Factors Affecting Counterillumination As a Cryptic Strategy

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Factors Affecting Counterillumination As a Cryptic Strategy Reference: Biol. Bull. 207: 1–16. (August 2004) © 2004 Marine Biological Laboratory Propagation and Perception of Bioluminescence: Factors Affecting Counterillumination as a Cryptic Strategy SO¨ NKE JOHNSEN1,*, EDITH A. WIDDER2, AND CURTIS D. MOBLEY3 1Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708; 2Marine Science Division, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Ft. Pierce, Florida 34946; and 3Sequoia Scientific Inc., Bellevue, Washington 98005 Abstract. Many deep-sea species, particularly crusta- was partially offset by the higher contrast attenuation at ceans, cephalopods, and fish, use photophores to illuminate shallow depths, which reduced the sighting distance of their ventral surfaces and thus disguise their silhouettes mismatches. This research has implications for the study of from predators viewing them from below. This strategy has spatial resolution, contrast sensitivity, and color discrimina- several potential limitations, two of which are examined tion in deep-sea visual systems. here. First, a predator with acute vision may be able to detect the individual photophores on the ventral surface. Introduction Second, a predator may be able to detect any mismatch between the spectrum of the bioluminescence and that of the Counterillumination is a common form of crypsis in the background light. The first limitation was examined by open ocean (Latz, 1995; Harper and Case, 1999; Widder, modeling the perceived images of the counterillumination 1999). Its prevalence is due to the fact that, because the of the squid Abralia veranyi and the myctophid fish Cera- downwelling light is orders of magnitude brighter than the toscopelus maderensis as a function of the distance and upwelling light, even an animal with white ventral colora- visual acuity of the viewer. The second limitation was tion appears as a black silhouette when viewed from below addressed by measuring downwelling irradiance under (Johnsen, 2002). This is particularly disadvantageous be- moonlight and starlight and then modeling underwater spec- cause an object is detectable at a far greater distance when tra. Four water types were examined: coastal water at a viewed from below than when viewed from any other angle depth of 5 m and oceanic water at 5, 210, and 800 m. The (Mertens, 1970; Johnsen, 2002). Aside from extremely appearance of the counterillumination was more affected by transparent tissue, which is not easy to achieve in larger the visual acuity of the viewer than by the clarity of the species with complex tissues, the way to overcome this water, even at relatively large distances. Species with high disadvantage is for the ventral surface to emit light that visual acuity (0.11° resolution) were able to distinguish the matches the downwelling light in intensity, spectrum, and individual photophores of some counterilluminating signals angular distribution. Indeed, this solution is nearly ubiqui- at distances of several meters, thus breaking the camouflage. tous in nontransparent mesopelagic species, particularly in Depth and the presence or absence of moonlight strongly crustaceans, fish, and squid (Young and Roper, 1976; Her- affected the spectrum of the background light, particularly ring, 1977, 1985; Widder, 1999). near the surface. The increased variability near the surface Counterilluminating species have evolved complex strat- egies to match the intensity, spectrum, and angular distri- bution of the downwelling light (Denton et al., 1972; Young Received 15 December 2003; accepted 17 April 2004. and Mencher, 1980; Herring, 1983; Widder, 1999). One * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: sjohnsen@ duke.edu aspect that is poorly understood, however, is the spatial Abbreviations: MTF, modulation transfer function; OTF, optical transfer distribution of the photophores (Young and Roper, 1976). function; PSF, point spread function. While some species (e.g., the cookie cutter shark Isistius 1 2 S. JOHNSEN ET AL. brasiliensis) have many small photophores that evenly illu- viewer’s eye. The water and associated particulates poten- minate the ventral surface, most have a smaller number of tially dim and blur the image, and the acuity of the eye isolated photophores that produce uneven illumination (e.g., determines the resolution of the perceived image. Fig. 2d). Thus, even if the photophores match the spectrum The effect of the first factor is generally modeled in the and intensity of the downwelling light perfectly, the coun- following way. First, the optical effects of the water on the terilluminator will be visible when viewed at a distance that image of a point source are calculated. The image of a point allows these individual sources to be discerned. To inves- source is known as the point spread function (PSF) (Mertens tigate this problem, the effects of the intervening water and and Replogle, 1977). The point source is then convolved the viewer’s visual acuity on the perceived image of the with a given image to determine the appearance of the counterillumination must be understood. image after it passes through the water. In a convolution, This study examines the effects of underwater light scat- each point in the image is replaced by its product with the tering and visual acuity on the perceived images of coun- point spread function (Fig. 1). Fortunately, this computa- terillumination signals. The effects are modeled with Monte tionally expensive procedure can be streamlined using the Carlo methods and image transfer theory, using data col- convolution theorem, which states that for any two images lected from water types ranging from shallow coastal water I1 and I2, the convolution of I1 with I2 is equal to the inverse to the deep mesopelagic zone (800 m). Three visual sys- Fourier transform of the product of the Fourier transforms tems, with high, medium, and low acuity, are also exam- of the two images: that is, ined. The goal is to determine under which conditions ϭ ᏲϪ1͓Ᏺ͑ ͒ ⅐ Ᏺ͑ ͔͒ counterilluminators are still visible and what implications I1*I2 I1 I2 , (Fig. 1) (Equation 1) this has for both camouflage and visual detection under Ϫ where * denotes convolution, and Ᏺ(I) and Ᏺ 1(I) are the low-light conditions. Fourier and inverse Fourier transforms of an image I (Good- man, 1996). Let I be the image of the counterillumination, Materials and Methods 1 and I2 be the point spread function. Substituting into equa- General principles of image transfer tion (1) gives The perceived image of a counterilluminating animal image*PSF ϭ ᏲϪ1͓Ᏺ͑image͒ ⅐ Ᏺ͑PSF͔͒. (Equation 2) viewed from a distance is affected by three factors: absorp- tion and scattering by the water and the acuity of the The Fourier transform of the point spread function is gen- Figure 1. The convolution of image 1 and image 2 (denoted by the “*” operator) can be calculated by multiplying the Fourier transforms of the two images and then calculating the inverse Fourier transform of the product. PROPAGATION AND PERCEPTION OF BIOLUMINESCENCE 3 erally referred to as the optical transfer function (OTF). Due tion transfer function (MTF), is often also calculated. The to the convolution theorem, the OTF of a whole system is MTF is quite useful because it gives the fraction of remain- simply the product of the OTFs of the various components ing image contrast as a function of spatial frequency. For in the system (Goodman, 1996). Thus, for this study example, MTF(4) ϭ 0.5 implies that 50% of the original image contrast remains for detail that has a spatial fre- image ϭ ᏲϪ1͓Ᏺ͑image ͒ ⅐ OTF ⅐ OTF ͔, final initial water eye quency of 4 cycles per degree. (Equation 3) where image is the perceived image and OTF and final water Images examined OTFeye are the optical transfer functions of the water and eye respectively. A final, convenient implication of the Images of the ventral bioluminescence of two counter- convolution theorem is that the OTF of x meters of optically illuminating species were used: (1) the enoploteuthid squid homogeneous water is equal to the OTF of 1 meter of water Abralia veranyi (Ru¨ppell, 1844) (eye-flash squid), and (2) to the xth power. Thus, one need only calculate the PSF for Ceratoscopelus maderensis one distance. This property, known as the linearity assump- the myctophid fish (Gunther, tion, does not hold in extreme cases (e.g., very large x), but 1864) (horned lanternfish) (Fig. 2A, B). The two were is appropriate for the situations examined in this study chosen to provide a range of photophore spacing. Counter- (Jaffe, 1992). The equation for underwater image transfer is illumination in A. veranyi is finely detailed; that of C. then maderensis is relatively coarse (Fig. 2C, D). A. veranyi was collected at depth, using the Johnson-Sea-Link research ͑ ͒ ϭ ᏲϪ1͓Ᏺ͑ ͒ ⅐ ͑ ͒x ⅐ ͔ imagefinal x imageinitial OTF1 OTFeye , submersible fitted with 11-liter acrylic plastic cylinders with (Equation 4) hydraulically activated, sliding lids. C. maderensis was col- lected at night, using an opening/closing Tucker trawl 2 where imagefinal(x) is the perceived image viewed from a (4.3-m opening, 1⁄4 inch knotless nylon mesh) fitted with a distance of x meters, and OTF1 is the optical transfer func- thermally insulated collecting container. Specimens were tion of the water over a distance of 1 meter. manually stimulated to bioluminesce, and then were re- Although Eq. (4) correctly describes the propagation of a corded with a Dage ISIT image-intensified video camera (A. two-dimensional image, it requires modification when used veranyi) or Intevac GenIISys image intensifier system and in the context of counterillumination, because the back- CCD video camera (C. maderensis). Images that show how ground radiance is affected by the entire three-dimensional the counterilluminating animals appear from below (Fig. light field and changes as the viewer moves down and away 2E, F) were created by combining the bioluminescence from its target. From Mertens (1970), the degradation of images with silhouettes of the animals obtained from nor- contrast of a large image underwater (i.e., the OTF at zero mal illumination photographs (taken immediately after the spatial frequency) is intensified images).
Recommended publications
  • Animal Eyes and the Darwinian Theory of the Evolution of the Human
    Animal Eyes We can learn a lot from the wonder of, and the wonder in, animal eyes. Aldo Leopold a pioneer in the conservation movement did. He wrote in Thinking like a Mountain, “We reached the old wolf in time to watch a fierce green fire dying in her eyes. I realized then, and have known ever since, that there was something new to me in those eyes – something known only to her and to the mountain. I was young then, and full of trigger-itch; I thought that because fewer wolves meant more deer, that no wolves would mean hunters’ paradise. But after seeing the green fire die, I sensed that neither the wolf nor the mountain agreed with such a view.” For Aldo Leopold, the green fire in the wolf’s eyes symbolized a new way of seeing our place in the world, and with his new insight, he provided a new ethical perspective for the environmental movement. http://vimeo.com/8669977 Light contains information about the environment, and animals without eyes can make use of the information provided by environmental light without forming an image. Euglena, a single-celled organism that did not fit nicely into Carl Linnaeus’ two kingdom system of classification, quite clearly responds to light. Its plant-like nature responds to light by photosynthesizing and its animal- like nature responds to light by moving to and staying in the light. Light causes an increase in the swimming speed, a response known as 165 photokinesis. Light also causes another response in Euglena, known as an accumulation response (phototaxis).
    [Show full text]
  • On Visual Art and Camouflage
    University of Northern Iowa UNI ScholarWorks Faculty Publications Faculty Work 1978 On Visual Art and Camouflage Roy R. Behrens University of Northern Iowa Let us know how access to this document benefits ouy Copyright ©1978 The MIT Press Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uni.edu/art_facpub Part of the Art and Design Commons Recommended Citation Behrens, Roy R., "On Visual Art and Camouflage" (1978). Faculty Publications. 7. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/art_facpub/7 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Work at UNI ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of UNI ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Leonardo. Vol. 11, pp. 203-204. 0024--094X/78/070 I -0203S02.00/0 6 Pergamon Press Ltd. 1978. Printed in Great Britain. ON VISUAL ART AND CAMOUFLAGE Roy R. Behrens* In a number of books on visual fine art and design [ 1, 21, countershading makes a 3-dimensional object seem flat, there is mention of the kinship between camouflage and while normal shading in flat paintings can make a painting, but no one has, to my knowledge, pursued it. I depicted object appear to be 3-dimensional. He also have intermittently researched this relationship for discussed the function of disruptive patterning, in which several years, and my initial observations have recently even the most brilliant colors may contribute to the been published [3]. Now I have been awarded a faculty destruction of an animal’s outline. While Thayer’s research grant from the Graduate School of the description of countershading is still respected, his book is University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee to pursue this considered somewhat fanciful because of exaggerated subject in depth.
    [Show full text]
  • Lafranca Moth Article.Pdf
    What you may not know about... MScientific classificationoths Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Photography and article written by Milena LaFranca order: Lepidoptera [email protected] At roughly 160,000, there are nearly day or nighttime. Butterflies are only above: scales on moth wing, shot at 2x above: SEM image of individual wing scale, 1500x ten times the number of species of known to be diurnal insects and moths of moths have thin butterfly-like of microscopic ridges and bumps moths compared to butterflies, which are mostly nocturnal insects. So if the antennae but they lack the club ends. that reflect light in various angles are in the same order. While most sun is out, it is most likely a butterfly and Moths utilize a wing-coupling that create iridescent coloring. moth species are nocturnal, there are if the moon is out, it is definitely a moth. mechanism that includes two I t i s c o m m o n f o r m o t h w i n g s t o h a v e some that are crepuscular and others A subtler clue in butterfly/moth structures, the retinaculum and patterns that are not in the human that are diurnal. Crepuscular meaning detection is to compare the placement the frenulum. The frenulum is a visible light spectrum. Moths have that they are active during twilight of their wings at rest. Unless warming spine at the base of the hind wing. the ability to see in ultra-violet wave hours. Diurnal themselves, The retinaculum is a loop on the lengths.
    [Show full text]
  • Mimicry and Defense
    3/24/2015 Professor Donald McFarlane Mimicry and Defense Protective Strategies Camouflage (“Cryptic coloration”) Diverse Coloration Diversion Structures Startle Structures 2 1 3/24/2015 Camouflage (“Cryptic coloration”) Minimize 3d shape, e.g. flatfish Halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) 3 4 2 3/24/2015 Counter‐Shading 5 Disruptive Coloration 6 3 3/24/2015 Polymorphism – Cepeae snails 7 Polymorphism – Oophaga granuliferus 8 4 3/24/2015 Polymorphism – 9 Polymorphism – Oophaga Geographic locations of study populations and their color patterns. (A) Map of the pacific coast of Colombia showing the three study localities: in blue Oophaga histrionica, in orange O. lehmanni, and in green the pHYB population. (B) Examples of color patterns of individuals from the pHYB population (1–4) and the pattern from a hybrid between Oophaga histrionica and O. lehmanni bred in the laboratory (H) 10 5 3/24/2015 Diversion Structures 11 Startle Structures 12 6 3/24/2015 Warning Coloration (Aposematic coloration) Advertise organism as distasteful, toxic or venomous Problem: Predators must learn by attacking prey; predator learning is costly to prey. Therefore strong selective pressure to STANDARDIZE on a few colors/patterns. This is MULLERIAN MIMICRY. Most common is yellow/black, or red/yellow/black 13 Warning Coloration (Aposematic coloration) Bumblebee (Bombus Black and yellow mangrove snake (Boiga sp.) Sand Wasp (bembix oculata) dendrophila) Yellow‐banded poison dart frog (Dendrobates leucomelas Fire salamander ( Salamandra salamandra) 14 7 3/24/2015 Warning Coloration (Aposematic coloration) coral snakes (Micrurus sp.) ~ 50 species in two families, all venomous 15 Batesian Mimicry 1862 –Henry Walter Bates; “A Naturalist on the River Amazons” 16 8 3/24/2015 Batesian Mimicry Batesian mimics “cheat” –they lack toxins, venom, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Studies on Luminescence. on the Subocular Light-Organs of Stomiatoid Fishes
    J. mar. bioi. Ass. U.K. (1960) 39,529-548 529 Printed in Great Britain STUDIES ON LUMINESCENCE. ON THE SUBOCULAR LIGHT-ORGANS OF STOMIATOID FISHES By J. A. C. NICOL The Plymouth Laboratory (Text-figs. 1-10) Many stomiatoid fishes possess a peculiar light-organ below and behind the eye, as well as other kinds of photophores. This light-organ, of diagnostic importance, is termed the subocular, postocular or cheek-organ. Stomiatoid fishes, suborder Stomiatoidei, form a suborder of the Isospondyli. Subocular organs are found in the following groups: Superfamily Stomiatoidae Stomiatidae and Chauliodontidae Superfamily Astronesthoidae (= Gymnophotodermi) Astronesthidae, Melanostomiatidae and Idiacanthidae. Over the course of the past 8 years I have collected specimens of species belonging to each of the above families, and this material has made possible a comparative study of the sub ocular organs of the Stomiatoidei. MATERIALS AND METHODS Specimens of stomiatoid fishes were obtained from deep-sea catches of the R.R. S. 'Discovery II' and R.V. ' Sarsia '. I am indebted to the Director of the National Institute of Oceanography for the former material. The following species were examined. Stomiatidae Stomias brevibarbatus Ege, 1918. One specimen, 'Discovery' station No. 3354. S. ferox Reinhardt (Zugmayer, 19II; Ege, 1918). Four specimens, 'Sarsia' stations No. 7/1957, No. II (Kon & Fisher)jI959, No. 15/1959. Chauliodontidae Chauliodus sloani Schneider (Regan & Trewavas, 1929). One specimen, 'Discovery' station No. 3051. Astronesthidae Astronesthf-s elucens Brauer (Parr, 1927). Two specimens, 'Sarsia' stations Nos. 23/1957, 14/1959. 33 JOURN. MAR. BIOL. ASSOC. VOL. 39, J960 530 J. A. C. NICOL Astronesthes richardsoni Poey (Parr, 1927).
    [Show full text]
  • INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RESEARCH –GRANTHAALAYAH a Knowledge Repository Art
    [Conference-Composition of Colours :December , 2014 ] ISSN- 2350-0530 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v2.i3SE.2014.3515 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RESEARCH –GRANTHAALAYAH A knowledge Repository Art PROTECTIVE COLORATION IN ANIMALS Leena Lakhani Govt. Girls P.G. College, Ujjain (M.P.) India [email protected] INTRODUCTION Animals have range of defensive markings which helps to the risk of predator detection (camouflage), warn predators of the prey’s unpalatability (aposematism) or fool a predator into mimicry, masquerade. Animals also use colors in advertising, signalling services such as cleaning to animals of other species, to signal sexual status to other members of the same species. Some animals use color to divert attacks by startle (dalmatic behaviour), surprising a predator e.g. with eyespots or other flashes of color or possibly by motion dazzle, confusing a predator attack by moving a bold pattern like zebra stripes. Some animals are colored for physical protection, such as having pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn; some animals can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation. This adaptive mechanism is known as protective coloration. After several years of evolution, most animals now achieved the color pattern most suited for their natural habitat and role in the food chains. Animals in the world rely on their coloration for either protection from predators, concealment from prey or sexual selection. In general the purpose of protective coloration is to decrease an organism’s visibility or to alter its appearance to other organisms. Sometimes several forms of protective coloration are superimposed on one animal. TYPES OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION PREVENTIVE DETECTION AND RECOGNITION CRYPSIS AND DISRUPTION Cryptic coloration helps to disguise an animal so that it is less visible to predators or prey.
    [Show full text]
  • Aspects of the Natural History of Pelagic Cephalopods of the Hawaiian Mesopelagic-Boundary Region 1
    Pacific Science (1995), vol. 49, no. 2: 143-155 © 1995 by University of Hawai'i Press. All rights reserved Aspects of the Natural History of Pelagic Cephalopods of the Hawaiian Mesopelagic-Boundary Region 1 RICHARD EDWARD YOUNG 2 ABSTRACT: Pelagic cephalopods of the mesopelagic-boundary region in Hawai'i have proven difficult to sample but seem to occupy a variety ofhabitats within this zone. Abralia trigonura Berry inhabits the zone only as adults; A. astrosticta Berry may inhabit the inner boundary zone, and Pterygioteuthis giardi Fischer appears to be a facultative inhabitant. Three other mesopelagic species, Liocranchia reinhardti (Steenstrup), Chiroteuthis imperator Chun, and Iridoteuthis iris (Berry), are probable inhabitants; the latter two are suspected to be nonvertical migrants. The mesopelagic-boundary region also contains a variety of other pelagic cephalopods. Some are transients, common species of the mesopelagic zone in offshore waters such as Abraliopsis spp., neritic species such as Euprymna scolopes Berry, and oceanic epipelagic species such as Tremoctopus violaceus Chiaie and Argonauta argo Linnaeus. Others are appar­ ently permanent but either epipelagic (Onychoteuthis sp. C) or demersal (No­ totodarus hawaiiensis [Berry] and Haliphron atlanticus Steenstrup). Submersible observations show that Nototodarus hawaiiensis commonly "sits" on the bot­ tom and Haliphron atlanticus broods its young in the manner of some pelagic octopods. THE CONCEPT OF the mesopelagic-boundary over bottom depths of the same range. The region (m-b region) was first introduced by designation of an inner zone is based on Reid et al. (1991), although a general asso­ Reid'sfinding mesopelagic fishes resident there ciation of various mesopelagic animals with during both the day and night; mesopelagic land masses has been known for some time.
    [Show full text]
  • The First Evidence of Intrinsic Epidermal Bioluminescence Within Ray-Finned Fishes in the Linebelly Swallower Pseudoscopelus Sagamianus (Chiasmodontidae)
    Received: 10 July 2019 Accepted: 22 October 2019 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14179 BRIEF COMMUNICATION FISH The first evidence of intrinsic epidermal bioluminescence within ray-finned fishes in the linebelly swallower Pseudoscopelus sagamianus (Chiasmodontidae) Michael J. Ghedotti1,2 | W. Leo Smith3 | Matthew P. Davis4 1Department of Biology, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA Abstract 2Bell Museum of Natural History, University of External and histological examination of the photophores of the linebelly swallower Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA Pseudoscopelus sagamianus reveal three epidermal layers of cells that form the light- 3Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Biodiversity Institute, University producing and light-transmitting components of the photophores. Photophores of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA among the examined photophore tracts are not significantly different in structure but 4 Department of Biological Sciences, St. Cloud the presence of mucous cells in the superficial layers of the photophore suggest con- State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota, USA tinued function of the epidermal photophore in contributing to the mucous coat. This Correspondence is the first evidence of intrinsic bioluminescence in primarily epidermal photophores Michael J. Ghedotti, Department of Biology, Regis University, 3333 Regis Boulevard, reported in ray-finned fishes. Denver, CO, 80221-1099, USA. Email: [email protected] KEYWORDS Funding information bioluminescence, deep-sea, histology, integument, photophores, Pseudoscopelus sagamianus, The work primarily was supported by funding Scombriformes from a Regis URSC Grant to M.J.G., a University of Kansas GRF allocation (#2105077) to W.L.S. and National Science Foundation grants (DEB 1258141 and DEB 1543654) to M.P.D. and W.L.S. provided monetary support.
    [Show full text]
  • Morphology and Significance of the Luminous Organs in Alepocephaloid Fishes
    Uiblein, F., Ott, J., Stachowitsch,©Akademie d. Wissenschaften M. (Eds), Wien; 1996: download Deep-sea unter www.biologiezentrum.at and extreme shallow-water habitats: affinities and adaptations. - Biosystematics and Ecology Series 11:151-163. Morphology and significance of the luminous organs in alepocephaloid fishes Y. I. SAZONOV Abstract: Alepocephaloid fishes, or slickheads (two families, Alepocephalidae and Platytroctidae), are deep-sea fishes distributed in all three major oceans at depths of ca. 100-5000 m, usually between ca. 500 and 3000 m. Among about 150 known species, 13 alepocephalid and all (ca. 40) platytroctid species have diverse light organs: 1) postcleithral luminous gland (all platytroctids); it releases a luminescent secredon which presumably startles or blinds predators and allows the fish to escape; 2) relatively large, regulär photophores on the head and ventral parts of the body in the alepocephalid Microphotolepis and in 6 (of 14) platytroctid genera. These organs may serve for countershading and possibly for giving signals to other individuals of the same species; 3) small "simple" or "secondary" photophores covering the whole body and fins in 5 alepocephalid genera, and a few such structures in 1 platytroctid; these organs may be used for Camouflage in the glow of spontaneous bioluminescence; 4) the mental light organ in 2 alepocephalid genera from the abyssal zone (Bathyprion and Mirognathus) may be used as a Iure to attract prey. Introduction Alepocephaloid fishes, or slickheads, comprise two families of isospondyl- ous fishes (Platytroctidae and Alepocephalidae). The group is one of the most diverse among oceanic bathypelagic fishes (about 35 genera with 150 species), and these fishes play a significant role in the communities of meso- and bathypelagic animals.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction; Environment & Review of Eyes in Different Species
    The Biological Vision System: Introduction; Environment & Review of Eyes in Different Species James T. Fulton https://neuronresearch.net/vision/ Abstract: Keywords: Biological, Human, Vision, phylogeny, vitamin A, Electrolytic Theory of the Neuron, liquid crystal, Activa, anatomy, histology, cytology PROCESSES IN BIOLOGICAL VISION: including, ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE NEURON Introduction 1- 1 1 Introduction, Phylogeny & Generic Forms 1 “Vision is the process of discovering from images what is present in the world, and where it is” (Marr, 1985) ***When encountering a citation to a Section number in the following material, the first numeric is a chapter number. All cited chapters can be found at https://neuronresearch.net/vision/document.htm *** 1.1 Introduction While the material in this work is designed for the graduate student undertaking independent study of the vision sensory modality of the biological system, with a certain amount of mathematical sophistication on the part of the reader, the major emphasis is on specific models down to specific circuits used within the neuron. The Chapters are written to stand-alone as much as possible following the block diagram in Section 1.5. However, this requires frequent cross-references to other Chapters as the analyses proceed. The results can be followed by anyone with a college degree in Science. However, to replicate the (photon) Excitation/De-excitation Equation, a background in differential equations and integration-by-parts is required. Some background in semiconductor physics is necessary to understand how the active element within a neuron operates and the unique character of liquid-crystalline water (the backbone of the neural system). The level of sophistication in the animal vision system is quite remarkable.
    [Show full text]
  • Mimicry - Ecology - Oxford Bibliographies 12/13/12 7:29 PM
    Mimicry - Ecology - Oxford Bibliographies 12/13/12 7:29 PM Mimicry David W. Kikuchi, David W. Pfennig Introduction Among nature’s most exquisite adaptations are examples in which natural selection has favored a species (the mimic) to resemble a second, often unrelated species (the model) because it confuses a third species (the receiver). For example, the individual members of a nontoxic species that happen to resemble a toxic species may dupe any predators by behaving as if they are also dangerous and should therefore be avoided. In this way, adaptive resemblances can evolve via natural selection. When this phenomenon—dubbed “mimicry”—was first outlined by Henry Walter Bates in the middle of the 19th century, its intuitive appeal was so great that Charles Darwin immediately seized upon it as one of the finest examples of evolution by means of natural selection. Even today, mimicry is often used as a prime example in textbooks and in the popular press as a superlative example of natural selection’s efficacy. Moreover, mimicry remains an active area of research, and studies of mimicry have helped illuminate such diverse topics as how novel, complex traits arise; how new species form; and how animals make complex decisions. General Overviews Since Henry Walter Bates first published his theories of mimicry in 1862 (see Bates 1862, cited under Historical Background), there have been periodic reviews of our knowledge in the subject area. Cott 1940 was mainly concerned with animal coloration. Subsequent reviews, such as Edmunds 1974 and Ruxton, et al. 2004, have focused on types of mimicry associated with defense from predators.
    [Show full text]
  • Vision-In-Arthropoda.Pdf
    Introduction Arthropods possess various kinds of sensory structures which are sensitive to different kinds of stimuli. Arthropods possess simple as well as compound eyes; the latter evolved in Arthropods and are found in no other group of animals. Insects that possess both types of eyes: simple and compound. Photoreceptors: sensitive to light Photoreceptor in Arthropoda 1. Simple Eyes 2. Compound Eyes 1. Simple Eyes in Arthropods - Ocelli The word ocelli are derived from the Latin word ocellus which means little eye. Ocelli are simple eyes which comprise of single lens for collecting and focusing light. Arthropods possess two kinds of ocelli a) Dorsal Ocelli b) Lateral Ocelli (Stemmata) Dorsal Ocellus - Dorsal ocelli are found on the dorsal or front surface of the head of nymphs and adults of several hemimetabolous insects. These are bounded by compound eyes on lateral sides. Dorsal ocelli are not present in those arthropods which lack compound eyes. • Dorsal ocellus has single corneal lens which covers a number of sensory rod- like structures, rhabdome. • The ocellar lens may be curved, for example in bees, locusts and dragonflies; or flat as in cockroaches. • It is sensitive to a wide range of wavelengths and shows quick response to changes in light intensity. • It cannot form an image and is unable to recognize the object. Lateral Ocellus - Stemmata Lateral ocelli, It is also known as stemmata. They are the only eyes in the larvae of holometabolous and certain adult insects such as spring tails, silver fish, fleas and stylops. These are called lateral eyes because they are always present in the lateral region of the head.
    [Show full text]