United States Department of Agriculture

Forest service Fire Management

Volume 51, No.3 1990 Notes United States Department of Fire Agriculture Management Forest Service ~ totes An internationol quarterly periodical Volume 51, No.3 I ~ devoted to forest fire management 1990

Contents Short Features

3 First Wildland Firefighter Specialist Academy-a 11 Maggie's Poster Power Success! Donna Paananen Richard C. Wharton and Denny Bungarz 11 Michigan's Wildfire Prevention Poster Contest 5 Evaluating Wildfire Prevention Programs Donna M. Paananen, Larry Doolittle, and Linda 14 National Wildland Firefighters' Memorial Dedication: R. Donoghue A Centennial Event

9 Arsonists Do Not Set More Fires During Severe Fire 17 International Wildland Fire Conference Proceedings Weather in Southern California Romain Mees 17 Some BIG Thank You's

12 Fire Prevention for the 1990's-a Conference 19 Glossary of Wildland Fire Management Terms Malcolm Gramley and Sig. Palm 29 The Passamaquoddy Tribe Firefighters on the White 15 North Carolina Division of Forest Resources' Efforts Mountain National Forest in the Wake of Hurricane Hugo Tom Brady Rebecca Richards 35 New Wildfire Suppression Curriculum in Final 18 Reflections on 60 Years of Fire Control Review Phase Sam Ruegger Mike Munkres

20 Canadian Air Tanker and Crew in South Carolina Gloria Green

22 Forest Service Aircraft on Loan to State Forestry Agencies Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the United States Francis R. Russ Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication o! this periodical is necessary In the trensacnon of the public ousmess required by law of this Department. 25 RXWINDOW: Fire Behavior Program for Prescribed Subscriptions may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Fire Planning Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402

Patricia L. Andrews and Larry S. Bradshaw Send suggesfions and articles to Chief, Forest Service (Attn: Fire Management NOles), P,O. Box 96090, U,S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20090--6090.

30 Full Metal Meals Edward R. Madigan, Secretary Francis R. Russ Dan Cody U.S, Department of Agriculture General Manager F. Dale Robertson, Chief Doris N. ceierter Forest Service Editor

L.A, Amicarella, Director Fire and Aviation Management

U.S, Department 01Agriculture programs, services, and employment are open to allan the basis of merit, without regard to race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, or disability,

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm. or corporation names in this publication is for the Front Cover: Maggie Mattila, first-place winner Ofthe Michigan fntaraqency Wildfire information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official Prevention Group's (Michigan Department of Natural Resources Forest Management endorsement of any product or service by the lf.S. Department 01 Agriculture. Individual Division) Wildfire Prevention Poster Contest, holds her winning poster. Read the stories authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire of Maggie and the MJWPGelsewherein this issue. Management Notes.

2 Fire Management Notes First Wildland Firefighter Specialist Academy-a Success!

Richard C. Wharton and Denny Bungarz Administrator and training coordinator, National Fire Fighter Joint Apprenticeship and Training Program, Sacramento, CA

In January 1990, firefighters from Nearly all of the enrolled appren­ Group Male Female all over the State of California tices completed Region s's first Black 7 I arrived in Sacramento to participate formal training academy. Asian 3 I in the first USDA Forest Service Hispanic 10 9 Wildland Firefighter Specialist Native American 6 7 Apprenticeship Program. The program is registered with the Caucasian 14 53 On January 26, 1990, III fire­ Bureau of Apprenticeship and fighters selected by the Forest Training Standards of the U.S. The training program included the Service's Region 5 began a 4-week Department of Labor and the State of following courses: intensive training program conducted California Division of Apprenticeship • Orientation to Region 5 by the National Fire Fighters Joint Standards and qualifies for California • Physical Fitness Training Apprenticeship and Training Program postsecondary credit. • 1-220 Introduction to ICS (NFFJATP). NFFJATP is sponsored Depending on experience, U.S. • Standards for Survival by the International Association of Forest Service apprentices were hired • First Responder-CPR Fire Fighters and the National Asso­ as OS-3 or OS-4 firefighters. Upon • Handtool Skills ciation of State Fire Marshalls and is completion of this program, they will • Fire Business Management a national apprenticeship and train­ be promoted to OS-5 and obtain a • Portable Pumps and Equipment ing program. career appointment with the agency. • Introduction to Hazardous Materials. Need for Workforce Diversity The Apprentices and the The program was conducted in a Coursework Sacramento hotel with access to the Region 5 (California and the County of Sacramento-American Pacific Islands) is under a consent The III apprentices starting the River Parkway that provided area for decree and civil rights policy direc­ 4-week program broke down into the daily physical training and "hands­ tive to diversify the workforce in the following groups: on" training with handtools, portable agency to reflect more closely the diversity of people in the population. Region 5. one of the largest wildland firefighting organizations in the Nation. selected NFFJATP to assist them in recruiting and training apprentice female and minority firefighters.

Scope of Program and Opportunities

With NFFJATP assistance, the Forest Service developed an 18­ working-month apprenticeship pro­ gram that included 600 hours of manipulative and classroom training and a year and a half of supervised work experience. An apprentice must complete this program to become a journeyperson wildland firefighter specialist. Apprentices in personal protective equipment walking to field exercise area.

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 3 pumps, and hose. The students spent uation exercises similarly remarked half of their time in the classroom that in 25 years of attending these and half in the field. graduations. this was the most The apprentices were assigned to enthusiastic graduating class he had four crews, each led by an exper­ ever seen. Of the III enrollees, 107 ienced Forest Service or Bureau of completed the coursework: only 4 Land Management crew superintend­ left for better job offers or inability ent. This gave the apprentices the to meet standards. opportunity to experience crew dynamics and follow a top-flight Other Program Requirements crew superintendent who was a role model. Crew competition was The apprentices go back to the developed in the form of group and national forest in Region 5 (18 in the individual awards to increase the region) where they had been hired to intensity of the learning experience. serve on engine, belitack. and hot Apprentices practicing [ire sheller deptovment, The success of the crew superin­ shot crews for the remainder of their tendents' leadership was evident as apprenticeship term. During that Many of the first class of Forest students with minor physical prob­ time, first-line supervisors will con­ Service apprentices have had some lems refused to leave their crews for duct on-the-ground training and experience. so they can reach their recuperation in their rooms and then evaluate the apprentices' ability to goal of a perinanent appointment voluntarily engaged in physical train­ perform required tasks. with the Forest Service within the ing before and after hours almost In addition, the Forest Service will 12-working-month period. Comple­ every day. offer another 225 hours of formal tion of this program gives the training in the following subjects: apprentices a chance to have a future Program Success • Local Orientation with one of the best wildland fire­ • Fire Equipment Maintenance and fighting agencies in the world. At graduation, the energy level Use The National Fire Fighters Joint was the highest.longtime Forest Serv­ • Specialized Company/Crew Opera­ Apprenticeship and Training Program ice employees had seen in years.- A tions and Drills is available to assist your agency in a Department of Labor official at grad- • Power Saw Training· program like the Forest Service's • Fire Behavior program in Region 5. For informa­ - • Wildland Strategy and Tactics tion, contact NFFJATP, 1760 • Firing Equipment Creekside Oaks Drive, Suite 150, • Basic Air Operations Sacramento, CA 95833; tclephone • Driver Training (916) 648-3000.• • Career Options and Enhancement Apprentices with appropriate wild­ land firefighting experience will be given experience credit. not to exceed 6 months, so many of the first class will reach journeyperson status in 12 working months. Apprentices will also be given educa­ tion credit if they have taken and passed any of the courses listed Apprentices learning how to operate portable pump. above within a 5-year period.

4 Fire Management Notes Evaluating Wildfire Prevention Programs

Donna M. Paananen, Larry Doolittle, and Linda R. Donoghue

Technical writer, USDA Forest Service. North Central Forest Experiment Station, East Lansing. M/; sociologist, Social Science Research Center, Mississippi Stale University. Mississippi State, MS; project leader. USDA Forest Service. North Central Forest Experiment Station, East Lansing, MIl

No one will deny that wildfire pre­ The second group of agencies con­ Finall y, the researchers obtained vention is a major goal of wildland tacted comprised fire prevention referrals to other individuals and management agencies in the United cooperatives, "keep green" associa­ organizations who might be involved States or that various prevention tions, county fire protection agencies, in prevention evaluation. To ensure activities exist throughout the coun­ and forest industries. The third group consistency in questions and try. But little has been done to study included other members of the fire responses, the researchers used a six­ when, where, and how prevention is service community such as the page "Fire Prevention Evaluation evaluated. National Fire Protection Association, Survey" that was specifically Because of a recent study under­ the National Fire Academy, the Fire designed for this research. taken by Mississippi State University Service Training Department at Of the well over 400 individuals and two USDA Forest Service Oklahoma State University, Tri-Data contacted initially, nearly 90 percent research work units-Fire Planning Corporation, Pan-Educational (354 people) were sufficiently and Economics at Riverside, CA, Institute. and several other private involved in prevention of human­ and Atmospheric and Socioeconomic organizations and individuals caused wildfires to be' interviewed. Relationships with Wildland Fire at involved in fire protection activities. The USDA Forest Service, the East Lansing-this situation has largest land management agency sur­ changed. The primary objective of veyed, had the most respondents this study was to determine how Researchers will try til provide at (54 percent of the total). These indi­ U.S. agencies with wildland fire least one yardstick, in the form of viduals mainJy represented the management responsibilities assess evaluation procedures, that man­ Northwest (Region 6), the Northeast the effectiveness of their prevention agers can use to measure more (Region 9), California (Region 5), efforts. With this objective in mind, accurately and reliahly the results and the Southeast (Region 8). Of the researchers contacted three groups of of their etTorts. Forest Service respondents, only agencies to ask them specific ques­ about a third indicated they con­ tions about the nature and extent of ducted evaluations. In contrast, the evaluation tools they currently nearly half of the State people con­ use. The first group consisted of the Individuals Contacted tacted reported involvement in following Federal and State fire pro­ prevention evaluation. Other Federal tection agencies: Researchers telephoned individuals agencies followed with about • Forest Service (USDA) at these agencies and asked if any­ 18 percent of their respondents • Bureau of Land Management one, at any organizational level, was reporting evaluation efforts. (USDl) conducting or had recently conducted • National Park Service (USDl) any kind of prevention evaluation Evaluated Activities • Fish and Wildlife Service (USDl) activity (no matter how modest or • Bureau of Indian Affairs (USDl) uncomplicated) for the agency. Once Major prevention activities evalu­ • Departments of the Air Force, those involved in wildfire prevention ated by respondents include efforts Army, and Navy were identified, the callers collected designed to prevent fires caused by • U.S. Marine Corps basic information about the nature of the following: • U.S. Army Corps of Engineers the prevention program, the human­ • Industry (usually caused by log­ • Tennessee Valley Authority caused fire problem, and the evalua­ ging operations but sometimes by • Wildfire protection unit within the tion effort. As part of the brief railroads) State land management agency in telephone contact (calls lasted about • Rccrcationists each of the 50 States 15 minutes), the researchers ascer­ • Debris-burning tained the opinions of prevention • Arson 'Currently with the Forest Fire and specialists about various aspects of Atmospheric Sciences Research Staff. USDA • Children Forest Service. Washington. DC. prevention and its evaluation. • Smoking

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 5 The first three types of fires were What Are the Evaluation Criteria? third of the evaluations, while equally apt to be evaluated, while the resource loss, levels of use by the last two were least likely to be evalu­ The researchers attempted to iden­ public, and fire locations were hardly ated. The researchers speculate that tify the evaluation criteria or the considered at all. Weather was iden­ prevention of industrial, recreational, variables that the prevention program tified as a criterion by fewer than and debris-burning fires was more is expected to change. As they pre­ one-quarter (22 percent) of the frequently evaluated because these dicted, more than 90 percent of the respondents. fires are confined to more specific reported evaluations were based on Next, respondents were asked to areas and their causes are easier to changes in fire occurrence (fig. I). describe how the evaluation criterion identify than is the case with arson-, Only 8 percent did not include fire they had mentioned was used to children-, or smoking-caused fires. occurrence as an evaluation criterion. assess prevention effectiveness. In Primary prevention activities Fire-related attitudes and knowledge other words, was the criterion, such evaluated by respondents include: were taken into account in about one- as fire occurrence, used to subjec- • Mass media (e.g., radio and TV Number of fires broadcasts, news releases) 2,400 • School programs • Cooperative prevention (interagency) ---_ Total fires • Predictions of fire occurrence 2,200 --- Human-caused fires • Information booth • Law enforcement --"'", • Personal contacts , Media and school prevention , 2,000 activities were most likely to be , evaluated, and law enforcement and \ , personal contacts were least likely. , The researchers speculate that the 1.800 \ former take place in more structured , situations or environments while the \ latter are less structured. Hazard reduction was not mentioned by the \---', respondents as a prevention activity 1,600 , currently being evaluated, even , though it is an important prevention ,, effort in some areas. , 1,400 , Who Conducts the Prevention , Programs?

Nearly all of the prevention pro­ 1,200 '-__-L_--'-----"----'-----"-----' grams being evaluated were 1976-80 77-81 78-82 79-83 80-84 81-85 82-86 conducted by either prevention s-year period "technicians" or prevention "spe­ cialists." Individuals occupying these Figure I-This graph, ptouing the number of total and human-caused fires 01/ the national for­ csts of the Southern Region ill 5-year periods, is a typical example cf how trends in fire kinds of positions probably would be occurrence are used to evaluate the effects of[ire prevention program.I', In the survcv discussed the primary users of prevention in this article. 90 percent of reported prevention evaluations were based upon changes in fire evaluation research and development. occurrence.

6 Fire Management Notes tively or objectively assess the • Nearly all (97 percent) disagreed ations-with one exception. Those effectiveness of the prevention pro­ with the statement that prevention who were in their current positions gram? Respondents reported that should be deemphasized. for more than 15 years were much about one-quarter of the evaluations • Most (91 percent) agreed that the less likely to report evaluations were mostly "subjective" while influence of weather must be con­ than their less-tenured colleagues. three-quarters were mostly sidered when assessing prevention • Tenure with current employer was "objective.' , effects, although earlier responses much longer than tenure in the cur- When asked whether their agency during the survey showed that had a written plan or other document many are not considering the that describes how the prevention weather's influence. program or activity is evaluated, • More than half felt that effective fewer than half reported that there prevention does not necessarily was a written evaluation plan. But have to lower fire occurrence. two-thirds of the respondents indi­ • Well over half (60 percent) agreed cated that evaluation results were that a prevention· program is not documented in an annual fire preven­ effective if it does not reduce costs tion report. and damage. Slightly less than half of those In addition, nearly two-thirds of who conducted evaluations were sat­ the respondents thought that isfied with what they were doing. As researchers often produce evaluation reasons for their dissatisfaction, methods that are too complex to be approximately equal numbers of used in the field. In this case, how­ respondents (about 27 percent) men­ ever, respondents who reported Most respondents did not think that a preven­ tioned funding, ineffectiveness of evaluation efforts were more likely to tion program must reduce fire occurrence 10 evaluation, and lack of sophistication disagree with this opinion than those be effective, of the evaluation method used. The who did not report such efforts. researchers noted that the respond­ Finally, about half of those ,contacted ents' remaining reasons-"need to thought that experience is more learn more" and "based wrong"­ important than science in assessing probably could be combined with the prevention effectiveness (although above reasons into a general heading most acknowledged that it takes such as ,. imprecise current evaluation both), efforts. " When asked to respond to opinion Respondents' Personal Data statements about fire prevention, respondents who reported evaluation The last part of the telephone sur­ efforts differed very little in their vey consisted of obtaining personal opinions from those who did not data about each respondent. The report such efforts. Some specific researchers found: responses to opinion statements • Slightly more than half (52 per­ included: cent) of the respondents had been A prevention activity that was evaluated in this • Most (87 percent) either agreed or in their present position for fewer survcv was interagency cooperation such as strongly agreed that one of wildfire than 5 years. Tenure in the current that illustrated here. Forest fire officer Randy management's greatest needs is a position, however, made little Mckenzie of the Michigan Department of Nat­ more accurate way to evaluate the difference in whether or not ural Resources plans slrategr 10 prevent losses effects of prevention. respondents conducted evalu- by fire with a local sheriff and undersheriff (Photo: Courtesy Michigan Department of Natural Resources.)

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 7 rent position (30 years was the modal tenure with 27 cases). Ten­ ure with a particular agency made little difference in whether or not evaluation was reported. However, respondents who had worked for their current employer for II to 20 years reported both the greatest number and the highest proportion of evaluation efforts with 56 and 42 percent, respectively. • Less than half of the respondents (41 percent) came to their current position from fire specialty posi­ tions, but those who did were nearly twice as likely to report evaluations. Many of those with "nonfire" backgrounds had occupied a line position at a lower Wildfire prevention poster contests are a type ofschool program evaluated by fire protection agencies. Pictured are forest fire officers Joseph Soncrainte and Earl Cole (rear) and third­ organizational level and then had graders Brent Klein. Matt Martin, and Andy Englehart. moved to a staff position at the next level. collect more detailed information methods of prevention, the effective­ • The age distribution reflected the about existing efforts to evaluate pre­ ness towards particular classes of maturity of the group: fewer than vention programs, By comparing people, the relative importance of 10 percent were under 35, and the documented evaluations supplied by prevention in different areas, the modal category, with 45 percent of fire prevention specialists around the need for further prevention efforts, the respondents, was ages 46 to country with evaluation procedures and the advantage of prevention over 55. As respondents' ages used by experts in other disciplines ·presuppression and suppression increased, the numbers of reports such as education, researchers hope activities. of evaluations steadily declined. to develop evaluation procedures that Based on input from fire preven­ • Although most respondents were will better meet the needs of the tion specialists, researchers will try college graduates, the research wildfire prevention community. to provide at least one yardstick, in revealed that as the educational In spite of the enormous diffi­ the form of evaluation procedures, level increased, the quantity of culties we encounter as we try to that managers can use to measure evaluation declined. assess the impact of our prevention more accurately and reliably the programs, evaluations are as neces­ results of their efforts. - Conclusions sary now as they were in the past. As Buck et at. (1941) indicated For the first time, we now have nearly half a century ago, a yardstick Literature Cited objective data about where evaluation is needed for measuring the effective­ is occurring (geographically and ness of prevention work. They noted Buck, C.C.; Bruce, H.D.; Abell, C.A.; Pons. organizationally), who is doing it, that only after an accurate assessment W.L. 1941. Forest fire problems in what kinds of prevention programs or of the benefits obtained by any given California. Unpublished problem analysis. activities are being evaluated, and expenditure of time, money, and Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agricul­ ture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest what fire prevention personnel expect energy in prevention work can we Forest and Range Experiment Stations. evaluations to do. The next step is to evaluate the relative merits of various 143 p.

8 Fire Management Notes Arsonists Do Not Set More Fires During Severe Fire Weather in Southern California

Romain Mees

Mathematician, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fire Management and Economics, Riverside, CA

Introduction press it and if the fire reached a The average BI for the 7 days was minimum size of 100 acres (41 hal. used as an overall measure of fire Under severe fire weather condi­ The weather station with the best severity for each fire within a ranger tions, arson is considered to be the available history of local weather district. All fires from the lO-year primary cause of large wildland fires observations was selected to repre­ period located within a district were in southern California. The expres­ sent all fires within each ranger ranked by their 7-day average BI. sion "This weather brings out the district. Computation of the fire The fires were then grouped into 10 arsonists" is often heard during these weather indexes within the National equal (IO percent) BI quantile classes conditions. To determine the Fire-Danger Rating System (NFDRS) for each district, which were used to accuracy of this statement, data on requires the selection of a fuel model compare arson with nonarson fires fire occurrence and weather at four to represent the predominant fuel drawn from all person-caused fires. southern, California national forests type. Fuel model B (mature, heavy, 'The area (acres) and the maximum (Angeles, Los Padres, Cleveland, dense brush) was used to calculate number of personnel used on each and San Bernardino) for a 10-year the burning index (BI) for the fires fire were drawn from the fire reports. period were analyzed (1975-84). The within the four national forests, This results showed that arson and nonar­ highly variable index has proved to Results and Discussion son fires occur at an almost equal be an acceptable measure of fire rate under all weather conditions; weather, especially under severe con­ Of the total 4,184 person-caused however, a much higher percentage ditions (Mees and Bednar 1989). fires included in this analysis, 732 of arson fires became large fires BI values were computed for each were arson and 3,452, nonarson fires under severe weather conditions. fire for 7 consecutive days, which for the 10-year period. The overall The data presented here refute the consisted of the day on which the ratio of arson to nonarson was 2 \ idea that most arson fires occur under percent for all districts (table I). For severe weather conditions and-at fires with a 7-day district average Bl the same time-validate the utility of below the 30th percentile, the ratio Here is a challenge to a common maintaining prevention programs dur­ of arson to nonarson was" lower than belief. ing most weather conditions. 21 percent. Above the 30th percen­ tile, the ratio ranges from 20 to Methods 28 percent: fire was reported (designated as Day Of 332 (87 + 76 + 79 + 90) arson The study area is composed of 4) and the 3 days before and after it. fires when the district 7-day average four national forests located within This 'work focused primarily on large BI was at the 60th percentile or the same fire climate region fires, which were not always con­ higher (table 2), 25 (4 + 7 + 7 + 7) or (Schroeder et al. 1964)---:all are close tained on the day they were reported. 7.5 percent became large fires. For geographically and can be generally The weather observations from the 3 nonarson fires the percentage was 2.2 described by the same wildland fuel days after the fire described the fire percent (7 + 10 +4 + 8 out of model. Data used in this study were weather during the containment phase 325 + 336 + 333 +322). The ratio of obtained from computerized USDA of the average large fire. Weather these two percentages is almost 3.5 Forest Service fire reports (Form observations from the 3 days before to I and is based on the district . 5100-29) and daily weather observa­ the fire described the fire weather 7-day average rankings. tions for the years 1975-84. About leading up to all fires, large or small. About 400 out of a possible origi­ 85 percent of all fires on these for­ If one of the seven BI values was nal 4,573 fires had to be eliminated ests are caused by people and missing, a BI based on the larger of because of lack of weather data. 21 percent of these are arson. A fire the two neighboring values was used. Most of those eliminated were large was designated as large if at least The fire was eliminated from the data fires, the fires of interest. Local 100.persons were employed to sup- base if no such values existed. weather observations were often 000-

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 9 Table I-Arson and nonarson fires by 10 equal burning index (BI) percentile classes on four The timing of arson, the fuels, and iwtional forests in southern California' location must be addressed in preven­ tion measures. 81 Number of fires Ratio Total percentile of arson to number Conclusions class Arson Nonarson nonarson fires of fires 0-10 50 362 0.14 412 Fire managers and the public at 10-20 52 360 0.14 412 large generally believe that the wild­ 20-30 62 350 0.18 412 land arsonist is active mostly during 3Q-40 77 335 0.23 412 periods of more severe fire weather. 40-50 76 336 0.23 412 5(H;0 68 344 0.20 412 As a result, current prevention meas­ 80-70 87 325 0.27 412 ures often tend to be designed to 70-80 76 336 0.23 412 target the threat of arson principally 80-90 79 333 0.24 412 during those periods. The data for 90-100 90 322 0.28 412 the national forests in southern Cal­ 1 The left end-point is included in each interval. ifornia, however, suggest that the incidence of arson fires in wildland existent on the days large fires were Table 2r-Large arson and nonarson fires for areas in southern California is signifi­ reported and contained because fire 10 equal percentile classes of burning index cant at all fire-danger levels and is personnel are intensely occupied dur­ (BI) by district 7-day average BI for four national forests in southern Coiifomia.v ing these periods. essentially constant at all but the lowest. Improved fire and weather records District 81 81 during the course of especially large Number of large fires percentile Recommendations fires are a prerequisite before addi­ class Arson Nonarson tional studies in fire suppression, multiple fire situations, and other 0-10 1 4 By recognizing that the arsonist 10-20 a 6 areas can contribute to wildland fire 20-30 2 9 actually may be active with almost management. 3Q-40 1 7 equal probability during any period The 90th percentiles for the 7-day 40-50 1 7 in which fires will burn and by tar­ average HI for each of the 18 50-60 1 7 geting potential arsonists in ongoing weather stations (districts) studied 60-70 4 7 fire prevention programs, fire man­ 70-60 7 10 were as follows: 64, 60, 64, 150, 60, 80-90 7 4 agers may be able to more effectively 85, 130, 59, 90, 62, 66, 73, 83, 90-100 7 B discourage potential arsonists and 148, 134, 130, 116, and 148. , The lett end-point is inciuded in each interval. improve the chances of apprehending Weather stations with a 90th BI per­ those who commit the offense. Con­ centile that is less than 100 are the districts on the San Bernardino victed arsonists reported that an located such that they are primarily National Forest. increased chance of apprehension under the influence of a coastal cli­ The district Bl classification shows would more likely have deterred their mate. Values above 100 represent that the percentage of large fires incendiary actions than increases of weather stations primarily under the among arson fires under severe con­ length or severity of sentence influence of a desert climate. The ditions is much larger. (Bradshaw and Huff 1985). The values represent, in order of occur­ The ratio of arson to nonarson extension of effective arson preven­ rence, the Valyermo District (BI = fires is almost constant when the tion programs to cover periods of 150) on the Angeles National Forest, 7-day average BI is above the 60th lower fire danger in areas where such the Palomar District (BI = 130) on percentile. The number of arson fires fires are a problem could provide the Cleveland National Forest, and that convert into large fires above the both the perception and fact of a the last five large values represent 60th percentile is remarkably high. . higher probability of apprehension.

10 Fire Management Notes The considerably higher percentage Maggie's Poster Power also taught them a great deal about of arson fires that became large dur­ wildland fire prevention. Because of ing severe fire weather conditions Maggie Mattila was 9 years old Ms. Penny's instruction, Maggie knew probably reflects a tendency of arson­ when she designed the poster she enough about protecting her family's ists to select fuels or locations where holds in the photograph published on home from fire that she told her par­ fire will be more likely to spread and the front cover of this issue of Fire ents they should move their large woodpile away from the house. not be easily controlled. In addition, Management Notes. Her poster won Maggie is lucky not to have seen a the analysis indicated that arson fires first place among Upper Peninsula third graders in the Michigan Depart­ wildland fire even though she lives by tend to be set on a day when the BI ment of Natural Resources (DNR) a large woods. From the windows of is higher relative to the other days Wildfire Prevention Poster Competi­ her house she regularly sees deer and within the 7-day time period calcu­ tion. (The poster has also been coyotes in the fields. She's also seen a lated for each fire (Mees unpub­ reproduced in full color, courtesy of white wolf. Maggie has met Smokey lished). This apparent short-term the National Fire Protection Associa­ Bear, who was present when she temporal selectivity by the arsonist, tion, and inserted in this Fire received her prizes from the Michigan minimal as it might be with respect Management Notes issue.) The win­ DNR. to the general fire danger as indicated ners were announced in April 1990 Those interested in evaluating pre­ by this study, should be included in during Wildfire Prevention Week. vention programs will be glad to learn any further analysis of arson fires. II Maggie is now a fourth grader at that Maggie does know the four words Heikkinen Elementary School in that follow the slogan "Only Toivola, MI, which has a total enroll­ you. ". Literature Cited ment of 34 children. She learned about the poster competition from her Donna Paananen, technical writer, Bradshaw, W.O.; T.G. Huff. 1985. Arsonists teachcr, Luann Penny, who not only North Central Forest Experiment Sta­ in California and New York: a tentative encouraged her students to enter but tion, East Lansing, MI look. Res. Note PSW-372. Berkeley. CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 5 p. Mees. R.M. Arson is not associated with fire Notes. was the Upper Penninsula win­ weather in southern California. Unpublished Michigan's Wildfire ner in 1990. paper. Prevention Poster Contest Mees, R.M.; Bednar. L.F. 1989. The use of The MIWPG represents all wildfire fire weather indices in the prediction of fire agencies in the State: Michigan loads. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. The Michigan Interagency Wildfire Department of Natural Resources For­ 4(2): 46-48. Prevention Group (MIWPG), fanned est Management Division; Michigan Schroeder, M.J.; Glovinsky, Monte; Hood, in 1981 to create .a coordinated wild­ State Police Fire Marshal Division; Frank C.; Hull. Melvin K.; Jacobson, Henry fire prevention effort in Michigan, Michigan State Firemen's Association; L.; Kirkpatrick, Robert; Krueger, Daniel started the Wildfire Prevention Poster Michigan Fire Chiefs Association; W.; Mallory, Lester P.; Oertel, Albert G.; Contest with third-grade students in USDA Forest Service Hiawatha, Reese, Robert H.; Sergius. Leo A.; Syver­ 1986. For several years, winning pos­ Ottawa, and Huron-Manistee National son, Charles E. 1964. Synoptic weather types associated with critical fire weather. tcrs were made into billboards and Forests and the North Central Forest Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agricul­ displayed in various locations around Experiment Station; and the USDI ture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest the State during May to increase the National Park Service Sleeping Bear Forest and Range Experiment Station. public's awareness of its role in pre­ and Pictured Rocks National 492 p. venting wildfires. Maggie Mattila of Lakeshores and the U.S. Fish and Toivola, MI, whose poster is included Wildlife Service Seney National Wild­ in this issue of Fire Management life Refuge. _

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 11 Fire Prevention for the 1990's-a Conference

Malcolm Gramley and Sig. Palm

USDA Forest Service, prevention specialist, Region 8, Fire and Aviation Management. Atlanta, GA, and group leader in Prevention and Training, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, Cooperative Fire Protection, Radnor, PA

Over the years, fire prevention to protect forest resources rather than sayings that "None of us is as smart nationwide has struggled to reduce structures. as all of us" and that starting with the increasing cost and losses from the "wheel" unnecessarily dimin­ forest fires. The approach and actions Our Common Prohlems ishes our resources. taken in an area's fire prevention Out of this recognition grew an program have depended on the This change in demographics and organized exchange of ideas and causes of fires in that area and the the continuing struggle to reduce the discussion-the first forest fire pre­ interests and values of the people costs and losses from fire challenge vention conference for the Eastern who lived there. us to look for new approaches to a United States, Fire Prevention for the It goes without saying that wild­ complex set of fire protection 1990's, held at the Drawbridge Inn, fires from natural causes such as problems: Fort Mitchell, KY, on February 12­ lightning arc impossible to prevent o The wildland-urban interface 15, 1990. The conference was spon­ and accidental ignitions from equip­ significantly complicates fire pro­ sored by Forest Service Regions 8 ment and powerline malfunction are tection in many regions of the and 9, the Northeastern Area State difficult, if not impossible, to pre­ United States and Private Forestry, the National vent, although strategies can be o In the East, arson historically has Association of State Foresters, and developed to reduce some hazards or been a significant and intransigent the State Fire Chiefs of the Southeast actions taken to mitigate the effect of problem and the Northeast. disasters. o The use of forest lands has The conference was designed to increased and along with it the give participants a forum to describe attitudes of users have changed their individual approaches to fire Working together helps us prevent prevention with a special focus on human-caused fires. markedly o Fires cross jurisdictional bound­ the three "E's"--engineering, aries and involve structural, education, and enforcement. Pre­ senters were researchers, judges, In the Eastern United States, fire wildland, and industrial operations professors, corporation administra­ primarily stems from human activity, that require a wider range of tors, Federal and State government however. Woods arson is a tradi­ expertise administrators and technical experts, tional cause of forest fires, especially and day-to-day practitioners. in the Southern Region. Debris burn­ A Need for Sharing ing also ranks as a major cause of wildfire throughout the East. It was clear to us that fire protec­ The Conference Messages These fires for the most part are tion organizations needed to find preventable. solutions to these problems through The keynote speaker was Con­ With increased financial capability, fire prevention efforts. In the East. gressman Curt Weldon from the a large number of people are moving the 33 States and 32 national forests Seventh District of Pennsylvania. As from their traditional urban environ­ of chis section of the country were all Chairman of the Congressional Fire ment to rural areas-some to estab­ working on fire prevention in a vari­ Services Caucus, Congressman lish a primary residence and others, a ety of ways. Sharing experiences, it Weldon is exceptionally well-versed rural retreat. This population shift seemed, would spread creative, in­ in what the fire community needs to causes more homes and communities ventive, and effective programs and do to become more effective. He can to be built near wooded areas­ eliminate the time waste of develop­ say with authority that within the fire commonly called the wildland-urban ing programs already worked out or service of America resides the power interface-and, consequently minimally successful. An "exchange to make changes in how fire protec­ increases the likelihood of human­ of ideas on fire prevention would be tion is delivered. He sees the fire caused fires and pressures on fire mutually beneficial to all. We recog­ service " as a sleeping giant ... in suppression organizations dedicated nized the wisdom in some old excess of 2 million people" among

12 Fire Management Notes whom there is an indescribable" spe­ Sports program, and Jerry Barney, history and values of the people of cial fecling." He stated, "If we assistant program manager of the Appalachian Region. could ever unite this force, there's no Smokey and the American Cowboy Conference participants also bene­ limit to what we could achieve in program, described the roots of these fited from the experience and terms of dealing with your concerns special Smokey Bear forest fire expertise of people outside the fire and making your job easier." prevention programs and their protection community. Here are some target audiences. Other communica­ examples of their contributions: tion specialists discussed the • Melvin Marx, chief executive production and distribution of public officer of Nelson/Weather-Rite service announcements, the market­ Corporation, spoke about corporate ing of prevention programs, and how partnerships. He stated that we acquire and retain information. "Smokey Bear is a class act Milton Morris ofthe Virginia and we like working with class Department of Forestry discussed acts." Mr. Marx has taken the Virginia's 40-year-old elementary lead in the redesign and production school assembly program and out­ of the new fire safety outdoor lined its basics and some of its brochure. current programs. Professor Bruce • Steven Getzoff. senior manager of Kuhre of the Sociology and American Express Travel-Related Anthropology Department of Ohio Service Co., Inc., provided some University emphasized that an effec­ sound advice on trademark protec­ tive communications program is built tion, particularly as it relates to the The Honorable Curt Weldon. Seventh District on the understanding of the culture of protection of the Smokey Bear (?( Pennsylvania. giving keynote address at a community, as he described the symbol. conference. If the fire service is to realize its potential, there are five changes the fire community must make: • Make elected officials aware of the fire service • Replace reaction to legislation or policy making with active participation • Unify all groups within the fire service • Learn to work from within the political system • Participate in the political process Many speakers at the conference focused on their communication efforts. Cooperative Forest Fire Pre­ vention Program Manager Elsie Cunningham updated the group on the future of the CFFP program; and Harry R. "Punky" McClellan, national director of Smokey and Rudy Wendelin. banquet speaker. with his illustrations (~r Smokey Bear.

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 13 • Dr. David leave of the Federal A proceedings document has been minimum, following a format, pro­ Bureau of Investigation Academy prepared and distributed along with a posed by previous attendees, that will analyzed in detail the behavioral questionnaire to all attendees, best meet their needs in promoting patterns of arsonists. requesting information on how they forest fire prevention. are using or planning to use the A conference of this type has been Exhibits and Other Activities information disseminated at the con­ long overdue. The information pre­ ference. Write or call Sig. Palm, sented by the speakers and the In addition to the presentation, Northeastern Area State and Private exchange of ideas and information Smokey Bear licensees were invited Forestry, Cooperative Fire Protec­ promoted by the conference has to attend and exhibit their products. tion, 5 Radnor Corporate Center, fanned a firm basis for cooperation The State forestry agencies and the Suite 200, 100 Matsonford Road, among and between agencies national forests were also given Radnor, PA 19087; FTS 489-4145, involved in fire prevention. Meeting exhibit space to display some of-their or (215) 975-4145, DG: S. Palm: in this way was a valuable tool for prevention initiatives and programs. S24A. Results of this poll are being making progress toward solving the Other activities were designed to pro­ evaluated to determine the need for, perplexing and special fire prevention mote interaction among individuals in and the topics of, future conferences. problems of the Eastern United an atmosphere conducive to the free At present, plans are to hold a simi­ States. - and open exchange of ideas. For lar conference every 2 years, as a instance, at a working luncheon, attendees were asked to respond to these questions: What do you, as an individual or an organization, need National Wildland of those who died at Mann Gulch to (other than people and money) to do Firefighters' Memorial be special guests at the May 8 dedica­ a more effective job in wildfire pre­ tion. The names of the men who died vention? What is needed on a Dedication: A Centennial are: national level to do a more effective Event Stanley J. Reba - job in wildfire prevention? Where do On May 8, 199t, as part of the Silas R. Thompson you see wildfire prevention in the USDA Forest Service Centennial Cel­ Joseph P. Sylvia year 2000 (needs, problems, and so ebration, Forest Service Deputy Chief James O. Harrison on)? This information was then made George Leonard will dedicate a new Robert J. Bennett available to the Prevention Working National Wildland Firefighters Memo­ Newton R. Thompson rial at the Aerial Fire Depot in Leonard L. Piper Team of National Wildfire Coordi­ Missoula, MT. The memorial, Eldon E. Diettert nating Group for its use in planning financed through voluntary contribu­ Marvin L. Sherman future activities. tions, will honor men and women who David R. Navon The 142 attendees at the con­ have died fighting wildland forest and Philip R. McVey ference represented 37 States and 4 range fires, with special recognition of Henry1. Thol, Jr. Federal agencies, 2 Canadian 13 smokejurnpers who died in the William J. Hellman provinces, and 20 national forests. Mann Gulch Fire on the Helena If you knew any of these men or Twenty-seven speakers participated National Forest in 1949. have knowledge of relatives or in the conference. Banquet speaker The dedication, a major activity of friends, please contact Wayne Rudy Wendelin, retired Forest Serv­ the Forest Service Northern Region Williams or Tracey Nimlos, Missoula ice illustrator, talked about the Centennial Celebration, will include Aerial Fire Depot, U.S. Highway to tours of the smokejumper base and of Smokey Bear program and its West, Missoula:,;MT 59802; telephone a demonstration Class I Overhead Fire (406) 329-4900. If you know of rela­ development and, as he did so, drew Camp, dedication ceremony, and tives and friends of others who died Smokey's likeness for presentation as reception. fighting wildland fires, please also let a momento to a lucky conference The Forest Service would like to the Forest Service know of their attendee. invite surviving friends and relatives names. _

14 Fire Management Notes North Carolina Division of Forest Resources' Efforts in the Wake of Hurricane Hugo Rebecca Ricbards II Public information officer, North Carolina Division ofForest Resources, Raleigh, NC

September 22, 1989 seriously and, through funds from the access routes, and firebreaks," Federal Emergency Management Doggett said (see fig. I). "They also Hurricane Hugo barrels its way Agency (FEMA), is working to clear around houses when burnable through South Carolina into piedmont lessen the threat of fires in these fuel and debris are within 60 feet and western North Carolina during areas duri ng the next 5 years. (18 m) of a house and pose a fire the early hours of Friday morning. threat," he said. In an 8-month Rainfall is heavy; winds in Charlotte, Fire Control and Mitigation period the crews have cleared more NC, are measured in excess of 75 Tbrougb the Counties than 550 miles (885 km) of roads miles per hour (121 kmlh). that can be used for firebreaks. In Residents awaken to find them­ "Our whole effort is aimed at for­ addition, the crews have cleared fire­ selves without power; some awaken est fire control and mitigation at the breaks around more than 300 homes to find heavily damaged homes. county level," said Coleman and other structures (see fig. 2). Roads are blocked by a seemingly Doggett, senior staff forester and "We have two functions through endless mass of tangled and twisted Hurricane Hugo administrator for the this program-fire control and hazard trees. Forest landowners find the tim­ division. mitigation," said Doggett. "All ber stands they considered their nest The FEMA-funded personnel were workers work on hazard mitigation eggs jackstrawed, lying on the integrated into the division's existing unless fire danger is high, or they are ground like fallen .matchsticks. county and district organization. The jackstrawed timber creates an FEMA provided funding for unprecedented amount of forest fire mitigation efforts in the eight "It is very difficult, if not impos- . fuel, with foresters estimating that counties hardest hit by the storm­ sible, to imagine tbe lire severity fires in areas of downed timber will Mecklenburg, Union, Gaston, Lin­ tbat's possible in areas of Hugo have flame lengths of up to 50 feet coln, Catawba, Alexander, Wilkes, destruction." (15 m). Fires in these areas are diffi­ and Caldwell. Each county has a mit- -David Jarman, chieffire control officer. cult to reach; the quagmire of . igation crew consisting of a forestry North Carolina Division of Forest Resources downed trees keeps traditional fire­ specialist, who contacts landowners fighting crews and equipment from and schedules the work, and three being used. crew workers. needed on fires," he said. During The eight counties are divided up times of high fire danger last spring One Year Later geographically into two districts. the division leased two water­ Each district has a district coordina­ scooping planes-a Canadair CL-215 A year later forest landowners are tor who coordinates mitigation and a Super PBY. The division also still cleaning up the damage Hur­ activities between the counties. used helicopters, patrol planes, and ricane Hugo left behind. The hurri­ "Almost all of the Hugo mitigation lead planes in the firefighting efforts. cane damaged or destroyed more organization is at the district level," Firefighters in Alexander County than 2.7 million acres (l.l million said Doggett. "The central office put one of the water-scooping planes ha) of timber over a 26-county area, lends staff support," he said. to use March 14. The tanker was creating a potential forest fire hazard The division's central office in used after firefighters determined that considered incalculable. Raleigh lends logistical, planning, debris and jackstrawed timber were The winds from Hugo destroyed and budgetary support to the blocking access to firelines. Alex­ timber, but the fires from Hugo­ districts. ander County Forest Ranger Billy downed timber could destroy homes Most of the mitigation crews have Meadows said the fire was contained and lives. been in place since March. "The at 5 acres (2 hal due to the tanker's The North Carolina Division of three-person mitigation crew in each efforts. No homes or structures were Forest Resources is taking the forest county works with handtools to clear lost in that fire, which foresters esti­ fire threat from Hugo-downed timber blocked roads, which act as fire mate could have destroyed 600 acres

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 15 Miles (243 hal without the tanker's help. What Lies Ahead 700 The miles of firebreaks created by the county crews have proved benefi­ Although frequent rainfall helped 600 e- - cial, as evidenced on Rendezvous the division come through spring for­ - Mountain in July. When FEMA est fire season with flying colors last 500 e- crews were assigned firebreaking year, the worst is expected to come - projects last winter, Wilkes County in the next 3 to 5 years. "It is very 400 f-- Forester Ed McGee recommended difficult, if not impossible, to imag­ 300 - - that an old logging road on Ren­ ine the fire severity that's possible in dezvous Mountain be included in the areas of Hugo destruction." said r-r- 200 - mitigation plan. The firebreak on the David Jarman, the division's chief r-r- mountain paid off when the recently fire control forester. "Very little 100 - re-opened logging road stopped the information is available on fire n head of a fire that could have burned behavior in these extreme fuel load­ thousands of acres. The fire was con­ ings," he said. tained at 3 acres (1.2 hal. Last year we were concerned about "The head of the fire was cut off rapid fire spread through the dead Figure I-Comparison by month of nllmber of by the road we'd just cut," said leaves and needles left on Hugo­ miles offirebreak cleared in 1990 through McGee. "All we had to do was flank downed timber, Jarman said. "Dur­ Hurricane Hugo mitigation effort. the fire and contain it," he said. ing succeeding years these leaves

Number of structures

400 ~

- 300 -

r-r- 200 r-t- r-r-

100 r-: ~n Thanks To Hugo,This Is HowOur Forests o .LookToATossed Cigarette. Hurricane Hugu leftmillions oftrees burndown ourforests andourhomes. lying ontheground likegiantmatch­ Avoidoutdoorburning. Don't throwlit Figure 2-Comparison by month of number of stickswaiting foraspark.Thehuge cigarettes down. Beextracareful when amount oftallen.jackstrawed timber cookingoutdoors. And keep matches structures protected byfirebreaks in 1990 makes effect tverircfighting almost outorvour childrens reach. through Hurricane Hugo mitigation effort. impossible. On~ flame, onecigarette, onespark If afirestarts.chances are,wewon't - andyou could start theworstforest beeblc todomuch more thanwatchit fireanyone around herehaseverseen.

16 Fire Management Notes Some BIG Thank Yon's The full-color fire prevention poster inserted in this issue of Fire Manage­ ment Notes has been printed courtesy of the National Fire Protection Asso­ ciation (NFPA). Maggie Mattila's fine poster would nor have been printed in color without NFPA help. arranged through Robert Swinford of the Fire and Aviation Management staff. Thank you, Bob and NFPA. Thanks also go to the Michigan Wildfire Prevention Group for kindly permitting us to reproduce the winning poster in their wildfire prevention pos­ tcr contest: 10 MIWPG executive secretary Donald Johnson for coordi­ nating the poster's publication with Chris Carlson, artist illustrator, takes a close look at jackstrawed timber in Alexander County. MlWPG; to Donna Paananen, techni­ cal writer with the North Central will drop off, making the fuel less on the ground. The Hugo mitigation Experiment Station. for energetically flashy, but the larger diameter fuels plan was originally scheduled to end putting everyone involved in touch (limbs and trunks) will dry out, September 30, but with the success with one another and writing the becoming available to bum. These of the mitigation crews and the threat story about Maggie: and finally to fuels, although not producing rapid of fires, the program has been Maggie herself whose art may have encouraged others to be more careful rates of spread, will produce extreme extended through April 30, 1991. and take fire safety precautions out­ amounts of heat and be difficult to "We are requesting a 5-year side their home. D contain. Homes close to these blow­ extension for the program," Doggett downs could be ignited by radiant said. "We believe the fire hazard heat," Jarman said. will be high for the next 5 years, and The severity of future forest fire we'll need diminishing resources seasons in areas of Hugo-downed over that period to handle the prob­ timber will be determined by the lem," he said. 0 weather and amount of burnable fuel

International Wildland together, as the proceedings publica­ Fire Conference tion reports. "leaders of public and Proceedings private organizations from around the world to discuss issues, programs. and The proceedings from the Interna­ strategies to reduce serious wildfire tional Wildland Fire Conference held losses and to promote international in Boston. MA, July 23-26, 1989, cooperation." Copies have also been have recently been distributed to each sent to each Forest Service regional person attending the conference. The and forest supervisor. Bureau of Land conference, "Meeting Global Wild­ Management State, and State Forester land Fire Challenges," brought offices. I!I

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 17 Reflections on 60 Years of Fire Control

Sam Ruegger

Forest ranger (retired). Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI

One day during the 1989 April for an interview. I got the job. The Twenty Cents an Hour, Plus Fire Prevention Week, I received a next spring I was on fire patrol at Lunch telephone call from our local ranger, Radisson, WI, with my own car, a Ray Larsen, asking if I would like to 1928 Madej "A" Ford, a crew of The crew was paid 20 cents an spend a day with him on fire duty young men, four or five backpack hour, and I was paid $70 a month, and get reacquainted. water cans, and a half-dozen shovels. with no reimbursement for the use of Having retired from the Wisconsin My crew and I soon learned that to my car. Shortly after I started patrol­ Department of Natural Resources in control a fire you had to hit it hard ling for fire, the Great Depression Set 1969,21 years ago, I thought, "Why and fast, otherwise you ended up in. Twenty cents an hour for fighting not? It would be good to see the working into the night. fire plus a baloney sandwich and a changes." It was, I realized, 60 can of tomatoes at meal time was a years ago in 1928 that I started to lot of money. work for forest protection in the Radisson, WI, fire tower. As it Civilian Conservation Corps turned out, it was a time of some controversy. In 1927, Forest Protec­ Fire control people were taxed to tion District 7 was set up in Rusk the utmost trying to control fires with and Sawyer Cuunties. With the handtools. Then, the Civilian Conser­ establishment of the district came vation Corps (Ccq program came new restrictions. To burn brush, a into existence and was a big turning permit was now needed, and no point for fire control. We now had uncontrolled fire was allowed. People enough manpower to put out a fire. who had just bought farms could not CCCer's worked by the month, and understand the need for a burning the sooner the fire was put out, the permit and fought these restrictions. sooner they got off a dirty job. The CCC was also getting equipment for How I Got Started working outdoors. Before long, we were using CCC tractors and plows I had been working in Chetek, WI, to build firelines and CCC pumpers for several years. On one of my trips to move water from streams and home, driving north on Highway No. lakes onto fires. But even with this 27, South of Radisson, WI, I noticed help, firefighting still required a lot that a steel structure with a box on of hand labor-the equipment was top had been built on a hill, I mile only roughly adaptable for the tough north of town. job of firefighting. When I got home, I asked what that "thing" was up on the hill. My Equipment Advances folks told me it was to be a place for About this time, the State bought a person to watch for fires. Forest an abandoned roundhouse in Ranger Lief Steiro and a crew from Tomahawak, WI, where they could Hayward, WI, had erected the forest build firefighting units, outfitting fire lookout tower. trucks and tractors to stand up to the Interested in what Forest Ranger rugged work that was required. As Steiro had done, I wrote him and Radisson, WI, fire tower. The fire tower Was moved in the late 1930's to a better site 4 the equipment improved, we were asked for the job. In a few days, I miles away. The cutover. slash-and-burn area able to bring fires under control with received a Jetter asking me to come is now covered with 60- to 80-foot hardwoods. less hand labor.

18 Fire Management Notes The good old days are now! carries his radio in his shirt pocket and can communicate with his whole area. What a difference! \ The heavy unit today is a big 3-ton ! International truck, equipped with a A Big Thank You i large watertank, pump, hose, hand­ I , tools, and radio. And it's painted Thanks, Ray, for the invitation. It lime yellow. I thought, "What a was a day well spent. I can hardly color for a truck!" Then [ realized believe the changes that have taken how visible it would be in smoke. place. Now I know-I was born 60 On the big, heavy-duty trailer that years too soon. 0 this unit pulls sat a John Deere 450 crawler tractor. What a beauty for firefighting. This tractor is twice the size of what I had used. Mounted on its front is a 7-foot blade-something that in my day was confined to dreams. The middle-buster plow attached to the back is hydraulically operated, and the whole unit is built Glossary of Wildland Fire to handle the job with ease. Management Terms He then showed me a built-in safety feature that protects the opera­ The Society of American Foresters (SAF) has recently published "Glos­ Sam Ruegger, forest ranger from 1928-/969 tor by activating a pump that sary of Wildland Fire Management for the Stale of Wisconsin. produces an umbrella spray and mist Terms Used in the United States." over the cab and operator that lasts 1 remember my first radio. It was The glossary is a result of an effort 8 minutes. He said it very effectively located in a large heavy box not begun over I0 years ago by the SAF cooled the operator off in lots of made to carry around. You would Fire Working Group. flame. toss a rock and string over a tree The glossary, compiled by Guy R. Later in the day, a new truck was McPherson. Dale D. Wade. and Clin­ limb and pull up the aerial 10 or 12 delivered to Ray's district, a I-ton ton B. Phillips, contains 1,900 entries, feet, and then, maybe, you could talk GMC diesel. I was told the State including National Interagency Inci­ to a tower and get assistance. But it purchases these trucks with nothing dent Management Systems (NIIMS) paid off, most times. By the time I but the cab mounted. Then they take and Incident Command System (lCS) retired in 1969, I felt I was well them to Tomahawk where they are terminology. Written for North equipped to handle the job, and American fire managers. it is not mul­ equipped for firefighting. Each unit improvements were being made all tilingual but contains 350 terms not is identical, so, each ranger can use the time. found in the 1986 Food and Agricul­ any truck and knows where to find ture Organization's multilingual Outfitted for the Job the tools needed for a job. The first glossary. This comprehensive, 137­ thing I noticed was the truck's size­ page glossary is extensively cross­ I arrived quite early on the day I it is heavy enough to carry the neces­ listed for easy usc. spent with Ray and soon realized that sary load of equipment and supplies. The glossary may be purchased for today's ranger is better outfitted for I think back to my first four-wheel $8.50 from the Society of American the job than I could even imagine. drive vehicle, a Jeep. It was so over­ Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, As far as equipment is concerned, loaded I am surprised we got what Bethesda. MD 20814.• this is a whole new ballgame. we did out of it. Today the ranger

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 19 Call"Dadia81l Air Tanker and Crew ln Soo..aiti"u Carolilrlla

Gloria Green Writer, South Carolina Forestry Commission, Columbia, SC

It's a sunny day. The sky is a The air tankers are used to buy Quebec, I've fought fires that have clear blue, and there is a strong wind time for the ground fire crew, taken several planes (making) several knocking against the screen door of a drops to get under control, " said small trailer at the Sumter County Proulx. One fire took Proulx and 5 Airbase. Inside, water is boiling in a in the Hurricane Hugo-damaged other air tankers almost 140 dlOPS small coffee pot. Outside, an aerial areas. each to control. The CL-215 is capa­ tanker sits alone on the runway like a With the amount of downed tim­ ble of making as many as 225 car parked outside of a home. ber, tractors have a more difficult separate attacks on fires in I day and The pilots are nowhere to be seen. time than usual getting to the fires. 70 attacks in 2 hOUlS. Only an engineer roams around The air tankers are used to buy time The door of the trailer swings open dividing his time between the tanker for the ground fire crew. The tankers as Proulx and Fournier enter. They and the trailer. He finally settles on can get to the fires quicker and start have been trying to call on the radio the warmth of the trailer, which has working on them before they become but discover they were on a different become a temporary office he shares too large. After they're contained, cbannel. While in South Carolina, with two other members of the crew. the ground crew can get close the pilots are required to stay on or He pours water into a cup for instant enough to finish the job. near the airbase during potential fire coffee. Making a face as he swal­ The CL-215 has a IAOO-gallon days. Theit schedule is determined lows, he reaches for the cream. (5,299-L) water capacity. It is able to by current fire weather. His name is Guy Bond, and he has scoop water from a lake as it flies In Quebec, the air firefighters ate been at the airbase since 9 o'clock over, automatically mix a fire sup­ required to work a 24-hour-day, a.m. There is no television to watch pressant foaming agent, dump the 7-day-a-week schedule April I to and no stereo to listen to. Only the mixture on the fire, and return for October 27. Theit standby avail­ occasional sound of someone's voice more water without having to land. ability depends on what color code on the c.ompany radio and the wind. The air tanker needs only a 3,940­ the fire season is in. The color code Guy lights up a cigarette and listens foot (I, 200-m) scooping distance, is used to keep fire pilots and others to the voice again. He seemed which includes allowances for safety informed of the level of fire danger relieved that it wasn't a call for the heights on the approach and takes each day. For white, the crew does tanker. The pilots were away from only 8 to 10 seconds to draw the not have to be on standby. When the the airbase, and he had not been able water. color is green, they have I hour to to reach them by phone. II can make 26 dIOPS, totaling be in the air. A yellow code requires After a few failed attempts at try­ 34,560 gallons (130,820 L) of water the crew to be up in 30 minutes, and ing to communicate, I realized that before landing to refuel. II carries up with a red code, the air tanker must Guy's English is only slightly better to 153 gallons (579 L) of foam con­ be in the air in IS minutes or less. A than my French. So I settle for a tour centrate, which is sufficient for up to pilot usually spends 14 days at a time of the inside of the Canadair CL-215 20 foam drops per mission. at an outlying base. firefighting aerial tanker. Bond arrived in South Carolina The aerial tanker is part of The CL~215. with a three-man with Captain Jules Proulx and copilot Quebec's fleet of 21 waterbombers crew, arrived from Quebec, Canada, Daniel Fournier January 31 and operated by Quebec Air Services. In in February to assist the South Car­ started work February I. On their addition, there are 95 pilots, 9 heli­ olina Forestry Commission with the first day of work, the tanker .crcw copters, 3 executive transports, an air 1990 winter~spring fire season. It is had two drops in Lynchburg, SC, ambulance, and a venerable DC-3. the only air tanker in the world followed by four dlOPS in Sumter During the off-season (October 28 designed specifically for fighting County 2 days later and a drop in to March 31), Proulx, Fournier, fires. Air tanker use is part of the Lee County the next day. Bond, and other firefighters are on Forestry Commission's overall fire But for Captain Proulx, seven leave from government duties. Many protection plan to combat forest fires drops in 4 days is slow business. "In of them take contracted work, such

20 Fire Management Notes as that with the Forestry Commis­ i sion, while others pursue second jobs I or spend time at home. Proulx owns a farm outside of \ Quebec City and likes to make maple syrup in his extra time. "I'm pretty good," Proulx said, "but this spring will be the first time I'll make it by myself." Other things that occupy Proulx's spare time is his tree-cutting business, skiing, and spending time with his three children, ages 14, 18, and 21. Proulx has been flying for over 20 years-IS of those as captain-and has never had a flying accident. Before becoming captain, a pilot is required to have 7 years of service. The Canadair Air Tanker CL-215. During that time, the pilot must accumulate 2,500 hours of flying, including 1,500 hours of bush flying Piloting the CL-215 can be a very Carolina's slow fire season, almost and 1,000 hours in command of difficult job. Many times it involves wishing for a major fire to break, floatplanes heavier than 5,000 long hours, intense heat, and stable "but you do." EI pounds (2,268 kg). Although he is nerves to be able to fly over treetops not planning to retire anytime soon, and through thick smoke. "We get his copilot, Daniel Fournier, wishes many applications from pilots every otherwise. year but our turnover is very low and "Nothing against him," Fournier competition is fierce," says Ghislain said. "I just want to be captain Boivin, director of operations for the soon." Fournier started flying in Quebec Air Services. "Our pilots are 1972. He has been a copilot with the not a bunch of people filling in time Quebec government since 1981. He waiting for a chance to fly with spends much of his leave time flying the airlines. These are dedicated commercial flights in Canada. When professionals.' , he's not in the air, he's on the But !lying isn't the only thing that slopes. "I love to ski and I go as draws pilots like Proulx and Fournier often as I can." into their line of work. They enjoy Like Proulx, Fournier lives outside fighting fires and the teamwork that of Quebec City. Also like Proulx, goes into the effort. "To do what we Fournier is divorced and has a 10­ do, you have to enjoy it, " Fournier year-old daughter. "Being away said. from home 40 days at a time can be There is irony in what they do. hard on your home life," Proulx Like a soldier without a war, they said. "We have to have women who wait for work others hope will never understand our love of flying," come. "It takes awhile to get used to Fournier added. the quiet," Fournier says of South

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 21 "! • forest Service Aircraft on loan to State Forestry Agencies

Francis R. Russ

Property management specialist, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC

Background Service regulations and must be the Forest Service regional offices returned when no longer needed. and each of the 50 States and 5 ter­ Congress decided early in this cen­ Abuse of these restrictions may ritories setting forth the terms and tury that there is a Federal interest result in the recall of property on conditions of the FEPP program. and, therefore, a national role in pro­ loan or suspension of a State coop­ These agreements each include a tecting State and privately owned erator from the program. clause requiring all parties to abide lands from fire. Annually, Federal The other statutory authority for by the regulations in FSH 3 I09.12. funds are furnished to the States for the lending of FEPP is the Coopera­ Each State also enters into a written this purpose and the loan of Federal tive Forestry Assistance Act of 1978 agreement with each of its subunits­ Excess Personal Property (FEPP) (Public Law 95-313). This act, counties, fire districts, and fire seeks to further reduce the cost of which supersedes Section 2 of the departments-governing the use of State fire protection. Clarke-McNary Act, encourages the FEPP lent to them. There are currently 250 FEPP use of FEPP. Regulations growing Air Operations Plan. When FEPP fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft on out of these statutory authorities are aircraft are needed, the State is loan to State forestry agencies for published in the Forest Service Hand­ required to have a current air opera­ fire protection. Preparing these air­ book (FSH3109.12). Violation of tions plan giving the details of their craft for flight and actually operating the FEPP regulations may bring sus­ pilots' qualifications and other them represents a sizable State pension from the program. requested information. These plans, investment. The dollars. however, requiring updating as circumstances appear to be well spent and the use Acquisition of FEPP change, are usually evaluated by the of FEPP aircraft gives most of these Forest Service FEPP manager and States something they could not Cooperative Agreement. There regional air officer. These officers, otherwise afford. are cooperative agreements between working with the State, determine the

Authorities

The Federal Property and Admin­ istrative Services Act of 1949, as amended, (Public Law 94-5 I9) authorizes the USDA Forest Service to loan FEPP for fire protection. The Forest Service program is one of five exempt from paying the 25 percent of acquisition cost-the usual cost when property is furnished to a non­ Federal cooperator. There are two important restrictions on USDA FEPP: • FEPP must be used for wildland and rural fire and may be used not more than 10 percent of the time for nonfire purposes. It may never be put to personal use. • The Forest Service must maintain ownership of the property. FEPP is FE?? helicopter. used for helitack, on loan to the California Department ofForestry and Fire subject to all USDA and Forest Protection.

22 Fire Management Notes number, if any, of aircraft needed, helicopter modernization program, FEPP is not surplus property, the size of the aircraft, and the cost and, consequently, our chances of General Services Administration of operation. getting the Bell UH-I H helicopters property, or State property! It is Federal Use Is Not Justification in a timely fashion. Forest Service property on loan. for Obtaining FEPP. The State's A number of aircraft formerly .\ request for FEPP aircraft should be operated by the Forest Service are on based only on its need to protect loan to the States as are a large num­ State and privately owned wildlands. ber of aircraft that were seized or Forest Service Aviation Manage­ Federal land protection is not a justi­ confiscated by Federal law enforce­ ment Role in FEPP. Forest Service fication for acquiring FEPP aircraft. ment agencies. At one time, the law Aviation Management takes an active It is. however. proper for the State to enforcement agencies were a good part in seeing that the aircraft from use FEPP aircraft for initial attack on source of aircraft, but a few years the FEPP program is used properly Federal lands or anywhere. for ago legislation was passed permitting and safely. Specifically, Aviation that matter, in emergency opera­ law enforcement agencies to sell their Management performs the following tions where life and property are confiscated property and put the tasks: threatened. funds from the sale into their opera­ o Reviews State aviation operation Except for the restriction on FEPP tional accounts. This source of plans for compliance with USDA use on Federal lands, States set their aircraft has now nearly dried up. Forest Service and State excess own standards for analysis and justi­ Congress is currently holding hear­ property directives. fication, since State funds will pay ings on the possible abuse of o Helps establish minimum standards for the operation of the aircraft. It is confiscated property, however, and for pilot qualifications and the the State managers' job to justify the the way law enforcement agencies maintenance of FEPP aircraft. expenditure of funds to the State dispose of their property could again o Coordinates or establishes an legislature. change. approved source of parts for FEPP Sources of Aircraft. Federal air­ aircraft, such as the U.S. Army. craft cannot be traded in on new Management and Use of FEPP All State operators of excess prop­ aircraft or sold and the funds used to erty aircraft should be wary of purchase new aircraft, without a Basic Fire Use and How To acquiring counterfeit aircraft parts. waiver from the General Services Charge for Assistance to Others. Forest Service Aviation Manage- Administration or an authorization in As stated earlier, 90 percent of FEPP ment also contributes to the success­ the agency's budget. When Federal aircraft's use must be for fire protec­ ful use of FEPP aircraft in the Coop­ aircraft are no longer needed, they tion (FSH 3109.12). There will erative Fire Protection Program. Avi­ must (with very few exceptions) be always be pressures from others to ation Management provides assist­ disposed of as FEPP. borrow the FEPP aircraft or to use it ance in the selection, identification, Most FEPP aircraft come from the for some nonfire purpose. and acquisition of FEPP aircraft used Department of Defense (DOD), as On occasion, there will be the for the fire management mission and, does about 75 percent of all of our opportunity to help suppress other upon request, assists in the manage­ FEPP. Currently, we are trying to agencies' fires or to perform a small ment of State aviation operations. In obtain 104 Bell UH-IH helicopters amount of incidental work for its cooperative role, Aviation Man­ to replace earlier model Bell helicop­ another agency. The State should agement has many responsibilities: ters on loan to the State Foresters. resist the temptation to charge a rate o Upon request, assists in the FEPP helicopters on loan to the that would include depreciation, development of a State coopera­ States are becoming costly to operate amortization, or replacement Costs. tor's aviation safety programs. because parts are scarce. Unfor­ The rate should only include actual o Provides aviation expertise or tunately, a DOD budget reduction for operating costs, because the State did assistance as requested. fiscal year 1990 delayed the Army's not bear the initial purchase costs. o Upon request, assists in the man-

!, 1990 Volume 51, Number 3 23 I

,_1__- agement of a State cooperator's cooperative agreement and FSH FEPP over to States?" The answer is aviation operations. 3109.12. quite straightforward: The law says o Determines if a State cooperator Monitoring. Periodically the Gen­ we can't! If the law was changed to meets comparable aviation stand­ eral Accounting Office, the USDA allow for transfer of title, other desir­ ards for Forest Service use. Office of the Inspector General, the able conditions might also be lost. o Approves a State cooperator's air­ Forest Service, and the State organi­ For instance, the States would proba­ craft for Forest Service missions. zation audit or review the use of bly then have to pay the 25 percent Cannibalization of FEPP. Here FEPP. This behooves all parties in of acquisition cost. Further, keeping are some guidelines for removal of the FEPP program to run a clean Federal title makes obtaining FEPP parts, or "cannibalizing" as it's FEPP program. We are asking States more likely and, when used for fire, commonly known. of FEPP: to do more documented formal it can be used indefinitely. e Before equipment can be can­ reviews and audits of their FEPP pro­ nibalized, requests must first be grams. This is one of the costs of Disposal submitted to the Forest Service this program-and we emphasize­ regional office. there are costs to using FEPP. Time-Life Parts. The State for­ o Contrary to popular belief, can­ estry agencies receive a number of nibalization is a form of use and Title to FEPP aircraft parts through the FEPP pro­ not of disposal. Because FEPP air­ gram and sometimes remove parts craft are usually early vintage, it is The question is often asked, "Why from one FEPP aircraft to repair the often necessary to remove parts don't we give title or ownership of other. If a part is not rebuildable, the from one aircraft to keep another State should deface that part in such flying. a way it cannot be marketed by an o Cannibalization seldom uses unscrupulous dealer or it should be everything, and there is still a car­ destroyed. These actions should be cass requiring disposal. taken in conjunction with the Forest Logistics Support Agreement. Service FEPP manager. There is an agreement for parts sup­ Returned FEPP Aircraft to port between the Forest Service and DOD-Active Use and Museums. the U.S. Army Aviation Command After allowing some aircraft to be in 51. Louis, MO. Other military used in the FEPP program for as installations are usually willing to long as 15 or 20 years, sometimes sell to Federal and State agencies the military wants the aircraft parts and overhauling services for returned. It is easy to understand aircraft on FEDSTRIP/MILSTRIP their interest in wanting the aircraft orders to which Federal and State for a museum-the usual case-but agencies have access. on rare occasions a military unit will Accident and Negligence Report­ want FEPP aircraft returned to fly ing. States are required to report to them. This has happened, for the Forest Service aircraft accidents instance, with the de Havilland and incidents (near accidents). This Beaver and the Grumman T-38 is for the protection of both the State trainer. This not only speaks well for and Federal agencies. Negligence the aircraft but also for the way the resulting in damage to FEPP subjects States maintain the aircraft. - the State employee to State admin­ $ istrative rules, as stated in the FEPP

24 Fire Management Notes RXWINDOW: Fire Behavior Program for Prescribed Fire Planning Patricia L. Andrews and Larry S. Bradshaw ~~£NTOFAGR~~fits Team leader, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Missoula, MT, and meteorologist. Systems for Environmental Management, Missoula, MT

Prescribed burning can be defined BEHA YE. In FIRE I , you specify being two reasons no! to burn, as fire applied in a knowledgeable environmental conditions and the opposing window corner values that manner to forest and range fuels on a program calculates fire behavior. In are "out of prescription" may actu­ specific land area under selected RXWINDOW, you define acceptable ally balance one another and lead to weather conditions to accomplish ranges of fire behavior and the pro­ an acceptable fire (Raybould and gram determines the appropriate .\ predetermined, well-defined manage­ Roberts 1983). A square prescription ment objectives (Wade and Lunsford combinations of environmental window can be either too restrictive 1989). Prescribed fire is used to conditions. For example, if you or include conditions that should accomplish a variety of resource specify a range of flame lengths, actually be out of prescription. management objectives such as RXWINDOW will give acceptable In order to achieve the treatment regenerating trees, increasing wildlife fuel moisture and wind limits. You objective, it is necessary to have the habitat, and protecting resources can also specify ranges for desired right kind of fire, both in terms of from wildfire (Brown 1985). rate of spread, intensity, or the first­ control and first-order fire effects. So Resource objectives and the methods order fire effects, scorch height, or we suggest defining the prescription by which these objectives will be tree mortality. (For simplicity we in terms of acceptable fire behavior, achieved are documented by a fire refer to all of these as fire behavior using the prediction models to deter­ prescription. The process of planning variables.) mine related environmental condi­ for prescribed fire is described by A prescription window defines a tions. All combinations of environ­ Brown (1985), Fischer (1978), and range of conditions under which a mental values that result in the Martin and Dell (1978). The program fire can be conducted. Prescription specified fire behavior are then "in RXWINDOW, which we describe windows are often specified by prescription." Defining a prescription here, is intended to help fire man­ ranges of several environmental window based on fire behavior has agers develop prescription windows been called "backing into the based on desired fire behavior. prescription.' , The need for a program such as RXWINDOW is a prescribed fire­ Figure I is a table from the RXWINDOW is evidenced by the planning tool that allows incorpora­ DIRECT module of FIREI, illustrat­ fact that many fire managers have tion of mathematical fire behavior ing tradeoffs between fuel moisture been using the FIRE I program of and fire effects models into the and windspeed. The table shows con­ BEHA YE to establish burning pre­ process. ditions that lead to calculated flame scriptions (Andrews and Bradshaw lengths from 2 to 5 feet. Low fuel 1987; Doren, Richardson, and moisture contents are acceptable at Roberts 1987). Although the mathe­ parameters (for example, IO-hour low windspeeds but are out of pre­ matical models in BEHA YE include fuel moisture 6 to 16 percent, wind­ scription at high windspceds. some assumptions that limit their use speed 5 to 12 miles per hour).! There If all situations were this simple, for certain prescribed fire applica­ are problems with "square" win­ the FIRE I program would be ade­ tions, conscientious users are able to dows like this. Consider the case quate for designing prescriptions. But use the prediction with some where one condition is out on the fuel model I is short dead grass; confidence. "hot" side (wind greater than 12 there is only one category of fuel. In RXWINDOW is the fifth program miles per hour) and another is out on this example, calculations are for a in the BEHAYE fire behavior predic­ the "cool" side (IO-hour moisture head fire on flat ground. Midflame tion and fuel modeling system greater than 16 percent). Rather than windspeed and I-hour fuel moisture (Burgan and Rothermel 1984; content are, therefore, the only vari­ Andrews 1986; Andrews and Chase ables involved. Other fuel models IAII of the BEHAVE programs, including 1989). It reverses the DIRECT, RXWINDOW, can be run using metric units. contain live and dead fuels and have SCORCH, and MORTALITY mod­ We use English units in the example in this multiple size classes. The area to be ules in the FIREI program of paper. burned may be on a slope, causing

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 25 '-)--- wind direction to be a consideration. DIRECT There is also the possibility that I--FUEL MODEL ------­ 1 -- SHORT GRASS, 1 IT (30 CM) backing or flanking fire may be 2--1-HR FUEL MOISTURE, % -­ 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 7--MIDFLAME YINDSPEED, MI/H .0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 required. It is cumbersome to make 8--TERRAIN SLOPE, % ------­ .0 multiple FIREI runs to define addi­ 9--DIRECTION OF YIND VECTOR .0 tional variables, lO--DIRECTION OF SPREAD .0 (DIRECTION OF MAX SPREAD) CALCUIATIONS In FIRE!, each set of input values DEGREES CLOCKYISE has a corresponding unique set of FROM THE YIND VECTOR output values, This, however, is not the case in reverse. It is possible for many input value combinations to -~. ------result in the same calculated fire FLAME LENGTH, FT (V4.1) behavior. Note that in figure I calcu­ lated flame length is 3 feet when l-HR I MIDFLAME WIND, Ml/H I-hour moisture content is 5 percent MOlS I I .0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 and midflame windspeed is 3 miles (%) ------per hour and is also 3 feet when ~--- I-hour is 9 percent and wind is 4 4.0 !~ 2.3 3.2 4.1 5.0 miles per hour. The goal in RXWIN­ 5.0 II. 2.2 3.0 3.9 4.8 .6 DOW is to find all of the input I combinations that result in fire 6.0 I .1 2.1 2.9 3.8 4.6 behavior within a user-specified I a; 7.0 I 1 2.0 2.8 3.6 4.4 5 /' acceptable range. I It is not feasible to do the mathe­ 8.0 I 3.4 4.1 4.9 matics to reverse the many complex 1 equations used in the calculations. 9.0 I 3.0 3.7 .4.3 I The approach we use in RXWIN­ 10.0 I 2.4 2.9 3.2* -' DOW is to simplify the problem by reducing the number of variables to * MEANS 'YOU HIT THE be considered by treating some vari- , Figure I-Table from the DIRECT module of the FIREI program showing combinations of l-hour abies as constant and by taking fuel moisture and midflame windspeed that give flame lengths of2 to 5 feet. advantage of relationships among variables in the mathematical fire Site conditions are assumed to be poses we want I-hour moisture to be model. constant for an area to be burned. at least 6 percent and 20-foot wind­ Figure 2 is an example of input for We will bum brush (fuel model 5) speed to be no more than 10 miles RXWINDOW. The input is divided with no overstory (fuel exposed to per hour. We also specify that we into four sections: fire behavior con­ the wind) on a 20-percent slope. will use a head fire. RXWINDOW straints, site conditions, preset Preset environmental constraints will not evaluate values outside of environmental constraints, and output provide the option of using informa­ these preset conditions, table configuration. A range of tion that is not a function of The final section of input specifies acceptable values must be set for at calculated fire behavior. In this output table configurations: the vari­ least one of the seven fire behavior example, the bum is to be conducted able that is to be printed in the basic variables. although more than one in the fall, so live fuel moisture con­ prescription table and the format of variable may be constrained. In this tent is preset to be from 75 to 175 the associated moisture tables. Any case, we specified that we want percent. And, based on experience, one of the fire behavior variables flame length to be from 3 to 5 feet. we know that for fire control pur- (lines 1-7) can be printed on the

26 Fire Management Notes INPUT LIST FOR RXWINDOW you know one value, you can calcu­ late the other. This example shows FIRE BEHAVIOR CONTRAINTS: the relationship between 20-foot l--RATE OF SPREAD, CH/H *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** windspeed and midflame windspeed 2--HEAT PER UNIT AREA, BTU/SQFT *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** and between flame length and fireline 3--FIRELINE INTENSITY, BTU/FT/S *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** intensity. 4--FLAME LENGTH, FT 3,0 TO 5.0 Figure 3 is the RXWINDOW out­ 5--REACTION INTENSITY, BTU/SQFT/M *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** 6--SCORCH HEIGHT, FT *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** put table that results from the input 7--TREE MORTALITY, % *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** in figure 2. Output table columns are for windspeeds: 20-foot wind on the SITE CONDITIONS: top line (2, 4, 6, 8, 10) and mid­ 8--FUEL MODEL: 5 -- BRUSH, 2 FT (60 CM) flame wind on the next line (0.8, 9--FUEL EXPOSURE TO WIND: EXPOSED 1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 4.0). Table rows are (WIND ADJUSTMENT FACTOR - .40) weighted dead fuel moistures (6, 7, 10--TERRAIN SLOPE, % 20.0 8, 9, 10), which are very nearly PRESET ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS: equal to I-hour fuel moisture. RXWINDOW provides another table 15--1-HR FUEL MOISTURE, % 6.0 TO 20.0 that shows the relationship among 16--10-HR FUEL MOISTURE, % *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** l-hour, IO-hour, and weighted dead 18--LIVE WOODY MOISTURE, % 75.0 TO 175.0 19--20-FT WINDSPEED, MI/H .0 TO 10.0 fuel moisture. 20--MIDFLAME WINDS PEED , MI/H *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** Blank cells within the table indi­ 21--WIND DIRECTION *** NOT CONSTRAINED *** cate combinations of moisture and 22--FIRE SPREAD DIRECTION HEAD wind that result in fire behavior out OUTPUT TABLE CONFIGURATIONS: of prescription, in this example, flame length less than 3 feet or 23--RXWINDOW FIRE BEHAVIOR TABLE VARIABLE: FLAME LENGTH, FEET greater than 5 feet. 24--DEAD FUEL MOISTURE TABLE VARIABLE I-HR FUEL MOISTURE, % Nonblank cells indicate tire 25--LIVE FUEL MOISTURE TABLE VARIABLE NO TABLE FOR FUEL MODEL 5. behavior within prescription limits. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS: The first line of information in the cell (W-D1R) is the range of wind CONSTRAINED 20-FT WINDSPEED FROM .0 TO 10.0 MI/H directions. In many cells, any wind CONSTRAINS MIDFLAME WINDSPEED FROM .0 TO 4.0 MI/H RELATIONSHIP: FUEL MODEL & FUEL EXPOSURE TO WIND (8-9). direction is acceptable. In others, the wind can vary from upslope (UP) to CONSTRAINED FLAME LENGTH FROM 3.0 TO 5.0 FEET quarter upslope (QU) or cross slope CONSTRAINS FIRELINE INTENSITY FROM 61.4 TO 185.9 BTU/FT/S (X). The codes are printed at the bot­ RELATIONSHIP: MATHEMATICAL FIRE MODEL. tom of the table. The second line in Figure 2-Example inputfor the RXWINDOWprogram. the cell is the range of live fuel moistures (LV-FM) that are in pre­ final prescription table, whether it is produced when more than one size scription. The third line in the cell is constrained or not. In this example, class of dead or live fuel is in a fuel the range of values for the table vari­ we chose to print flame length (line model. Because fucl model 5 has ables specified in input line 23, in 23), the variable on which the pre­ only one class of live fuel, a live fuel this case l1ame length (FLAME). scription is based (line 4). The basic moisture table is not necessary The example shown in this article prescription table is based on (line 25). provides a general idea of what weighted dead and live fuel mois­ Listing of the input includes what RXWINDOW will do for the fire tures. Fuel moisture tables are we call symbiotic relationships. If specialist. But to apply the program

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 27 WIND SPEEDS AND WEIGHTED FUEL MOISTURES THAT RESULT IN FIRE BEHAVIOR planning tool that allows incorpora­ WITHIN PRESCRIPTION CONSTRAINTS FOR A *** HEAD FIRE *** tion of mathematical fire behavior and fire effects models into the proc­ (FULL WINDOW) (VER 3.2) *** HEAD FIRE *** ess. RXWINDOW is not a compre­ ------I 20-FT WIND SPEED/MIDFLAME WIND SPEED, MI/H --- WEIGHTED I 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 hensive fire prescription development DEAD FM % I .8 1. 6 2.4 3.2 . 4.0 system. Prediction models are not ------I ------~===- available for all aspects of prescribed ANY ANY--- ANY 6 W-DIR I UP- QU ANY fire behavior and effects, and not all LV-FM I 75- 85 75-105 75-105 85-115 105~115 FLAME I 3- 3 3- 4 3- 5 3- 5 3-' 5 available models have been included ------I ------in the program. RXWINDOW refor­ 7 W-DIR I UP- QU ANY ANY ANY ANY mulates models that are already in LV-FM I 75- 75 75- 95 75- 95 75-105 95-105 FLAME I 3- 3 3- 4 3- 5 3- 5 4- 5 use through the FIRE I program in ------I ------_.------BEHA VE. Development of future 8 W-DIR I ANY ANY ANY ANY prescribed fire-planning systems may LV-FM I 75- 85 75- 85 75- 95 85- 95 well be influenced by experiences 3- 4 3- 4 3- 5 4- 5 FLAME I gained through use of this program. ------I ------9 W-DIR I ur- X ANY ANY ANY Successful use of the RXWINDOW LV-FM I 75- 75 75- 85 75- 85 75- 85 program in developing fire prescrip­ FLAME I 3- 3 3- 4 3- 5 4- 5 tions depends on the experience and -.------I ------professionalism of prescribed fire 10 W-DIR I UP- QU ANY ANY LV-FM I 75- 75 75- 75 75- 75 managers. - FLAME I 3- 3 3- 4 4- 4 ------I ------Literature Cited UNITS/CODES FOR TABLE VALUES ARE: W-DIR _ WIND DIRECTION (UP-UP-SLOPE, QU-qUARTER-UP, X-CROSS, QD-QUARTER-DOWN, DN-DOWN-SLOPE, ANY-ANY DIRECTION) Andrews, Patricia L. 1986. BEHAVE: fire LV-FM - LIVE WEIGHTED MOISTURE, PERCENT behavior prediction and fuel modeling FLAME FLAME LENGTH, FEET system-BURN subsystem. part I. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-194. Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Figure 3--l:xample output from the RXW1NDOW program. This table results from the input in Intermountain Research Station. 130 p: figure 2. Andrews, Patricia L.; Bradshaw, Larry S. 1987. A system for defining windows of acceptable burning conditions for prescribed properly, one must thoroughly under­ IBM-compatible personal computers fire based on desired fire behavior. In: Pro­ can obtain the programs on floppy stand it. especially the assumptions ceedings, Ninth Conference on Fire and , and limitations of the mathematical disks from Forest Resources Systems Forest Meteorology; 1987 April 21-24; San models and operation of the program. Institute (FORS), 122 Helton Court, Diego. CA. Boston, MA: American Mete­ This is explained in detail by the Florence, AL 35630; telephone (205) orological Society; 49-56. I Andrews. Patricia L.; Bradshaw. Larry S. authors along with examples and 767-0250. The BEHAVE system, 1990. RXWINDOW: defining windows of I, annotated run, in the publication includiog the RXWINDOW program, acceptable burning conditions based on "RXWINDOW: Defining Windows is supported by Fire and Aviation desired fire behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. . of Acceptable Burning Conditions Management in the Washington INT-273. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Based on Desired Fire Behavior" Office: Fire and Aviation Agriculture. Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 54 p. (Andrews and Bradshaw 1990). Management, USDA Forest Service, Andrews, Patricia L.; Chase, Carolyn H. Forest Service users received the P.O. Box 96090 Washington, DC 1989. BEHAVE: fire behavior prediction RXWINDOW program as an update 20090-6090; telephone (406) and fuel modeling system-BURN sub­ to BEHAVE system through normal 329-4950 or FrS 584-4950. system, part 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-260. Data General procedures. Users of RXWINDOW is a prescribed fire- Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agricul-

28 Fire Management Notes rure. Forest Service, intermountain Research Experiment Station. 126 p. prescribed fire in the Inland Northwest. Station. 93 p. Doren, Robert F.; Richardson, Donald R.; Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-76. Portland, OR: Brown, James K. 1985. A process for design­ Roberts, Richard E. 1987. Prescribed burn­ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest ing fire prescriptions. In: Proceedings, ing of the sand pine scrub community: Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Prescribed Fire by Aerial Ignition; 1984 Yamato scrub, a test case. Florida Scientist. Experiment Station. 67 p. Oct. 3D-Nov. I; Missoula, MT. Missoula, 50(3): 184-192. Raybould. Steven; Roberts, Tom. 19lH. A MT: Intermountain Fire Council: 17-30. Fischer, William C. 1978. Planning and matrix approach to fire prescription writing. Burgan, Robert E.; Rothermel, Richard C. evaluating prescribed fires-a standard pro­ Fire Management Notes. 44(4): 7-10. 1984. BEHAVE: fire behavior prediction cedure. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-43. Ogden. Wade, Dale D.; Lunsford, James D. 1989. A and fuel modeling system-FUEL sub­ UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest guide for prescribed firc in southern forests. system. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-167. Ogden, Service. Intermountain Forest and Range Revised. Technical Publication R8-TP II. UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Experiment Station. 19 p. Atlanta. GA: U.S. Department of Agricul­ Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Martin, R.E.; Dell. J.D. 1978. Planning for ture, Forest Service, Southern Region. 56 p.

The Passamaquoddy Tribe and fire control officers from the 1990. lots of coordination time was Maine Forest Service Lee Field office, spent in the securing of fire equipment Firefighters on The White met with 26 interested, potential, Pas­ for the new firefighters. Although Mountain National Forest samaquoddy firefighters. The Tribal there was money available through the Governor was also present and offered BIA for purchasing supplies, the first In December 1989, the White his full support. The trip was a long choice was to try the Excess Equip­ Mountain National Forest (WMNF) one-an 8-hour drive through dense ment Redistribution Program. This is received a call from the Bureau of fog all the way to Princeton (close to administered by the Region 9 Fire Indian Affairs (BIA) in Washington, the easternmost point of the United Cache in Ely, MN. With the willing DC. They had just learned the Pas­ States}---but worthwhile. support and expert help from cache samaquoddy Tribe in Princeton, ME, We all agreed at this initial meeting manager, Bob Behmer, we were able was interested in organizing a forest to proceed with the training. The next to secure much of the equipment firefighting crew that would be step was to schedule the fire course­ through this source for only the price qualified to assist on fire details in the work. The training was broken up to of shipping. \ West. occur over two separate weekends in At this time. the Passamaquoddy The WMNF expressed a strong Princeton: the first in March and the have a fully qualified and eager squad interest in helping the Passamaquoddy second in April. The WMNF agreed of firefighters that will be caned out in such an effort. The Maine Forest to conduct Introduction to Fire as part of the WMNF fire crew if one Service indicated it would join the Behavior (5-t 90) and the Incident is detailed off-forest. The logistics of training effort. The BIA would Command System (1-220) on the first transporting the Passamaquoddy to the provide the funding to purchase the weekend. Instructors were Jay northeast mobilization point in necessary fire equipment such as Sylvester, Tom Barton, Tom Brady, Hartford. CT, remain a challenge. Nomex® clothing and fire packs. and Chad Converse. The Maine Forest This will involve either a charter flight After many discussions, it was Service agreed to complete the train­ from Bangor, if one i~ available when decided to meet with the Passama­ ing with Basic Firefighting (S-130) on needed, or a long 6-hour bus ride. quoddy to confirm their interest, the second weekend. Steptesting or Either way, the Passamaquoddy fire­ provide 'a broad orientation of what the t .S-mile (2.4-km) run was offered fighters arc determined to get would need to be done, and to get over both weekends. Fifteen fire­ involved! II acquainted. fighters actually attended the first Tom Brady-jiHester and assistant In January, Tom Brady, Joel weekend while II completed the fire officer. USDA Forest Service, Hockinson, and Chad Converse of the second. White Mountain National Forest, WMNF, representatives from the BIA, Throughout the early spring of Laconia, NH

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 29 Ful~ Metal Meals1

Dan Cody

Freelance writer, Lake Worth, FL

Firefighters know intimately the plea­ has joined the workforce and has had established by Congress in 1775 and sures of eating military meals-first to rush home and fix supper fast. remained essentially unchanged for a the C-rations and the K-rations, and The earliest versions of the latest century: . '" . one pound beef, or since /98/. Meals Ready to Eat or in rations first went to Grenada. three-quarter pounds pork or one MRE's. Over the past 4 years, fire­ MRE's, now into their eighth incar­ pound salt fish per day; one pound fighters have eaten over 750,000 nation, were staples among the bread or flour per day; three pints of MRE's. Smokejumpers and fire­ troops sent to Panama last year. peas or beans per week, or vegeta­ fighters carry them in their packs, Against all tradition, the current bles equivalent.. one pint of milk and Fores! Service personnel rou­ MRE menus that the Pentagon passes per man per day ... one half pint of tinely stock them in service vehicles. out actually make the food sound­ rice, or one pint of Indian meal. per dare we say-appetizing. However, a man per week; one quart of spruce One fact of military life remains tasteful critique of "military cuisine" beer or cider per man per day, or inviolate through the centuries-the (is that an oxymoron?) must lean on nine gallons of molasses per com­ foot soldiers' right, if not their sacred some historic perspective. Where pany of 100 men per week ...." duty, to bellyache about the food. have we been, so we'll know where The menu hadn't improved signifi­ Hannibal's troops probably com­ we're going? How good is it now cantly for either side by the time of plained about getting elephant stew compared to then'> Check it out. the Civil War. If anything, it was morning, noon, and night. Napo­ When not out foraging for any­ even less nutritious; certainly no leon's men developed a profound thing resembling edible food (plus a more appetizing. For example, Union distaste for Russian borscht. lot that didn't), the Continental Anny troops on the march were issued one And countless American veterans, subsisted on a ration which was pound of hardtack (a half-baked, salt- be they doughboys, G.!.'s, or grunts, to this day can close their eyes and recall the tiresome "taste" of those hard-to-open, harder-to-digest, C's and K's and B's and D's. The brass called them "rations." The guys in the trenches used much more colorful names. Now, American military forces are I ,; dining on an updated version of that alphabet soup--the MRE's, or Meals Ready to Eat, which, according to the same brass before, is food for the field at last made palatable through the miracles of a technology that pro­ duced the retortable-pouch method of food preservation and cooking. MRE's, they insist, are meals just like mom used to make-since mom

IReprintcd from SKY magazine. April 1990: 19(4) 80-89. Permission granted by SKY mag­ azine and author, Bernie Ward (aka Dan Cody). Photographs courtesy of the U.S. Chow is served in Belgium to American infantrymen ofCompany I. 3rd Battalion, 347th Infantry Army. Regiment. 87th Infantry Division, on their way to La Roche, France (1945).

30 Fire Management Notes Against all tradition, the current MRE menus that the Pentagon passes out actually make the food sound-dare we say-appetizing.

less cracker); three-quarter pounds of salt pork or one and one-quarter pounds of what was referred to with a straight face as "fresh" meat; plus sugar, coffee, and salt. Something else had been added­ desiccated vegetables. a mixture of carrots, beets, beans, onions. or whatever else was available, that was dehydrated and compressed into slabs. The men on the chow line, as they always do, quickly applied their own labels to the curious concoction. .. Desecrated vegetables" was a natu­ ral; "baled hay" another. According to one contemporary Members ofthe 3rd Platoon, Co. I, 31sf ReT, 7th U.S. Infantry Division, eat their C-rations during a account, " ... a cook would break break in action against the Chinese Communistforces north ofHwachon, Korea (1951). off a piece as large as a boot top, put it in a kettle of water. and stir it with the handle of a hospital broom. When the stuff was fully dissolved, the water would remind one of a dirty brook with all the dead leaves floating around promiscuously." One would think that duty on the frontier, where wild game and berries abounded, would be a gourmand's delight-s-and occasionally that was true. However, the vast distances to be patrolled and the isolated outposts frequently demanded forced marches on reduced rations-usually the sup­ ply of hardtack left over from the Civil War that the army was trying to use up, a little cold beans or hash for breakfast, and, when a mount played out, a bit of stringy horse meat. The Spanish-American War era saw the first of the modern food Members ofNebraska National Guard unloading cases ofMeals Ready to Eat (MRE) with a 4,000 technologies, which is not to say that poundforklift in vohenstrabe, West Germany (1986).

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 31 t_._ the stuff it produced tasted any better . sisted of evaporated beef powder, then before. Just different. parched cooked wheat, sweet choco­ Canned beef went with the forces late, and salt and pepper, combined to Cuba, as did the ubiquitous hard­ together and shaped like a bar of tack, beans, and coffee. However, soap. It carried the kind of health someone figured out that the grub warning one has come to expect of lacked both the vitamins and the the Surgeon General's Office: "Not nutrition necessary to sustain any­ To Be Opened Except By Order Of. thing more strenuous than turning An Officer Or In Extremities." over in bed. Consequently, an emer­ Comes now the more fami liar B, gency field ration was developed C, K. and D rations issued to fight­ that was supposed to be an ing men from World War II through improvement--evaporated powdered the Vietnam era. Few of the millions beef, parched cooked wheat, and a who "dined" on these delicacies can little bit of chocolate to make the forget them-no matter how hard medicine go down. they try. Improvements had been made by This was, for example, the reign the time World War I rolled around. of the powdered eggs. Col. Elting In his American Army Life, Col. says that, in theory at least, this odd (retired) John R. Elting wrote that in condiment was supposed to resemble training camps " ... the soldier scrambled eggs when cooked with A member of the tst Platoon, Co. A, 2nd Bat­ received his usual peacetime 'gar­ water. talion, 47th Infantry (Mechanized). 9th rison' ration-basically beef, flour, "Actually," he continues, "they lrfantrv Division. in vietnam £'£1/.1' his C-rarions in the platoon' .\' ni&ht camp (/C)? J). dry beans, prunes, fresh potatoes, were palatable enough if mixed vig­ butter, lard, coffee, syrup, evapo­ orously with sufficient water-s-but " . rated milk, assorted condiments, the average sleep-befuddled KP gave vinegar, soap, and candles. Sweet them only a splash of that and half a potatoes and com meal were added stir, producing something resembling in 1918. a moss-grown scouring pad." • "Overseas, the 'field ration' made Another snafu involved the much use of canned meats: corned development of chocolate and butler beef or corned beef hash (known as that would not melt in the South 'corned willy' or 'corned bill'), pink Pacific heat-but then they were salmon (called 'goldfish'), and some­ promptly shipped to troops in Europe times canned beef ('monkey mea!')." struggling through a bitterly cold Each man also carried two reserve winter where even fire froze. rations. In one, there were 12 ounces However, the C and K rations that of bacon or salt pork, coffee, sugar, were the line soldiers' constant salt, and a pound of hardtack (didn't companions are what usually pop to they ever use up that stuff"). Elting mind when "military cuisine" is writes that the hardtack was well mentioned. named indeed, " ... needing to be The C rations contained three main fried in bacon grease or dunked in entrees, so to speak-s-meat-and­ coffee or water to make it soft vegetable hash; meat-and-vegetable A Private First Ctass from the U.S. Army enough to chew. " stew; and pork and beans. Other tins 82nd Airborne Division eating his Meal Ready To Eat (MRE) during the "Golden Pheasant" A second, emergency ration coo- held coffee, candy, and "biscuits," exercise in Honduras (/988).

32 Fire Management Notes which sounded more modern than chunk of allegedly processed cheese. with syrup; bread; milk; orange juice; hardtack, but still tasted like they'd The rations revolution really hit in coffee; peanut butter and jelly. Or: been held in reserve since the Civil the late 1970's when retortable pork sausage links; hominy grits with War. pouches finally supplanted the old cheese and bacon; spice cake, pine­ While not actually a C ration olive-green packs and cans that had apple with syrup; bread; milk; grape itself, another food that was just as served America's fighting forces for juice; coffee; peanut butter and jelly. ubiquitous was Spam. If World War 50 years. The obvious advantages Among the 14 lunch and dinner II didn't invent Spam, it went a were convenience and a greater vari­ trays arc: lasagna with meat sauce; long way towards popularizing the ety in the kinds of food they made green beans; fruit cocktail with canned-meat product as a quick sand­ available. But did the stuff taste any syrup; chocolate pudding; bread; wich or supper fixer for the genera­ better'! What, in fact, had technology milk; orange beverage; coffee; peanut tions who have followed the G.I. 's. done to spice up the same old hard­ butter and jelly. Or chicken cac­ Spam usually came packed in foot­ tack. beans, and coffee so strong ciatore; potatoes with butter sauce; long, five-pound tins. And the " ... it'll stand up and sing Yankee carrots; applesauce; bread; milk; resourceful foot soldiers who often Doodle'!" lemon-lime beverage; peanut butter dined on it for days at a time came Quite a lot, it seems. And most of and jelly. (Have peanut butter and up with ingenious ways to make it it was accomplished at the U. S. jelly become the hardtack and beans more appealing-rolled up and baked Army Natick Research, Development of the late 20th century") as meat loaf, or served with cloves and Engineering Center at Natick, The tray packs are intended for an and garnished and served as an ersatz MA. army at rest, while MRE's are ham. "Military food has been a running designed as the general-purpose com­ Equally inventive was the minia­ joke for centuries," says Jerry bat ration to be carried and consumed ture can-opener the military devised Darsch, chief of Natick's food tech­ in the field. especially for the C ration tins. nology division. "Our mission is to Prototypes of the MRE's in their Known as the P-38, the folding finally do something about it. I feel retortable pouches underwent exten­ opener was only about one and a-half that we have 780,000 consultants in sive field taste-testing from 1980 inches long, but capable of dealing the army alone who don't hesitate to through 1983, says Darsch. Based on with the most defiant cans. Most sol­ tcll us what they like or don't like, feedback from troops in the field, diers wore the P-38 on their dogtag and we want to please every one of significant improvements have been chains, and even today, nearly half a them. made from those recommendations. century later, countless little can Natick researchers have generated Nine of the 12 original entrees openers still adorn veterans' key two primary items that are changing were replaced, portions increased chains everywhere. With the intro­ not only military eating habits, but from 5 to 8 ounces, powdered bev­ duction of the MRE's, the P-38 the long-held attitude that army food erages like Kool-Aid were added, became obsolete. Army-navy surplus is a necessary evil. One of those commercial candies (M&Ms, Tootsie stores bought the versatile openers by items is the food tray pack. The Rolls) replaced the institutional the truckload for resale to campers other is the individual MRE. sweets, and individual servings of and hikers. The tray pack is designed for mass Tabasco sauce were included because K rations were lighter and came field feeding when the situation per­ the troops said they wanted some­ packaged as "breakfast, dinner, and mits. Each tray pack is filled with thing to wake up the otherwise bland supper," items, although truth be food, sealed, and thermally processed entrees. told, it took an expert to tell the dif­ to give it a shelf life of 3 years. In fact, Tabasco sauce was the ference. Powdered lemonade clashed For example, a half-dozen break­ first commercially identifiable prod­ with powdered bouillon in violent, fast selections include: omelet with uct added to the MRE's and led the internal chemical reactions, while the sausage and potatoes; cornmeal movement to introduce products that "meat" item for supper was really a cereal; apple coffee cake; peaches carry high brand identification.

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 33

\_- Darsch says that such products are believe me, if the soldiers didn't like reduction results in a hard, dry prod­ more psychologically acceptable to them they would say so-they uct. Darsch insists that the new field soldiers when they appear as always have, and in no uncertain process crowds that line without they do on a store shelf, rather than terms," Darsch says. "As the food crossing over. repackaged in army green. And since technology has advanced, we've been Does this, then, portend the end of multitudes of soldiers have tradi­ able to provide a much better product the unlamented hardtack and tionally carried a nonissue hot sauce in terms of both nutrition and biscuits? waker-upper into the field with them, acceptability. " "I'd have to say yes," Darsch Tabasco was a good place to begin Nor are the Natick scientists rest­ replies. "This bread is absolutely the movement. ing on their laurels. amazing." Paul McIlhenny, vice president of "We're making a real attempt to Yet another technological break­ the Avery Island, LA, firm that pro­ satisfy the tastes of a younger gener­ through looms on the Natick duces the hot sauce, said military ation," Darsch continues. "The old horizon-self-heating meals. procurers asked his company and take-it-or-leave-it attitude that if While MRE's can be consumed several others to come up with a they're hungry they'll eat anything is cold, they are much more palatable savory in a stable container and with gone. Maybe they will reach that when heated. But soldiers on the a shelf life of 4 to 5 years. stage, but by then performance will move don't always have the luxury "We already had little one-eighth have suffered. Even though we of a fire or other heat source. To ounce bottles of Tabasco sauce that design our rations to be nutritionally solve this problem, Natick has come we distribute as samples or sou­ complete, they're only good if the up with a flameless self heating venirs," says McIlhenny. "They soldier eats them." device that brings the ration to turned out to be perfect for the MRE. Consequently, Natick researchers kitchen-stove temperature within We've provided approximately 50 are working on prototypes of such minutes. million since then, where before we traditional fast-food favorites as bur­ "We are a co-patent holder of were producing only a couple million ritos, hamburgers, and hot dogs something called the Zesto-Therm;" of the small bottles a year. " complete with buns that look, feel, Darsch explains. "It weighs only a And those 50 million bottles, and taste like they just came from the couple of ounces and contains a tiny Mcilhenny adds, are packaged one or old ballpark. Without the buns, the wafer of corrodible magnesium alloy two to a case-not one per MRE­ burgers and dogs would be just more encased in two pieces of fiberboard, since a few drops go a long way in smoke and mirrors, so here again, and inserted into a polymeric sleeve. spicing up an entree. technology has become the cook who The soldier merely drops the un­ Up to 1983, those MRE entrees stirs the pot. (With bread and buns opened MRE pouch into this sleeve were mainly ham and chicken loaf; can pound cake and pizza be far next to the electrochemical heating freeze-dried pork or beef patties; and behind") device, adds a couple of ounces of frankfurters that tasted more like "We developed an innovative water, which is absorbed by the pad, Vienna sausages than hot dogs. The technology through which we can and in approximately 12 minutes, the new and improved MREs hit the produce shelf-stable bread," says heat of the entree rises 100 degrees. street in 1988 and consisted of such Darsch. ' 'In fact, that technology is "Another benefit is that if the sol­ entrees as pork with rice; com beef so astounding that we are applying dier has to move before the entree is hash; omelet with ham; chicken stew; for a patent. " ready, he can slide it back in the spaghetti with meat sauce; beef stew; The process, he continues, mini­ sleeve and stick it in his pocket. ham slice; meatballs in tomato sauce; mizes staleness and, by reducing Once the heating process begins, the tuna and noodles; chicken and rice; water content. prohibits the growth food stays hot for up to an hour." and scalloped potatoes with ham. of mold and yeast on the bread. Darsch says the field testing of the "The feedback on the improved There is a fine line in controlling the new bread product and the self-heater MRE's has been outstanding, and water content. since too much of a will be completed this year. Pending

34 Fire Management Notes armed-services approval, the "flame­ "I think we have made significant less ration heater" should be avail­ strides in providing highly consum­ able in bulk by 1991. The next logi­ able food," Darsch concludes. "But cal step in the development is to we have to keep working at it since place the heaters inside the MRE so we recognize the soldier's obligation they will be issued together as one to complain about the food." package-a technology that, con­ It is, after all, one of those inalien­ ceivably, has applications far beyond able rights ... military use.

New Wildfire Suppression o Maintaining the "all-risk" nature of team or task force leader level to Curriculum in Final the Incident Command System include firefighter and single (lCS). resource boss positions. Review Phase The proposal makes several signifi­ Scheduled for agency review some­ cant recommendations: time this year is a proposed prescribed GIl Consolidate ICS instruction into fire curriculum that has resulted from Field offices of all Federal and four generic I courses that can be the same type of analysis. The sup­ Slate wildland fire management agen­ used by any risk area. Wildfire sup­ pression and prescribed fire cies should have received proposed pression will be contained in S curriculum complement each other in modifications to the wildland fire courses and job aids and will be that many of the skills identified in training and qualification standards. directly related to job performance prescribed fire jobs can be obtained This proposal has resulted from an as defined in position "task books" from suppression training and extensive analysis of performance, (already developed through the experience and vice versa. training, and qualification needs of the analysis process). S courses and job It is the hope of the agency repre­ 85 positions in the wildfire suppres­ aids will, to the degree possible, be sentatives on the ICS, Training, and sion organization. The analysis, designed in such a manner that they Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects Work­ sponsored by the National Wildfire can be modified or adapted by other ing Teams that. once agencies approve Coordinating Group and lead by the risk areas. the proposal. development and imple­ Boise Interagency Fire Center's Divi­ o Consolidate formal classroom train­ mentation of the system can be done -, sion of Training, has involved subject ing with many courses eliminated over a 3- to 5-year period. There is matter experts from Federal and State or replaced by job aids. Standard much to be done, however. and avail­ agencies throughout the United States, training for all unit leaders will be able funding will be the determining The objectives of this effort are to designed to offer various alterna­ factor. improve training efficiency by taking tives in presentation; that is, by For further information on this pro­ the following actions: unit, section, or all sections posal, contact your agency • Eliminating redundancy in the exist­ together. representative on the training or ICS ing I courses o Base certification of trainees on working teams of the National Wild­ • Improving the quality of instruc­ prerequisite experience and per­ fire Coordinating Group. _ tional materials and reducing the formance, not on completing a lime required for instructor training course. Training courses Mike Munkres, chief, Training preparation will be available to support per­ Program Management Branch, Divi­ o Ensuring adequate coverage of all formance and advancement on an sian a/Training, Bureau ofLand wildfire suppression skills as-needed basis. Mandatory training Management, Boise Interagency Fire • Ensuring that qualification standards courses are reduced to a minimum. Center, Boise, ID, and advisor to the directly reflect the individual's abil­ • Extend national qualification National Wildfire Coordinating Group ity to perform requirements from the current strike Training Working Team

1990 Volume 51, Number 3 35 \j.(--.: I\in a r-e-~

C~05e. t: fAehov..s· ) WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE FIRE PROTECTION INITIATIVE

Following the devastating losses from wildfire in 1985 - forty-four lives, millions of acres, and over 1400 structures lost - the United States Forest Service, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and the United States Fire Admnistration (USFA) began an initiative to focus both public and fire service awareness on reducing such losses.

Joined later by the National Association of State Foresters and the wildland fire agencies of the Department of Interior, the National Wildland/Urban Interface Initiative is in the fifth year of implementation and tentative plans for the sixth year are being developed. The goals of The Initiative are:

To create general public awareness of the problem;

To encourage the formation of partnerships among problem solvers and interest groups; and

To focus on the development of local solutions to the wildland/urban interface fire problem.

These remain the primary goals of the National Initiative and a fourth was added after 1987 when, for the first time ever, there were more fire fighter fatalities on wildland and vegetation fire than structural fires. The majority of these fatalities were structural firefighters from rural and volunteer fire departments. The fourth objective is:

To promote firefighter safety in the wildland/urban interface

The issue continues to grow and the plans are to continue the national effort in support of the four objectives of the program.

The printing and distribution of this poster is one of many print and video projects undertaken by The Iniative to accomplish these goals.

The various materials produced by The Iniative are available from:

Publications Management System Boise Interagency Fire Center 3905 Vista Avenue Boise, ID 83705 Telephone # (208) 389-2542 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Forest Management Division United States Forest Service DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE United States Fish & Wildlife Fire Marshal Division MICHIGAN FIRE CHIEF'S ASSOCIAnON DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR MICHIGAN STATE FIREMEN'S ASSOCIATION National Parks Service

The Michigan Interagency Wildfire Prevention Group's Prevention Poster Contest

The Michigan Interagency Wildfire Prevention Group (MIWPG), formed in 1981 to create a coordinated wildfire prevention effort in Michigan, started the Wildfire Prevention Poster Contest with third-grade students in 1986. For several years, winning posters were made into billboards and displayed in various locations around the State during May to increase the publiC'S awareness of its role in preventing wildfires. This poster was created by Maggie Mattila of Toivola, MI, was the Upper Penninsula winner in 1990.

The MIWPG represents all wildfire agencies in the State: Michigan Department of Natural Resources Forest Management Division; Michigan State Police Fire Marshal Division; Michigan State Firemen's Association; Michigan Fire Chief's Association; USDA Forest Service Hiawatha, Ottawa, Huron-Manistee National Forests and the North Central Forest Experiment Station; and USDI National Park Service Sleeping Bear and Pictured·Rocks National Lakeshores and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Seney National Wildlife Refuge.

Maggie Mattila was 9 years old when she designed this fire prevention poster. Her poster won first place among Upper Peninsula third graders in the Michigan DNR's Wildfire Prevention Poster Competition. The winners were announced in April 1990 during Wildfire Prevention Week. Maggie is now a fourth grader at Heikkinen Elementary School in Toivola, MI, which has a total enrollment of 34 children. She learned about the poster competition from her teacher, Luann Penny, who not only encouraged her students to enter but also taught them a great deal about wildland fire prevention. Because of Ms. Penny's instruction, Maggie knew enough about protecting her family's home from fire that she told her parents they should move their large wood pile away from the house.

Maggie is lucky not to have seen a wildland fire even though she lives near a forested area. From the windows of her house she regularly sees deer and coyotes in the fields. She's also seen a white wolf. Maggie has met Smokey Bear, who was present when she received her prizes form the Michigan DNR.

Those interested in evaluating prevention programs will be glad to learn that Maggie does know the four words that follow the slogan "Only you..." United States Department of Agriculture

Washington, D.C. 20250

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