Sociocultural Factors in Brazilian Neuropsycholinguistic Studies
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Psychology & Neuroscience, 2012, 5, 2, 125 - 133 DOI: 10.3922/j.psns.2012.2.02 Sociocultural factors in Brazilian neuropsycholinguistic studies Maria Alice de Mattos Pimenta Parente,1 Maria Teresa Carthery-Goulart,1 Nicolle Zimmermann,2 Rochele Paz Fonseca2 1 – Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil 2 – Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil Abstract The history of Brazilian neuropsychology is traced at different neuropsycholinguistic stages with a focus on the importance of sociocultural factors. We first focus on language disorders, the sequelae of injuries in the left hemisphere, and neuropsychology restricted to the medical field in Europe, the United States, and Brazil. In the middle of the last century, attention to the interdisciplinary importance of studies on the right hemisphere began. Studies consequently emerged on the individual variability of brain function with both biological and cultural origins. Based on this approach, Brazilian studies on aphasic children and illiterate aphasic persons were disseminated internationally. In the 1970s, cognitive neuropsychology began in England, highlighting dysfunctions in reading and writing processes. The characteristics of writing systems within each language became relevant for the manifestations of acquired dyslexia. Brazilian studies showed deficits in Portuguese and Japanese writing caused by brain lesions. During this scientific journey, scientific societies and postgraduate programs in Brazil were created to facilitate exchanges and communication among young researchers. By the end of the last century and in the early 2000s, the growth of the neuropsychology of aging raised awareness of the complexity of sociocultural factors, not only on language research but also according to the level of education, frequency of reading and writing habits, school type, and interactions among these factors and biological factors, especially between the level of education and age. From this historical standpoint, we outline future directions and perspectives in the field of Brazilian neuropsychology. Keywords: neuropsycholinguistics; neuropsychological assessment; neuropsychological history; education; literacy; aphasia Received 26 November 2012; received in revised form 13 December 2012; accepted 14 December 2012. Available online 28 December 2012. Introduction 1. From the scientific field of neurology, neuropsychology The goal of this review is to present a historical becomes an interdisciplinary field with transdisciplinary description of Brazilian neuropsychology, approaches. indicating how and when studies on social 2. Based on a predominant interest in cognitive functions factors in the organization of the human brain associated with the left hemisphere and aphasias, at the emerged. To conceptualize the paths of Brazilian end of the 1960s there was an increased interest in the neuropsychology, we present a parallel comparison functions of the right hemisphere and subcortical areas. of the paths that were followed worldwide. Brazilian Since the beginning of the brain decade in the 1990s, studies accompanied scientific advances in Europe interest in neural correlates extended to the cerebellum. and North America and also interact with the 3. With the advent of cognitive neuropsychology in neuropsychology studies of Latin America. Four the middle of the 1970s, the initial focus on the critical changes in Brazilian neuropsychology are relationship between language and neural substrates examined: began to include relationships between linguistic components and other cognitive components such as Maria Alice de Mattos Pimenta Parente and Maria Teresa memory, attention, and emotion. Carthery-Goulart, Universidade Federal do ABC – UFABC, 4. Based on a theory of the universal organization of the Santo André, SP, Brazil. Nicolle Zimmermann and Rochele da adult brain, genetic and social factors that determine Fonseca, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do or alter the organization of the adult brain constitute Sul – PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. Correspondence an important area of neuropsychology. regarding this article should be directed to: Rochele Paz Research at the beginning of the history of Fonseca, Av. Ipiranga, 6681 – Partenon – Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul - neuropsychology did not ignore the aspects mentioned PUCRS, Phone: 55 51 3320-3500 ramal 7742. E-mail: rochele. above. Neuropsychology initially focused on studies of [email protected] language, but a few years after the studies by Broca (1863, 126 Parente et al. 1866), neuropsychological studies began to investigate l’aphasie in 1939, whose authors were the neurologist organic substrates and other cognitive functions such Théophile Alajouanine, linguist Marguerite Durand, as vision and mathematic calculations. Regarding and psychologist André Ombredane (Alajouanine, interindividual variations in brain organization associated Ombredane, & Durand, 1939). with cognitive function, Broca suggested that left-handed Interestingly, after fleeing World War II, the individuals might have cerebral representations different psychologist Ombredane was a professor of experimental from right-handed individuals. psychology at Universidade do Rio de Janeiro between The present article describes the following 1939 and 1945. At that time, he unfortunately did not development of Brazilian neuropsychology: (1) the initial provide contributions to neuropsychology. The focus predominance of a medical approach, (2) the history of of his publications was on experimental psychology a multidisciplinary approach, (3) studies on the right and neuropsychiatry (Ombredane, 1943-1944a, b, c). hemisphere, and (4) the importance of social factors for Although his practice focused mainly on experimental cerebral organization, which is the focus of the present psychology, one of Ombredane’s students was the review. young physicist Prof. Antônio Branco Lefèvre, who is considered a pioneering researcher of aphasic children in Brazil and who favored multidisciplinary work. The Beginning of Brazilian At the same time, interdisciplinary works also Neuropsychology came out in the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, The first Brazilian studies on brain function came Soviet research was developed independently from out only 20 years after the pioneering studies by Broca, Europe and North America. Alexander Luria, an which is not a very long period of time considering the important theorist on functional systems, presented communication limitations that existed at that time. At extensive and comprehensive works by publishing Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), likely his book Higher cortical functions in man (Luria, because of the influence of Prof. Antônio Austregésilo 1966) in which he demonstrated transdisciplinary who founded the first school of neurology in Brazil, knowledge. In his teachings, Luria complemented his two theses on aphasia were published at the end of medical and psychology training with deep linguistic the 19th century (Caldas, 1891; Goulart, 1891). Three knowledge. This transdisciplinary approach, in which others were published during the first few decades of one researcher or practitioner in neuropsychology the 20th century (Campos, 1921; Pinto, 1910; Souza, has expertise in different areas, was actually a quite 1908). At that time, another thesis was also published at modern concept, bolstered and strengthened by the Universidade da Bahia, also on aphasia (Sampaio, 1912). creation of postgraduate and specialized courses in In 1940, Prof. Austregésilo published an article in France neuropsychology, neuroscience, and cognition. about aphasia and the lateral lobe (Austregésilo, 1940). Importantly, Luria referred to his scientific field as In São Paulo, studies on the so-called higher cortical neuropsychology, whereas Critchley still used the term function appeared later in 1950 with a pioneering thesis aphasiology at the same time in England (Critchley, by Prof. Antônio Branco Lefèvre in the Faculdade de 1957). Critchley’s definition of this term was that it Medicina (Lefèvre, 1950). covered all cognitive functions, with a majority of These pioneering works retained the characteristics studies on language disorders. Critchley highlighted of neuropsychology as a medical area, highlighting studies on the functions of the left hemisphere as a the importance of language disorders and the left prevailing concept of cerebral dominance until the hemisphere. In the middle of the last century, the middle of the last century. term “superior cortical function” was commonly used In Brazil, the interdisciplinary approach was to define a set of cognitive functions and their brain delayed by 30–40 years when the first interdisciplinary correlates. The term neuropsychology only began to groups were created, composed of psychologists and be disseminated in Brazil at the end of the last century. speech therapists who began to develop important Theses in this area came out between 1980 and 1990 at rehabilitation strategies for aphasic patients. Universidade de São Paulo and UFRJ (Amaral, 1980; Several examples of pioneering work in the mid- Parente, 1990). 1970s developed in Brazil can be cited. First, Prof. Lefèvre and his wife, psychologist Beatriz Lefèvre, presented their work on aphasic children at scientific History of Interdisciplinary meetings and in publications (Lefèvre & Lefèvre, Neuropsychology 1975). Second, in 1974,