g . A N pulley and has a weight of iron or stone that nearly bal an ces the gate . The opened gate is shown in figure 203 . 204 S Figure hows a gate balanced in a similar manner, an d arranged so it can be opened by a person desiring to u w I h . t drive thro gh, ithout leaving the ve icle is sus pended by ropes which pass over pulleys near the top of long posts, and counterpoised by weights upon the other ends of the ropes . Small wheels are placed in the ends he of the gate to move along t inside of the posts , and thus reduce the friction . The gate is raised by m eans of ropes attached to the center of the upper side of the u e e gate, from which they p ass up to p lleys in the c nt r of G TES A D F STE I GS A N A N N . 131 the archway, and then out along horizontal arms at right a to ngles the bars which connect the tops of the posts . B y pulling on the rope, the gate, which is but a trifle a the he vier than balancing weights, is raised, and after

has ll l . In s n the vehicle passed, the gate fa s of itse f pa si g

Fi 4— F- PE I TE A SE O G G . g . 20 . L N N A

O e in the pposite dir ction , another rope is pulled, when the gate is raised as before . Figures 206 and 207 Show a gate specially designed for - . u 205 the snowy regions The latch post, fig re , is fixed in ground and connected with the fence: It is an ordinary n - d square fe ce post, to the side of which a strip of boar is S the an d nailed, with a pace of an inch between board the post: At the opposite extremity of the gate a heel

se t l 206 207. Th e post is s anting, as shown in figures and gate is made by laying the five horizontal bars on a bar n

floor or other level place, with one of the sloping cross r H ba s under them and the other above them . alf inch “A D BRI GE FE CES GATES N S. 132 N , D h n e oles are bored through the three thick esses, carriag ' d bolts inserted from below, and the nuts screwe on . The gate, thus secured at one end, is carried to the place

— TC -P OST Fi 20 — TE PE 205 H . . THE G O N Fi . . 6 g LA g A . where it is to remain and the other ends of the horizon c - tal bars se ured to the heel post by similar bolts . These in ar should work freely the holes . The lower b is four

— HE G TE OSE F 207 T C . ig . . A L D feet long and the upper bar seven feet . To the heel of the upper bar is hung a weight nearly heavy enough to

’ i t balance the gate, so that may easily be swung up, as

206 t . shown in figure , and the weight will keep i raised

134 E CES GATES B RI GES F N , A ND D .

Fi gur e 2 10 shows Rnimproved form of this gate with In the m r out posts . this case s all board st ips are ou t t d only as long as the ga e is to be ma e wide, and a diago s - n e as In nal cros brace run ing betw en them , shown the

— Fi 210 A S G TE IN PIC E T FEN CE . g . . MALL A A K

in s e th engravi ng . The h ges are fa t ned to e horizontal S a b A bars of the fence by wooden pins hown at and . piece of rope or a short wire passing over the ends of tw o e Sec of the pickets serves to keep the gat urely fastened . n e ' These ope ings are not designed for a regular gat , and

Fi 211 — O B E P NEL g . . M VA L A .

ul u h co d not be sed for the passage of any vehicle, as t e horizontal bars would be in the w ay. For a back gate to the g arden such an openi ng would frequently be found m convenient and save any ste ps . i 211 S l t - te F gure hows a if ing ga , or rather, a movable I GATES AND FA STEN NGS. 135

i ea panel, wide enough to perm t the passage of a t m and f a vehicle . This might be use ul in pl ces where it w as not desired to pass frequently . Figure 2 12 shows another very convenient form of gate I for use in a country where the snow is deep . t is fitted

m — W . 212 A G TE NOT C O GGED WIT S O . g . A L H N

in a strong frame, and is balanced by weights , so that it can be easily raised . The engraving sufficiently explains how this very useful gate is made and hung in the frame .

R TIC G TE US A S.

A picturesque ru stic gate is shown in figu re 2 13 . The Its fence and posts are made to correspond . manner of construction is clearly shown in the illustration . The vases on the top of the posts may be omitted, unless time can be taken to keep them properly watered . A very neat , cheap , and strong rustic gate is shown in 4 the the figure 21 . The large post and two uprights of gate are of red cedar. The horizontal bars may be of the same or other wood . The longer upright is five and

al S a a . a h f feet long, the horter one four and h lf feet ES G TE RI GE 136 E C S B S. F N , A AND D

The ends of the former are cut down to serve as hinges, i as shown in the engraving . F ve holes are bored through

— 13 R MENT G TE . Fi 2 . O g . NA AL A ea a e ch of the upright pieces, two inches in di met r, into the ends of the horizontal bar s are inserted and

— R G F . 214 IG T STIC TE ig . L H U A .

' a wed ged securely . For the upper hinge a piece of pl nk an t en uce is bored to receive the gate, d the o her d red d

138 E CES G TES B RI GES F N , A AND D .

Figure 216 shows a balance gate which is used in some N C parts of orth arolina . It is a picket gate framed into

- R I E Fi . 216. C O N B N CE T g A L A ALA GA .

the lower side of a long pole, which is hung near its l r n - midd e to a pivot d iven i to the top of the gate post .

— Fi 217 . A TI B CE G TE g . DY ALAN A . ' 21 “ Figure 7 shows a more elegant form , the heel of the gate remaining on a level with the top line of the fence .

GATE FOR SNOW Y W EATHE R.

The a 18 a e g te shown in figure 2 is suitable for all we th r, but especially useful when there is a d eep snow ; for it is i te eas ly lif d up above the snow, and kept in place by put a - w ting pin through holes in the hinge bar, hich is firmly - S b fastened to the gate p ost . The hinge bar hould e of TE TE I GA S AND FA S N N GS. 139

good, tough wood, and made round and smooth , so that B the gate can swing and slide easily . oards can be used - in place of pickets if preferable . The latch post to the

Fi 218 —G TE F OR SNOW W E THER g . . A Y A .

ad right, has a long slot for the latch to work in , inste of

’ that it can a hasp , so be fastened when the gate is at any height .

W E T I I RM G TE S S ND A FA A .

219 220 Sh The illustrations, figures and , ow two forms

of gates used on the island of J amaica . These gates are

— Fi . 219 . W1D E F R G TE g A M A . TE RI 140 E CES G S B GES. F N , A AND D

-on e sa twenty feet long, each, and cannot possibly g, In even if any number of small boys swing on them . gate figure 220 the main post is nine by Six in ches ; the — 2 3 5 7 - the bars marked , , and are let in wood three inches on the upper side and one and a half Inches on h e t t . e lower The tenons, indicat d by the do ted lines, h go entirely throug the posts, and are fastened with B 6 a pins . race is att ched to the upper bar eighteen e F D inches beyond the cent r, ; is a stout fence wire

Fi 220— OTHER W I E F R G TE g . . AN D A M A .

a E B fastened by screw nut at ; the wire, , is held A 9 tightly by the screw hook , ; the iron band, , is an It w or ks on inch thick and is bolted to the post . a i pivot one and a quarter inches in d ameter, and which turns on a flat piece of iron at the bottom of a piece of a one and a half inch iron pipe , which is soldered 10 with molten lead in the stone , . Only hard wood is In . n 2 19 used in the construction the gate show in figure , the construction differs from the one just described in in the C that it has a light chain fastened shackle, ,

s A. It and is crewed firmly at is attached to the post,

H our i u . , by a p ivot, as seen in ll stration

142 FE CES G TES RIDGE N B S. , A AND

The form shown at figure 223 is made ofa stout lithe a s pling or limb of beech , hickory or other tough hard i e wood or, if it is atta nable, a pi ce iron rod .

223 —A w r r Fi . H N . RE I g GE .

A gate can be made without hinges by havin g the an n h ging stile somewhat lo ger than the front stile, and making both ends rounded . The lower one is to work

in a hole in the end of a short post rai sed so that the soil will not readily get in , and the upper one works in a hole made in an oak pie ce attached to the top of the gate G e k n d post . at s of this i d can be ma e and hung with but l ittle more expense than bars, and will be found far more ' n savin of e co venient and g time than the latt r. G TES A D Z FAST' E I A N N NGS. 143

F igu re 225 r ep resen ts ' a small hand-gate hung u pon an iron pin driven into a hole bored in the bottom of the - hinge post, and one of similar Size and material bent to a

Fi 225 — KE ' H E . . s00 r I G S g N .

a in sharp ngle, and fitted the top . The lower pin rests in the sill and the upper one extends through the post the to which gate is hung .

B E G TES DOU L A . 226 shows a substantial method of hanging two e the gat s to same post . The post may be of masonry

Fi 226 — . . A D OUB LE G TE g A . 144 E CES G TES BRI G F N , A AND D ES.

and the hinge bolts pass through the post, thus prevent

ing any sagging . It is fr equently convenient to have gates in the barnyard hung in this manner then , yards

Fi 227 — g . . O B E B ANCE G TE D U L AL A .

off may be shut one way or the other by simply swin gin g t the ga es . 2 Figure 2 7 represents a bal an ced gate for a double drive

. — way The total length is thi rty feet sixteen fee t on on e

, tree the larger end being on the short side, its additional thi ckness servi ng to counterbalance the longer extremity

146 E C ES G TES BRI GES F N , A AND D .

in of wood , planted firmly in the ground the center of the gate way. The middle post of the gate frame is fi t e . round d at each end to these holes , and this post is the pivot on which the gate turns . With this gate one a cow cannot block the passage , besides there is no s gging as of g ate posts, the weight of the gate is wholly upon the block in the cen ter . To make the latch, 229 figure , a bar of iron one and a half inch wide and eighteen inches long is bolted to one of the end uprights the s of the gate , and a similar bar to one of po ts of the - ir on gateway . For a catch , a rod of three eighth inch passes through a half-inch hole near the end of the bar upon the gateway . This rod is bent in the form shown It in the engraving, and welded . will be seen that the lifting of this ben t rod will allow the two bars to come

e . together, and wh n dropped it will hold them firmly

- E TE D OUBLE LATCH D GA S.

Figu re 231 represents a substantial farm gate with two la tches . This is a very useful precaution against the

— - R G TE Fi 231 A O B E LATCIIED F . g . . D U L A M A wiles of such cattle as have learned to unfasten o rdinary - h gate latc es . The latches work independently of each 6 6 a other, the wires, , , being fastened to the hand lever , TE A D FA TE T G GA S N S N N S. 147

“

e e. A u and then to the latches , rog ish animal will sometimes open a gate by raising the latch with its nose, but e if one att mpt it with this , it can only raise one latch u r e at a time, always the pper one, while the lower one A mains fastened. s soon as the animal lets go, the latch springs back and catches again . A hog can not get e through , for the lower latch prevents the gat from open ing sufficiently to allow it . to pas s . A cow will find it t she difficult to open the ga e , because cannot raise the

. e 6 gate high enough to unlatch it The latches , , work up c c and down in the slides , , and when the gate is fastened they are about half-way between the top and bottom of the slides . u 232 d Fig re shows another form of ouble latches, i wh ch are closed by absolute motion , instead of depend

232 — A TE F OR T Fi . . G I E S OC g A ALL L V K. ing upon their own weight . There are two latches fast e ened to a joint d lever, so that when the upper end or fow ar d handle is pushed backward or , the latches both mo ve in the same direction . The construction of the f an d gate , and the orm and arrangement of the latches lever, are plainly shown .

IMPROVE D SLIDE GATE .

S y The old style lide gate is an unwieldl contrivance , and the only excuse for its use is its simplicity and N t cheapness . umerous devices have been inven ed and ’ E TE A D RIDGES 148 E C S G S N B . F N , A

d b patente to make it slide easier and swing easier, ut their cost has prevented them from coming into general use, and the old gate still requires the same amount of tugging and heaving to open and close it .

Figure 233 shows the attachment . The blocks at top and bottom are hard wood, one inch and a quarter thick . B The two boards should also be of hard wood . etween the boards are one or two small iron or hard wood wheels , turning upon half inch bolts, which pass through both The boards . The bars of the gate run on these wheels .

— HE TE MP E TE Fi 234. T G CO . g . A L 234 th gate complete, with attachment, is shown in figure , e

e . gat being closed To open the gate, run it back nearly n AS to the middle bar, then swing ope . the attachment n tur s with the gate, the lower pivot should be greased It l th occasionally . is we l to fasten a barbed wire along e the upper edge of top bar, to prevent stock from reach ing over and bearing down on the gate . Where hogs are enclosed, it is advisable to fasten a barbed wire along the lower edge of the bottom bar, as it keeps small pigs from passing under, and prevents large ones from lifting the gate up , or trying to root under .

C MB I E HI GE A D S I I G G TE A O N D N N L D N A .

s u 235 236 S The illu trations, fig res and , how a gate very It handy for barnyards . is fourteen feet wide for ordi

‘ RI GE E CES GATES AND B S. 150 F N , D

has o 236 it is seen closed . This gate no latch . A barri u yard gate is not us ally opened wide . A space large enough to adm it a man or horse is all that is necessa ry in It a most cases . is more easily opened th n the ordinary

a . B gate , and it will stay where it is pl ced y cutting a i n notch the third board , and elevating it to the upper a catch on the middle post, a passage is m de for hogs and

u i . sheep, excl ding larger an mals

G TES W O AND W IRE A OF OD .

One of the cheapest and most popular styles of far m gate is made of plain or barbed wire, supported by

231 — A E T G TE OF SC T IN G D W I RE . Fig . N A A AN L AN

i 23 wooden frames . F gure 7 shows a very neat form of i h combination gate . To make it, obtain three upr g ts , three inches by one and a half inches, five and a half u h n feet long, and fo r strips, t ree inches by one i ch , th eleven feet long . Out shoulders in e ends of the strips sa w r the s and out cor esponding notches in upright , G TE A D STE I GS ' A S N FA N N . 151

e the make th se one and a half inch, or half width of the strips . The botto m notch is two and a hal f inches from On e the end of the upright, and the upper nine and a Fi t th half inches from the top end . the strips into e no tches . There is then a space of one inch between the I n strips, nto which put i ch strips, so as to make all solid , rr B and fasten together with ca iage bolts . races three by one and a half inches are inserted, and held in place by B bolts or wrought nails . ore as many holes in the end - - pieces for one quarter inch eye bolts, as it is desired to i fi rin l have wires . Twist the w re y into the bolts on one upright, and secure the other end to the corresponding In bolts on the uprig ht at the opposite end. stretchin g e on O e the wires , pass them alt rnately pposit sides of the

B e n . enter piec , and faste in place by staples This will, s B in a mea ure, prevent warping . y screwing down the n bolts with a wrench , the wires may be draw as tightly e d ut h as d sire The hinges are to be p on wit bolts , and any sor t of faste ning may be used that is most con ven

B u e . lent . arbed or smooth wire may be s d

A D CHE P RM G TE A GOOD N A FA A .

F i gure 238 shows a gate of common fence board s and wire , which can be made by any farmer . The longer upright piece, seven feet long, may be made of a round stick , flattened a little on one side . The horizontal bars are of common fence boards cut to the desired length, and the shorter, vertical piece may be made of scantling, two d n . ar e by four i ches Three wires , either plain or barbe , stretched at equal intervals be tween the upper and lower A bar . double length of wire is extended from the top of the lo ng upright to the opp osite lower corner of the 152 E CES G TES BRI G F N , A A ND D ES .

e gate . A stout stick is inserted b tween the two stran ds

of this diagonal brace , by which it is twisted until it is

u If s fficiently taut . the gate should at any time

to sag, a few turns brings it back .

AN IMPR E W IRE G T OV D A E .

Figu re 239 shows an improved form of wire farm which the gate , in . wires can be made tight at

Fi — . MP R W 239 . I O E IRE G TE g V D A . I ure . nste ad of attaching the wires to both of the end s a S t ndards of the gate, a liding standard is put on

RI E E C ES G TES B G S. 154 F N , A AND D

- - and one half feet and the center four and one half feet . two strands of barbed wire, one between the boards, and

- Fi 241 B RBE W IRE TN G TE . g . . A D A A

It u t the other at the top of the uprights . is h ng he same as the common form of gate .

G TES TAKING U P THE SAG IN A .

Various means have been devised for overcoming the In 242 i e- the sagging of gates . figure the h ng post of

Fi 242 — RE E F OR S GGING G TE g . . M DY A A A . gate-frame extends some what above the upper bar of 'the

. A gate board is fastened to the top of this post, a , I GS GATES AND FASTEN N . 155

6 n which runs downward to , ear the middle of the upper - an d t S cross bar, then connec s with a hort double band — one on each Side of the long board which is provid ed 0 wi th a bolt fitting into notches , , cut in the under side of the upper bar of the gate . The form of the double latch piece , with its bolts, and its attachment to the board is shown at d . Figure 243 represents an arrangement which not only sa provides for taking up the g , but also for raising the t or gate above en cu m ber in g snow. The ga e is made of d in ar y inch boards put together with carriage bolts, upon

f . a which the joints play reely The end of the gate, , is the 6 made of two boards, and post , , is four by six inches .

Fi 243 — A IF T-BAR F OR G TE g . . L A A .

a . e One board of the end, , is notched The diagonal piec , a d d b the , is fastene at , by means of a olt through it and

. a iece lower board The end, , of the diagonal p , is shaped to fit the notches , by means of which the gate can It be raised and lowered . can also be used as a passage s u ffi for pigs between fields , by simply raising the gate i c en tl . A y to let them go through board, not shown in the d engraving, is tacked to the notched boar , to prevent the diagonal piece from slipping out of its place . A 244 much firmer gate is shown in figure . The - t hinge post is about wice the height of the gate, and has - 2 6 a r . a cap piece, , nea the top This cap is of by hard 156 E CE S, G TES AN DB RI F N A D GES.

' , , e e d wood strengthened by two bolts , , and hel in place two by wooden pins, driven just above it and through

Fi — . 244 g . A RE E F OR S GGIN M DY A A G GATE .

e the t non end of the post. Wedges c and d are driven S d in the cap on each i e of the post. Should the gate

, , d , sag the wedge may be loosened, and c driven further w do n . The lower end of the gate turns in a hole bored in a hard -wood block placed in the ground near the foot the of post .

245 Figure shows a gate similarly hung on pivots - driven into the ends of the hinge bar . These play in eye

1 E G TES A D BRI GE 58 FE C S N S. N , A D

“ a o piece of se s ned hickory , or other elastic wood, cut in th a in u r 24 a e Shape as shown at fig e 7. This is fast the 0 ened strongly to side of the gate, with the pin , , the working through top loosely, so that it will play 6 e . asily The catch , , is fastened to the wall or post, as t the case may be . The opera ion will be easily under w n i stood from the illustration , and it ill be fou d a serv ce n s . able, ure, and durable contrivance The gate ca not be

bO Lh a . swung to without catching, and it may swing w ys A very simple and convenient style of fastening is il I l ustrated in figures 248 to 251 . t can be made of old

248 — T IN P T Fi . . CH SI IO g LA O N .

fi at buggy springs, or any steel , and should be one inch - i h broad by three six tenth nch thick, and about eig teen the inches long, at distance of four inches from the lower has end . The lever is slightly bent , and two screw or 249 E bolt holes for fastening , figure . ight inches of the top portion is rounded and bent at right angles . The upper part passes through a narrow mortise in the head 4 2 8 . A post of the gate figure flat staple, large enough the a A to go over spring holds it in pl ce . n iron hook, G TES ‘ STE I GS A AND FA N N . 159

u e 2 50 d i the th A fig r , r ven into post , holds e latch . e e d the e u wooden l v r, bolte to the top board of gat , fig re

251 - T Fi . CH W ITH T OP E E R. g . LA L V

251 e e e _ , nabl s a p rson on horseback to open or close the gate . This latch can be applied to any kind of a gate, and is especially desirable in yards or gardens , when , by the addition of a chain and weight, one may always feel l that the gate is securely closed . The atch does not cost more than fifty cents, and if properly made and put on t will las t as long as the ga e .

25 -G TE TCH Fi . 2 . g . A LA

In figur e 252 is represented a style of gate latch in use n ' It a d i some Sou thei n States . possesses marked van t o . to. n tages, for certain purposes, over others I h lds a d cir cu fn sta n é es an d a absolute certainty, un er all , by llow

— 253 TC N PIN. Fi g . LA H A D ing the latch pin to rest on the bottom of the slot in the Th i . e post, it relieves the hinges and post from all stra n m - latch may be for ed by a common strap hinge , made to work very easily, and the pin should be either a strong “ oak one or an iron bolt or lag screw. Figure 253 shows a latch which cannot

— 5 G TE TC H. Fi 2 1. g . A LA

“ i the most ingenious cow or other an mal . The latch of wood slides in two iron or wood bands screwed to the

162 E CES G TES D RI E A B G S. F N , A N D

s n ut h n thread work in a , which nut has a bolt s a k and a to nut, whereby it is firmly att ched to the p bar of the If . off gate the gate sags at all, it must be simply lifted the thumbs , and the hinge given a turn or two in the nut; and the same is to be done in case of subsequent u sagging. The hinge bolt m st, of course , have some opportunity to move in the stile, and must be set long enough at first to allow the slack to be taken up when ' u ever fo nd necessary .

G TEW I E A AYS IN W RE FENC .

Regular posts and bars at a passage-way throu gh a i A wire fence are nconvenient and u nsightly . good sub

256 — G TE W IN IRE E CE Fi . F N W . g . A AY A

256 stitu te for a gate is illustrated in figure . Light gal ' van ized iron chains have a swivel near the end, by which they may be loosened or tightened, so as to be of

— R I i 257 an d 2 B E N SN P HOO F O CH G TE . 58 . C F gs . U KL A D A K A N A

- S . just the right length , and a nap hook at the other These in u 25 n d 25 are both shown of larger size fig res 7 a 8. G GATES AND FASTENIN S. 163

Th - t e chains are attached by screw eyes to the pos s, and m should correspond in nu ber, as well as in position , with the wires . Thus they appear to be a continuation of the r same, and as they are larger , they appea to the animals to be stronger, and even more dangerous than barbed

— HE TE SE Fi 259 T G C O . g . A L D

Wi — A ir on e re hence are avoided . short rod of may b h - made to connect t em at the hook ends, and so in open

the . ing and closing way, they may all be moved at once A cheaper and simpler form of wire gate is shown in 9 It the figures 25 and 260. consists of same number of the to strands as in adjoining fence, attached a post in

' the or din ar h t e y way at one end, w ile h other wire ends ‘ are sec ured to an iron rod . This rod is pointed at the n d een u e lower end, and whe the gate is close , as s in fig r

Fi 260—THE G TE OPE g . . A N.

259 , this end passes down through a loop , and the upper n d In e e is secured to a hook . opening the gat , the rod is loosened and swings out , when the sharp end is thrust the into the earth , or a hole in a wooden block set in ground at the proper place to receive it . 164 E CES G TES BRI GES F N , A AND D .

' “ 2 61 S s So Figure how a mewhat similar arrangement . a n d The gate wires are fastened to one post with staples, fi v - o attach the loose ends to a e f ot pole . To shut the e - u t the gate, tak this pole or gate head and p lower end

Fi 261 — IRE TE . . A W G g A .

back of the lower pin , and spring the upper end behind If all the one above . the wires are of the right length , they will be taut and firm . Two slats fastened to the A ' gate W ires will keep them from tangling . short post set at one side of the gateway may be found convenient to hold the gate when open .

C A E 'I I H P T R .

W CKETS AND TILE I S S.

IR W IC ETS ON K .

Wickets and stiles are convenient passageways through - or over fences crossing foot paths . The bow wicket has “ the advantage of provid i ng a gate always open and ' A always shut, and not apt to get out of repair. I W i S i s wrought ron bow wicket, th hort vertical bars , 2 62 263 s z n shown In figure . Figure has the bar hori o

' 1 66 E C ES GAT S F N , E

s h ’ post , set far enoug apart

26 — TE F T- Fi . 4 A G OR FOO P TH g A A . Th i end in the fence . e engrav ng shows the can of the end of the fence, with the which the gate swings . 2 65 e of 3 Figure is another form of gat , which con sists

ends of the V bein g fix ed to posts equally dis tant and in a line with one of the po sts in the e to it T i is right angl s . h s imp roved by u sing bent W ET TI E IC K S AND S L S. 1 67

wh eel - 266 the S rims , figure , instead of traight pieces form in V- K g the shaped panel . ept well painted, the hickory

. rims will bear the exposure . to the weather perfectly The n S pali gs hould be of oak, an inch wide and half an inch

thick , fastened on with screws . The opening in these stiles must be sufficient to allow a corpulent pe rson to a s l o p ss ea ily, even if a frisky bu l is in unc mfortable prox

Fi 267 — A CO E NIE NT STI E g . . NV L . imit an d 2 66 the con v n y, for this figure is really most e

ien t . form The objection to both of these stiles is, that o C a . there is n actual closing of the pass ge alves, sheep t d and pigs, not to men ion ogs , work their way through . e - 2 67 To prev nt this, the gate stile, figure , was invented . It has n a small gate swingi g on the middle post, but th V A stopped in its movement by the end posts of e .

person can pass by stepping well into the V and moving rm the gate by him , where he has free exit . This fo is f “ . A ef icient, but inconvenient fourth form , the best of ' - I the sw in in A S 2 68 2 69 . n all , is g g tile , figures and this e there are two light gat s , made upon the same hinge A a post, spreading like the letter , and br ced with a cross th art piece between e rails of each side , like the center p E B RI GE 8 E C ES G T S S. 16 F N , A AND D

A to e S of the . This gate is set swing on ach ide of the - It . n center post, as shown is so much narrower tha the V- it ll a stiles, that is almost impossible for sma nimals to i t s pass, but is ea ily hung so that it will always remain

Fi 269 —SW INGIN G STI E g . . L .

ff a n im al s on closed, and so o er no temptation to . the out

. A side t night, or when not in use, a wire ring or withe hoop thrown over the top of the post and the upright part of the gate frame, will securely fasten it . To make

— A NE T G TE 270 . Fig . . A A

the the gate swing shut, all that is necessary is to set eye of the lower hinge of the gate well out towards the out 2 0 a A- side . In figure 7 we give neat gate, made of pine or any strong and light wood .

- E STILE S FOR W IRE FENC S.

The extensive u se of wire-fences calls for a farm cou ve — nc but i n in i nie e, heretofore l ttle know th s country the

1 70

i d requ res no climbing, a n ba er a i s a rri to large anim ls, re dily

cof ul en t It e p persons . originat d an England, but w e believe there is n o re ' ns t co truc ion and use in thi s country .

C E 'I I I H A P T R .

FENCIN G OUT OB FE N CING IN:

The E common law of ngland , which to a became the law of the original States,

' E to fence his land at all . very p erson i his b i that law to fence own cattle in , i h E n fence ot er cattle out . very owner of domestic a imals is liable for injury committed by them o the lan ds of ‘ n h Bu t e n w . oth rs , even though the la d was olly unfenced this feature of the English common l aw was n ot suited E CE LAW F N . 1 71 to the conditions which surrounded the early settlers in a So any p rt of this country . long as any region is sparsely settled, the amount of unoccupied land is so much greater than the occupied, that it is cheaper to

. E fence stock out, than to fence it in Hence the nglish common l a w in regar d to fencing has been superseded by In statute in many of the States . others it has always remained in force, or has been revived by later statutes . There is such great d iversity on this point in the Statutes S A of the several tates , that, to quote from Henry . ’ a M L Haigh excellent anual of Farm aw , every one having occasion to look up any point of law, should as certain the statutory provisions concerning it from some Do n ot Offi cial source . depend upon this book or any other book for them, because they are liable to change , ' and do change from year to year ; but go to your town clerk or justice of the peace, and examine the statu tes themselves .

I ISI E CES D V ON F N . The legal obligations of adjoining owners to build and i u maintain div sion fences , rests entirely pon the statutes S of the respective tates , save in cases where long usage v has created prescripti e rights, or special agreement ex o i . e sts Such fences are to be built on the b undary lin , the expense to be borne equally by the parties, or each th I one shall make and maintain half e fence . f they cannot agree , or either refuses or neglects to do his share , the statutes provide methods by which the m atter may In S be determined . some of the tates, two or more pub ofi i r s - w i n lic ce , cal led fence vie ers, are elected annually d each township, whose duties , as prescribe by statute , h are, when called upon , to ear and decide questions re

in . In h lating to fences , their respective towns ot er e Stat s , these duties are performed by overseers of high ’ - a or S c ex o czo. h e e or w ys ele tmen, fi W en ver any own r E E G T B RI GES 1 2 C S ES . 7 F N , A AND D occupant of land refuses to buil d Or maintain half the di e or e vision fenc , cannot agr e with his adjoining neighbor i as to wh ch portion they shall respecti vely maintain , the - be . U fence viewer may called pon being so called , the - S fence viewer hall upon reasonable notice, and after s n viewing the premise , determine and assig the respective c portions of the fen e to be maintained by each . The as - sign m en t when so made and recorded by the proper of fi cer i su bs , becomes bind ng upon the present and all e

2 . quent owners of the land . ( Wis When by rea i son of a brook , watercourse , or natural impediment, it s impracticable or unreasonably exp ensive to buil d a fence on the true line between adjacent lands, and the owners e thereof disagree resp cting its position , the fence viewers t on may, upon application of either party, de ermine u which side of the tr e line , or whether partly on one a nd side and partly on the other, at what distances , the e m f nce shall be built and aintained, and what portions by either party, and if either party refuses or neglects to i bu ld and maintain his part of the fence, the other shall have the same remedy as if the fence Were on the true di n line . When a vision fe ce shall be suddenly destroyed or prostrated by fire, winds or floods, the person who ought to repair or rebuild the same should do so i n ten days after being notified for that purpose , and in the s meantime he will be liable for damages done by estray . Sta There is no legal obligation in any of the tes , upon o un any propriet r of uncultivated, unimproved and 50 occupied land, to keep up division fences . When a p r ietor im p improves his land , or encloses land already d e n he prove , the land adjoining b i g unimproved , must a n d if make the whole division fence , the adjoining pro ri etor t r he r u p af erwa d improves his land , is eq ired to a ‘ v u p y for one half the di ision fence, according to the val e S e thereof at that time . The laws of the respective tat s ar e not uniform to uchi ng the obligations to maintain one

4 FE C E S G TES A D BRI GES 17 N , A N D l and must enclose it wi th sufficient fences if he woul d E W cultivate it . ven here there is no such statutory pro it l a i visions , is practical y necessary to maint in h ghway fences , as a protection against cattle which are driven along the highway . The use of barb wire for fencing along the public roads has given rise to questions for A which there were no precedents . case was decided in U S C C W n New the nited tates ircuit ourt, at atertow ,

Y D 1 7 1 885. w as ork , ecember , The action brought by a horse breeder to recover damages from his neighbor for ’ injuries sustain ed by the plaintiff s horse fr om a barbed W th ire fence, stretched along the roadside in front of e ’ - w defendant s premises . A non suit as grante d on the ground that the animal received the injuries through the n A contributory egligence of its owner. mong the rul ings of the court was one pe rmitting the p l ain tifi to be S on questioned, to how the fact that he had his own farm

m but . a si ilar fence, of sharper form of barb The court further held that it might be a question whether it would not be competent testimony to Show the common an d employment of barb wire fence in that region , held

‘ i s e that for the purpose of th s c a e, a barb d wire fence, if d properly constructed upon the highway, must be deeme a legal fence . It be s is may aid in a general way, that though there n o legal obligati on resting on the land holder to maintain e fences along the public highway, he negl cts to do so at his Ow n risk and peril .

W HAT Is A LEGA L FENCE ?

What shall be necessary to constitute a legal and suf fi cient fence is specifically defined by the sta tu tes of the n e St e . s veral at s , but there is no uniform rule amo g all In M New M aine , Hampshire , assachusetts and many S al ee i other tates, it is provided that l fences four f t h gh, FE CE AW N L . 5 an d i e in good repair, consisting of rails , t mb r , boards , or ‘ stone wall, and all brooks , rivers, ponds , creeks, ditches , h e m V edg s, and other things dee ed by the fence iewers to s u ffi be equivalent thereto , shall be accounted legal and I C n u M e . n V cient fenc s ermont, o nectic t, ichigan, and m S a be l so e other tates , a leg l fence must four and a ha f In M i feet high . issour post fences must be four and one half feet high , hedges four feet high , turf fences four o n feet high , with ditches each side three feet deep in the middle and three feet wide ; worm fences must be five - l and one ha f feet high to the top of the rider, or if not tO ridered , five feet to the top of the p rail, and must be i rocked with strong rails, poles or stakes stone or br ck In Ne fences must be four and one half feet high . w . t e Y ork the elec of each town may , by vote, d cide for themselves how fences shall be made , and what shall be No fi deemed sufficient . part of the fence law is so d e n itely regulated by the statutes of the respective States as In the r equirements of a legal fence . all cases where t prac ical questions arise involving this point, it is best to w l ffi of consult the statutes, which i l be found in the o ce the towns hip clerk .

R I R E C A L OA D F N ES.

n S l a r I n early every tate, rai ro d companies are requi ed by statute to construct and maintain legal and sufficient o fences on both sides of their roads, except at cr ssings of in public highways, front of mills, depots, and other places where the public convenience requires that they shall be left open . The legal obligations of railroad com panics to fence their roads rest wholly upon such statute s . In New Hampshire it is provided that if any railroad company shall neglect to maintain such fences, the owner an d r of adjoining land may build them , ecover double the I th cost thereof of the company . t is generally held by e S c courts in all the tates that, in the absence of such fen es 1 6 FE CES G TES AND BRI GE 7 N , A D S. the railroad company is liable for all resulting damage to t an d live s ock , no proof of contributory neg ligence on the part of the owner of l ive stock is allowed as a plea in d ef fence , the statute requiring such fences being a police d regulation . When the railroa company has built a suffi n o t cient fence on both sides of its road, it is liable for injuries which may occur without negligence on its part . If e the f nce is overthrown by wind or storms, the com pany is entitled to reasonable time in which to repair it, if and cattle enter and are injured, without fault on the ’ If company s part, it is not liable . cattle stray upon the a tr ck at a crossing of a public road , and are killed, the d u n l es s the l owners cannot recover amages , rai road com pany is guilty of gross negligence or intentional wrong . A law in Alabama making railroad companies absolutely to liable for all stock killed on the tracks, was held be u ncon stitutional .

C A E ' H P T R I V .

STRE GTH BRI GES N OF D .

B ridge building is a profession of itself, and some of the great bridges of the world are justly regarded as among e i the highest achievements of m chanical sc ence and Skill . Bu t it i s proposed to speak i n this work only of the cheap e and simple structures for spanning small str ams . The measure of the strength of a bridge is that of its weakest ' part . Hence, the strength of a plain wooden bridge resting upon timber stringers or chords , is equivalent to

ES . G TE D RIDG 1 8 E C S A B ES. 7 F N , A N

' en d sill to foii r the of the about feet above the center . u d on e The tr ss rod, , is inch in diameter for short bridges

Fi 275 -A I P E P . R OF B RI E S . S FO G g M L M D AN . up to two inches for longer spans ; it is provided with an iron washer at the top . The rod passes through the sill,

Fi 276 —A STR N E P N O G R S . g . . A

e SillS.thu and a cross sill, , which passes under the main , s

. L adding firmness to the whole structure ogs, f, f, are

Fi 277 — A SHO RT B RI GE g . . D .

f placed against the ends of the sills to keep them in place , and where the wheels will first strike them instead of the C U TRY BRI GES A D c nt vERr S 1 O N D N . 79

. u floor plank, thus greatly equalizing the pressure Fig re tw 2 76 represents a modification of the above . The o truss rods and braces give the structure greater strength d feet ~ in and solidity, a apting it for spans eighteen a be d length . For the l tter length, sills should of goo

Fi 278 —A B O T TRCSS g . . L .

e ten e mat rial, inches wide and fourteen inches de p, with S three middle sills of about the same ize . 277 Figure is a more improved style of bridge, the truss h serving bot to support the structure, and as a parapet. the The top railing is of the same width as sill, about one foot . The lower side may be cut away , giving the bridge a more finished appearance . The railing at the e cent r is six inches thick, and three inches at the ends .

it . A The tie , , is full width and four inches thick bridge i n fi of th s ki d will answer for heavy traf c, even if twenty

279—B RI GE B R CE FROM Fi . BE OW g D A D L .

e . be lt 2 8 i s d fe t in length The truss , in figure 7 , a apted -fi v for a span of twenty e feet . This makes a bridge of E - great firmness . ach set of truss rods support a cross

. r sill The road planks are laid crosswise of the b idge . The middle sills are sometimes half an inch lower than DBRI GE 180 FE CES G TES AN S. N , A D

e S be e a fi ve n ufn , thos along the sides, and hould f r or in r fi t e n the i n he . The ends of the planks clos ly agai st o e n l side f the truss sills, thereby k eping the pla ks secure y in place . A common method of bracing is from below as shown i n '

2 9 . u figure 7 This is not us ally a good practice, as the braces are liable to be carried away by ice or floods .

P E RS A D R I I G B TME TS N S. A U N , I A L N

If the sil ls of a bridge are laid directly upon the d ry h v a the a n . walls of abutment , or upon a ea y pl nk, jar of i n the pass ng teams soo displaces some of stones, and brings undue strain upon certain portions of the

— N RI Fi 280. E D OF B GE g . A D .

a m t e a To void this, abut en s are b st m de of cut and laid in cement . A wooden bent for the support of the ends of the bridge may be m ade as Shown in fi gure

2 80. u te ea v The whole should be constr c d of h y timber, A e cOv r pinned together . coat of white l ad should e the inte rior surface of all joints . The numbe r. and pos ition of the posts of the wooden abutment are seen in the eu

i . A be i n r e grav ng log should laid u p on the wall at , to

182 E CES G TES ANl) B RI GE F N , A D S. wood and other floating matter be come piled against it, s B eriously imperiling the entire structure . u t in cases where the length of the bridge is 80 great as to require one or more piers, they may be cons tructed on the plan

— Fi . 285 P N R OF . F OO BRIDG g LA K L E. 4 2 81 shown in figure , or in case the bottom is so soft as to the render mudsill insecure , a line of piles supporting a - 282 . A cross timber, as in figure strong, reliable para e t or p railing should always be provided . The want of one may be the cause of fatal accidents to persons and

. i 283 V o horses F gure gives a side iew of a go d railing, and figure 284 shows the manner of brac ing the posts to - the ends of the cross beams . They should be thus braced a t fl at every l ernate post of the railing . The oor should be e as 2 85 s doubl , shown in figure , the lower plank laid

l e . diagonal y, and the upper layer crosswis

BRI GE S F OR G IES D ULL .

For small gullies which cross roadways or l anes in farms, and are not the beds of constant streams , but are occasionally filled with surface water, a very simple bridge fi 286 is suf cient . One like that shown in figure is as The a a k good as any . sills, , , are sun in a trench dug against the bank and at least to the level of the bed of th - i b b e e . creek The cross s lls, , , are not mortis d into

im l . is but . s them, p y laid between them The pressure CO T B E RTS UN RY RIDGES A ND C ULV . 183

the s a a all from out ide, hence it will force , , tighter a 6 b t gainst the ends , , which must be sunk a lit le into the bed of the creek at its lowest point . The posts are mor

‘ tised n a -a t 0 c d d i to the sills , , , and pla es, , , and , , upon

m a which the planks are laid . Props y be put against the lower sides of the posts to hold the bridge against the stream .

A fi u r e . 28 cheap but practicable bridge is shown in g _ 7.

Two logs are laid across the gully, their ends resting on an d the banks , to them puncheons or planks are spiked S to form the bridge . tout posts , well propped and reach in g above the highest water mark, are placed against the

. If bii d e lower side of the logs the creek rises, the g ,

287 —C ON E NIE NT F R B RI GE Fig . . V A M D .

i being free , w ll be raised on the surface of the water, while the posts will prevent its being carried away . i th e o Should it not rise w th water, it pposes so little sur it a face to the current that the posts will hold f st. E CES G TES AN D B RI DGES; 184 F N , A

R E ORNAMENTAL B ID G S.

No feature adds more to the appearance of ornamenta l d . A grounds than tasteful bri ges . stream or narrow , S channel connecting two parts of a small heet of water, n affords an opportunity for the in troductio of a bridge .

288 —RUSTI B RID Fig . . C GE .

In the absence of such features a bridge may be thrown 'a across dry ravine . Whatever style may be adopted , should harmonize with the general character of the sur o roundings . An elaborate bridge of wood r mas onry wou ld be as much out of place on grounds unadorned by - other structures , as a rude rustic one would be near highly

- BRI GE OF B OOKS ' A D . 289 . Fig .

e u e - e an d e fin ish d s mm r hous s other archit ctural features . n a the On most grounds a e t rustic bridge , something like 288 one shown in figure , would be in good keeping with its envi ronments . Such bridges may be made of red

E ES GATES AN D B RI GES. F N C , D

h Where flat Stones enoug cannot be easily procured,

Culverts may be built of concrete . The are _ abutments r first made, as in other cases then empty ba rels or sugar

F 291 —STO E CU E RT ig . . N LV .

a hogsheads, ccording to the capacity of the opening, are d fitted in , or better still, a temporary arch is ma e of rough, narrow boards . The concrete of cement, sand

— Fi 292 . C HE PE R N . STO E C ERT g A ULV .

n o and gravel , is the prepared and p ured in , temporary supports of lumber having been fixed across each end of i n the culvert to keep the concrete place until it hardens . C O TR B RI G ES C L E RT UN Y D AND U V S. 187

Small stones may be mixed wi th the concrete as it is t Off poured in o place, and the whole topped with a row — is of them . This protection of stones on the top valu able, in case the covering of earth is worn or wasted away

Fi 293 — R RETE . C HE C ON . C C E RT g A D ULV .

u s at any time while it is in e . For a longer culvert a e d flatt ned arch is ma e of concrete, as shown in figure

293 . L are ight timbers laid across , the ends resting lightly on the abutments . Across the middle of these a i round log s placed to support the crown of the arch . E i e ar e all an d ar e lastic spl t pol s sprung over , upon these

29 — N G AR CONCRE TE C E R 4 T. Fig. A UL ULV

i o i t the nailed th n narr w boards , extend ng leng hwise of e culvert . The ends being temporarily prot cted , the con AS crete is mixed and poured on , as before . soon as the l ' concrete has become thoroughly we l set, the light ATE B I G 188 E CES G S R ES . F N , AND D cross-sticks are c ut in two ay d the temporary work re - i m . A S oved cross section , howing another forn of con ar e crete culvert, and the method of construction, shown 4 S in fi gur e 2 9 . uch a culvert is more easily built than i bu t s . the last, not as strong The best and most dur l of e - ar Ch able cu vert is ston , with a regular half round . S uch work can only be done properly by a regular mason , i n a e Ob but the end it is che per, where the stone can b - tain ed . , than any kind of make shift

Unive rs i ofCa lifornia SOUTHERNREGIO ALLIBRARY FACILITY 4 Hil r Av nu An l s 2 4-1 05 ga d e e , Lo s ge e , CA900 388 Return this mate riaIto the libra ry r fro m w hic h it wa s bo rowe d .