TH E H I STO RY O F TH E JEWS

B Y

fid t t at h menta l J B E 39 . b ) , iBb

PROFES S OR WI H I T RY AND LI T RAT RE OF J E S H S O E U , B RE I LL G I I ATI W C C C o. HE UN ON O E E, N NN ,

S ECOND EDI TI ON Revised a nd E n la rged

NEW YORK BLOCH PUBLI SHING COMPANY “ ” TH E J EWI SH B OOK CONCERN PYRI G T 1 1 0 1 2 1 CO H , 9 , 9 , B LOCH PUBLISHI NG COM PANY

P re ss o f % i J . J L t t l e I m . 86 ve s Co p a n y w rk Y U . S . Ne . o , A TAB LE OF CONTENTS

CH APTE R PAGE

R M TH E AB YL I A APTI VI TY 86 B C To I . F O B ON N C , 5 , TH E TR CTI TH E EC D M PL DES U ON OF S ON TE E, 0 7 C E .

R M TH E TR CTI R AL M 0 TO II . F O DES U ON OF JE US E , 7 , TH E MPL TI TH E I A CO E ON OF M SH N H ,

II - I . ERA TH E ALM D 200 600 OF T U ,

Religiou s Histo ry o f t h e Era

IV. R M TH E I LA M 622 TO TH E ERA F O R SE OF IS , , OF TH E R AD 1 0 6 C US ES , 9

Literary Activity o f t h e P erio d

- V. TH E W R P 1 0 0 1 2 1 JE S OF EU O E, 4 5

Spirit ual Lif e o f t h e P erio d

VI - . RI D OPPR I 1 2 1 1 2 PE O OF ESS ON , 5 49

ewi h it era t ur e irt een t o Fi een J s D , Th th ft th Cen tury

- VII . TH E RI D MPR VE M T 1 2 1 1 PE O OF I O EN , 49 79

I ntellect ual a n d Literary Lif e

V I T I I . H E PERIOD OF E MA NCI PATI ON FRO M 1 791

Culture in t h e Nin et een t h Cen tu ry

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITI ON

TH ERE are two main difficul ties confronting the

i o . histor an , when he attempts to write hist ry He w : must al ays ask himself , First Are the facts which I o : DO find rec rded really facts , and second I interpret “ o % i in o d u Con them c rrectly Th ers , his Hist ire

1 . 1 185 . 7 o f sulat, Paris , , Vol XI , p , speaks the o f o enthusiasm with which the Jews P rtugal , who numbered received the French tro ops in 1809. There were perhaps n o t t wo hundred Jews living in o i n o P rtugal at that t me , and they played part in pub ff t o o o lic a airs . In an address the c nventi n of the m o o o Order Brith Abraha , May r Gayn r , of New Y rk , “ o n 15 1910: said May , The great Frederick issued a general privilege , and declared it as a maxim , that Oppressi o n O f the Jews never brought prosperity to o o n ot o l any state , and Nap le n nly fol owed the same ” o c urse but co nvo ked the Sanhedrin . The facts are or o is on in the main c rect, but the presentati n all wr g . “ ” Frederick issued his Revidierte Gen e ra lprivilegium o f 17 1750 Of April , , for the Jews Prussia , but it is based o n the mediaeval idea of restrictio ns in the mos t o f n elementary rights human beings . His sentime t with regard t o the Jew s is evident fr o m a letter which o t o von H o- m 17 1780 he wr te the Minister y , May , , in “ which he says : I f the Jews were expelled and Chris o o tians w uld take their places as innkeepers , it w uld fo r o o o w e o be the g d o f the c untry , and w uld have ” mo re human beings and less Jews (Mona t ssch/rift u er d ie Geschich t e un d Wiss ens ch a - t d es J u d m t u m f f , 1 895 . o o o on , p Nap leon had by the c nv cati of “ ” the Assembly o f Jewish N o tables and the sub se 1806— 1807 quent Sanhedrin , , insulted the Jews . The o f 27 1791 law September , , had declared them as citi 5 6 PREFACE

n o ze s , and he asked them whether they c nsidered

France as their fatherland , and when these and simi lar questio ns were answered in the affirmative with i ro - o o-f o o n evert h e emphat c p testati n l yalty, Napole n less reintro duced the mediaeval principle o f Jewish dis abilities by issuing laws restricting Jews in do ing o o o business on credit . The facts qu ted by May r Gayn r m pro ve the Oppo site o f what he wished t o pro ve by the . These instances taken fro m Jewish hist ory co uld be multiplied endlessly fro m every peri o d and every sec ’ io o f w o o i o con t n the rld s hist ry . Jew sh hist ry has to w on d ifficu lt ies o tend with t o additi al . It extends ver o f i o o every part the civil zed w rld , but it lacks chr no o a t i m t o o l gical sequence , least unt l we co e m dern o if m times . An ther d ficulty is tha t it deals with al o st w o f every kno n spiritual activity mankind , The stu in t o w h o o dent , order understand Je is hist ry , sh uld kno w the constantly shifting b o undary lines. o f the i o a n i 1870 Ital an states fr m medi eval times u t l , and he S h o uld kn o w s o mething o f the mo rph o lo gical theo ries o f w o f o o o Hebre grammar and sch lastic phil s phy . These difficulties make themselves especially felt in n o o o f a brief manual , and , d ubt, every teacher Jew o r ish hist ry must have had such an expe ience . The 93 a Rabbis (Sanhedrin , b) find fault with Nehemi h fo r o o f or o f having sp ken ill his predecess s in fice (Neh . d o n ot re V , I wish to incur the same censure . It mains fo r the student and the teacher wh o use my b o o k t o j udge whether I improved upo n my pred eces i s o rs . My o bj ect was to place n the hand o f the stu wh o a on dent , is guided by capable teacher, a c cise an d yet readable manual o f the wh o le p o st —biblical o c hist ry . The bibli al peri o d I intenti o nally omit ih o t o o o o o ted , rder av id c ntested gr und and t allo w the b o o k t o be used in all scho o ls regardless o f o ff d gmatic di erences . OTT R E T H G HA D D U S C . C T 0 1910 CIN IN NA I , , July, . PREFACE TO SECOND EDITI ON

IT is not frequent that an auth o r on any Jewish subj ect receives the enco uragement o f a demand fo r o o f o o m o f a second editi n his b k . My volu e Jewish t o i in histo ry which is again submitted the publ c , e a o f re t nded primarily as manual instruction , is vised ch iefly by being bro ught up t o date . This re visi o n became necessary o wing t o the great changes which the Wo rld War has produced in Central and n o t o o t o o Eastern Eur ope . Desiring t enlarge the b ok o o much , I have added merely the m st imp rtant facts and names in modern Jewish histo ry . In the chap l o o o in ters dea ing with the lder ep chs , nly a few n sig ificant additions have been made . Other changes m for are merely textual . It still re ains the intelligent t o x o o teacher e plain the facts given in the b k which , o f o by the very nature its intenti n , makes dry read ing for the uninitiated . o n o h o w t o Every hist ry, matter large, is bound be o o o o selective . My b k , theref re , like every ther on O t o t o the subj ect, will be pen criticism in regard

o o . o missi ns In the m dern period especially , I have no o o o n e o d ubt that s me will find certain names mitted , but I have conscientio usly weighed the questio n in every instance and believe t o have been impartial and t o have dese rved fro m fair - minded critics the Tal mud ic co mpliment— that an auth o r is to be com mended b o th fo r what he includes and for what he excludes . OTT R E T G HA D D U S C H .

T C O . 1 20 9 . CIN IN NA I , , November ,

H ISTO RY OF THE J EWS

CHAPTER I

FR OM TH E B AB YLONIAN CAPTIVITY ( 5 8 6 TO THE E DE S TRUCTI ON OF THE S ECOND TEMPLE (7 0 C . . )

ALEST E P IN , the buffer state between Egypt and o o m w Mes p ta ia , the two rival po ers of the ancient o o o f O fo r w rld , was an imp rtant base perations all

o o o o . c nquerors , and its p ssessi n was eagerly s ught 722 B C o o f In , King Sarg n Assyria conquered the i o o o f . o n rthern part, the k ngd m Israel The s uthern o ro part, the kingd m of Judah , was at that time p ’ t ect ed by Assyria s rising and already powerful rival , b the Babylo nian empire . When Babylonia had e ’ o o f o o m ud aea s c me the mistress Mes p ta ia , J doom was an d 586 sealed , in Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and made all o f Palestine a pro vince o f his large empire . o f With the death Nebuchadnezzar, the great Baby o 539 l nian empire declined rapidly , and in , Cyrus , the

o f o f o King Persia, captured the city Babyl n , and became the master o f the wh o le o f the Babylo nian f h so o . o i empire , and Palestine He was fav rably clin ed t o t o the Jews , and gave permission the descend 9 10 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

ants o f the exiles fro m Palestine t o return t o the land o f o o f their fathers . Only a few th usand made use o f this , and returned under the leadership Zerubbabel ,

o f o o f o f a descendant the H use David , and Joshua o i ben Jeh zadak , the high priest . O f the r ght to build

e n o the Temple they mad use for the time , but erected instead an altar on the site o f the fo rmer

o Of o edifice . The devel pment the new c mmonwealth , o o h wever , was sl w , until Ezra , a man learned in the la w o , and , therefore, called the Scribe, returned fr m

I o Babylo nia n 458 B C . and taught the pe ple the law o f i 5 B Go d . o 44 C He was j ned in . by Nehemiah, b o f i wh o the cup earer the Persian K ng Artaxerxes , received permission fro m his ruler t o go t o Palestine

s w o . and assi t Ezra in his rk He succeeded , after

f i o f m many di ficult es , in rebuilding the walls Jerusale

n ew o o n o and giving the c mmunity a firm rga izati n . ’ 2 B o In 43 C. he returned to his p st at the King s o n o C urt, but upo learning that the new c mmunity ff o if was su ering fr m many d ficulties , he returned again t o t o h i o Palestine finish s w rk there . There was in Egypt an o ld Jewish pop ulation pro b a t o o f i wh o ably dating b ck the time Jerem ah , led s o me Jew s fro m Palestine t o Egypt after the d est ru c i f c o o . o o t n the Temple D uments , disc vered in the Elephantine Island in the Upper Nile betw een the 1898 1908 i m o years and , and wr tten in Ara aic, pr ve that Jew s lived in Assuan partly as a military co lony

fro m the time when Egypt was under Persian rule . They p o ssessed a synago gue and were in co ntact with

i o or s the rel gi us auth itie in Palestine . Far mo re imp o rtant is the pro spero us and cultured HI STORY OF THE JEWS 11

n Jewish community in Alexa dria , which reached great imp o rtance after the co nquest of the Orient by Alex i ander the Great . Its members were h ghly cultured , speaking the Greek language and knowing the Bible mo o f a u o nly in Greek . A ng them were a number im thors writing on vario us subj ects . The most p o rtant member of this class o f writers was Philo (20 B — 0 o o n o o o C. 5 . whose w rks phil s phy, m stly devoted to the defence of Judaism against the a t t o o tacks o f Greek authors , are this day an imp rtant mo nument o f this epoch and they have undoubtedly

o o n o f c ntributed greatly to the devel pme t Christianity , helping t o bring ab o ut a harmonization between Juda ism and Greek culture .

e s It se ms that the Jew lived in peace , for during o the foll wing century, while they were under Persian

o o . rule , nly two incidents are rec rded In the reign o f x Och us 358—337 B C Arta erxes III , ( ) , th e Jews rebelled ; but the king defeated them near Jerich o

b o and sent the re els t o Hyrcania into exile . Ab ut o the same time the high priest, J hanan , killed his

o o a n d br ther , J shua, in the Temple , the Persian gov ern o r fined the Jews very heavily . No t lo ng afterwards the mighty Persian empire was o 333 B C t h e c nquered by Alexander the Great ( ) , and

Jews passed under the rule o f the Macedonian king . ’ There are vario us legends about Alexander s kind on e ness to the Jews , especially which states that he o i sh wed great respect to the h gh priest . There is also a rep o rt that he exempted the Jews from paying in taxes the Sabbatical year . His immense empire fell o t pieces soon a fter his early death , and various 12 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o o f generals f ught for a portion the inheritance, each expecting t o beco me the successo r o f t h e great con

u ero r o d q . Palestine with Syria was first ccupie by o m wh o o r Pt le y, f unded the dynasty named afte him

2 B o t o in Egypt in 3 0 C . He l st it another general ,

o 315 B C wh o Antig nus ( ) , was defeated by Seleucus o f 312 B C at the battle Gaza ( ) , after which the king m o d o o f Syria with Anti o ch as its capital was f unded . The Syrians co unted their era fro m this date an d

o m u the Jews ad pted this custo , keeping it p until late

a . n in medi eval times The struggle co tinued until , in 301 B C o f , the battle Ipsus decided the issue in favo r o-f Pto lemy and Pal estine was un ited with Egy pt until Anti o chus III o f Syria annexed it to his d o min o 1 8 B i ns in 9 C. The Jews seem t o have been treated with fairness

oc E i h an es 175 - 164 B C until Anti hus IV, p p ( ) , suc c eed e l e d his father . The atter had be n defeated by o o f a 189 B C an d the R mans in the battle Magnesi ( ) ,

Antiochus IV was sent as h o stage t o Ro me . Knowing that the Ro mans watched the growth o f the Syrian kingd o m with great j eal o usy lest it should beco me a t o o ol powerful rival , he tried c ns idate his states and for this reason wished t o remo ve everything w hich r kept the Jew s apart fro m their neighbo s . In his attempt t o Hellenize the Jews he was suppor ted by

n os t h e son o f o a party amo g them . J eph , T bias , and

o f the nephew Onias II , the High Priest, had already under the Egy ptian kings been app o inted tax col lecto r and was very powerful . He and his family sup p o rted the Syrian kings in their desire t o Hellenize the Jews . HI STORY OF THE JEWS - 13

o Sim n , a member o f this family , quarrelled with o the High Priest , Onias III , and in rder to revenge himself he info rmed the Syrian go vernment that the ai o Temple o f Jerusalem cont ned large treasures . Heli r fo r o dorus was sent to Je usalem, but some reas n o which legend has obscured by miracul us tales , he was prevented from loo ting the treasury . Onias was called to Antioch to an swer certain charges of dis o o o r l yalty, while his br ther Joshua , Jason as he f o o . o o called himself , t k his place Jas n fered Antiochus

o a higher tribute than his br ther had paid , and de cla red his willingness t o supp o rt the king in intro d ucin g Greek custo ms among the Jews . He became S o e o high priest, but h rtly afterwards M nelaus , an ther

o f o ff r o i member the family, e ed Anti chus a st ll higher ’ o tribute and was made high priest in Jas n s place . t o o Unable pay the sum he had promised , he appr pria t ed valuable pieces from the Temple treasury t o ’ f o bribe the King s o ficials . Onias repr ached him and n was assassinated upo his order . t h This fact embittered e Jews . Menelaus was in charged with sacrilege, but as he possessed great fluen ce the case was dismissed and his opponents were executed . These events enraged the Jews still o 170 B C . m re, and when in Antiochus was in Egy pt engaged in warfare, the Jews rebelled at the false

o report of his death . Antiochus returned and to k bitter revenge , pillaging the city and desecrating the

% . e o o Temple Two years later he sent his g neral , Ap ll nius , to punish the rebels and the latter did it in the o m st cruel manner . At the same time a strong f o rt was built in Jerusalem and the practice o f the Jewish 14 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS

o religion , particularly the bservance of the Sabbath an d o f t h e o ro the dietary laws , and the study T rah p h ib it ed on o t o , the gr und that they tended keep the o o Jews al of from their neighb rs . At the same time an a ltar to Zeus was erected in the Temple and o o i ther heathenish altars placed in vari us c ties . The Jews were co mpelled under penalty of death t o offer sacrifices t o the Greek gods . The pious people fled fro m Jer usalem into the wil ’ derness in order t o escape the fulfillment of the king s o o f o wh o rders . Among the leaders th se were deter mined rather to die than give up their religio n was Ma tt a t h ia h o f i H a smo , an aged priest the fam ly of the n i aean s . In the little to wn o f M o din he k lled a Jew wh o made preparations t o o ffer sacrifice on the hea t h en ish f altar , and an o ficer was sent to execute the ’

S n b o . king s decree . This was the ig al for re elli n

Ma t t a t h ia h o o had five s ns o f wh m Judah , called the c a t Mac abee , was the le der in ba tle . Judah gathered a small numb er o f the faithful aro und him an d suc ceed ed in defeating various generals and finally the V o o icer y , Lysias . Then he entered Jerusalem, rem ved all traces o f idolatry fro-m the Temple and rededicated o r od 165 B C o it t the se vice of G in . Sh rtly after in 164 B C o wards , , Anti chus IV died and was suc

eed ed oc om c by his son , Anti hus V , still a boy, for wh

Lysias go verned as regent . The last having many if t o o d ficulties c ntend with , granted the Jews religious o o freedom . He and the y ung king, h wever , were h soon killed , and Demetrius I , a nephew o f Antioc us

th e o 162 B C. IV, came to thr ne in Demetrius con tinued t o give the Jews religi ous free HI STORY OF THE JEWS 15

Alk mu s dom , but he appointed a high priest named y , o o so o wh m the pe ple disliked , and the rebelli n started h o 161 anew . Juda defeated the general Nikan r in B C , but a year later he fell in battle and was suc n ceed ed by his brother Jonatha . Meantime Syria was torn t o pieces amid constant rebellion caused by vari a a t o ous claim nts to the throne, each o f whom tried win the Jews over to his side in order t o obtain a o free hand in fighting his rivals . Thus J nathan was confirmed as high priest by the Syrian king (153 R C r o n ) , but late , being distrusted , was assassinated h o Tr on 143 B C . by the Syrian govern r, yp ( ) He was Ma t t a t h ia h succeeded by the last surviving son of ,

14 - 1 B o Simon ( 3 35 C ) . Sim n drove the Syrian gar ris o n fro m the fort at Jerusalem and was n ot o nly

o t h confirmed as high priest but also as ruler f e Jews . He manifested h is sovereignty by issuing co ins bearing his name . n t o The Roma s , who were glad see the power of o a the Syrian king weakened , f rmed an lliance with n o him , and so Israel was again an independe t nati n . o o o wn so n Sim n was assassinated by Pt lemy, his in - son o H rca nu law, and was succeeded by his J hn y s

135- 105 B C o -f ( ) , who assumed the title king and was at the same time the high priest . The Syrian o o kingd m became altogether dismembered , and J hn H rca n us o y , aided by the R mans , united under his sceptre not only the Jews living in Palestine but also conquered thos e parts o f the co untry which were in a habited by o ther nations . The Idum eans and the o o Samaritans were f rcibly c nverted to Judaism . With the growing power o f the n ew kingdom the religio us 16 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

life o f the ruling classes became weakened and the king alienated tho se people wh o had formerly b een the mo st zealo us supp o rters o f the Maccabaean re n wo o o n e o . T belli parties were f rmed , called the o Sadducees , after the High Priest Zad k , was in sym

r i pathy with the gove nment, wh le the other, the Phari o sees , became its pponent . The Pharisees (separatists) believed in freedom o nly as a means o-f pro tection o f o o o their religious life, and there f re pp sed the king, wh o wasted the resou rces o f the co untry in wars o f o c nquest .

H rca n us o y was succeeded by Arist bulus , his son , with who se reign a perio d of family feuds and palace o o intrigues began . He rdered his bro ther Antig nus to oo be killed and died s n afterwards , having reigned

n 1 - 1 4 B C o but o e year ( 05 0 ) . His success r was his ’ brother Alexan der Jannai (104- 78 B C ) Th e latter s highest ambiti on was t o beco me a conqueror and he carried o n co nstant but unsuccessful warfare with an d o Arabic chieftains , with the Egyptians and ther

o . o neighb rs The pe ple reb elled against him , but he o n quelled all uprisings with extreme cruelty , and on e occasio n had six tho usand pilgrims massacred in

o -f h the c urtyard o t e Temple . The Pharisees were

particularly the o bj ects o f his hatred .

e m Upon his death his wife , Salom Alexandra , ca e t o the throne (78- 69 She made peace with o o S h et a ch the Pharisees , wh se leader Sime n ben was o o f her br ther, and her reign was happier than that o t w o her husband . Up n her death she left o s ns ,

H rca n u s o o f o y II and Arist bulus , wh m the first was

o t o . to be high priest , while the sec nd was be king

18 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS

in t ed 42 B % s a C . ( ) His sons , however, remained in t h e power , and after battle o f Philippi they j oined wh o o n 42 o B C. Ant ny, c nfirmed them as gover ors ( ) so n o f n o w Antigonus , the Aristobulus , returned , as e o f sisted by the Parthians , enemi s Rome , and was

made high priest , combining again the dignity o f king

40- 37 t o o and high priest ( Herod fled R me , where he was a pp o inted King o f the Jews by the t o o Senate . Returning Palestine he defeated Antig nus an d reigned as king (37 - 34 H e married Mari o f H rca n u s o amne, the granddaughter y and Arist o i bulus , and app inted her brother, Ar stobulus , as high o priest . Becoming j ealous of his p pularity, he caused o him to b e assassinated so n afterward . ’ o n Her d s reig was marked by its splendor , but he

fo -r m was hated by the people his extre e cruelty . He m o f o ld had his wife , Maria ne , three his sons , the H rca n us o m High Priest y II , and various ther embers o o f his family, assassinated . His unp pularity grew in S pite o f the fact that the country was prosp ero us and

that he rebuilt the Temple in magn ificen t style . As a o f a o H rca n u descendant the Idum eans , wh m y s I had o t o o c nverted Judaism , he was c nsidered a foreigner who held his p o wer only thro ugh the assistance o f

o o R me . From this time the name Ed m became a

n o fo r o h sy nym R me in Jewis Literature . f o Herod le t three s ns , Archelaus , Herod Antipas ,

-m h i o s . and Philip, am ng who he divided empire Arche a m a laus received Jud ea , Sa aria and Idum ea . He was n f d t o reside in Jerusalem a d have the title o king . Hero x o -o a Antipas was given domini n ver Galilee and Per ea , a n d Philip received the n orthern district ; bo th were HI STORY OF THE JEWS 19

’ t o I n o m re be called Tetrarchs . Archelaus kingd a o o ut o o r volt br ke at nce , and pe ple we e killed o t o in the Temple co urtyard . When he went t Rome o btain co nfirmation o f his title ano ther rebellion broke o out because o f the cruelty o f the R man commander , and once more a great number of people were killed o s and the Temple sacked . Govern r Varu was called from Syria to quell the contest and did so with great o o cruelty . The R man Emper r Augustus confirmed Archelaus as rul er of Judaea but refused him the

l n t it e o f king ; he was merely called Ethnarch . U _ o o wh o able to contr l the pe ple , hated him , he was deposed and exiled to Gaul , and his land made a part o f o o i 6 C E the R man pr vince of Syr a ( ) . The Roman go vernors carried on an arbitrary and oppressive rule . A census ordered by Q uirin ius was bitterly resisted an d o o o alm st led to open rebelli n . A party o f Zeal ts

so-n was formed under the leadership o f Judah , the o f a o Hezeki h , whom Herod had executed . Their bj ect o o u fo r o was to verthr w the Roman r le , and this purp se they began a reign o f terro r aga inst all people who o were supp sed to be in sympathy with Rome, and assassinations were o f daily occurrence . o f o o n o One of the most cruel the R man g ver rs , Po ntius Pilate (26 in every p os sible way pro voked i o o n the relig us sentiments o f the people, and S o o the slightest h w of resistance, ordered wh lesale o f butcheries them . Many complaints were sent to

Rome and he was finally recalled . Under his admin ist ra t ion the execution o f Jesus is repo rted t o have 7 taken place . Emperor Caligula (3 a typical n o megaloma iac, rdered his bust placed in the Temple . 20 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

o o Petronius , the military c mmander , rep rted that it wa s impossible t o execute this o rder without driving

o o o on so u o the pe ple int pen rebelli , and Calig la m di fied his demand . Only his assassination prevented o o f o f an utbreak the people , He was a friend so n o f i o o n o f Agrippa , the Ar st bulus , and the grands

o Her d and Mariamne , and showered his favors upon o o f him . Agrippa was first app inted the successor o f 37 o his uncle Philip with the title king, in . Up n

o f o d the death Her d Antipas , Galilee was adde to

o or o his domini n , and finally Emper Claudius , up n his

t o o 4 1 a succession the thr ne in , gave him Jud ea also , so that he thus o btained the full heritage o f his grand

o . a o o f o father Her d While fav rite R me , Agrippa o o was bel ved by the pe ple, but he died in the prime 4 o 4 . of his life in His br ther Herod , who was his

o o o i o success r, p ssessed no ther r ght except to app int ’ the high priest ; similarly Agrippa s son , Agrippa II ,

o o while h n red with the title of king, had practically n F o r o o o . f p wer at the death Agrippa I , Palestine

o o was again placed under R man g vernors , seven o f Who m h eld office fro m 44 t o 66 and d id the i r utmo st t o drive the people into despair by cruel executi ons

o i o f i o and want n d sregard rel gi us feeling . The reign o f o i i o terr r cont nuing , a party called S carii , fr m Sica ,

s a dagger, which they alway carried under their gar ments fo r the punishment o f tho se wh o were sus

ect ed Ro- o p of man sympathies , ar se and spread anarchy o n all thr ugh the la d .

o o Ge ssius o The last of the g vern rs , Fl rus , was the h f o wo rst o f all w o held this o fice . His ext rtions and o o murders drove the pe ple int despair . Especially in HISTORY OF THE JEWS 21

ae C sarea , where the maj ority of the population was t o Greek, and constantly attacked the Jews , he re fused n m grant them protectio . Agrippa I I made an atte pt t o pacify the Jews and persuade them t o send a com mit t o ee t o o . R me , but with ut avail The daily sacri

fice o n behal f o f the Emperor was discontinued , which was the sign al fo r open rebellion o The Jews f rtified the Temple , captured several o o t m Cest ius R man f r s , including that of Jerusale , and o o f Gallus , the c mmander Syria, was defeated . Ves o f o pasian , the ablest general the R man army , was m placed in com and and began the war in Galilee , o where Flavius J sephus , the famous historian , was in command o f the revolutio nary fo rces Jos ephus ot a at was besieged in the fortress of J p , and , after f o f . o weeks hard fighting , surrendered In the fall 67 o f o all Galilee was in the hands of the R mans . In 68 Vespasian conquered the land east of the Jor m o f dan , while in Jerusale the reign terror continued and the Ze a l ot s wasted their fo rces in a bloody civil o o o o ut o war . Meantime a rev luti n had br ken in R me and Nero had co mmitted suicide Three em pero rs fo llowed each other in quick successi o n and the internal trou bles caused Vespasian t o tempo-rize in 6 o his warfare . But by 9 he had c nquered the whole land with the excepti o n o f Jerusalem and three forti fied o s cities held by the patri t . In this year he was

ro t o o proclaimed Empe r and went R me , leaving the

o o on w rk of c ntinuing the war to his s Titus . o f 70 Titus began the siege Jerusalem in April , , o and at nce the internal feuds ceased , the besieged o d ing their utmost to defend the place . Titus had 22 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

t h e . to take city step by step Finally, on August l 0th o f o , the Temple, the last retreat the patri ts , was o sto rmed and destr yed by fire . Those who survived intrenched themselves in the upper city and continued h r t o their resistance until September 7t . Acco ding o J sephus , perished in the war and were made captives and sold as slaves or taken t o the circus , where they were torn to pieces by wild beasts . om Seven hundred , selected fr the noblest families , were taken t o Rome t o be sho wn with the ho ly m h vessels captured in the Temple in the triu p al march . An arch o f triumph was erected as a memorial o f o n o vict ry , which is still sta ding in R me . Titus left the siege o f the three remaining fortresses to his o captains . They spent three m re years in reducing

73. them ; Massada , the last one, falling in The last defen ders o f the place killed themselves in order t o escape being taken alive by the Romans . Thus the o f o n last vestige the independent Jewish kingd m , fou d ed by the Maccabees , disappeared . CHAPTER II

FROM TH E DE S TRUCTION OP J E RUS ALEM ( 7 0) TO TH E COMPLETION OF TH E MLI S HNAH (200)

TH E destructi o n o f Jerusalem had throw n the Jew w o . ish people int a terrible crisis Although the Je s , o as individuals , did not fare w rse than during the pre

o n e a n o w ceding hundred and thirty years , Jud ea was

o f a province the Ro man Empire .

o o o f The nly new law , enf rced after the destruction o f o f t wo a Jerusalem , was that a special tax Drachm e , “ t o which every male had pay . This tax , called Fiscus ” ud a icu s o - S o J , to k the place of the half hekel f rmerly paid by every male Jew into the treasury o f the Tem t o on o f ple, according the Rabbinic interpretati the 11— 1 o 6. o o f Law in Ex dus xxx , S me the Jews were o o o t o w s ld int slavery ; s me went Rome, here they swelled the co ngregatio n existing there since the

o B C sec nd century , and where they had several

synago gues and cataco mbs used as cemeteries . Others t o o again emigrated Babyl nia , where a Jewish settle ment existed S ince the destructi o n o f Jerusalem by o r o n o Nebuchadnezzar, settled the northern c ast of i o f . Afr ca , and on the islands the Mediterranean o o Under D mitian , the br ther and successor o f Titus “ ” (8 1 the tribute of the Fiscus J ud a icus w a s i exacted with great sever ty . Domitian was altogether hostile to the Jews ; yet in his reign Jewish propa 23 24 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

in Ro- o n ganda increased me, and pe ple belo ging t o o f o on m the highest class s ciety, am g the Flavius o f Clemens , a nephew the Emperor, with his wife t o Clementina were converted Judaism . Flavius Clemens was put to death and his wife exiled fo r their o f o a change faith , as the R m n law co nsidered it a

Dio crime , and called it atheism . Cassius , the his o o f o o f o f eo- wh o t rian R me, speaks a class p ple were n ot n o Jews by desce t , but had ad pted the Jewish re li ion g . Similar proo fs o f the existence o f a Jewish propaganda are fo und in the New Testament (Mat e 25 th w xxiii , ) where the Pharisees are deno unced for i f o o the r e f rts in making c nverts , and in the daily

om o d o o n e service , c p se ab ut hundred , in which a

fo r ro- el t e ff special prayer the p s y s is o ered . “ Under Empero r Nerva (96- 98) the Fiscus J u ” d a icu s o o is said t have been ab lished . Under Traj an (98 seri o u s rebellio ns o f the

o Jews ccurred in Egypt , Cyprus , Cyrene (the present f o o o . o o Trip li) , and Mes p tamia Ab ut the causes the

o o f o o dis rder and the battles the rebelli n , we kn w

o . o n thing definite It may be said , h wever, that in all i o o o o n likel h d ppressive taxati n , cruel treatme t of the o o f on pe ple by the R man o ficials , and the traditi al en mity between the Jew s and the Greek - speaking popu lation o f the Orient were the causes o f this co nstant i t o c o . fri t n Traj an sent his general , Quietus , quell f o o o . the uprising, and made him g vern r Palestine The insurrectio n was still in pro gress when Hadrian came t o the thro ne (117 At first he was friendly o an d t o t ward the Jews began rebuild the Temple, by h which he hoped t o reconcile t em . This new Temple ,

26 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

i o wh o and gives a l st which , h wever, comprises men i iff l ved in d erent ages .

h o f o t o Wit the death Hadrian , and the successi n the throne o f Marcus Anto ninus Pius (136- 161) a fo r o o e o change the better t k plac . We are inf rmed

on io o f o that, up the representat ns pr minent Jews , Antoninus rep ealed the cruel l a ws passed by his pre decess o r . Jewish legends have preserved the n ame o f o o n e o Ant ninus Pius as of the m st benign of rulers , and they represent him as a cl o se personal friend o f

o f Judah the Patriarch , as a great admirer Judaism , and even as a secret co nvert . Only a few disconnected fa cts are known ab o ut w r the follo ing empero s . Under Marcus Aurelius , the

o o o 161 wh o in on e phil s phic auth r ( , instance o o f e o f speaks with c ntempt the Jews , we h ar a slave ,

m Ca llist us t o e- na ed , sentenced p nal servitude in the mines o f Sardinia fo r having disturbed the services o f

o a synag gue . Under S ept imius Severus (193 we learn o f th e i o o f partic pati n the Jews in a rebellion , and an

204 e on edict, passed in , declared conv rsi to Christian o It ity fr m Judaism a crime . was evidently intended t o f r o check the rapid pr gress o Christianity . Alexande Severus (222- 235) is said t o have been very favo rable o Ma mmaea wh o to the Jews , and his m ther, , was

o f n t o regent during the first years his reig , i s said have been favo rably inclined to ward the Jewish relig i n a o . Alexander had statue o f Abraham in his ro o m and o n the Wall was inscribed the fam o us saying o f “ is d o n ot o Hillel , What hateful unto thee, unt thy ” o neighbo r . The Jews o f R me had a synagogue HI STORY OF THE JEWS 27 which was named the Synago gue o f Severus in his hono r ; he presented to it a scrol l of the Torah which n o had bee br ught from Jerusalem . The mo bs in

o o Alexandria and Anti ch , ever h stile to the Jews , “ Arch s n a o o s called him y y g g , leader of the Syna o g gue .

o f t h e d est ruc The spiritual life the Jews , after o tion o f the Temple , received its strongest impetus fr m n n o Johana ben Zakkai , in Jabneh (Jam ia) , wh m leg end makes a disciple o f Hillel and a member o f the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem at the time o f the destructio n o f m the Te ple . Legend further says that he succeeded in escaping fro m Jerusalem during the siege at a time when the Zealo ts in the city wo uld n o t allo w any one

t o o to leave it , and that he came Vespasian , to wh m o o t o o o f o he pr phesied his elevati n the thr ne R me , fo r o f o t o which , out gratitude, the latter all wed him open a school and establish a Sanhedrin in Jabneh . m o f At any rate, Jabneh beca e the spiritual centre r Judaism at that time . Various o dinances , which t o Johanan ben Zakkai issued , Show his desire har mo n ize ancient tradition s with the co nditions as they

o f . developed after the destructi n o the Temple Thus , it is understo o d that he o rdered the Sho far to be o n blo wn in Jabneh , even if New Year fell a Sabbath this formerly had been done o nly in the Temple at

Jerusalem .

His successor was Gamaliel , usually called Gama o r m liel II , Gamaliel the elder , Ga aliel o f Jabneh (100 Traditio n makes him the great - grandson wh o i t o of the famo us Hillel , is sa d have been the presiden t of the Sanhedrin during the time of King 28 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o on Herod (Hillel , Sime n , Gamaliel , Sime , Gamaliel) . In the wo rk o f harmon izing tradition with the exi

en cies o f o o o g the time , Gamaliel f ll wed in the fo tsteps o o f J hanan ben Zakkai . His main activities consisted

o on o f o To in the rganizati public w rship. him is ascribed the intro ducti o n o-f the daily prayer (Te filla h o E sreh ) , the eighteen benedicti ns (Shemoneh ) , t o h e o n e o co n which later in his life added m re , o taining a petiti n against sectaries (Minim) . He o o o als c mp sed the grace after meals , and the Pass

o . o s ver Haggadah He further endeavored , in all p i t o o o f s ble ways , strengthen the auth rity the Presi

or o r dent Nasi Ab Beth Din o f the Sanhedrin , espe cia lly by claiming fo r himself the exclusive right to

n fix the calendar . In the interpretatio of the law he oo on t k a lenient attitude, insisting more the spirit than o n the letter . Opp o nents o f his hierarchical tendencies were Elie zer ben Hyrka n o -s and Jo shua ben Hananiah ; Akiba occupied an undecided positio n between the two par

e t o or ties . Eliezer, who se ms have b een fav ably

o ob t t o inclined t ward Christianity , j ec ed a fixed ritual , but o therwise was rigorou s in his interpretation of

o the law , and a firm believer in the auth rity of tradi

o o o rt ti n . Fr m bscure and legendary repo s we learn

o m i o that he was exc m unicated by Gamal el , his br ther in - os o o o law . J hua was str ngly pp sed to Christianity ,

t o o f and the hierarchical tendencies Gamaliel , and

m o o o his harsh treat ent by the latter caused pp siti n , with the result that Gamaliel was remo ved fro m office and Eleazar ben Ab a ria h app o inted in his place . HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 29

o But later on a reconciliation to k place , and Gamaliel was reinstated . o f Akiba , the disciple Eliezer , was the strictest o f opponent Christianity, and especially o f the prin ci le o p which declares that the law is merely a symb l , and also of the demand that the Jews give up their l v O o o nationa distincti eness . His pp siti n to the sym b olic interpretation of the law led him into its literal o interpretation , based on the view that every w rd and letter o f the To rah must be explained inde n o f o pende tly the context . He was also a zeal us ’ o f io e advocate Israel s nat nal independ nce , and so became the spirit ual leader o f the Bar Ko chb a re “ o o belli n . When he said , Thou shalt l ve thy neigh b o r as thyself ; this is the fundamental principle o f ” o the Torah , he pr bably gave expression to his na t ion alist ic or t o sentiments . Evidently in der accentuate ’ t h e o f o i universality Judaism , Sime n ben Azai , Ak ba s “ oo contemporary, says that the words , This is the b k ” o f o o f the generati ns Adam , are the fundamental prin ’ ci les o f o o f in p the T rah . Rabbi Akiba s principle t er ret in on o p g the Torah was opposed by his c temp rary , m wh o o Rabbi Ish ael , says the T rah speaks the lan

o-f guage men ; that is , every text must be explained

o-f by its context . An important figure that time Ab u ah wh o seems to have been Elisha ben y , is called o o Acher the Ap state . The stories t ld o f him are legendary t o such an extent that it is impossible t o

o h o w o kn w much , i f any , hist rical fact underlies them . The uprising of Bar Ko ch b a and the subsequent u fo r pro hibition o f the study of the law interr pted , a 30 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o f i o o . o while , the devel pment rel gi us doctrine S on ,

o t o on o An however , after the successi n the thr e f t on in u s in 136 o f re Pius , , the study the law was

f om h . o w sumed A synod pr inent rabbis , o were o f mostly disciples Akiba , met at Usha , and passed

o o o t e several res luti ns , m stly in regard to civil law, quired by the exigencies o f the time . One o f these pro vides that every o n e shall give one- fift h o f his

o fo -r inc me to charity , thus diverting the two tithes o t o merly dev ted the sacrificial needs , the Levites or o t o o o o the po r, c mmunal requirements . An ther res lu tio n declared that every father was under the duty o f pro viding fo r his so n until the latter was twelve -l years o d . The spiritual leaders of this age were o H a la ft a Rabbi M eir, Judah bar Ilai , and J se bar , ’ o f o f wa s t o and the fice Nasi given Gamaliel s son , Simeo n ben Gamaliel 11 (140 The latter was so n u na in turn succeeded by his , J dah Ha si , called

Ra b b en u - H a kka d o sh wh o t o Rabbi , or , , according a

o o o n legend , was b rn n the day which Rabbi Akiba died (135 To him is due the compilati o n o f i the Mishnah o r compend um o f the Rabbinic law . The wo rd Mishnah is derived fro m Mish n eh To rah o f la w e o f o (repetition the ) , the nam Deuter nomy This compilati o n was preceded by o thers on a smaller d o n o t o scale which we p ssess . They are called , after o o f their auth rs , the Mishnah Rabbi Akiba , that of

o f . Rabbi Meir, and that Rabbi Nathan The obj ect of the co de co mpiled by Judah Hanasi was to co llect o i the whole o f the Rabbinic la w . The auth rit es fro -m fun d quoted in the Mishnah are called Tannaim, ,

i fo r s ha wa h which is the Arama c, , the latter being a HI STORY OF THE JEWS 31

o n ot word derived fr m Mishnah . The Mishnah was intended to be a code o f the law but a compendium w fo r . o o its study It was s n , ho ever , accepted as an

o o o f i t o o n infallible b k laws , and bel eved be based o early tradition dating back to M ses himself . CHAPTER III

E RA OF TH E TALMUD (200-600)

TH E con stant pro gress made by Christianity in Pal estime had an unfavo rable effect o n the condition o f the Jewish p opulation and the Jews began to emigrate o o in o o w t Babyl nia c nstantly gr ing numbers . The

u i o latter co ntry had , in the meant me , passed fr m the

o f n t o o f n eo — rule the Parthia s that the Persians , o r Parsees These having thr o wn o ff the yo ke o f o i f re gn invaders , acted like others under similar co nditio ns and intro duced a go vernment marked by io o o relig us and nati nal fanaticism, fr m which the w wh o wo r Je s suffered very severely . The Parsees ,

i ou n o t o t o an sh pped fire , w ld all w the Jews have y light o n the Sabbath during their peri o d o f mo urn

o o w ing, which c mprised the sh rtest inter days , and co nsequently the Hanukah lights were als o fo rbidden .

o o o i w e re An ther pr hibiti n , wh ch the Je s esp cially

i a i o f sented , was d rected ag nst the burial the dead , n o t o i io o-f all wed by the rel g n the Parsees .

m om o At the sa e time , the R an Empire , passing m re

o e o i o w and m re under Christian rul , became h st le t ard

io a 284—305 o the Jews . O f D cleti n ( ) it is rep rted w i o w that , hile he tried to suppress Chr stianity , he all ed

f w -rsh i o or the Jews freedo m o o p . An ther story rep ted o f t o e i him , the effect that h ordered Judah Hanas t o on t o appear before him the Sabbath , wishing 32

34 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS st a n t l o f mob y increasing attacks the . Such outbreaks o ccurred especially in the Greek cities o f the Orient . o o f Cyril , Bish p Alexandria, and St . Simeon , the i wh o fo r Styl te , years lived on a pillar , stirred up the religio us fanaticism o f the masses by setting them o f against the Jews . These attacks resulted in loss o life and p r perty, and when the emperors issued o rders demanding the punishment of the lawless ele o o ments , the ecclesiastic leaders c ndemned this acti n as the eviden ce o f partiality toward the Jews . Under Empero r Justinian (527- 565 ) we hear for t h e first time o f an interference with the internal religio us life o f the Jew s by the secular authorities . An edict o f th is Empero r pro hibited the reading o f the Deu t ero si o o s in the synag gue . The w rd is a literal trans

- o o f wo rd . lati n the Mishnah , but as the Mishnah could n ot o have been read in the synag gue, we must assume

t i o r that o her Rabbin c w o rks the Targum are meant . The Byzantine Empire frequently had wars with its o Persian neighb r, and one o f these which threatened t o be very critical occurred under Empero r Heraclius 622 t w h ( In his , the Je s at first sided wit the E o o n Persians , but when the mp er r his way to the n a m East appeared in Palesti e, he promised them an

o . nesty if they wo uld j in his cause . This they did o o On his return he br ke his pledge, the m nks assur

of o fo r o -f ing him the divine pard n this breach faith , and p un ished the Jews severely for their defection .

RELIGIOUS HIS TORY OF THE E RA

The p o sition o f the patriarch remained heredita ry fi in the house of Judah Hanasi , until the of ce was HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 35 abolished by the decree of Emperor Theod o siu s II (about The successors o f Judah Hanasi were

Gamaliel III , Judah II , Gamaliel IV, Judah III , Hillel

II , Gamaliel V, Judah IV, and Gamaliel VI . These

n o t o patriarchs , however , were pr minent as scholars , and while they were no minally the religious heads o f o f the community , the prerogatives of the president the schoo l of Tiberias were transferred t o a scho lar of i o prom nence . Thus Judah Hanasi himself app inted o his son Gamaliel as his success r before his death , but

Rabbi Hanina was named as president o f the scho o l . It is pro bable that the head o f this schoo l presided also o so ver the court sessions , that he was the Ab Beth as wh o rero a Din ; the N i , formerly exercised these p g t ives n , was the represe tative of the Jewish community o n nly throu gh the dig ity o f his o ffice . Prominent amon g the disciples o f Hanina were o Na a h a J hanan bar pp , Simeon ben Lakish , and Eleazar bar Pa d a t h (250 Even at this period the Mish nah was already considered revealed law , which the

r o . teache s c uld only explain , but not alter We there fo re very o ften find their names in the Talmud at the f o head o discussi ns of a passage in the Mishnah . They intro duced the perio d o f the Palestinian Amoraim o (interpreters of the law ) , as the scholars f llowing the era o f the Mishnah are called in contradistinct ion t o o f ow n the teachers the Mishnah , kn as Tannaim

o o o f o (legislat rs ) . To the scho l J hanan belong all prominent Palestinian rabbis of the succeeding genera h io o n h Ab b a u a . t n . Pr minent amo g t em is of C esarea He is known not merely as an exp ou nd er o f the law but as a co ntroversialist against Christianity . 36 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS

Tiberias co ntinued t o be the center o f Jewish S pirit

i m o f ou o ual life , and qu te a nu ber y ng sch lars from Babyl o nia came there t o finish their studies ; some o -f m i them re ained n Palestine . O f the teachers o f the

o o o . f urth century , little m re than their names is kn wn

o m on o w o t o Pr inently menti ed , h ever, is Rabbi J se , who m is as c ribed the final redaction o -f the Palestinian Talmud At abo ut this time H illel II gave up

o i i o f o l the nly tang ble priv lege the Nasi , the ann unce

o -f o ment o f the calendar . Instead ann uncing the leap year whenever it w a s necessary t o po stpo ne the

a o fo r . P ss ver, fixed rules the calendar were made By this arrangement it became unn eces sary t o keep the

o o w i o sec nd h lydays , h ch had been celebrated in th se places which the messengers o f the Nasi c o uld n ot

c ow rea h in time . Hillel ruled , h ever , that this practice

o o w e i ion n had bec me hall d by trad t , and that eve hence fo rth the Jew s living o utside o i Palestine sho uld

c t w o co ntinue t o elebrate o h lydays .

of o f When finally the fice patriarch was abolished , Palestine l o st its place as the spiritual center o f

o f i o Judaism . The study the law decl ned , and fr m the middle o f the fo urth century we find in Palestine

i n t o omi c or stud es co fined h leti al and exegetical w ks , i due in part t o the co ntro versies with the Christ ans .

o o f om S me their greatest teachers , such as Jer e, the

o o f o o f translat r the Bible int Latin , were disciples o o Pa lestinian rabbis . O f the h miletical explanati ns co llectio ns were made ; these are called Midrash . The o ldest o -f these col lecti on s is the Midrash Rabba t o

o i . Genesis , c mp led in the seventh century HI STORY OF THE JEWS 37

B AB YLONIA

o B C Alth ugh in the fifth century , Ezra is already m o o o f la w wh o o enti ned as an exp under the , had c me

o m o o i is t o fr Babyl n , alth ugh H llel said have arrived in Palestine als o fro m Babylon in the first century

o for o B C. o with a reputati n sch larship , and alth ugh Judah Hanasi is qu o ted as having said that the o nly o o i o man wh se superi r ty he ackn wledged was Huna ,

o f o n o o f the Exilarch Babyl n , we find distinct traces

o i literary activity in Babyl n unt l the third century . At that time t wo men were pro minent as sch o lars

o Abba Areka , called Rab , and Samuel . B th had spent i some time in Palestine , studying under Judah Hanas . Rab was a member o f the co mmittee which assisted

n m Judah H a n a si i the co pilatio n o f the Mishnah .

o i o Bef re he left Palest ne , he was rdained by Judah

o w Hanasi s me hat restrictedly , because it was a rule that the full prerogatives o f the members o f the Sanhedrin cou ld n o t be exercised o utside o f the H o ly

o f r o Land . Pr bably o this reas n Judah Hanasi refused t o o o io o m c nfer rdinat n up n Sa uel . Rab taught in h Ne a rd ea . o Sura , and Samuel in B th these places

r f i o were fo centuries the seats o pro m nent sch o ls .

m w a s o At this ti e , Rab c nsidered the greatest

o n m o authority ritual law , while Sa uel was c nsidered ’ i l io a learned in c vil a w . Rab s decis ns are ch racter ized o o o o f c by rig r us interpretati n the law , espe ially

m om o o as t o Passo ver . Sa uel acc m dated himself m re t o i o h im w e the spirit o f the t mes . Fr m have the famo us decisi o n which makes the civil law o f the country binding upon the Israelites as a religious obli 38 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

i n o gat o . He als partly abolished tho se laws of the i o o o Sabbatical year wh ch had bec me bs lete , such as

the cancellati o n o f debts . He also declared that the on o f o celebrati the sec nd ho lydays was unnecessary . He further laid down the principle that the Messianic prophecy merely meant the political independence o f n o t o o f the Jews , and a change in the conditi n

humanity . To the next generation (250— 300) bel on g Nahman o wh o o o o bar Jac b, ref rmed the legal pr cedure by intr d ucin g an oa th in cases where fo rmerly n o oath had Hisd a S h esh et h been necessary , Huna , , and Judah bar o f o o Ezekiel , the last wh m was the f under of the new o o Pumb ed it h a o sch l of , subsequently the m st promi nent o f all Babylo nian schools existing until the mid

f o f dle o the eleventh century . The characteristics this age were the growth of dialecticism , Pilpul , and To the neglect o f biblical studies . the succeeding generati o n belong Rabba bar Na h ma n i an d Rab o Jo seph . The latter is kn own as the author or c mpiler o f u the Aramaic translation of the prophets (Targ m) , o o m re a paraphrase than a translati n . In fh e succeeding generation we have (350- 380) Ab a e o j and Raba, wh se teachings are quoted as the o mo st prono unced type o f keen dialecticism . The m st impo rtant of Babylonian Amoraim is Rab Ashe (350—431) who co mpiled the co mmentaries and the o o n so m disc urses the Mishnah , and beca e , with his successor Rabina (died the compilers of the o o f r Babyl nian Talmud . The successors these teache s o are called Saboraim (reas ners ) . O f their chronology and work we kno w nothing with exactness except that HISTORY OF THE JEWS 39 they lived during the sixth and in the early part o f the

n - o f seventh century . They arra ged the subj ect matter t o the Talmud , which they divided into chapters and o which they added s me explanatory remarks . CHAPTER IV

F R OM TH E RIS E OF IS LAM (622) TO THE ERA OF THE CRUS ADES ( 1 09 6)

JE WS had been living in Arabia l ong befo re the time o f o - M hammed , perhaps as early as the pre Christian

- . o o f i f s era Their m de l fe was like that o the Arab . w i o o They ere d vided int tribes , and had f rtified places t o whic h they retreated in cas e o f feuds with their i or Arab ne ghb s . Like the Arabs they had thei r war

o wh o o o ri rs , were at the same time p ets . A fam us man fro m the time preceding M o hammed is Samuel

A i h n ibn d j a . He is kno wn amo g the Arabs as a faith

n C o n e o f ful friend , because whe an Arab hieftain ,

o o his friends , s ught refuge in his f rtress , he allowed

son wh o o f t h e his , was in the hands enemy, to be i i k lled rather than del ver the fugitive into their hands .

o o M hammed had frequent interc urse with the Jews , and received fro m them the first impetus t o fou nd a n ew religi on in place o f the crude w o rship o f the o ld

-n Arabs . He laid particular stress o converting the t o o t o Jews the new religi n , which was be a universal

o F o-r o o o o f the cracy . this purp se he ad pted s me the w o o o f o i Je ish ideas , cust ms , and m des w rsh p, the

o o o -f strict m n theistic idea , the fast Yom Kippur and

ow . the turning t ard Jerusalem in prayer The Jews , o w o f h ever , were fended at his sensuality , and ridiculed

f r r o him o his igno ance . He theref re became their 40

42 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o n o mob all w inj ustice to be done them, and when a in o o 5 19 Ravenna destr yed a synag gue in , he ordered the city t o make restitutio n ; fo r this he was severely cen o sured by Ambr sius , the Bishop of Milan . The Jews held the rule o f the Go ths t o be preferable t o that o f t wo the Byzantines , and in the war between these

o w ov o f o p ers , which ended with the erthr w o the G thic o 555 o kingd m ( ) they aided the f rmer , and their bravery in defending the city o f Naples was highly praised by Greek historians . After a short p e rio d o f dominati o n by the B yza n

' on tines , the L gobards , another German tribe, con n ot quered Italy in 568 . They d o seem t o have taken o n any interest in the Jews , as their g ver ment was o f o wn o Th e restricted to members their nati nality . o Jews , as Roman citizens , were under the auth rity of o the R man government, which , as the Byzantines could not exercise any authority, was left almost entirely in o o f o the hands of the Bish p R me , the high est local o o o f o o dignitary . Fr m the rec rds this peri d , we p ssess info rmation as t o the attitude o f Pope Gregory I ff i (590 in dealing with Jewish a airs . Wh le naturally not in sympathy with the Jews , he insisted o that they be treated fairly . Thus , he rdered that a o o r t o cr ss , which a Jewish c nve t Christianity had

o t o e placed in a synag gue spite the J ws , be removed , and when a synagogue had been co nverted into a o m t o o church , he rdered an inde nity paid its f rmer o wners . But he very o ften censured the Frankish kings fo r all o wing the Jews t o hold public offices and t o keep Christian slaves . HI STORY OF THE JEWS 43

FRANCE

The Mero vingian kings wh o co nquered Ancient Gaul in 496 were the first of the Germanic rulers t o adopt the Roman Catho lic religion . All the others were

Arians . In the S ixth century they treated the a Priscu s Jews kindly ; we hear of a Jew n med , a favorite of King Hilperic (561 whom that king loved so well that he wished him co nverted to Chris i o n e o o Priscu t ian t y . On ccasi n s discussed religious o o f pr blems very freely in the presence the King, with o o a n d Bishop Greg ry of T urs , criticized Christian o f n o dogmas fearlessly . In spite the represe tati ns of o u P pe Gregory I , the Frankish kings entr sted the Jews o fli ces o with , such as tax collector, and all wed them h ow to deal in Christian slaves . Church councils , ever, as early as. the fifth century , legislated against social interco urse betwee n Christians and Jews .

S PAN

o The Visig ths , who ruled over Spain , treated the

Jews worse than any other nati o n at that time . All a o the medi eval disabilities , such as the seclusi n of the Jews in certain quarters and the restrict ion o f their o worship , had their origin in that c untry . Frequently we hear o f a law proh ibiting the holding o f Christian o slaves by Jews . Repeatedly Jews were c nverted by

oc o . force, and casi nally whole communities expelled Bisho p Isido re o f Seville (560- 630) wrote a boo k “ entitled Against the Jews , which was widely read n f m and tra slated into di ferent langu ages . His exa ple wa s th imitated in later times . In e Frankish king 44 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS d o m A ob a rd o o f o 8 14 o , g , Archbish p Ly ns ( wr te

o o o n w o f S ow five b ks the Je s , the titles which h his “ ” “ ° ol o f animus On the Ins ence the Jews , On the Necessity o f Guarding Against Having Co mpany with ” w o o o Je s , etc . He pp sed the law which pr hibited the baptism o f heathenish Slaves ow ned by Jews and agi t a t ed fo r i m w a s their s o c al seclusio n . Si ilar the liter

o f o o o o f on 84 1 ary activity Am l , Archbish p Ly s ( wh o w r ote a b o o k against the Jews and dedi ca t ed it t o Empero r Charles III . Charlemagn e (768- 8 14) is rep o rted t o have called Kalo nymus of Lucca t o Mayence as chief rabbi o f all the Jews o f Germany ; but this rep o rt is legendary .

w t o Equally unauthentic are la s ascribed Charlemagne , amo ng them the o n e imp o sing up o n the Jews an ign o ’ o o f o f so n mini us f rm o o ath . A law Charlemagne s Lo uis (814 required the markets t o be held o n Sundays in or der t o make it po ssible fo r the Jews t o attend them . w o w fl o The Je s in th se days ere chie y traders , imp rt o f o or ers merchandise fr m f eign lands , and slave

on o f o dealers , and acted as the pi eers c mmerce in the

o o f o c untries Western and Northern Eur pe .

LI TE RARY ACTI VITY OF TH E PERI OD

The impro vement in the conditi on o f the Jews o f

wi o o f Spain , which began th the Arabic c nquest that o 7 11 c untry in , made itself felt in their literary

E s ec ia ll a activity . p y w s this the case in the Caliphate o f o o 912 C rd va , under Abderrahman ( At his ou S h a rut os t o o c rt , Hasdai ibn p r e pr minence , and , o a o o f t h e like the M h mmedan n bles time , gathered HI STORY OF THE JEWS 45

m o f i o o around him a nu ber em nent auth rs and sch lars . Amo ng them were Menahem ben Saruk and Dun a sh

La b ra t wh o i o o fo r scien ibn , first la d the f undati n a w t ific Hebrew grammar . Their disciples ere Judah

Ha u n . y g and Merva ibn Ganah , called Marinus The o f center Jewish learning still remained in Babylonia ,

% o where, after the c nquest o f the Persians by the

o o f o o . M hammedans , a revival learning t k place The two principal scho ol s were tho se o f Sura and

Pumb ed it h a o f w a s , and at the head each a president ,

Resh M e’t h ib t a o n e . The at Sura was the higher in o rank , and was called Ga n (excellency) , a title which later was transferred t o the president o f the scho o l in

m h o f o t o Pu b ed it a . The functi n o the Ga n was preside o ou o f ver the regular c rse studies , Sidra , and the o io o p pular extens n c urse called Kalla, held twice a year in the months p receding the Pass o ver and the fall o o festivals . He further rendered decisi ns in imp rtant

t o o f w o cases submitted o him fr m all parts the rld . A number o f co llections o f these decision s called

T h n o - n es ub o t o d o w t o . (Resp sa) , have c me us They r b are written partly in Aramaic and pa tly in Ara ic, according t o the language in which the questio n was written .

o o r The Ga n licensed rabbis , j udges , as they were

t io w a s t o called , because their chief func n act as j udges o in civil cases . These licenses were end rsed by the

o o f com Exilarch , Resh Galutha , the p litical head the mun it ies o or in Babyl nia , representing them bef e the

o n o on o g vernme t and app inting the Ga . The f rmer, in

o of turn , was app inted by the Caliph , and his fice was hereditary as a rule . The o ldest literary w o rks o f the 46 HI STORY OF THE JEWS period are co llections o f laws regarding matters o f o u i frequent ccurrence , such as liturgy , mo rn ng, the

o o f o s o recepti n pr elytes , etc . They are kn wn as the “ ” Small Tractates , and are usually found in the ninth o o v lume of our editi ns of the Talmud . Other compendia o-f the law are the Ha lakot Gedo lot on n r by Sime Kayara , written in the eighth ce tu y , e -lt o t o f o f r and the Sh e Ahai Shabha , the latter a ranged

o t o acc rding the Pentateuch , and containing some mo ral lesson s besides th e legal exp o sition of the text . The compilation of these works was o pp o sed by the o wh o o r t o Ge nim , c nside ed them inj urious the study o f the law and detrimental t o their own authority . In the ninth century the first Talmudic dictio nary

Aru kh Z ema h -n r was written by Gao . His wo k has not

o o t o o o f o c me d wn us , but m st it was inc rporated in

a n the T lmudic dictionary of the same name , writte by om Nathan of R e in the eleventh century . The title h a s also been retained by subsequent compilers o f c o Talmudic di tionaries , including the Aruch C mple n o 1878 tum, edited by Alexa der K hut ( At the m same time Amra Gaon compiled the first liturgy , am r o f Seder Rab Amr , and thus is the o iginator our

- o present prayer b o o k . The f rm in which this com pila t ion has co me d o wn to u s is n o t as the o riginal for o f left the hands of its editor , quite a number later texts are fou nd in it and its o rder of services is not exactly identical with an y o f the rituals in use at r n o o p ese t . Still , it is the gr undw rk of the liturgy of

Judaism to day all over the world . d From the same period ates , p robably , the first i w Kabbalist c boo k hich we possess , the Sefer Yezi HISTORY OF TH E JEWS 47

o f o o rah (B o o k Creati n) . It may be called a the

o in o o f s phical treatise , written the language and f rm o n i o t h e the Mishnah , and based the ph l sophy of

Pythago rean and Alexandrian schools . Its subj ect matter naturally makes it obscure ; fro m the tenth

century at least it has been co mmented upon . Legend o has ascribed its auth rship to Rabbi Akiba, and even

t o Biblical perso ns such as Abraham . In the n inth century we meet the first traces of a o a a d a o scientific literature . Pr minent here is S y Ga n 892 t o ( born in Fayum , Egypt, and called Sura

as Gaon , quite an unusual event . His literary activity o f extends o ver the wh le field o Jewish literature . H e wro te co mmentaries o n the Bible besides an Arabic

o o n d o com translati n , and Talmu ic t pics . H e also o i o p sed rel gious hymns , but the m s t important o f all his works is his E nfmn o t h Wed eo t h (D o gma and o fo r Science) , the first attempt at a scientific ap logy o o f Judaism fr m a philosophical p int o View . His inde pen d en ce bro ught him into conflict with the Exilarch n ot David ben Zakkai, to whose dictates he would submit in a matter which he regarded as unj ust ; co n

a d sequently he was depos ed . S a ya co ntended that this

act was illegal and excommunicated the Exilarch . The latter proved stronger and S a a d ya was forced into o n o exile . Later , however, they became rec nciled , and S a a d ya was reinstated (934) The last t wo Geo nim o f any importance lived in

P m i h h erira wh o 999 u b ed a . S t They were , died in , h 1 w o 038 . and his son , Hay Gaon , died in From the fo rmer we po ssess a ve ry imp o rtant historical treatise o n the development o f Rabbinic law kno wn as the 48 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

S h erira epistle of Gaon . It was written at the request o f in o o o a man M r cc , and was inspired by apo lo getic m o tives t o pro ve that the law had been handed do wn

o n n t o o o unaltered fr m ge eratio generati n . Fr m Hay

o o o re Ga n we have vari us Talmudic w rks , many

o i o sponsa , and a didactic p em . The r c ntemp o rary was H o fn i o wh Samuel ibn , a rati nalistic writer, o rej ected m the belief in the iracles related in the Talmud . Otherw ise the age o f the Geo nim is characterized by

n o t o o a blind faith , nly in Bible and Talmud , but als in p opular superstitio ns and in the preservation o f superstiti o us customs . Hay was succeeded by Heze

i o o f for t w k ah , who after h lding his fice o years was t o 1 put death by the Caliph in 040. After this time i the o ffice l o st all s gn ificance . Names o f a few o f o wh o o f o th se held fice after this time are f und , but

ot is o o f n o r n hing kn wn their activity , has any literary

i o w o rk o f th s age co me do wn t o us . There were als o f o o Ge onim at that time in Palestine wh m , h wever , w e o o kn w little m re than their names . The blind faith which characterized the period o f o o i o o o culmin a t the Ge onim ar us ed c ns derable pp siti n , ing in the fo undatio n o f a religio us sect called the ’ “ ” - i f B n e M km o . Karaites , , Sons the Bible Their f o under was Anan ben David (760) wh o claimed the r fo r i i Bible as the o nly autho ity fa th and pract ce , and b o therefor e rej ected all Rab inic law . His success rs

o S o f o unded a congregati n in Jerusalem , and very o n o o o f spread in the East . The m st pr minent teachers m o f Neh a wen d mo the Karaites are Benj a in , and Sal n

o o f w o o n ben Jer ham , the latter h m carried a literary H a d a ssi d a . contro versy with S a a y Judah , in the thir

50 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

c At the same time that the Karaite schism o curred ,

h z r C a a s . the , a Tartar tribe , were converted to Judaism Rep o rts o f the existence o f a Jewish kingdom had

reached the Jews o f Western Europe . Hasdai ibn

h a r S p ut wro te a letter o f inquiry on this . He received

o o f Ch a za rs a reply fr m the King the , and thes e two letters are the chief source o f info rmatio n concerning en d this remarkable event . Toward the of the tenth century the kingdo m o f the Ch a za rs was co nquered by

wh o Kuza ri the Russians . Judah Halevi , wrote his

o 1140 r o f o n ab ut , used the sto y the c nversio o f the Ch a za r King in the fo rm o f a philo s ophic dialo gue

w wh o bet een him and the rabbi converted him . The kno wledge h e had o f an independent Jewish state was the basis o f the fan ciful reports circulated by a n adventurer who called himself Eldad Hadan i an d pretended to be a descendant o f one o f the lost ten o tribes . Their habitati n and modes of li fe he described n in a b o o k . He appeared in the tenth ce tury in o o o o t o M r cc , but n thing is known as what finally became of him . r In the ninth centu y , the literature o f religious P i i ut . hymns , y , beg ns The authors o f these are called Pa et nim r y a (poets) . Their wo ks are characterized by arbitrary handling of the Hebrew grammar , by the

o o f o creati n new w rds in an arbitrary style , and finally , o o f by o bscure allusio ns t o the Midrash . The ldest these po ets are Jose ben Jo se and Jan nai . Their suc

o Ka llir o o f . cess r , Eleazar ben , is the m st prolific all

O f his life we know n o thing with certainty . The literary activity o f the Jews of Europe began in o o the ninth century. The first w rk is pr bably the HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 5 1

o si on o o o J pp , a hist ry o f the Jews fr m the destructi n o f Babylon by Cyrus to the d o wnfall of Jerusalem in 0 7 o . o , which was ascribed to J sephus Flavius An ther

o o an nym us writer , who lived in Italy in the ninth

o o f Pirk e century , is the auth r the Midrash , called i Rabbi El ezer . But the first Jewish author who lived o S ab b a t a i mo o in Eur pe , known by name , is Do l 913 o o n o o ( who wr te medicine, astr l gy , and

Kabbala . CHAPTER V

TH E J E WS OF E UROPE (1 040-1 21 5 )

TH E first mentio n o f Jews in Germany is fo und in t wo o rders o f Empe ro r Co nstantine in which he

o io o f o f o o regulated the c ndit n the Jews C l gne . It is po ssib le that this settlemen t w a s. o f a temp o rary char

fo r o o acter, n thing is heard f the Jews in Germany until the tenth century . A statement t o the effect that Charl emagne called Rabbi Kalonymus o f Lucca in Italy t o be Chief Rabbi o f all the Jews o f Germany is o first rep rted in the sixteenth century , and is in all i i w l kel ho o d legendary . Under Charlemagne the Je s

m n i 1 16 o . 0 appear in Ger any ly as travell ng traders In ,

o a oo o o f h wever , there was alre dy a bl dy persecuti n n o o f w . the Je s in Maye ce Gersh m ben Judah , a native

w a s o so o France , rabbi in Mayence . He ccupied pr mi “ ” nent a pos itio n that he w a s called Me o r H a go la h

i w o o mm o n (l ght o f the exile) . He r te c entaries vari u s o f s o o i o parts the Talmud , re p nsa , ther Talmud c 2 T 10 8 . o w o i a oe . rks , and l turgic l p try He died in

o mon ro h ib i him are ascribed vari us rules , a g them a p ti on o -f p o lygamy and an inj uncti on t o respect the

s m secrecy o f letter . At the sa e time there lived in

o b a r c t h e i o w o Mayence Sime n Isaa , liturg cal p et , h se hymns are fo und in the ritual o f the German Jew s fo r

- the seco nd day o f Ro sh H a sh a n a h . 2 5 . HI STORY O F THE JEWS 53

In 1090 Empero r Henry IV granted charters t o the o f o o Jews W rms and Speyer . These are the ldest w m laws regulating the status o f the Je s in Ger any , o o f ro granting to them freed m trade and travel , p i io o f i m claim ng the inv lability the r ce eteries , and pro hibiting the kidn a pping and baptism o f their chil

. o dren Six years later the first crusade br ke out , and the mo bs co mp o sing the army o f the crusaders on the o o n Rhine invaded the Jewish settlements , chiefly C l g e ,

an d o o f o Mayence , Speyer W rms , in that part the c un

. o try Houses were sacked , synag gues desecrated , and many Jews cruelly murdered ; o thers co mmitted suicide after killing their o wn children in o rder t o save them

n f wh o from fo rced co nversio s . A number o Jews had

o t o o t o been c nverted Christianity , in rder save their o n o f lives , later returned to Judaism in spite the ecclesiastic law which put this under t h e pen alty o f

o wh o death . The Emper r , at that time was in Italy ,

- sancti o ned this in spite o f the pro tests o f the Po pe . o o o o ut 1146 An ther persecuti n br ke in , when the

o o sec nd crusade began . But the c nsequences were n u ot as seri o us as tho se of the first cr sade . B ernard o f Clairvaux stro ngly co ndemned all act s o-f vio lence o wh o u o f t ward the Jews , fo nd refuge in the castles

o o o f o the l rds , and the Bish p Speyer pened his castle , o t o o o the W lkenburg, them , pr tecting them fr m the

c m in o f o b . atta ks the Still , Wuerzburg , quite a num

o f ber were killed , under the charge having murdered

o o o a Christian . .This may be c nsidered the first bl d a o o n o o i o n o ccusati n the Eur pean c nt nent , alth ugh

o fo r . particular m tive the crime was given There is , 1144 however, a case on record in England in , where 54 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

c e the Jews were ac used o f having murder d a boy ,

o f r t o William No wich , and nailed him a cross in order t o o m ck the crucifixion of Jesus .

D o f oc uring the course the twelfth century , l al out o f mob io o h o breaks v lence ccurred everyw ere in Eur pe,

1171 - notably at Blois , France, in , where thirty four 1189 o n o Jews were burned at the stake . In , the cca o o o o o f o si n of the c r nati n King Richard Coeur de Li n , o o o o o a bloody persecuti n to k place in L ndon , and s n S o o pread ver the o ther cities o f the kingd m . Notable n wh o t o is the case o f Be edict of York , , in order save C n his life , turned to hristia ity and returned to Judaism i on the next day . Both King R chard and the Arch o o f r bish p Canterbu y permitted this , although it was against the can o nical law . The climax o f the ill - treatment o f the Jews was 1215 n o c reached in , whe the Lateran C un il , presided o o o over by P pe Inn cent III , passed vari us laws repeat ing the usual prohibition against office - ho lding by e S o Jews , and decreeing that th y h uld wear a distinct

o -f mark on their o uter garments . This is t h e origin o o the Yell w Badge, which in s me countries continued t o be in force until the end o f the eighteenth century . ul The Pope stated that the Jews sho d be like Cain , e o ut fo r e singl d their wickedness , and that th ir treat o ment should b e an bj ect lesson to Christians .

S PIRITUAL LI F E OF TH E PE RIOD

The spiritual li fe o f the Jews reached its highest o development in Spain , where the c ntact with the s cultured Arabs , who e language the Jews spoke, made the works o f the ancient Greek philo sophers and scien HI STORY OF THE JEWS 55

t ist s accessible to them . In the eleventh or twel fth “ o o century Bahya ibn Pakuda , a philos pher , wr te The ” o f a o o o Duties the Heart , perh ps the m st p pular w rk

o f o f . this literature . His ideal life is asceticism o o Ga b irol o n 1022 His c ntemporary , Sol mon ibn (b r ) “ o o o o o o wr te a phil s phical b k , The F untain of Life ,

o o . which , h wever , is only extant in a Latin translati n “ o o o f He als wr te an ethical treatise, The Choicest ” o o f Pearls , and s me Hebrew poetry . His poems ,

which quite a number have found place in the liturgy ,

are among the best works o f their class . O f his r o o secula p ems in Hebrew , a wine song is the m st r o f famo us . He is quoted unde the name Avicebron by the Christian sch o lastic autho rs o f that time a n d his views had a great influence o n those o f mediaeval Christian philos ophy as presented in the w o rks of

D o o f u o . uns Sc tus , Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aq in Abo ut the same time Samuel Hanagid was secre

a n t tary t o the King o f Granada . He w s o o nly a patro n o f Jewish learning but also an author o f con i ra l on t o s d e b e no te . He wrote an introducti the

Talmud , and various works which are sequels to o o E cclesi Biblical b oks , such as Psalms , Pr verbs , and

. so n o astes His , J seph , succeeded him, and was killed

in a riot in 1060. The greatest Hebrew poet o f mediaeval times is o o 1080 Judah Halevi (b rn ab ut , died O f his o o o o f o numer us p ems , s me are a religious , thers of a o secular character . O f the latter the best kn wn is a o f o f o t o description a sea voyage ; the f rmer , the Ode o o fo r n Zi n , emb died in the ritual the inth of Ab and o o o u translated int vari us m dern lang ages . He also 56 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o ol o fo r Kuza ri wr te an ap gy Judaism , called , previ

' o u sl o o i y menti ned , which presents its d ctrines n the fo rm o f dial o gu es between the King Of the Ch a za rs wh o o h im i and the rabbi c nverted . The main princ ple ’ o f his philo s ophy is the do ctrine o f Israel s sel ectio n as a mod el people and the argument fo r the truth o f ’ ion r 11 t Israel s relig is its histo y . In 40 he went o n t o m i Palesti e spend the re a nder o f his days there .

t o o He seems have died bef re he reached his go al . A yo unger co ntempo rary - is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092 1167 w a s o a o He b rn in Spain , and tr velled thr ugh o f o a great part Eur pe and the Orient . Of his numer o u s o o o f o r w rks , c mprising the fields p et y , Hebrew

o o ot o o grammar , astr l gy , and her subj ects , the m st n te

o o m o n w rthy is his c m entary the Pentateuch , which i o makes him rank as the first Bibl cal critic . He pr ved by his stro ng critical argumen ts that the Pentateuch as we p o ssess it do es n o t co me fro m M o ses but wa s i o or partly the pro duct o f later t mes . His c ntemp ary is o o w o o M ses ibn Ezra , a very pr lific Hebre p et, wh se

o o f o o n p ems , h wever, su fer fr m an excessive play

n o wo rds . It is ot kn wn whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives . The mo st illustrio us autho r o f mediaeval times is

o o i o s o a t o M ses ben Maim n (Ma m nide , b rn Cord va , 1135 o or ; died at Cair , His first w k was a

o o n c mmentary the Mishnah , written in Arabic , and Ti n translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn b b o . This w o rk was a preparatio n fo r the greatest w ork o f his “ ” Mish n eh or w life , the T ah , in hich he presents the wh o le d o ctrine and law o f Judaism . It is written in clear Hebrew, and , while in the law following the

58 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

- oo - text b k in Jewish study circles all o ver the wo rld . Rashi wrote o ther Rabbinic works and religi o us

o or hymns . The most pr minent Rabbinic auth o f this

o Alfa si o 1013 peri d in Spain was Isaac (b rn in Fez , o died in Spain , He wr te an abridged Talmud , o mit ting all discu ssio ns o f matters n o t o f legal inter est and all the laws n ot in for ce after the destructi o n o f o i the Temple . By this meth d he facil tated the ren i der ng of legal decisi o ns . In Italy there lived at this b en o f o o time Nathan Jehiel R me , who wr te a Talmud “ ” o or o f dicti nary Aruk, using the w k the same title by Zemach Gao n . ’ o o Rashi s grands ns , Samuel , Isaac and Jac b ben om o Meir, were also pr inent Talmudic auth rs . Samuel

Ra sh b a m o ben Meir ( ) wr te several Talmudic treatises , ’ supplements to his grandfather s commentaries , and a commentary on the Pentateu ch s o mewhat mo re free fro-m t i o t o the blind , unrestric ed subm ssi n Rabbinic ’ authority which characterizes his grandfather s w o rk . The greatest Talmudist amo ng the bro thers wa s Jaco b b en Ra b b en u o Meir ( Tam, died wh se chief “ ” H a a sh a r work is Sefer y , in which he proclaims the principle that the contradictio ns in the Talmud must T o o f be harmonized . hese men are the f unders a ” o o o f o o To sa fist s om To sa fo t sch l auth rs kn wn as , fr ’ o t o o m (Additions) , gl sses Rashi s Talmud c m entary , who flou rished in France during the twelfth and thir h o o t een t centuries . These gl sses are printed in m st

f r o a ct ivi o o u editi ons of the Talmud . Thr ugh the ties o f these men the French pr o vince of Champagne and Western Germany became the chief seats o f Rab binic studies . CHAPTER VI

PE RIOD OF OPPRE S S ION ( 1 21 5 -1 4 92)

DURIN G the thirteenth century the persecuti o ns of

o o s o the Jews c ntinued , alth ugh they are of a more p o radic character than th s e of the time o f the crusades . In 1235 a number of Jews were killed in Fulda on the

charge o f ritual murder . This is the first distinct case o f the charge that the Jews used the bloo d of Chris tians fo r ritualistic o r superstiti o us purposes which was frequently repeated in France and various places m or 1236 in Germany, although E per Frederick II ( ) and Po pe Inno cent IV (1247 ) defended the Jews against this accusation . An imp o rtant change in the p o litical condition of the Jews resulted fr o m the law o f Frederick the Belli gerent o f Austria In this law the territorial ruler for the first time proclaimed his right t o legislate fo r - o the Jews , heretofore c nsidered the exclusive privi o f o f m o o o f lege the Emperor Ger any , as verl rd all the o Jews . This law deals largely with the regulati n of

o - o f m ney lending . It permits a very high rate interest , and all o ws the Jew s t o be tried in acco rdance with their n l ow o w laws . It pro hibits all vio ence t ard the persons o o f w i o and pr perties the Je s , the r synag gues and ceme t eries o o f , and f rbids the forcible baptism Jewish chil o a dren . It became the pr totype for all similar medi eval 5 9 60 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

io o m legislat n , and was repeated alm st verbati in sub w o f o sequent la s issued by the kings B hemia , Hungary , o f o i i f the Dukes Sax ny and S les a, and the kings o

o i P land during the th rteenth century .

w w o i In England , the Je s ere c nstantly be ng black mailed by King Jo hn (1199- 1216) and by King Henry III (1216- 1272) The mo st n o ta ble and typical instance o f the exto rtio n o f mo ney fro m the Jews is

o o f i o wh o on that rep rted K ng J hn , impris ed a Jew and o rdered that o n e o f his teeth sh o uld be drawn every t o day until he agreed pay the sum demanded o f him . The heavy taxes laid up on the Jew s f or ced them t o e i o f m charg h gher rates interest , thus e bittering the

o i i pe ple aga nst them , and mak ng them so miserable t i that they asked t o be permitted o em grate . Finally 1290 io o f Edward I , in , ordered the expuls n all the n w Jews fro m Engla d . They ere permitted to take

o their pr perty with them , and a sea captain , who put the Jewish exiles ab o ard his vessel o n a sand bar wher e

o t o . they were dr wned by the high tide , was put death In France the vassals po ssessed p o wer independent w of the cr ow n . There the Je s were expelled from the territory o f the king and recalled several times during o the fo urteenth cen tury . At each expulsi n they were

so o f o ro ro bbed , that an assembly Jewish n tables p it w o f ex co m p o sed t o declare unla ful , under penalty m n ic i n for t o o om u a t o , any Jew settle in territ ry fr which the Jew s h ad been previ o usly expelled . Judah

H ech a sid o o f b o o -k o n i i o h ow , auth r a rel g us ethics , m o o e o n o t ever , co nde ned this res luti n b cause it w uld be effective a n d merely cause the Jews to transgress the law . HI STORY OF THE JEWS 61

A r io o o o ut in o ve y ser us persecuti n br ke Franc nia ,

1298 i o f i o in , the Jews be ng accused desecrat ng the h st i i Ro et t n en . o f in g This is the first case this k nd , o t ften repeated up o the sixteenth century . The leader

mob ma n Rin d flei ch o of the was a named s . An ther o od i o o ut 1 36 bl y persecut on br ke in Alsace , in 3 , under

i o f o so the leadersh p an innkeeper, J hn Armleder , called because he fastened to h is arm a patch of

ol o leather which was imitated by all his f l wers . These ri o ts were finally suppressed after having brou ght

o i - o great misery up n the Jews , but the ev l d ers were not punished . The mo st seri ou s persecutio ns br o ke o ut in 1348

1349 so - , during the called Black Plague which spread

A o fo-r all o ver Eur ope . S a reas n these attacks the rum o r was circulated that the Jews had p o is o ned the wells o r had smeared s o me p o iso no us salve o n the

d o o rs . In many cases the Jews were killed and their

o io o f o h o uses sacked . The pr tect n the Emper r availed them n o thing ; even i f the Empero r threatened a city

o f f with punishment fo r breach the peace , the a fair was usually co mpromised by allow ing the city t o retain

o m o part o f t h e plunder taken fr the Jews , the Emper r

wh o taking the rest . The Flagellants , appeared at

o o ab ou t this time , by their religi us fanaticism als stim ula t ed the hatred against the Jew s . o f Ot her anno yances were frequent . On the basis

a o f the View that the Jews were ch ttels the king , vari o u s rulers o ccasi o nally declared v o id the b o nds held by

o i is o f , the Jew s . The m st typ cal instance that Wenzel

o 1385 King o f B o hemia and German Emper r , who in 62 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

annulled al l the bo nds held by Jews an d accepted fro m o o the debtors a fracti n f their debts in settlement . During the fifteen th century frequent expulsio ns o to k place . The cities , originally small settlements

where the Jews were the merchants and bankers , had n or grow in size and imp tance , and the citizens were o o f j eal us their successful Jewish co mpetitors . Such expulsions were o ften ordered under the excitement 21 a on . 14 aroused by some false ccusati Thus , in , the Jews o f Vienna were accused of having desecrated o o f the h st , and a number them were publicly burned o at the stake, all the thers being expelled from the o city and the entire pro vince . Such expulsi o ns to k 1426 o o n o place in at C l g e , the ldest Jewish settlement r in 1440 1475 in Ge many, at Wittenberg, in at Bam 1496 o e o f 1498 berg, in from the pr vinc Styria, in from 15 10 o 15 19 on Salzburg, in fr m Naples , in from Ratisb

and Ro thenburg and in 1539 fro m Saxony . The religious tro ubles o f this peri o d co ntributed t o

turn the people against the Jews . The Hussites were n t o then a great me ace the Church , and John Capis

n trano, an Italian mo k, preached against them in v various places in the kingdo m of B o hemia . E ery

se t mo b i an d o o where he the aga nst the Jews , ccasi n

a s at 1453 ally Breslau in , he tried them on the charge

-f o f o ritual murder . A number Jews were burned at m o . o the stake, and many thers expelled Fr other

i o f h B ruen n Olmuet z t l zt cit es t at kingdom, as and ,

Jews were expelled . o o f Another Cath lic revivalist , Bernardin Feltre ,

appeared in Trent , where he arranged a ritual murder d o f b o a o n o trial . The bo y a y n med Sim was f und, HI STORY OF THE JEWS 63 and the Jews were accused of having murdered him Again a number o f Jews were cruelly put t o death and the remainder expelled in spite o f the fact that the D o ge o f Venice exo nerated them from the

an d charge , that the Pop e declared the accusation to be baseless . Simon was considered a martyr and later s m o n made a saint . A i ilar charge was brought against o f o the Jews Ratisb n , but they succeeded in proving o 1499 their inno cence . The expulsi ns continued . In

r e o the Jews we e exp lled fr m Nuremberg and Ulm , in 1493 o 1496 o ro o-f fr m Magdeburg , in fr m the p vince

o o on . Styria , and s mewhat later fr m Ratisb and Saxony The exiles s o ught refuge in villages and little to wns

o o r i t o o under the rule of the n bles , em grated P land ,

o o f where, t ward the end the fifteenth century , there was already a co nsiderable Jewish settlement . This so o n became in numbers the mo st important in Europe .

PRANCE

ou 1226 o Under L is IX ( a religi us fanatic, w a 1236 mob o f the Je s were tre ted badly . In a an d crusaders attacked them , wrought great suffering

12 on o . 40 o am ng them In Nich las D in , a converted o o i Jew, br ught charges against the Talmud as c nta n ing statements which were blasphemous t o the Chris

i o on o o tian rel gi n . C sequently all c pies that c uld be fo und were seized and in cart - lo ads were publicly 1244 1254 t h e burnt at Paris in . In the King decreed

on o f o expulsi all the Jews fr m France , but the decree was repealed under Philip IV (1288 He also f o k o rdered o ccasio nally an expulsio n . One o these t o n o f x place in 1306. A umber the e iles went at that 64 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

t o o m o time Palestine , am ng the Est ri Farhi , the first o o n l Jewish auth r Palestinian archaeo o gy . All the Jews fou nd in the kingdom were imprisoned a n d t heir prop ’ ert on y c fiscated under Philip s successor, Louis X . in 1315 They were recalled , but under Philip V ff o o su ered greatly fr m a fanatical mob , kn wn as Shep

herd Crusaders . After many vicissitudes their final in 1 4 o expulsion was decreed 39 . Only in the s uth of l o o n France , where the feuda bar ns still had s vereig os o rights , and in the Papal p sessi ns at Carpentras and i n n o o h Av g o , a few is lated Jewish c mmunities , wit a o ritual of their own , remained . M st of the Jews exiled fro m Fran ce went t o t h e adj oining German territories o f an d or Alsace L raine, and when these territories were annexed to France in the S i xteenth and seven t een t h t o i centuries , the Jews were permitted rema n n o ow t o there . But they were t all ed settle in France 1 proper until 179 . S PAIN

The Christian kingd o ms in the latter part of the o so o o Middle Ages c ntinually expanded , that the M rs

were restricted t o the s o uthern part o f the peninsula . The growing religi ou s fanaticism o f the Christian s

f o o a fected the c nditi n of the Jews unfavorably , but individua ls ros e t o prominence as financie rs o-r physi

i n o f n or d is u c a s. James VIII Arago dered a public p t a t io n between Jews and Christians held at Barcelon a 2 o in 1 63. The Jewish side was defended by M ses o ben Nahman , and , alth ugh he had been assured per

o o f oo fect freed m speech , the Christians t k such o ffen ce at his remarks that they deman ded his execu

o o . ti n . The King sent him instead int exile He went

66 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

All r i o o . o o u Paul and his c nversi n This was J shua q , wh o as a Christi a n t oo k the name of Geronimo de “ Santa Fe, and was derisively called by the Jews Me ” a d d e f i f o g (blasphemer ) , the Hebrew init als o Maestr

o o n i o e Ger nim de (Sa ta) Fe . As a Christ an he wr t a pol emical wo rk in Latin against Judaism entitled : Treatise against the false religion of the Jews and ” against the Talmud . Amo ng tho se wh o too k up the cudgels for the Jews or os o o o f o at T tosa was J eph Alb , auth r the philos phic “ ” o Ikk a rim o o w rk . The many c nverts wh m the Church forced t o remain in her fo ld while they wer e w o Je s at heart and secretly practiced Judaism, prov ked

o i F o r the ecclesiastic auth r ties . their sake a special ” o d c urt o f inquiry, calle the Inquisition , was created

14 0 - in 8 . This may be defined as a co u rt marti a l to f o o try cases o heresy . It pr ceeded with the utm st severity and with absol ute disregard o f the mo st ele

f - f o o o mentary o rms o c urt pr cedure . Fr m time to n o o time it arra ged public executi ns , at which th se con vict ed o f u n heresy were b r ed at the stake , o ften after n execu having undergo e terrible to rtures . Such an

o - - f tion was called an aut da é . In 1483 Th o mas T o rquemada was app o inted Grand o Inquisit r , and he was assisted by the blind monk , f Peter Arbues . During the time o the existence of the Inquisiti o n (1480 were burned at the stake and hundreds o f thou sands were punished

o o o f o r with imprisonment , c nfiscati n property , were o f publicly disgraced . One the latter kinds of punish ment was the sentence c o mpelling t h e victim t o wear a hideous penitential gown , the S an Benito . Peter HI STORY OF THE JEWS 67

o o Arbues was assassinated by Marran s , and P pe Pius

1 6 i o f IX declared him a saint in 8 8 . The v ctims the

o o o Inquisiti n were m stly converted Jews , alth ugh there were also Moo rs and native Christians among

o f them . In spite of the terrors the Inquisition , the Jews assisted the Marrano s in the o bservance o f the

n Jewish religio , and this was the cause o f the edict o f o o d o f expulsi n pr mulgated by Ferdinan , King

an d o f o n Castile , his wife Isabella , Queen Aragon , 30 1492 o o o f n March , , s n after the capture Gra ada , the last M o orish stro ngh o ld in Spain .

o o f t o o M st the exiled fled P rtugal , where they f o or o . o f und a temp ary h me But when Manuel , King

o o f P rtugal , married the daughter Ferdinand and

o Isabella, it was stipulated in the marriage c ntract that o the Jews sh o uld be expelled fro m that co untry als .

o t o o-k 1498 o o f This expulsi n place in . M st the exiles

t o w . went Turkey, where they ere kindly received

t o o Others went the Barbary States in N rthern Africa , r o and especially to M o o cco . A number went t Italy ou i and settled in the vari s c ties , even in the Papal o po ssessio ns . Still there were a great many Marran s

an d o t o left in Spain , while they were c mpelled pro

a o o fess and practice the C th lic religi n , they remained

n t Jews fo r many generatio s . Hence up o the end of

- - n . o fe the eighteenth ce tury , there were always aut s da

o held at which Jews were publicly burned . Fr m time t o time the wealthy Marrano s w o ul d escape and seek refuge in co untries where they w ere permitted to pub licl i o io w a s n ot y practice their relig n . The expuls n

e i o o f 2 1876 ro rep aled unt l the constituti n July , , p i i o o f n n . cla med freed m co scie ce Th s , however, did 68 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

n o t o i include freedom of public w rsh p, which was 11 1 1 9 0. granted by a law issued June , Since that time t wo Jewish congregatio ns have been organized in Seville (1914) and Madrid The University t 1915 fo r e of Madrid es ablished , in , a chair Hebr w l . . o f literature, fi led by A S Yahuda , a native

Pal estine . ITALY

Italy was split up into many petty states whose o b undary lines were constantly shifting . The treat ment of the Jews varied in its details acco rding t o time and lo cality but is the same in general through

r ric out mediaeval times . It was characterized by e st tio n o f eco no mic libert y and humiliatio n in s oc ial u po sitio n . The Jews prod ced quite a number o f emi o a o n on nent sch lars , physici ns (s metimes atte ding the o on o n o f P pes) , astr mers and tra slators Arabic works

o o con into Latin . Their ec n mic activity was largely

t o o - fined m ney lending and , in the fourteenth century , they became the pi o neers o f banking by co mbining the pawn - sho ps in a certain city into co mpa nies which

n — were given the exclusive privilege of mo ey lending . In the fifteenth century clerical agitati o n became on o o o r very str g, and l an ass ciati ns were formed unde priestly management t o suppress money- lending by

o f o o o Jews . One the m st n table agitat rs in this o f o respect was Bernardin Feltre, who is kn wn throu gh his participatio n in the ritual murder trial at Trent (147 Italy became a force in Jewish culture by the establishment o f the first Hebrew printing oo t o presses . The first b k printed seems have been li h 1474 o f q b s ed in . One the earliest printed books HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 69 was the Psalms with the commentary of David

1475 . o Kimbi , The edict of the expulsi n of the Jews fr o m Spain affected als o tho se o f Sicily (1492) and s o uthern Italy at that time Spanish depend n i n e c es . Since that perio d there has existed o Jewish o f c mmunity in that part o Italy .

HUNGARY

r In Hungary the Jews settled at a ve y early date .

- They were tax farmers a fid financiers . Our first

o t o 125 1 d cumentary evidence goes back , when King

Bela IV granted them a charter, essentially a repro ducti o n o f that granted b y the Duke o f Austria in

1244 1 42- 1 2 i . Under Lo uis ( 3 38 ) they were g ven the

o f -r o o t o alternative expulsion o c nversi n Christianity . During the fifteenth century the Jews suffered from pe rsecution and expulsion .

P OLAND

I n Po land the Jews appear in the thirteenth century as a small community without any intellectual life .

1264 o In they btained their first charter , this being co nfirmed by Casimir the Great (1333 It is

aw o f 1244 als o a repro ductio n o f the Austrian l . When Capistrano appeared (1450) in Poland the Jews suffered from mob attacks but fared n o t as badly as

f m o f tho se o Bohe ia . The persecution the Jews in

o Western Eur pe , beginning with the crusades , drove many o f them t o emigrate to the large and thinly

o settled kingdo m of Poland . Hence t ward the close

n n was n of the fiftee th ce tury, Poland the ce ter of 70 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

Rabbinic learning and has t o - day pro portionately the

o- ula t ion largest Jewish p p in the world .

TH E E AS T

-m In 1187 Saladin reconquered Jerusalem . Fro that time Jews began to emigrate to Palestine and Egypt . The persecuti o n o f the Jews thro ugh the Inquisiti o n and their expulsi o n fro m Spain drove man y t o o o f o an Morocco an d Algeria . The c nquest C nst tinople by the Turks in 1453 bro ught ma ny Jews to the

o f so B alkans , and the number the immigrants was o large that their dialect, Ladin , became the universal w o f o language o f the Je s the East , j ust as in P land and Hungary the immigrants from Germany made mi Yiddish predo nant .

J E W S L T T I H I ERA URE , THI RTEENTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY

From the thirteenth centu ry the spiritual l ife of the i i Jews decl ned . Talmud c literature , ritualism and

o . o t Kabbala were alm st exclusively cultivated P e ry , o o co n exegesis , phil s phy and scientific literature were st a n t l i i o o y decl n ng . The m st pr minent representative ’ on o o f of Maim ides traditi n is David Kimbi Narbonne,

11 - 1 Miklo l an d 70 230. o He wr te a Hebrew Grammar, , i o co mmentaries t o m o st o f the B blical b oo ks . H e als ’ to o k an active part in the defense o f Maimo nides

o or o o o f n in flu w rks when the th d x Spain and Fra ce , en ced by the zeal o f the Do minican Fria rs in their

n o a os o attack o the Albigenses and the sch l stic phil phy, “ ” m - B wished t o co mit the Mo reh t o the flames . e b t w o o f his o fo r sides Kim i , members family are n ted HI STORY OF THE JEWS 7 1

o grammatical and exegetical w rks . Thes e are his To father Jo seph and his bro ther Moses . Southern o f Tib b o n France belo ngs also the family Ibn , four generatio ns o f which were pro minent translators o f o o phil s phical , Rabbinic and scientific books from

o w Arabic int Hebre . ’ Judah the Elder (1100- 1150) translated B a h ya s ” ’ “ a S a a d a s m % Duties o f the He rt , y Dog a and ’ “ Ku za ri so n Science , and Judah Halevi s . His ’ “ Samuel translated Maimo nides M o reh and the

m n o o o co m entary o the Mishna . But the rth d x party o o t o o an d prevailed in their ppositi n Maim nides , in 12 “ ” 33 the Moreh was publicly burned at Paris . The om t o D inicans , who had been appealed , extended their o inquisitory activities , and on the testim ny o f Nicholas o ew D nin , a converted J , charged the Talmud with o o f o o hostility t o the Christian s . All c pies the b k o 1244 that could be f und were burned at Paris in . In S pite o f these a ttacks philo sophical studies did n o t o u t o o die c mpletely . In the f urteenth century Levi ben Gersho m (1288- 1344 ) fl o urished in S outhern Hi “ . s o France philos phical work , The Wars of the ” o t o o w L rd , is an attempt rec ncile Judaism ith o o o Plat nic phil sophy, while the scho l o f Maimonides o o harm nized it with the philos phy of Aristotle . He also invented an astron o mic instrumen t in which the great astron o mer Kepler was much interested . To o o the f urteenth century bel ngs Hasdai Crescas , ” w o o o o f o h se phil s phical treatise, The Light the L rd , i has great scient fic value . O f little independent value “ ” o Ikka rim i is the w rk (Fundamental Princ ples ) , by Jos eph Albo (1380 H e is an imitato r o f 72 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

o f Maimonides ; but , instead thirteen fundamental o f o — articles faith , he recognized nly three God, reve o To o o f lati n and the future life . the scho l the preach “ o o o Ak ed a t ers bel ngs Isaac Arama , wh se w rk , ” Yizh a k o t o , is a phil sophical interpre ati n o f the Mid o o on a rash , and foll ws the weekly p rti s o f the Hagg dic

writers . Ab a rb a n el o 1447 Isaac , b rn in Lisbon , , died in 1508 o Venice , , wrote vari us dogmatic treatises in w o n o n hich , as in his c mme taries the Pentateuch , he o utlined his views . He showed little independence , m i o o . s meti es plag arized , and is very verb se He put together a great number o f questio ns on some topic in

t o . Biblical literature , and attempted answer them From this time philosophy and scientific literature are o n the decline . The intellectual activity of the Jews o o is c nfined m stly t o Rabbinic literature . S ecular subj ects are rarely taken up until the end o f i o f the eighteenth century . Then a rev val secular o knowledge and scientific literature t ok place . Of o 1200- 1250 the scientific writers Jac b Anatoli , , in

o o o Italy, translated seri us scientific w rks fr m Arabic

w fo r Ka lon mo s and Hebre into Latin Frederick II . y

Kalon mo s o f o 1280- 1340 o ben y R me , , wr te an ethical “ ” n o o o treatise , Ebe B han (Tried St ne fr m Isaiah “ an d od o f Ma sseket xxviii , a par y the Talmud , To o on m Purim . the same peri d bel gs Im anuel ben

o o o f o o f S l om o n of R me, a friend Dante , auth r “ “ Meh a b b ero t o o-f , a p em in the style the Divina ” o a n d Commedia . This in some places is lascivi us , “ was co ndemned by Joseph Car o in the Sh ulh a n ” t o i 1388 Aruk . In the style o f Dan e , M ses Riet (

74 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

TALMUDIC LITERATURE

o f In the beginning the thirteenth century , ortho d ox autho ritie s in France and Spain attacked Maimon ’ i s os o de phil phy, which had previously been severely

i o f Po s uieres critic zed by Abraham ben David q , his ’ o o o o n o o c ntemp rary in n tes Maim nides c de . Their

Ab u la fia o o leaders were Meir in Spain , and Sol m n ben o Ab raham of M ontpellier in France . They den unced

o o f m t o o the w rk Mai onides the D minicans , and the 2 latter burned it publicly at Paris in 1 44 . O f Talmudic auth o rities wh o po ssessed secular learning and worked in the field o f exegesis the mo st pro minent was Moses o f - 1200 ben Nachman Gerona (Ramban , His co mmentary o n the Pentateuch co ntains sound exeget w o t o ical vie s , is strictly traditi nal and gives space

n Kabbali stic interpretatio s . He indulged in vehement

o o n Alfa si invectives against Ibn Ezra , and in his n tes vehemently attacked Zerahiah Halevi for his critical “ ” o n Al f i f o remarks a s in The Wars o the L rd . One o f the m o st pro minent Spanish Rabbis was

o o o-n Ra sh b a S l m Ibn Adret ( ) , in the thirteenth and o o t o f urteenth centuries . He was opp sed o philos phy and issued a pro hibitio n that n o o n e sho uld read the

w n - fi -ld ro M o reh befo re he was t e ty ve years o . He p e l fessed a belief in every stat ment in the Ta mud , even if o - w in c nflict with well kno n scientific facts . He left tho usands o f resp o nsa . A yo unger contemp o rary o f his is Asher ben Y ech iel o f o f o , a disciple Meir R thenburg (German

o f n wh o t o rabbi the thirtee th century ) , emigrated i 1 1327 Spain n 305 and died in Toledo in . He wrote HI STORY OF THE JEWS 75

wor Alfa si a a k on the plan of that by , m king an abstract o f the practical law s of the Talmud . It is

o f o printed in most the Talmud editi ns , and quoted as

Ro sh . He had eight sons who were Talmudic schol o o b en ars , and o f these the m st prominent was Jac b 5 o 13 0. Asher , who died in He wr te an important set f o o o f . c des the Rabbinic law , called Turim The first , o f i O rah Hayyim , treats chiefly liturg cs , the second ,

H a ezer o Y o reh Eben , o f matrim nial laws , the third , o f Ho sh en Mish a t Deah , dietary laws , the fourth , p , o f civil laws . Ano ther disciple o f Meir o f Rothenburg was Mor wh o decai ben Hillel , was killed in Nuremberg during

Rin fl i ch t 12 t o the d e s rio s o f 98 . He wro e n tes to ’ Alfa si s o o f t a n o c de , value because of heir m y bist ri TO o n cal references . the f urteenth century belo gs S h esh e Rib a sh wh o Isaac ben t ( ) o f Barcelona , fled o 1391 i after the persecuti n o f , and became Chief Rabb o 1410 s of Algiers , where he died ab ut . In his decision od o he is very orth x , but distinguished by his humani

r tarian views . Thus he fo ced his congregations to rescind an o rder against the landing o f further immi o D grants . His success r was Simeon ben Zemach uran , whose responsa are collected under the title (Ta shb ez ) He is suppo sed t o h ave been the first rabbi who received a salary . In Italy , in the thirteenth century , E Isaiah di Trani the lder , and his grandson , Isaiah di o o Trani the Y unger, fl urished . In the latter hal f o -f the fifteenth century Joseph

o o o o -f o o wa s C lon wr te a v lume resp nsa . His opp nent ’ Elij ah Kapsali . Of special interest in Colon s deci n b sions is the case o f the co gregation o f Nurem erg , in 76 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

which he held that all German congregations were o bliged t o co ntribute to ward the expenses o f the trial o f wh o o f Israel Bruna , was accused complicity in the 1477 murder of a Christian child in . In Germany the most important rabbi o f the fi fteen th cen tury was

I sserlein o f 1400- 1470 o Israel Marburg, , auth r of

Teruma t Ha - Desh en o o f o i , a collecti n resp nsa conta n r ing important historical notes . When the autho ities in Breslau issued a law that Jews had to swear with o m unc vered head and by the na e Yahve, he permitted o a s an e o it, pr vided it was not meant att mpt to c nvert

the Jews . The German and French rabbis in the thirteen th century were characterized by their strict adherence o o to autho rity and rigo r us view of the law . The m st H eh a sid o f prominent is Judah ben Samuel , author ” E Sefer Hasidim . leazar ben Jehudah of Worms ,

o f Ka lon mo s or o -f a descendant the y family , and auth R k h o ea o . (druggist) , is a type o f this ascetic scho l ot o o f o o m An her is M ses C ucy , auth r of a co pendium o f 613 Mizwot Ha a d ol the commandments Sefer gg , m abbreviated S e a g. In the thirteenth century the study o f Kabb a la o o f received str ng impetus from Isaac, the blind , son

R E zriel a b ed . His disciples were Ezra and ; their m disciple was Ra ban , and he introduced Kabbala into

- o 12 his co mmentary o n the Pentateuch . Ab ut 90 Moses o f o o o o n Le n wr te the Z har , a Kabbalistic Midrash the n t b Pe tateuch , which he claimed was wri ten y Simeon o o f ben Y hai , disciple Akiba, and discovered by him

in a cave . It is written in Aramaic . CHAPTER VII

THE PE RIOD OF I MP R OVE M NT (1 49 2-1 7 9 1 )

TH E t o Jews exiled from Spain went Turkey, North

o . A frica, Oriental c untries , and especially to Palestine

They came in such numbers that their language , the so - o n o f called Ladin , became the la guage the Jews in

o f . these countries , taking the place Arabic and Greek

B a a zed 1481- 15 13 o Sultan j II , , is rep rted to have said that he co uld n o t understand why Ferdinand of Spain

S o i im over h uld be called a wise king , s nce he had p i h n s ed his own co u try and enriched Turkey . Jews o stoo d very high at Cou rt . J seph Hamon was physi ciam t o Sultans B a j a zed II and Selim I (15 12- 1520)

h is so n os o t o o n and , M es Ham n , Sultan S lima II 1520 o 157 ( J seph Nasi (died 9) and his aunt , o a Gracia , wh se daughter Reyn he had married , were o a r Marranos who had fled fr m Sp in to Antwe p ,

o o n t n t in ofl l then t o Venice and finally t C s a p e . Joseph or o was a special fav ite of the Sultan , who f rced the Republic o f Venice t o surrender the property of n Donna Gracia , which had been co fiscated . The o o f o Sultan made J seph Duke Naxos , and he seri usly o i o f c ntemplated the establ shment a Jewish state there . ’ t o Do n o o Owing J seph s influence , the P pe was forced t o free a number of Marrano s w h o had been impris o ned in the Papal States and charged with apostasy . 77 78 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

S o lo mo n Ashkenazi (died ab o ut a native of won o o o f Venetia , high fav r at the c urt the Sultan o o o i o f and t k a pr m nent part in dipl matic a fairs . He was instrumental in drafting the peace treaty between the sultan and the republic o f Venice and represented h im at the election o f Stephan Ratho ri

f l n as King o Po and and on o ther similar o ccasio s . H e o o o f co— o t o als was the benefact r his religi nists , and his influence was due the repeal o f an edict which had

fr -m decreed the expulsi o n o f the Jews o Venice . A o number of Jews , prompted by Messianic expectati ns , o m u m an d f unded settle ents in Jer sale Safed , which u Joseph Nasi genero sly aided . In Italy the co nditio n o-f the Jews changed fo r the

o o w rse . Venice established the first ghett , called thus “ ” o Giet t o o after the gun f undry in the vicinity , acc rd

t o m o ing so e scholars , but the w rd is more probably an “ ” io o o - At abbreviat n from b rghetto (little b rough ) . the end o f the fifteen th and the beginning of the six t een t h e o o c ntury the P pes empl yed Jewish physicians , such as B o net del Lat tes . under Leo %. But Paul IV o w and Pius V issued ppressive la s against the Jews , restrict ing their commercial activity t o trading in

- o ff o o t h e o f t cast cl thing , enf rcing marks distinc ion , or o f Jew badges , and ordering the cens ship Hebrew o f o o o f rsecu literature . One the m st atroci us cases pe tio n is the burning at the stake o f twenty- four o on 1556 o e o f Marran s in Anc a , , and nly the f ar reprisals by the Sultan saved the lives o f hundreds o f

on i other refugees . The reacti aga nst Pro testantism and the fo undatio n o f the Jesuit o rder further tended

% o n to make the c nditio of the Jews still worse . The HI STORY OF THE JEWS 79

o 1563 o o Council f Trent, , pr hibited the Talmud alt b ut o n f gether , later modified its decree to the e fect that the wor d Talmud should not be printed o n the title page o f the work and that every edition sho uld be submitted to the ecclesiastic censor aided by Jewish converts . Prominent among the latter were Elij ah and

o o f . Solomon Romano , grands ns Elij ah Levita t o The Italian Jews , in order obviate the dangers

-rma t io-n s arising from info against Jewish literature , decided in 1564 that n o b o o k sho uld be printed with out the co nsent o f three pro minent rabbis and the trustees o f the co ngregatio n in the district where the a press was lo cated . By these me sures th e Hebrew o printing trade, which had fl urished in Italy during the

S first half of the ixteenth century, was ruined and the w t o o . o press transferred P land There, ing to the low state of industry , the art of printing declined . The frequent expulsio ns and the co nstant o ppres 150 sions fostered Messianic hopes . In 7 a Messianic o r pretender ar se in No thern Italy . His name was Leml Asher ein . O f the particulars o f his career we know no thing . O f greater imp o rtance is the appear ance of a man who called himself David Reub en i in 1 22 n 5 . Ve ice, He pretended to be the brother o f the n reig ing king of the tribe of Reuben , living in

Arabia, and planned an alliance of the Christian oh F powers against the M ammedans . o r this he o f pledged the aid the ten tribes living there . The o P pe sent him to Po rtugal , where he made the n o o o Mo lch o acquai tance of S l m n , a young Marrano , wh o Reub en i returned with to Italy, preached an d

o m v o f o pr phesied there and beca e a fa orite the P pe . 80 HI STORY O F THE JEWS

The Jews feared the results o f his eccentri cities and denou nced him to the authorities as an apos tate from

o Christianity , but the P pe shielded him . Finally both 1530 went to Germany in , where they hoped to win e Charles V t o their plans . Th y were imprisoned ;

Mo lch o o , as an ap state, was burned at the stake and

Reub en i t o o sent P rtugal , where every trace of him h t W o n ot w . o was lo st . he was is kno n He seems

o wa s . have travelled in the East, and pr bably an Arab The Refo rmati on o f 15 17 at first influenced the co-n fo r o ditio n o f the Jews the better . The accusati ns

w o that the Je s desecrated h sts ceased , as a natural co nsequence of the rej ectio n by the Protestants o f the

Catholic dogma o f transsubstan tiati o n . As late as 1492 a number o f Jews w ere burned for this suppo sed m 15 10 cri e at Sternberg in Mecklenburg . In , thirty

fo r nine Jews were burned at Berlin the same cause .

o o in o o o fo r But aside fr m this , Pr testantism itself st d i h i o o o . s relig us t lerati n Luther , in the beginning o f “ career sp o ke of the Jews as co usins o f o u r ” h h o w o S o . L rd , h uld be treated wit kindness He tho ught that his purified Christianity wo uld win them o o o f ver , but , t ward the end his life, when he had failed in his effo rts and was embittered for ot her rea o t wo s ns , he wrote pamphlets filled with invective against the Jew s In these he advo cated the

o o f o o o f c nfiscation their pr perty, the destructi n their

o o synag gues , and the f rcible baptism of their children . ’ Still mo -re bitter than Luther s attacks were those o f

o o o on J hn Eck, his Cath lic pp ent . ow or io n It seems , h ever, that the Ref mat n i creased i the number o f Jewish co nverts . Prom nent among

82 HI STORY OF THE JEWS secut ion s and in 1869 were finally permitted t o profess

o Judaism o penly . In Russia s me high ecclesiastic dig n it a ries were con verted t o Judaism a s early as the fifteenth century and their fo ll o wers gained in strength f o o f o . o o in spite all persecuti ns S me them , with ut

o -u n cin m ren g Christianity , erely rej ected the belief in the divinity o f Jesus and o bserved the seventh day

o-t n iki Sabbath . They were called Sub . The Russian

o t o o o g vernment , unable f rce them back int the state

t o — church , exiled them Trans Caucasia where they fo rmed numero us co mmunities and have ab o ut fo llo wers . R o o o The enaissance , which pr duced the Ref rmati n , also had a favo rable effect o n the po sitio n of the

w oh ff o o Je s . When J n Pfe erk rn , a c nvert from Juda ism in 1506 o f , accused the Jews blaspheming Jesus o o in their prayers and in their literature , and pr p sed

o f o o the c nfiscation o all their b ks , John Reuchlin , o a famous dipl mat and expert Hebrew scholar, ren dered an o pinion in their favo r . The Dominicans of

o o o o o C l gne , am ng them a f rmer rabbi , Vict r von

o o o o Karben , wh se t l Pfefferk rn had been , made the ’

o wn n o t . latter s cause their , but did succeed In

o - o n - — o o Frankf rt the Main , where the b ks had been on o t o t o c fiscated , they were rdered be returned their o w o o o ners , and a l ng and bitter c ntr versy , in which o i b th part es engaged in vile attacks , ensued . In the

o o rv o meantime the Ref rmati n inte ened ; and the P pe , wh o t o had been appealed , ended the matter by an o rder in 15 16 that both parties sh o uld keep their

% peace . He reversed this decisi o n in favo r o f the o 1520 D minicans in . HI STORY OF THE J EWS 83

Such o ccasions as the calumniati o ns o f Pfefferk o rn and o thers sho wed the arbitrariness o f municipa lities a n d o o i l rds in the treatment o f the Jews , and p nted o ut o f o the advisability Jews app inting an advocate , - “ ” S h t a d la n wh o , would always defend their rights

n f o essary . e o the m st famous of these Ro sh ei (1478 - 1554) wh o was o riginally

as their vocate by the Jews of Alsace , but o o f o f ften acted in behalf all the Jews Germany, here and there arbitrat ing dissensio ns in co ngregations . He o btained various charters fro m Emperor Charles

o t o o . V, in which protecti n the Jews was pr mised o o o n e 1530 Am ng these stipulati ns , issued in is of o o special interest . The Emper r pr hibited the ex pulsio n of Jews from his territo ry witho ut his con

. n o t o sent This rule , however , was even bserved in

o o o f the immediate p ssessi ns the German rulers . At

o o f various times Ferdinand I , br ther Charles V , and German Empero r (1522- 1564) o rdered expulsions 1557 1541 1561 o from Austria in , and in and fr m m o t Bohe ia ; they were hardly ever carried u . When the ex ion fro m B o hemia was d ecreed o rd eca i

o f 1528%1 Meisels , wealthy Jew Prague , , and

o f m o o the desc dant the Italian fa ily S ncin , which 15 13 in established a printing press in Prague, went t o Rome and obtained a bull from the Po pe fo r the

o w la w o f o o protecti n of the Je s . The expulsi n fr m o m B he ia was repe aled . Meisels was in other ways

o o f co - a great benefact r his religi o nists . 15 10 the Jews had been expelled in , was a financier and favorite of im o f II Brandenburg . After the 84 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

death o f his master he w a s accused o f having po i

o n ed in s him and executed 1573. A new refuge was

o t o s ol pened the Jew in H land , when this country

o f gained its independence fro m Spain . A family fugitive Marrano s is said t o have been driven t o Em

o o den , Han ver , by unfav rable winds , and thence they were advised t o go to Amsterdam Moses ben Uri o f Emden fo ll o wed them and instructed them in

. o r o Judaism S ome other c nve ts f llowed , among them o a nd o f o m nks , statesmen scholars . One the m st pro minent rabbis o f Amsterdam wa s Manasseh ben

wh o 1654 r t o o a f w I srael ; , in , t ied bt in rom Crom ell

o f i m io fo r t o In fic al per iss n the Jews resettle England ,

w b 1290 o hence they had een expelled in . A bill intr d uced into Parliament fo r their readmissio n failed to

o i i o o pass , but pr m nent j ur sts rendered an pini n that i n w the expuls o n was ot a legal act . The Je s already

Lo - o n o t o o in nd n were molested , pened a synag gue m 1 and acquired a ce etery in 660. Charles II was

o t o o m o f o fav rable the Jews , s e wh m had assisted h im financially befo re he had ascended the thro ne ; in i f 1664 he co nfirmed the r right o residence . Ab ou t the middle o f the Seventeenth century a co l o n o f M o o y arran s fr m Amsterdam settled in Brazil ,

which was then under Dutch rule . When the Portu gu ese reco nquered it (1654) the Jews were expelled

o and settled in the Dutch West Indies and New Y rk,

o o o then New Amsterdam . G vern r Stuyvesant bj ected t o b u t o o f their landing, the direct rs the West India

o mo o C mpany, a ng wh m there were several Jews , e i o verruled his decision . M ant me the Jews had set HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 85 t led o o i in Rh de Island , where R ger W lliams had 1 pro mulgated full religio us freedo m in 657 . In Amsterdam the Po rtuguese co mmunity co mbined strict traditio nal piety with secular learning and great

m T o w Am o . o c mercial activity the P rtuguese Je s , st erd a m o wes its imp o rtance as the center o f the o ffi o . diam nd trade Uriel Acosta , who held high ce in Spain and emigrated to H o lland in o rder t o o penly

o s m pr fess Judai m , beca e imbued with deistic ideas , was tried as a heretic and did penance . Then , ex o a e o c mmunicated as backslider , he b came desp ndent

m t o Mo rt eira and , having atte pted kill Rabbi Saul ,

m 164 or c o m itted suicide in 0. Baruch Benedict

1632- 1677 w a s o o m Spinoza ( ) als exc municated , but disregarded all attempts t o bring h im back t o Juda

i o f ism . He is the o r ginat r o f a fam o us system o i o o m o o ph l s phy , called Pantheis or M nism , laid d wn “ ” h i i w o ccu o . o in s princ pal rk , the Ethics He als pies a pro minent place in the histo ry o f Biblical “ i o o Th eol o ico Po Critic sm thr ugh his w rk , Tractatus g ” lit icu s .

1666 Millen n ri In , the year which the Christian a ans regarded as Messianic by reaso n o i a passage in

o 18 m S a b b a t a i Revelati n xiii , , Judais was stirred by

Z b i f wh o e o o . Smyrna , pr claimed himself the Messiah

o t Expelled fr m that city he went o Egypt , where he c o o f o received the enthusiasti supp rt Raphael J seph , a

- m . i i wealthy tax far er In Palest ne , wh ther he went ,

o m m o N he f und any ad irers , and the pr phet, athan o f o m h im Gaza , pr clai ed the true Messiah . Being

fo r o S a b b a t a i o denounced high treas n , was br ught to

o o o o C nstantin ple and impris ned in the f rt o f Abydos , 86 HI STORY OF THE JEWS but the means supplied b y his fo llo wers enabled him o t o h o ld co urt like a prince . Everywhere in Eur pe the maj or ity o f the Jews believed him to be the Mes

o f o siah . The representatives the Jews in P land sent t wo o o t o pr minent rabbis as a c mmittee him, but

H ako h en wh o Nehemiah , the Polish Kabbalist , had o t o o im c me ascertain the truth , den unced him as an

os o S a b b a t a i Z eb i u f n p t r . was bro ght be ore the Sulta o t o to answer a charge of high treason ; and , in rder

e t . sav his life , he turned o Islam The Sultan gave

o f fo r him an fice, and ten years , until his death , he m o o f re ained in c ntact with the Jews . Many his o o t o f ll wers turned Islam , and still exist as a special D n ma h fol sect called o in Salo nica . Others o f his lo wers wh o remained true to Judaism fo rmed a mys

o o f . tic community , which ad pted the name Hasidim They were excommunicated by the mo st prominent o rabbis , but pr gressed rapidly , although many of

e . o them wer unmasked as frauds Nehemiah Hay n , an o b o d o c Oriental , wr te a ok in which he taught the o f 1712 o o trine the Trinity ( ) and Jac b Frank , a P lish

ud aeo - h r Jew , formed a J C ristian sect . The latte was suppo rted by thos e who wished t o convert the Jews t o ff Christianity, and lived in princely style in O en b 17 1 9 . ach , where he died in The center of Hasidism was in Po dolia and Volb y 1695- 1760 o nia ; Israel Besht, , may be c nsidered as its o o o f under . His w rk was c ntinued by his disciples , among wh o m Baer Mezd zyrze cz (1700- 1772) was the o o m o f B ra t zla 1 m st pr inent . Later Nahman v ( 779 1810) develo ped the theo ry of miraculous powers o f healing granted t o favored individuals and t h e mystic HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 87 interpretation o f the Bible and the Rabbinic com i o f o mands . They st ll have a great number the f rmer devo tees in parts o f Austrian and Ru ssian Po land . Persecutio ns in the seventeenth century are of rarer o o io o ccurren ce than in f rmer times . The m st ser us

n n o e was that which , with several interruptio s , lasted

o 1648 t o 1655 o f fr m , and the leader which was the h m l i ki e n c . o Co ssack captain C The C ssacks , who were

o under the s vereignty o f the Polish king, rebelled m ff against their asters , and the Jews had to su er ,

t o o m partly because they were unable pr tect the selves ,

e - and partly b cause , as tax farmers , they had been the instrument o f the exto rti o n practised by the Po lish

o . o n bles Th usands were massacred , and since that time the 20t h o f Sivan is o bserved as a fast - day in

o . o a P land They fled in all directi ns , and many gre t Talmudists among them became rabbis in Western

Euro pe . The Jesuits in Po land and in tho se places Where t h e Catho lic Church had succeeded in crushing the Re f o rma t io n became very p o werful and fo stered hatred o f o mob o 1664 the Jews , ften resulting in vi lence . In o such a massacre ccurred in Lemberg . The Jews were accused o f the murder o f Christians ; similar

% o 1659 t wo o m charges were ften made . In pr inent

t o o n o H a sh a na h o Jews were put death R sh in R ssieny ,

i o f m L thuania , under the charge ritual urder ; in 1694 Lazarus Abeles and a friend of h is were impris o n ed in Prague , charged with having killed the so n o f

' wh o w t o Abeles , anted beco me a Christian . Abeles hanged himself and his friend was cruelly put t o death . In Vienna and Prague mission services , which 88 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

t o the Jews were compelled attend every Sabbath , were 1 1670 held by the Jesuits since 630. In Emperor

o ol w o m Le p d I expelled the Je s fr Vienna , influenced partly by the hatred o f the citizens and partly by the

m o f o f . o big try o the E press , a Spanish princess S me the refugees were given permissio n by t h e Electo r

Frederick William o f Brandenburg t o settle in Berlin .

o m At ab ut the sa e time Halle , Halberstadt and Dessau 1670 o f were opened t o them . In Herz Levi Metz was accused of having murdered a Christian child and was

H i c w a o o . put t o death . s inn cen e s afterwards pr ved Peculiar t o the histo ry o f the seventeenth and eight een t h o w H o f— H of centuries were the c urt Je s , Jude ,

i - n m o . o o fact r , Min ster Resident Pr minent am g the

Go m erz o f o i were Elij ah p Cleve , M ses Benj am n Wolf o f o-st o f a Dessau , J Libman Berlin , Behrendt Lehm n o f m Dresden , and Sa uel Oppenheimer and Samson

Wertheimer of Vienna . These Jews did service as

o co-n t ra ct j ewelers , bankers , general br kers and army o rs o , and , as such , were exempt fr m Jewish taxes and

o certain disabilities . They p ssessed great influence , which they used t o go o d advantage fo r their fello w m m wh o 1703 ob Jews . Sa uel Oppenhei er , died in , t a in ed fro m Empero r Le o p o ld an o rder o f co nfiscation “ ” — o o u d en t h u m of an anti Jewish b k , Entdecktes J , by m t o J . A . Eisen enger which , up date , has r - m served as a reperto ry fo anti Se itic writers . In 1614 a seri o us rio t broke o u t in Frankfort - o n

- the Main , led by the guilds , which accused the patri cia n s c o ntro lling the municipal co uncil o f partiality t o o i m o o the Jews . The c uncil , a ded by i perial tr ps , succeeded in suppressing the rebellio n after co nsider

90 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

They were first kno wn as Po rtuguese merchants and New Christians and were given the right o f residence as such by King Henry II They remained there in spite of o ccasi o nal pro tests o f the lo cal pop u la t ion o f o n and the Spanish g ver ment , and although

o m t o in known as Jews , were c pelled participate o i Catholic rites and t have their ch ldren baptized . Yet i they remained fa thful t o the religio n o f their fathers .

161 o m In 9 a w an was burned alive in St . Jean de Luz

m h o 1700 by a ob fo r having desecrated t e ho st . Ab ut

o m t o they were , with ut any legal enactment , per itted o 1722 o f practice their religi n , and since have been

ficia ll y reco gnized as Jews . i o f In Berl n and the Margravate Brandenburg, the

o i o o m Elect r Frederick W lliam I all wed s e Jews , ex

elled o t o o n ° t h eir p fr m Vienna, settle in his states ’ plea that they were persecuted fo r conscience sake Still m o re impo rtant was the readmissio n o f

t o o 1654 a l the Jews England by Cr mwell in ; and ,

o fo r a n o th ugh the bill their re dmission did t pass , their settlement was quietly o verlo oked and declared

t o o o by j urists be legally j ustified . An ther new c un try was o pened t o Jewish settlement by the end o f the sixteenth century when the Spanish Netherlands had made themselves independent o f the Spanish cro wn . The co nstitutio n o f the new co untry was based o n

o o o perfect religi us freed m , and naturally fugitives fr m the Inquisitio n were amo ng the first t o avail them

- i o i selves o f th s oppo rtunity . They were s o n j o ned by

o o the settlers fr m other c untries , and in the seven t een t h century Amsterdam was one o f the leading m d Jewish co mun ities of the worl . HI STORY OF THE JEWS 91

o o t o The greatest imp rtance , h wever , attaches the i settlement o f the Jews in the New Wo rld . Wh le in the Spanish co lo nies there was n o t o nly n o religio us libert y but even persecutio ns o f Marranos culminating

- - fé o o in autos da , as in the m ther country, the c nquest o f Brazil by the Dutch in 1624 resulted in the first o rganized Jewish community o n the American conti

o f i 1654 o nent . The l o ss Braz l in f rced the Jews to

o emigrate , and s me settled in the Dutch and B ritish o possessions in Central and S uth America , Surinam , o o Curacao and Jamaica . But the m st imp rtant settle f 1654 o ment was that o New York in . The int lerance o f the Dutch go vern o r Stuyvesant dro ve so-me o f the

w o RI r o . newc mers to Ne p rt, whe e Roger

Williams had proclaimed full religi o us liberty . In 1733 so me Po rtugu ese Jews fro m England availed themselves o f the oppo rtunity created by James Ogle

o wh o o fo r o th rpe, made Ge rgia an asylum c nvicts who

i t or o o f o o were will ng o ref m . They sent s me their p r t o o w a s t o o Savannah . As the g vern r unfavorable o f the settlement the Jews , fearing that their presence

o o o w uld prej udice the success o f the c lony , s me Jews

t o o o fo r went S uth Car lina , which the philosopher Jo hn Locke had drafted a liberal Constitution

fo r n o n - He expressly declared equal rights Christians . They fo rmed a co ngregatio n at Charlesto n in 1750 fo r a l o ng time the m o st flo urishing Jewish settlement

o r n o w o in the territ y c mprised in the United States . Yet up t o the end o f the eighteenth century only six

o : o o Jewish communities are kn wn New Y rk , Newp rt , I . Ga . on . . . C R , Savannah , , Charlest , S , Philadelphia , a T oo and L ncaster , Pa . h ese Jews t k part in the 92 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

m ol o A erican Rev uti n , and their patriotism was ex pressly reco gnized in the reply o f George Washingto n t o their addresses o f co ngratulation when he was

elected President .

la w o f 1740 i t o An English , wh ch gave the Jews

m n o f in the A erican co lo ies full rights naturalization , also extended t o Canada when it became a B ritish

io o o possess n . The Jewish p pulati n grew slowly and did n o t number mo re than t w o tho usand at the time

o f the Revo luti o nary War . A rapid increase began o o o f o when the reacti nary g vernments Eur pe , after

o on o f 1830 o f im the July rev luti , made the hope any 18 0 o . 3 pr vement appear vain Thus , since large

m o strea s of Jewish immigrants , chiefly fr m Germany ,

o have settled all o ver the United States . An ther far stro nger current o f immigratio n began in con sequence o f o 1881 o f the persecuti ns in Russia in . Statistics “ ” immigratio n give the number of Hebrew immigrants fro m 1882 t o 1914 as and the to tal Jewish po pulatio n o f the United States may n o w accordingly m be esti ated at mo re than souls . In Spanish America the o nly settlement of any co -n

com sequence is in Argentine , but scattered Jewish mu n it ies are found in all Central and South American i . o t o o o b o states Canada , wing the m re fav ra le c nd io o f o o o f o t n British rule , has a Jewish p pulati n ab ut

m o b o i o o Under si ilarly fav ra le c nd ti ns , S uth

in Africa , where the first Jewish services were held ow 1842 w Cape T n in , and Australia , here the first

o io w a s i in 1832 Jewish rganizat n establ shed Sydney in , e n o w o o hav c nsiderable Jewish settlements , riginally fo rmed by immigrants from England and increased HI STORY OF THE JEWS 93

o o o largely by accessi ns fr m Russia and P land , where into lerable po litical co nditi o ns and econo mic o ppres sion fo rced the Jews t o emigrate .

INTELLE CTUAL AND LITERARY LIFE

or o o o The Ref mati n was pr m ted by the Renaissance , essentially a critical examinatio n of traditio nal views . While this mo vement had n o t a very deep influence o n t i n o o . the Jews , it did pass entirely unn ticed El j ah

o f o 1455 Mizrahi , Chief Rabbi Constantin ple (

oo o o f o e t k n tice the C pernican system , and in his sup r

o o n t o o i c mmentary Rashi , tried harm n ze this modern i co ncept o n o f the co smo s with Rabbinic statements .

o - oo o n o He also wr te a text b k arithmetic , a c mmentary ’ o n m o o o o Euclid s ele ents , an astr n mical b k , besides

r various Talmudic wo ks .

o o n M re evident is the influence Elij ah Levita ,

o —a n - - 1468 b rn in Neustadt der Aisch , Bavaria , , died in m 1549. o f Venice , Elij ah Levita was a teacher any

o o o o o pr minent Christian the l gians , b th Cath lic and

o Pr testant , then very much interested in the study

o o o o f Hebrew . He wr te vari us w rks on Hebrew “ ” m mo o o f gra mar , a ng them Bahur a gl ssary

b o Tishb i o o n Rab inic w rds , and a bo k the “ ” o h a - o Massorah , Mass ret Mass ret in which he laid do-wn the b o ld and since that time generally accepted theo ry that the vo wel po ints and accents

n t o . were invented until the eighth centu ry He was .

o o f o o als a writer p pular w rks , translated the Psalms

o u d aeo - o o o o int J German and published the B b b k , a translation o f an Italian ro mance based o n the English 94 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o f o f o sto ry Sir Bevis Hampt n , underlying Shake ’ ” speare s Hamlet Ano ther expo nent o f the Renaissance was Azariah

o f 15 11 dei Rossi Ferrara ( who in his work , ” Meo r En a im o io y , a c llect n of critical essays , de fended the theo ry that the Talmudic writings are not

o o n o f r a n d auth ritative matters histo y science , but

e . os o o o mer ly on Rabbinic law J eph S lom del Medig , o 1591 1655 a m b rn in Crete , , died at Prague , , was an b i u o u s g character and adventurer, a wanderer during “ ” f i o i o . mo st his l fe In his w rk, El m he

o t o o had the c urage criticize Rabbinic the logy , and

o o o f especially the Kabbala . Le n M dena Venice 1571 wh o o o ( was a very pr lific auth r, went

still further, attacking the Rabbinic law as in many

o o instances inc ngru us with the Bible, and recommend

o f o o ing a change the religi us practices . In the w rks which he published he merely indicated his liberal ideas ; he clearly stated them in wo rks that remained

f r unpublished o two centuries .

o n ot In Italy , where secular educati n was held in

or o o such abh rence as was the case in N rthern Eur pe , in the seventeenth century t wo women wro te Italian o m p etry and made translatio ns fro Hebrew . These

o Asca relli are Deb rah and Sarah Copia Sullam . An attempt t o ration alize Talmudic passages was made i o f as early as the beg nning the sixteenth centu ry . ob wh o Jac ibn Habib , was among the exiles from

o i o o Spain , settled in C nstant n ple , and c llected the Hag

a d ic o f o o f g passages the Talmud , with the intenti n

o o o publishing them with an ap l getic c mmentary . He died in 15 16 after having finished only part o f his HI STORY OF THE JEWS 95

work ; it was edited after his death by his son . It is “ n o w o o o o fo r even , as En Jac b , a very p pular b k the study o f Talmudic ethics . While on o n e Side there was a liberal tendency

i co n manifest in Rabbinic Juda sm, on the other a solidation o f the Rabbinic legalism and a pro gress o f

o 1488- 157 mysticism were n ticeable . Joseph Caro ( a native o f Spain wh o to ward the end o f his life lived b m o f in Safed , Palestine , compiled a rief co pendium “ ”

S h u lh a n . the Rabbinic law , Aruk It was printed ’ o 1564 during the auth r s lifetime in Venice in , and

o o o o ften reprinted afterwards . The auth r f ll wed the b o arrangement of the legal material y Jac b ben Asher , o-b ect but otherwise is quite independent . It was his j t o o o m o give the wh le Rabbinic law in one v lu e , with ut sho wing its develo pment and witho ut regard to dif feren t o on fo r o pini s . He prepared himself his w rk by writing exhaustive commentaries o n the co des o f M aimonides and Jacob ben Asher . During his life time the b o ok was anno tated by Moses I sserles o f Cra “ ” co w (1520 wh o called his notes Mappah o o t h ra c (tableclo th ) . It was his bj ect t o lay d wn e p m b o o tice o f the Ger an Jews , neglected y J seph Car as o a rule . This c dification was stro ngly attacked by

o f o o s me o the m re liberal rabbis o f the time . S o l mo n 1500 o f Luria ( rabbi Lublin , but of German

o o o o f o l descent , t k a m re critical view the d sources , although apart from legal decisi o ns he pro claimed his absol ute faith in traditio ns and co ndemned the liberal

mo tendencies of Abraham ibn Esra and Mai nides . A strong o ppo nent o f Azariah Dei Ro ssi was Loewe Ben B eza lel (1530 rabbi o f Po sen and Prague 96 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

f a b and the hero o many legends . He maintained the

so lute belief in Rab binic autho rity in every respect . “ ” In spite o f o ccasio nal o pp o sitio n the S h ulh a n Aruk so o n attained general po pularity and was considered i o o t o i o an authoritat ve b k , wh ch many pr minent

o mb in er S ab b a t a i o rabbis , as Abraham G , C hen (died 1663) and David Halevi (died 1667) added their o w o gl sses . These ere in the later editi ns added to the ” S h u lh a n o o f i Aruk , the auth rity wh ch is indicated “ ” by the fact that the glos sarists are called Ah a ro n im i (ep go nes ) . The sufferings which Jews had t o endure during the fifteenth centu ry and o f which the expulsio n fro m

o m on Spain and P rtugal was the cul inati , were the f t i f cause o a streng hen ng o mysticism . Particularly t o i m o f in Palestine , which qu te a nu ber Spanish Jews

b o were drawn y Messianic h pes , such a center was “

o r . s o f med In Safed , where Jo eph Caro wr te his Shul ” o f o han Aruk , a number disciples gathered ar und Isaac Luria (1535 wh o preached a religion b o n m t o d id n o t ased the belief in the ys eri us . He

o i i h is write , but numer us d sc ples put ideas in writ

o 1 ing . Am ng them were Hayyim Vital ( 543 wh o o f was c nsidered a worker o miracles , and Elij ah “ os o i o f o de Vidas , wh e w rk , The Beg nning Wisd m,

r ifica t i n o became a favo rite b o ok fo e d o . An ther Kab b a list ic auth o r o f the same circle was S o lo mo n Halevi

Alka b ez o w b o , best kn n y his p pular Sabbath hymn , “ h o o b . Leka D di , which als has a Ka balistic tendency German Jew s came t o Palestine t o j o in the circle o f 15 0 mystics . One was Isaiah Horo witz ( 5 wh o had been rabbi o-f Frankfo rt - o n - the - Main and

98 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS

o f Rabbinic literature in mod ern times are t o be men tio ned Jair Hayyim Bacharach (1634 rabbi o f

o m o f o o r W r s , wh se w rks ve y little has been preserved but wh o was interested in the scientific presentatio n o f o o o o f l io Rabbinic the l gy as the the ry ora tradit n , and Jacob Emden (1696 the bitter opponent o f o E b e sch uet z wh o J nathan y , gathered historical mate o n S a b b a t a i Z eb i wh o o rial , and the mystics foll wed

o him and had the boldness , alth ugh a believer in Kab

t o o o n o t bala , state that the Z har , as we p ssess it, is

f o - o the wo rk o Simeo n ben J hai . An emancipati n from the strict Rab-b inic dialectics by better attentio n t o cor rect Rabbinic texts and t o the study of philol o gical and archaeo l o gical questi o ns is fou nd in the w orks o -f

o 1706 o f F u ert h J seph Steinhart ( rabbi , Isaiah Pick (1720 and Elij ah o f Wilna (1720 o o 1724 Hayyim J seph David Azulai , b rn in Jerusalem , i o 1806 o d ed in Legh rn , did merit rious work in gather ing hist o rical material from Rabbinic literature . The sufferings o f the Jews in Spain stimulated in

st r e o r tere in histo ical literatur and vari us autho s , chiefly pro mpted by a desire t o keep up the co urage o f o f on o the Jews in the midst persecuti s , wrote hist rical w m n o o rks . Among the may be me ti ned Gedaliah ibn “ o Yahya , an Italian who wr te the Chain of Tradi ” o o o o ib n ti n , S l m n Verga , a Spaniard who emigrated “ ” t o o o o Turkey and wr te Shebet Jehudah , J seph C hen ” o f o wh o o o f Avign n , wr te The Valley Weeping,

mu wh o o o o and Sa el Usque, wr te a w rk in P rtuguese “ ” o o o o o f called C ns lati ns in Tribulati n , all the six

n h o t ee t century . S mewhat later David Gans (died at Pragu e in 1617) wrote a dry co mpilation o f events in HI STORY OF TH E JEWS 99

Jewish and general history under the title Z emah ” David .

To o the seventeenth century bel ngs the Oriental , “ ” o o Ha d o ro t David Conf rte , his K re being chiefly valued fo r its acco unts o f Rabbinic literature in the

H eil rin o f Orient . Jehiel p Minsk , eighteenth century ,

o o wrote a hist ry in the style of a chr nicle , beginning

i o with Creati o n . It sh o ws a na ve belief in the hist ric ity of the Midrash but is very valuable by reason o f its co llectio n of historic passages fro m Rabb inic litera

o o t o ture . Secular educati n was sl wly beginning find

n its way amo g the Jews . Quite a number o f German

i o ra ct i Jews studied medic ne in Italy , chiefly fr m a p

o o f w o o 1652- 1 29 cal p int vie . T bias C hen of Metz ( 7 )

— o n - - o studied in Frankfort the Oder, being supp rted by f the Elector o Brandenburg . In his later years he

o m o o n lived in the Orient , where he wr te a co pilati n “ ” Ma a seh i h o b To b a . vari us scientific su j ects , y In this he S h o ws s o und kno wledge of medicine . CHAPTER VIII

TH E PERIOD OF EMANCI PATION F ROM 1 7 9 1

I N the middle of the e ighteenth century a sl o w but marked impro vement in the co nditio n o f the Jews is

ot i t o o f n ceable . This change was due the activity the m os t enlightened auth o rs Which already began at

o f the time the readmissio n o f the Jews into England . o i m 1605 m R ger Will a s ( a Baptist inister, who m o o f o o o f o beca e the f under the c l ny Rh de Island, “ ” pleads in The Blo o dy Tenent o f Persecutio n (1644) fo r m o f wh o e% a better treat ent the Jews , , he said , wer n i ot as bad as p opular prej ud ce presents them . Sir “ Jo hn Lo cke (1632 in his Letters Co ncerning ” “ To leratio n demands that neither Pagan n o r Mahometan n o r J ew o ught to be excluded fro m the ” o civil rights o f the co mmo nwealth . He emb died the equality o f rights fo r the Jews als o in the co nstitutio n o f ol o o f o i w 1697 the c ny Car l na , hich he drafted ( “ Jean Jacques Ro usseau (1712 in his Emile which was o n e o f the mo st popular b o oks o f

o m o fo r w re this peri d , de ands full freed m the Je ish ligio n and co ndemns co nversio n t o Christianity by c om

n -t t h l m pulsi o n and seductio . Go o d Ephrai Lessing “ 1729- 1781 1749 Th e ( ) had already in , in his play ” b Jews , presented a Jew as a no le character , but in his “ ” drama Nathan the Wise which is a plea fo r 100

102 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o o o o f . ever , did not impr ve the c nditi n the masses The pro gress o f liberal ideas made this questio n a m o f o o fo r atter seri us c ncern legislators . In England a bill giving the Jews po litical rights was passed in

1753 o o o o o , but aroused such pp siti n am ng the p pulace that the go vernment fo und itself co mpelled to repeal

o it in the same year . O f m re permanent value were the measures o f the humane Jo seph II o f Austria 1780 o ( In vari us legislative acts , and espe “ ” cia ll so - o - o f 2 y in the called T leranz Edict January , 1782 o o , he laid d wn the principle that the Jews sh uld be treated like human be ings . Althou gh they were

o b o lo-t still under c nsidera le restricti ns , their was in

o o many ways impr ved , and the Emper r laid special n o f stress o their educatio n . As a tangible evidence the impro vement in their co ndition the abro gati o n o f “ ” Leib zo ll the poll tax , , the Jew badge and Jew taxes m o i o o f a a y be no ted . The ab l ti n thes e medi eval dis m on cri inati s , which were based on the principle that the Jew was a fo reign and inj urio us element o f the

o o o mo -re p pulati n , became m re and general by the end o f the eighteenth century .

o i 1 AS France ab l shed the po ll tax in 784 . early as 178 1 the Academy o f Metz o ffered a prize for the b e st o n o o f essay the impr vement the Jews . The first prize was wo n by Abbé Grego ire (1750 a Catho lic wh o oc o o o f priest , adv ated the abr gati n all Jewish i . o . o d sabilities Ab ut the same time Christian F D hm ,

o f in W o an ficial the Prussian war department , r te an essay o n the civil impro vement o f the Jews in which he likewise advo cated the granting o f full r equality t o the Jews . This p inciple became for the HI STORY OF THE JEWS 103

o n 27 1791 first time a fact when September , , the French Nati o nal Assembly passed a bill giving the i Jew s full civic and p o litical equality with o ther cit zens . When the French rule spread o ver adj acen t co un tries this was everywhere ad o pted . Such was the case

o 1796 in H lland in , and in all parts of Germany which directly o r indirectly came under French influence .

o o w fo o In C l gne, here r nearly f ur hundred years no

t o t o Jew had been permitted reside , Jews began set 1 8 o o o o tle in 79 . In Mayence the p pulati n t re d wn

o f o in 1798 o the gates the ghett , and this was d ne in o R me when the French ruled there . The French invasio n o f Italy in 1796 brought great t o relief the Jews , especially in the papal states , where m they lived under the o st cruel o ppressio n . In Ro me and other papal cities the gates o f the ghetto were torn

o t o ffi i d wn and the Jews admitted public o ces . W th

o f o o 1799 the withdrawal the French tr ps in , the old

o o . o fo r rder was rest red M bs , enraged against the ei n g rule , attacked the Jews in vari o us cities . The

o o o o m st seri us ri t ccurred in Siena , where nineteen

m o o f Jews were urdered , s me them being burned 28 1799 alive , June , .

o - on - - In Frankf rt the Main , where the Jews labored

i o o o co n under cruel d scriminati ns , their c nditi n was sid e rab ly impro ved in 1807 by an edict o f the Grand o vo n 18 11 Duke , Bar n Dahlberg, and in they were

i o o given full civil equal ty . Even reacti nary c untries

o n o o f m like Prussia c uld t resist the current the ti e ,

o f 11 1812 and the edict March , , declared the Jews t o o o f be citizens , gave them freed m residence and o ccupatio n and the right t o pro fess o rships in the uni 104 HI STORY OF THE JEWS ve rsit ies ; and altho ugh it withheld fro m them political i o t o . rights , it pr m sed grant them such in the future Jews have been drafted into the army in Austria 1787 18 12 since , and in Prussia since ; but numerous Jews j o ined the army as vo lunteers and distinguished themselves by acts of bravery during the wars of

1 o H n i o . 809 O liberati n In the Austrian Jew , Ant n g, was made lieutenant for bravery o n the battlefield o f

few ea r a ft erwa rd s r o Aspern , and a y s was p om ted to i l the rank o f capta n . In Prussia severa Jews were pro mo ted t o the rank o f o fficers during the Nap o leonic wars . wh o o . o o Meantime reacti n began to set in l Nap le n , o m o f m In 1798 as c m ander the ar y in the Orient , had called upo n the Jews t o j o in his army and conqu er ( n % o Palestine , cha ged his policy . M ved by complaints

t h e o f against business methods the Jews , he called an assembly o f Jewish n otables in 1806 and laid before them twelve questi o ns - including whether the Jews

o c nsidered themselves Frenchmen , whether their law permitted them t o take usuri o us interest fro m n on Jews and whether intermarriage with Christians would m be per itted . The answers given by this body of

o r 1807 b men were satisfact y, and the Emperor in esta lish ed a Sanhedrin t o ratify these principles and form

su eme ecclesia st ic o fo r a ll t h e r _ _ a p _ auth rity Jews of the o o t o wo rld . While thus apparently sh wing fav r the

la w 1808 m o o Jews , he issued a in which i p sed s me restrictio ns o n the freed o m o f trade of the Jews o f

o o w rea c Alsace . With his d wnfall , h ever, a general

o m th e tio n set in . S e states repealed laws which had

o t o s o given full freed m the Jew , while others , am ng

106 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

Kiesser ( 1806- 1864) was o n e o f the vice —presidents o f the Natio nal Assembly in Frankfo rt . The first Aus t rian Parliament had five Jewish members and the

o f t wo . o Diet Bavaria When the st rm passed away, a o o o o ou reacti nary spirit again t k h ld , alth gh the liber ties granted t o the Jews were not entirely repealed . S o me co untries like Austria suspended the con st it u

io i o i t n , wh le thers l ke Prussia interpreted it in a sense which rendered nugato ry so me of the rights given

t o o . ow o the Jews in the ry This , h ever , was m stly the case with regard t o the right o f h ol ding o fficial o o i t o o p siti ns . Civic equal ty and the right v te at electio n s and ho ld elective o ffices remained u n co n tested . Finally to ward the end o f t h e sixties even these o o disabilities were remo ved . The Austrian c nstituti n 1 o f 867 granted t o the Jews unrestricted equality .

o f o o o f 3 The law the N rth German Federati n July , 1869 t , declared that every sta e must remove all dis abilities imp o sed u po n citizens oh the gro und o f their

o co n religi us belief . This law was embodied in the st it ut io n f 1 71 o 8 . the German Empire in Sweden , which had admitted the Jews o nly at the end o f the i 1838 e ghteenth century, and in still restricted their

i t o o in res dence f ur cities , granted them full equality

1870 f r . o o Switzerland , while a republic, had a l ng time restricted the Jews t o t wo places in the Canto n o f 1878 Aargau . Not until were they given full i w 1 1 w ot . o 85 equality ith her c tizens N r ay had , until , a la w o n its statute - bo o k which pro hib ited even the

o tempo rary residence f Jews in the co untry . 1 0 England made sl o w but steady progress . In 83 HI STORY OF THE JEWS 107 the first attempt was made t o give the Jews po litical o i o o n rights , a year previ usly the disabilities mp sed 1833 Christian dissenters having been removed . In

Go ld smid t o Francis H . was admitted the bar , and in 1835 David S o lo mo ns was elected Sheriff of London i o f and Middlesex , the first mun cipal fice held by a 1845 1855 Jew . In he was elected alderman and in M f f o o f Lo rd ayor o the city o L nd o n . The entrance Jews t o Parliament was o ppo sed with great vehemence

1847 o o by the Co nse rvative Party . In Bar n Li nel de

t o Rothschild was elected Parliament, but could not take his seat because the prescribed o ath contained “ ” 1 58 upo n the true faith of a Christian . Not until 8 was a bill passed which allowed a Jew t o omit these

o o so n o words fr m the ath . His , Bar n Nathaniel de Ro thschild (1840 was in 1885 admitted as the

-f first Jew t o the House o Lo rds .

Only in the East o f Euro pe restrictions continued . Czar Alexander I in 1804 issued a law which en cour aged the Jews t o take u p agricultural pursuits and o o acquire secular kn wledge . This step was is lated , and in t he reign o f Nich o las I (1825 - 1855 ) the Jews o o o were subj ected t terrible persecuti ns , the w rst o f which was that children were fo rcibly taken from the ho uses of their parents and b ro ught up in barracks as s o ldiers t o serve twenty - five years after they had

f r reached the age required o the army . Under Alex ander II (1855 - 188 1) a S lo w improvement in ex cep t io n a l o o h cases t k place . Jews w o engaged in manu fa ct u rin o r g business enterprises , skilled mechanics o wh o o and th se had received a c llege education , were exempt fro m m o st of the disabilities imposed o n t h e 108 HI STORY OF THE JEWS m o io n ot asses , but the c ndit n o f the latter was w o f changed . They ere still restricted in their rights residence and occupatio n and excluded fro m all po l i l it ca rights . With the assassinatio n o f Alexander II a new era o f o e o o persecuti ns b gan . This culminated in bl ody ri ts , which spread over a great part o f S o uthern Russia and o o were perio dically repeated afterwards . The bl diest persecutions were those o f Kish in eff and H o mel in 1903 o f m o , and Odessa and a great any ther cities in

o 1905 o f in . 1906 S uthern Russia in , and Bialystok , m when o re than a th o usand people l o st their lives .

o o Even further restricti ns were intr duced . Thus a

o f 3 1882 o t h e law May , , pr hibited residence of Jews o o f in rural districts and the acquisiti n rural estates , and while in fo rmer times the acquisitio n o f secular kno wledge by Jews was encouraged by the go ve rn o f 5 1886 6 1887 ment , laws December , , and July , , restricted the attendance o f Jewish students at high scho ol s and universities to a percentage rangi ng from w o t o three t o ten . While the Je s btained the right o t h participate in the electi ns of e Duma , the Imperial n o t o mu Parliament , they had right participate in n icipa l electio ns and were represented in the munici pal boards o nly by a few members wh o were appointed b y the go vernment . They were also excluded from

o o . the c unty b ards , Zemstvo ’ o o n o A sudden change t k place whe , wing to Russia s o o wa s defeat in the W rld War, Czar Nich las II forced- t o h is o 15 ro e abdicate thr ne (March , A p visio nal go vernment repealed . all legal restrictio ns on

4 . the Jews , April This revolutionary government was

110 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o th e Ukraine , the territ ry which in seventeenth cen o f t h e Ch meln icki o tury , at the time rebelli n , had been

o f b e the scene a terrible slaughter . Here the fight

o on o o tween vari us c tending f rces , the Russians , P les i and the Ukrain ans , established governments which fo llowed each o ther in rapid succession and each change was accompanied by ma ssacres o f the helpless o n Jews . The victims killed number over e hundred

o th usand .

o f The Treaty Versailles , which established an inde

o 28 o pendent P land (June , c ntains a clause pro tecting the rights o f the Jew s and other minorities

b u t s m it has o far re ained a dead letter . o 1856 n ot When Rumania gained its auton my in , it o nly denied t o the Jews political rights but declared mob them t o be fo reigners . Frequent attacks and ar b it ra ry treatment o n the part o f the co urts an d the o ffi o o fo r cials made them practically utlaws . A h pe impro vement seemed t o lo o m up when in 1878 the Co ngress o f Berlin embo died an article in the treaty which co mpelled the newly fo unded so vereign and

o o mo o f b aut n us states Ser ia , Bulgaria and Rumania t o remo ve fro m their statute - b ooks all laws d iscrimin a t

-n o ing against citizens o the gr und of religio us belief .

o m They c plied with this requirement, but Rumania availed itself o f a ruse by which the law was pra ct i

' o r t o b e cally rendered nugat y . By declaring the Jews

o i n o m f re g ers , and naturalizing s e Jews , it apparently o ie la w i mo c mpl d with the , wh le al st all the Jews o f the co untry remained in their f o rmer state

o f o misery , enhanced by new regulati ns restricting o Ru their eco nomic freedom . After the W rld War HISTORY OF THE JEWS 111

mania received large territorial accessio ns . The

n m 10 1919 o treaty sig ed Dece ber , , imposed up n her the duty t o reco gnize all Jews in the annexed terri

o d id n o t o n Ru t ries , who claim f reig citizenship , as m a n t o anian citizens d to grant them , as well as to

o i o o r . th se liv ng in her f rmer territ y, full equality It loo ked in 1878 as i f Europe had guaranteed the fair t reatment o f the Jews even in countries of oppres o o o o o si n ; pp siti n began in p pular ranks , and in the same year anti - Semitism aro se as a n ew name fo r i hos tility to ward the Jews . Th s first made itsel f felt in Germany thr ough the fo undation o f the Christian

1878 o Socialist party in , started with the avowed bj ect o f withdrawing from the Jews their political rights , including that o f ho lding public o ffice and advocating

f m o the pro hibiti o n o the im igrati n of Jews .

o o m Fr m Germany the m ve ent spread to Austria , where it first was taken up by the radical German

3 n 188 o . party in , and later by the clericals It spread t o a n d u then Hungary France , where the p blication

i ’ “ ” o f Drumon t s La France Juive in 1886 ma rks the beginning o f the mo vement culminating in the Drey 189 fus case . Captain Alfred Dreyfus in 4 was charged with high treaso n in o rder t o stir up anti- Jewish feel

n o t o ing, and this was abated until his inn cence had 1 finally been established in 906. After the World War

o o o the p litical excitement, b th in the vict rious and in o o the defeated c untries , led to renewed h stilities m against the Jews . Pro inent English papers charged the Jews with respo nsibility fo r the success of the B o lshevist go vernment in Russia and with sympathy a l for l destructive po licies . In Germany and Austria 112 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

— m o the anti Se itic m vement gained in strength , espe cia lly when the sho rt - lived c ommunist go vernment in

o . Bavaria , led by the Jew , Kurt Eisner , c llapsed Eis

o - ner was assassinated by C unt Arco Valle, on his ’ mot her s side o f Jewish descent (February who o penly b o asted in the co urt that he hated the

w u t o o f Jews . In Hungary , where the Je s , p the end

h a o o o n e the war d held very high p siti ns , of them ,

Va szo n o f William y , having been Minister Justice , the defeat in the w a r and the pro-vo catio n at the co m mun ist government in which so me Jews too k pro m in en t w i o part, led to atrocities h ch equal th se of the

Ukraine . Ano ther S ign o f an unfavo rable chan ge in the atti tude o f the masses to ward the Jews was the revival o f 1840 the blo o d accusatio n . When in it made its

in im ris appearance Damascus , where Jews were p o n ed o fo r and t rtured this cause , it seemed that such a return t o mediaeval barbarism was co nfined t o the

o o mm t ou Orient . The atr cities c it ed in Damascus ar sed i m publ c senti ent all o ver Euro pe and America . The i i o o Mo n t efio re 1784 Br tish ph lanthr pist , M ses (

o r acc mpanied by the French statesman , Adolph G é mieux ( 1796 went t o the Orient t o make an in vest i a t ion o-n o a i g the sp t, and l y ng the evidence o f the i o o f o o b nn cence the accused Jews bef re the Sultan , t a in ed fro m h im a firma n declaring that the accusati o n w i w a s a s ent rely gro undless . It s supp o ed that this evi

o i o o f m o dence w uld d sp se ritual urder charges f rever, but the revival o f anti — Semitism in 1878 led t o a re

o f i ia S io newal th s med eval lander . A sensat nal case o 1882 i - E szla r ccurred in in T sa , Hungary , and other

114 HI STORY OF THE JEWS the beginning o f a m o vement lo oking to ward the o f resettlement the Jews in Palestine . The same wo rk had been attempted o n strictly phil

o os Mo n t efio re anthr pic lines by Sir M es who , desir o u s o f raising the econo mic conditio ns o f the Pales tinian Jews wh o fo r centuries had been existing a l m o st exclusively o n charitable gi fts sent by their b o o H a luk ah t o rethren fr m abr ad ( ) , tried create m o m m - o eans which w uld ake the self supp rting . The

o o new m vement , h wever , aimed at the creation of a land which the Jewish people could call their home . o This idea was adv cated by the Russian physician , “ Leo n Pinsker (1821 in his pamphlet Auto ” Emancipatio n published after the Russian o om p gr s of that year . It assumed more systematic

' “ ” o o f shape by the publicati n Der Judenstaat , by

o o 1860- 1904 1896 c fo l The d r Herzl ( ) in , whi h was lo wed in 1897 b y the first Congress o f Zionists con vened at Basle , which declared in its platform the “ o bj ect t o establish a legally secured ho me for the ” o Jewish pe ple in Palestine .

o f The execution this idea, as well as the principle o o itself , created c ntending parties in Judaism opp sing i o o . o each ther very str ngly One sect n , led by Israel Z a n will wh o g , founded the Jewish Territorial Organi za t io n o o o o fo r , prop sed to find an auton m us territ ry

s o o f . the Jew utside Palestine Others again , insisting o n om t o o f Palestine as the h eland , intended it be first

m o all a ho e fo r Jewish culture . Their sp kesman is “ Asher Ginzberg (b o rn 1856 and kno wn as Achad H a who se Hebrew essays entitled On the ” Cro ss - Ro ad ( 1889) were widely read and translated HISTORY OF THE JEWS 115

u into various lang ages . Another branch , the Mizrahi ,

1904 fo r o o . established in , stands strict orth d xy The

Po a le t wo o o Zion , again subdivided into facti ns , ign re the religi o us aspect and demand the establishment o f o o n o a Jewish h meland strictly s cialistic principles , while pro bably the largest sectio n o f Jewish socialists oppo se Zio nism altogether as natio nalistic and co n

r r t a y to the fundamental ideas of socialism . The o o o o o str ngest ppositi n came fr m th se , called Assimila t io n ist s o o wh o o by their pp nents , believe that the nly s o lution of the Jew ish questi o n lies in o btaining full reco gn itio n o f the Jews as citizens in their various ho melands .

o The who le S ituati n , which seemed merely academic ,

ff . assumed a di erent aspect when Arthur J Balfour, r o f fo r o ff B ritish Secreta y State F reign A airs , issued

m o 2 1917 a public state ent (N vember , ) which declared that the British go vernment views with favor the establishment o f a nati o nal home fo r the Jewish peo ” ' m b o ple . This state ent was repeated y the C uncil of

o o 24 Allied Nati ns in San Rem (April , when

o the mandate ver Palestine was given to England , and by Sir Herbert Samuel when he to o k office as High

o o f o Commissi ner Palestine, in the manifest which he 7 1920 read in Jerusalem July , . At the same time an unprecedented emigratio n too k

m e place from Russia and Ru ania to fre countries , par t icula rl y to the United States , Canada , Australia and o i m o S uth Africa , w th a s aller but also c nsiderable

f o stream o emigrati n to England . Baro n de Hirsch attempted t o regu late the emigra n tio by turning it to Argentine , where he acquired 116 HI STORY OF TH E JEWS

f 18 o 90. large tracts land in Indeed , agricultural

o o n o t settlements were f unded there , alth ugh they did realize the expectatio ns o f th o se wh o wo uld have m i turned large asses o f imm grants into that country .

o f o o i o Many the c l nists dr fted int the large cities ,

% t o n o o u especially Bue s Aires , and the agricultural p p latio n remaining in the co l o nies may be estimated as

- fi twenty ve th o usand . In spite o f the retro gressive movement which the o o f w t o o hist ry the Je s seemed present , Western Eur pe n o t o nly retained the principles enacted by the co n st it u t io n s om in 1848 pr ulgated and after , but individ i ual Jews have risen t o pro m nence in po litical life . Almo st all states o f Western Euro pe have had Jews

m o f o ob as me bers their Parliaments , and s me have

a in e m i r t d pro inent p o s ti ons in the go ve nment service . e France had several Jews as ministers . Cr mieux was m i o-f i 1848 o in ster j ust ce in , G dchaux and Achille o o o F uld served under Nap le n III , and Raynal under

i o 1910 f r the republ c . Lucien L . Kl tz was in o the first

” m o f o ti e minister finance , served repeatedly in vari us cabinets and was on e o -f the signato ries of the Peace

Treaty o f Versailles .

o Wo llemb er o In Italy , Le ne g was nce and Luigi

Lu zza t t i six im i o f o Ot t es m nister finance , and J seph

l n h i 1910 Lu zza i b t o e g was minister o f war . In t t e m o f came pre ier . He served again as minister finance

1920 o o o o wh o in , t gether with Lud vic M rtara , was

i o m nister o f j u stice . H lland had repeatedly Jewish mi i 1909 n sters , and England saw in the first Jew ,

m m m o i m . Herbert Sa uel , e ber f , the cab net A nu ber o f o b i o thers have served in ca nets since , am ng them

118 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

o o o f he f und empl yment in the house a manu facturer,

o o first as tuto r and then as b kkeeper . His main o bj ect was t o raise Jews fro m their intellectual isola

o . ti n He translated the Pentateuch , the Psalms and o o o o f o o s me smaller b ks the Bible int c rrect German , and edited this wo rk with a Hebrew co mmentary . It so o n became po pular and was the medium fo r teach o o O u ing the y ung pe ple the German language . Its p p la rity suggested t o vario us publishers the publicati o n o-f o e o m the wh le Bible in the same styl , with c m enta

ff or kn o-Wn a B iu ri o s st . ries by di erent auth s , s Thr ugh

o o n o t them Mendelss hn became , th ugh a teacher, the f o under o f a sch o o l . He als o defended Judaism against vario us attacks and presented its teaching in “ ” o o n a German w rk , Jerusalem . In his work the

o co - r Bible, he was assisted by vari us wo kers , among o whom the most pr minent is Naphtali Herz Wesel , wh o called himself Hartw ig Wessely (1725 ’ o n i o f o n The latter s epic the l fe M ses , patter ed on ’ “ o o t Kl pst ck s Messias , was wri ten in elegant Hebrew

m o o verse , and beca e an inspirati n to many ther writers disgusted with the o bscure and artificial style of Rab f o r r . binic Hebrew, and having a taste litera y beauty An o rgan fo r such endeavor s was presen ted b y the “ ” o o f Mea ssef publicati n the first Hebrew magazine ,

The pro gress o f secular education made Hebrew

o o o literature s n disappear in Western Eur pe , but the influence o f Wessely and his disciples made itself very

o o f o str ngly felt in the East Eur pe , and particularly in the co untries co mprisin g t h e fo rmer kingdo m o f

Po land . Their mo dern Hebrew writings introduced HI STORY OF THE JEWS 119

o t o o f o the y ung men the knowledge hist ry and science , and gave them a taste fo r secular educatio n and fo r a

o o f B ar L e i n western concepti n life . I saac o w n so

1788- 1860 o o ( ) wr te w rks in defense of Judaism , and m advocated secular culture , patriotism , anual trades and the emancipatio n fro m mediaeval co nditio ns still u existing in these co ntries . Marcus Aaro n Guenzburg (1795— 1846) wo rked chiefly as translato r o f p o pular ’ o w rks , such as j uveniles like Campe s German adapta “ ” o o f o ti n Ro bins n Cruso e . A m o re in ependent character w a s given to Hebrew d ' ’ literature b y tAb ra h am Mapu (1808— 1867) wh o wr o te “ ” t wo o omB o of n vels fr iblical life , The L ve Zion , and “ o f o The Guilt Samaria , and an ther describing the “ o f o life the Jew in his Lithuanian home , The Hyp ” ri w c t e . Mapu used Biblical Hebre with great facil ity and became the father of a new develo pment in

w i n t o Hebre and later Yiddish , giving Jewish litera o o a high literary character . He was f ll wed by _ture iJud a h Lo eb (Le on ) whose satir ical poems n o t merely p o ssess a value fo r the ease with

o w which the auth r handled the Hebre language , but have b een a great fo rce impressing upon t h e minds o f the Jews in Eastern Eur o pe the defects of their intel lectual isolatio n and the shortco mings of Rabbinic o 1842— 1885 teachings . (Perez Sm lensky ( ) was the autho r o f realistic n o vels and p opular essays written “ on e o f in classic Hebrew and his essays , The Ancient ” o o t o io Pe ple , gave a str ng impetus the Z nist move

o h a im ment . Amo ng the later p ets C y Nachman Bialik,

o 1873 o o a . b rn , is the m st p pul r His elegy on the massacre of Kish in eff is o n e o f the gems o f modern 120 HISTORY OF THE JEWS

Tch ern ich ow sk Hebrew literature . Lately Saul y and Zalman S ch n eo r (b o rn 1886) have won great popular i t y as wr iters o f Hebrew p o etry . Yiddish literature fro m it s earliest beginnings in the sixteenth century w a s m o stly used as a vehicle fo r the religious instructi o n o f wo men and people o f little educati o n or merely adapted and tran slated some o f the p o pula r literature o-f the co untries wher e its exp o

n n m m - e t s lived . Fro the iddle o f the nineteenth cen tury it co mmenced t o assume a m o re independent ’ character and thus secured a place in the w o rld s his to ry as is sho wn by the fact that so me o f its wo rks

were translated into o ther Euro pean languages . Amo ng the no velists may be menti o ned Shalom Jaco b Ab ra mo wit sch (1835— 1917) wh o wro te under the “ ” on m o o o pseud y , Mendele the b kseller , Shal m Rabin o wit sch (1859— 1916) called the Mark Twain o f Yid os l o f dish literature , and , the m t popu ar all , Isaac Loeb Peretz (185 1 A p o et wh o presents the tragic o o o f or o as well as the hum r us side the New Y k ghett ,

or o o 1864 t o o M ris R senfeld , b rn , is be menti ned ; his wo rks have been translated into vari o us European o o o languages . O f dramatists wh se w rks have cca sio n a lly fo und their wa y t o the German and English stage there are Shal o m Asch (b o rn 1881) a nd Jaco b Go rdin ( 1853 Besides these may be mentio ned David Pinski (b o rn Perez Hirsch b ein (bo rn 1880 i o i or ) and S . L bin (b rn l ke the f mer ,

o-f a natives Russi and living in America , where the

o w t o o o Yiddish stage , ing the large Jewish p pulati n in

i o o o fo r the larger c ties , f und the g reatest pp rtunity o w development . As a st ry riter, Abraham Reisin

122 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

Theo dor e Herzl wro te The New Ghetto in German Henri Bernstein the drama “ Israel” in French “ Arthur Schnitzler Pro fess o r Bernhardi (1912) The World War inspired the dramas ’ ” Jacob s Dream by Richard Beer H o ffma nn (1918) “ ” and Jeremiah by Stephen Zweig The ritual murder trial o f Tisa —E szla r was presen ted in “ ’ dramatic fo rm by Arnold Zweig in S ema el s Mis sion” A place in mo-dern Jewish literature belo ngs to the Jewish press as it h a s devel oped in the nineteenth cen o o tury . The first Jewish peri dical that had m re than “ i Mea sse f b an ephemeral ex stence was , pu lished in

Hebrew with s o me parts in German . It began to 1784 o u appear in , and with s me interr ptions was kept 1 o o up until 18 0. The ldest peri dical still in existence ” is the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums , begun

h il n 1 7 P i so in 83 . by Ludwig pp , rabbi Magdeburg , in “ ” It was fo llow ed by the Archives Israé lites in 1840 “ ” w o 1841 in Paris , and by the Je ish Chr nicle in in on o o o d u L d n . O f the numer us peri icals p blished in

ol s the United States , the dest till existing is the “ o American Israelite, f unded by Isaac M . Wise in 1 Cincinnati in 854 .

The first Hebrew weekly, which dealt not only “ ” f w a s Ha ma id o with Jewish a fairs , the gg , f unded

by Lazarus Silbermann in Lyck , East Prussia , in 1 “ 858 . The first Hebrew daily paper was the Haze

fira h w 1862 , published first as a eekly in and after

a o 1886 o wards as daily fr m . The large immigrati n o f Yiddish speaking Jews t o the United States and Canada furnished an unprecedented opport unity fo r HI STORY OF THE JEWS 123

Yiddish j ournalism and created a n umber o f large dailies and weekli es in these countries . A similar o pp o rtunity occurred with the relaxati o n o f the cen so rsh i o 1 0 p in Russia and P land , where since 9 3 nu mero us Yiddish dailies have been published . Quite a number o f valuable magazines dea ling with Jewish history and literature have been published since the middle o f the nineteenth century in Hebrew “ o and in vari us modern languages . Wissenschaftliche ” Zeitschri ft fuer J u ed isch e Theo logi e (1835— 1840) “ and Jued isch e Zeitschrift fuer Wissenschaft und Le ” ben ( 1862- 1875 ) were b o th edited by Abraham Goi “ ger ; the Monatsschri ft fuer Geschichte und Wissen schaft des Judentums , begun by Zechariah Frankel 1854 o 1887 re in , was disc ntinued in and has been 1891 “ ” published since . Revue des Etudes Juives “ ” dates fro m 1881 ; Jew ish Quarterly Review a p pea red fro m 1888 t o 1908 and co ntinued in Ph ila d el 1 10 phia S ince 9 . O f the Hebrew magazines there are

o f o Kerem Hemed , which nine v lumes were pub lish ed 1833 t o 1856 B iku re H a - it tim 1820 from , ( h ” and Ha sch ilo a c S ince 1896. It was sus an pended during the War d has been republished . The increase o f Hebrew autho rs in the United States helped to establish Hebrew periodicals o f which the “ ” weekly Ha t oren may be mentioned . o f o Rabbinic literature the lder type , dealing with the law and Talmudic dialecticism , has also a great o number of representatives during this peri od . Am ng o the fo remos t may be named M ses Schreiber (Sofer ) ,

o o - o n - — 1762 b rn at Frankf rt the Main in , died as rabbi 1839 1761 of Presburg in , and Akiba Eger ( 124 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

In Western Europe this literature S h o ws a steady

t h e o on decline . O f auth rs whose life bel gs entirely t o the nineteenth cen tury may be mentio ned Jacob

b b i o f on 1798 m Ettlinger , ra Alt a ( and Selig an B ar o f 1807 Bamberger , rabbi Wuerzburg (

o ow or o f Very numer us , h ever , are the Rabbinic auth s o o Eastern Eur pe and the Orient , am ng whom I saac

o o f o o 1817 Elhanan Spe ct r , rabbi K vn ( Hayim o f 1790 an d David Hazan , rabbi Jerusalem ( o o f his grands n Elij ah Hazan , rabbi Alexandria

1845 - 1908 Pa la i i o f m 1784 ( ) Hayim gg , rabb S yrna ( and his t w o s o ns Abraham (1809 and Nissim a 1814 o El a sch a r Is ac ( Saul Jac b y , chief rabbi o f Jerusalem (1816— 1905 ) Ra h a mim Jo seph o f 1826 Hayy im , rabbi Bagdad ( and Hayim 1 34 Hezekiah Medini ( 8 may be mentioned . ’ Already befo re Mendelsso hn s time individual Jews in Germany and Austria distinguished themselves in

i o o f l terature and science . But the educati n the masses wa s almo st entirely co nfined t o Bible and o i o o f o Talmud . With the p pular zati n secular kn wl edge the necessity fo r sch o o ls aros e and the first institutio n of this kind was fou nded in Berlin as “ ” o 17 ff the Jewish Free Sch o l in 78 . The e orts of Emper o r J os eph 11 t o pro mo te secula r culture among the Jews o f Austria led t o the establishment of a

o 1782 o o primary scho l in Prague in . Others f ll wed in different cities : the Wilhelm Schule o f Breslau was fo unded in 1791 ; the Herzo g Franz - Schule in Dessau

1 o o o o in 799 . Higher sch ls were the Jac bs n Schule

in 1801 o o in Seesen , the Sams n Schule in W lfen b u t el 1803 i o a et in , and the Ph lanthr pin in Fr nkfort

126 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o f o - o planned , which the c rner st ne was laid o n the 15t h 24 1918 o f Ab (July , ) A n o table educatio nal activity was inaugurated in

o o o f Russia during the m re h peful era Alexander II , when the S o ciety fo r Enlightenment was established 1867 S in . In pite o f the o bstacles which the auto

m con cratic govern ent put in its way, this society tributed greatly t o the spiritual progress o f the Rus sian Jews . o o f With the gr wing number schools , the need for

o o fo r a h special training sch ls Jewish te c ers aro se . 1825 The first o f these was founded in Berlin in . M o re imp o rtant was the need fo r training schoo ls fo r o a o b rabbis . The old meth d of educ ti n y which e very yo ung man wh o devo ted himself t o st udy wa s a Tal m d ic i u o . scholar, was d sc ntinued in Western Europe

t o On the other hand , it became necessary give the

r a rabbis a mo e system tic training . The first modern

o o f wa s scho l this kind established in Padua , then

in 1829 o -f under Austrian rule , . Later the Yeshibah Metz was transfo rmed into a Rabbinic seminary an d 1854 subsequently transferred to Paris . In the Rab binic seminary o f Breslau was fo unded and this was fo llo wed by the establishment o f similar institution s i 1875 n European co un tries . In the first Rabbinic o o o f seminary in America , the Hebrew Uni n C llege

o o Cincinnati , was pened . In New Y rk the Jewish

- 1 Theo logical Seminary was established in 886. Vari o u o i ot t o e s educati nal institut ons dev ed special n eds , such as the scho o l for the deaf - mutes o pened in 1845 r Nikolsburg in , and later transfer ed to Vienna , and the first Jewish institute for t h e blind established HISTORY OF THE JEWS 127 in 1872 t o the latter city in , deserve be menti oned in this co nnection . The rem o val of the disabilities which kept the Jew s o fr m agriculture and mechanical trades , and the de sire o f the Jew s t o direct the yo ung generati o n into such pursuits gave rise to quite a number o f in st it u o wo ti ns all over the rld devoted t o these purposes . Several o f these are lo cated in the Orient and were o on é f unded or subventi ed by the Alliance Isra lite . It established the first agricultural scho ol near Jaffa in 1 71 Palestine in 8 . The Hebrew Technical Institute 1884 o of New York , founded in , the agricultural scho ls 1 18 1 893 . . 9 at Ahlem , founded , at Woodbine , N J , ,

189 o . o Pa . 6 and at D ylestown , , , may be menti ned With the emancipation fro m Rabbinic studies a new devel o pment in Jewish learning to o k place . This “ sho wed itself in what is called the Science of Juda ” m o f ism , and may be defined as a syste atic study o o Jewish hist ry and literature . The pi neer in this work was Leop o ld Z un z (1794- 1886) wh o wrote b o oks o n i o o f o n the h st ry Jewish homiletics , the syna go -gal p o etry and vario us mino r essays o n all phases

f . o o o r o Jewish literature He f und numerous f ll we s , n t s o o o merely in we tern Eur pe , but als in the East, and thus contributed largely t o the intellectual eleva tion of the Jews . In Eastern co untries the first wh o wro te on these topics in Hebrew were Nahman Kro chmal (1785 1840) and S o l o mo n Lo ew Rap o p o rt (1790 The o f Z u n z w a s o latter, inspired by the works , the auth r o f bi ographies o f pro minent mediaeval rabbis . In Italy we have Isaac Samuel Reggio (1784- 1855 ) and 128 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

Samuel David Lu zza t t o (1800 wh o used the exc ellent co llection s o f o ld Hebrew prints and manu scripts fo r the elucidatio n o f the histo ry o f Jewish i f literature . The external s de o the literature was presented in erudite f or m by the great biblio grapher M o ritz Steinschneider ( 1816 Histo ry in more readable f o rm w a s written first by Isaac Marcus J o st (1793 and then by Heinrich Graetz (18 17 ’ the latter s wo rk having go ne thro ugh vari ou s

i o o i ed ti ns and been translated int French , Engl sh ,

m ou o o Hebrew and Yiddish . Nu er s auth rs w rked at the elucidatio n o f p or tio ns o f Jewish history and care l i n fully edited o d manuscr pts . Thus they shed light o o bscure parts o f the Jewish past and show ed the many - sided activit y o f the J es during the lo n g peri o d o f their history and their influence on all human activities . o Only a few names can be given . German hist ry was elucidated b y M or itz Gu ed ema n n (1835 who se wo rks p o inted o ut t h e imp o rt ance o f studying the cultural life o f the Jew s ; Ludwig Geiger (1848 David Kaufmann ( 1852 Marcus Brann (1849 French histo ry was enriched by the w o rks o f Heinrich Gr o ss ( 1835 Israel Lev i o (b o rn and M . Liber . English hist ry received

- u ou s o especially thoro gh treatment by vari auth rs , o Christians and Jews . O f the latter may be qu ted Jo seph Ja co bs (1854 Lucien Wo lf (bo rn 18 M o ses Gaster (b o -rn and Israel Ab rahams (b o rn Scandinavian histo ry fo und a diligent wo rker in David Simo nsen (b o rn active in

-f many bran ches o Jewi sh literature . Polish and Rus

130 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o r i Thus the reform m vement began . The fo ces wh ch o mo a l pr ted it were esthetic, po itical and dogmatic . In the first class may be reckoned the effort s o f Israel Jacobso n ( 1768 Alth o ugh not a pro fessio nal scho lar he was a man o f co nsiderable Jewish learn o t o ing, and his bj ect was make the services of the

o o t o o n n synag gue m re attractive the y unger ge eratio . The synago gue established by him in con nection with the sch oo l which he fo unded in Seesen in 1810 was the first that intro duced s o me o f the reforms which

o since have been generally accepted , namely , a serm n o o in the vernacular and dec rum and m dern music . In 1818 the first reform congregatio n was estab lish ed o on o t o in Hamburg . Jac bs , who rem ved Berlin , held mo dernized services in his ho me The r Hebrew ritual was abridged , Ge man prayers were o i om intr duced , nstrumental music acc panied the sing

an d o - ing a serm n fo rmed part of the service . His o ow o example was f ll ed by Jac b Herz B eer , the father o f om o r o f o the c p ser Meyerbee . The elders the c ngre ga t ion prot ested and the services were proh ibited by o o o n e o f a r yal rder . Edward Kley, the preachers in ’ o o t o Beer s synag gue , was called as scho l principal Hamburg where he intro duced such services in his

o t o o f scho l . This gave an impulse the establishment a regular ref o rm con gregatio n which began its services

o 1824 o r in 1818 . It was foll wed in by a similar

a n iza t i n o C . o o . g in Charlest n , S ; this , h wever , was

. s o o n disso lved . These synagogues introduced a ritual different fro m the on e which had up t o this time

o o n been generally in use . The m st imp rtant cha ges were tho se which (eliminated the belief in the return \ HI STORY OF THE JEWS 131

o f the Jews t o Palestine and co nsequently also in the

o o o f fo l ( rest rati n the sacrificial cult . J These were lo wed by an attempt t o present systematically the teachings o f m o dern Judaism an d t o apply the prin ciples o f the mod ern critical scho o l t o the who le o f o f Jewish life , particularly the observance the dietary

and marriage laws . The desire to w o rk in harmo ny led t o the con v o ca o o f ti n o f Rabbinic assemblies , the first which was

- n - — 1 enc held in Frankfo rt o the Main in 844 . As the p onent o f the mo st radical views Samuel H old h eim

1806- 1860 t o o t ( ) is be menti ned . It was his idea hat o o o Judaism had l st all its f rmer nati nal significance .

o o o o f i ose On this basis the ref rm c ngregati n Berl n , wh H o ld h eim 1845 first rabbi was , was established in , introducing fo r the first time s o lemn services o n

Sunday. The m o st pro minent scientific exp o nent o f the re fo rm idea w a s Ab ra h a n{Ge iger ( 1810 one of the mo st pro minent w o rker s i n scientific Jewish litera

oo fo r r i o o o f ture . He st d a mo e h storic c ncepti n the

o i o o ref rm princ ple , alth ugh as a Bible critic his p si

o w ti n was advanced . His vie s were shared by three

o f o of the leading rabbis America , David Einh rn

- 1 - (1809 1879) ,l Samuel Hirsch 18 5 and Ber

’ n a rl elsen t h a l . 1822 ( They, together with Samuel 'Adler ( 1809 represented the progres m sive ideas o f German theo l ogy in A erica . In 1842 reform was definitely intro duced in the

C . o o o o f o . synag gue Charlest n , S , f ll wing the example set by the f o undati o n of the West Lo ndon Synagogue

v ou . o f British Jews the year pre i sly In America , 132 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o m. o o o l o o h wever, refor t k str ngest ho d and s n was accepted by the leading co ngregations co mposed o f i i o the nat ve and the natural zed element . The m st pro minent figure in the po pularizatio n o f this move ment in America wa s Isaac Mayer Wise %( 1819- 1900)

or co n se rv a five i S o f A m e v ew , usually poken as

o-f o r Z ech a that hist ic Judaism , was represented by riah Frankel (1801 He stoo d fo r freedo m o f

th ou ght in the o retical matters but advo cated . con

e rva t ism w o i o s in o r ship and practice . An ther d visi n w a s fo rmed by tho se wh o stood unco mpr omisingly for the preservati o n o -f the tradition al Jewish life based o n a strict belief in the divine o rigin o f the Bible and

o f o f the authenticity Rabbinic interpretati n , di fering fro m the ol d scho ol o nly in so far as they admitted o Th e o o f o secular educati n . chief exp nent this th ught was Sams o n Raphael Hirsch ( 1808 In Amer ica his views were represented b y Isaac Leeser (1806 1868) and Sabato M o rais ( 1823 while a com pro mising attitude was taken by Benj amin Szo ld (1829 Marcus Jastro w (1829 and S ol o mon Schechter (1847 under whose guidance the o o o reo r an Jewish The l gical Seminary in New Y rk , g

iz e 1902 w a s t o it s d in when he called presidency, became the training schoo l fo r rabbis representing o w o f this idea . The traditi nal vie Judaism , in the sense in which it had generally“ existed until the f n latter half o the eighteenth ce tury , was restricted t o the Orien t and Eastern Euro pe and t o con gregatio ns fo rmed by re c ent immigrants fro m these co untries in i o Western Euro pe and America . As l terary champi ns of this unco mpromising at titude Hillel Lichtenstein

134 HI STORY OF THE JEWS

o o and in distressing poverty, created relief rganizati ns o f o o o an unprecedented scope . M st pr minent am ng

o Di m o them is the J int stribution Co mittee , f rmed by e the Jews o f the United States , which has xpended o ver in effo rts t o alleviate the terrible misery created by the war and the subsequent pogroms . o Of organizati ns having a wider scope , the Jewish Co lo nizatio n Asso ciati o n f o unded by Baron M o ritz 1891 de Hirsch in , has the greatest capital . These

o f o o o schemes col nizati n , to which the w rk done by the Zio nist o rganizatio ns and that contemplated by

i o o o in 1905 the Jewish Terr t rial Organizati n f unded ,

t o o . have be added , are as yet nly in their infancy

r e e u o In gene al , however, since the Fr nch R vol ti n there has been a steady pr o gress o f Jew ish life in

all directions , sadly interrupted by the World War . I NDE%

on b en B l1 a h 49 e n ri 11 Aar j , Al xa d a , Ab a rb a n el 72 Al fa si 58 74 75 , Isaac, , Isaac , , , e 38 ie ie i o f 75 Abay , Alg rs , Ch f Rabb , re 37 Alk a b ez o o mo n e i 96 Abba A ka (Rab) , , S l Hal v , Ab b a h u o f ae r 35 Alk mus 15 C sa ea, y , err m n 44 i n e e i e n i er Abd ah a , All a c Isra l t U v e e r 87 e e 125 - 7 133 Ab l s , Laza us , s ll , , m b en i 74 Al o r u i o 66 73 Abraha Dav d , q , J shua , , ib n 56 o n o % 65 Ezra , Alph s , m e 128 e 61 64 83 104 121 Abraha s , Isra l , Alsac , , , , , Ab ra mo wit sch o m a m ro i 42 , Shal J A b s us , cob 120 meri 92 109 112 121 , A ca, , , , , Ab ul a fia ei 74 122 131- 3 , M r, , H a - Am 114 r ewi o mm ni Achad , Ea ly J sh C u o t rie 85 t ie in 91 92 Ac s a , U l , s , , Ad eret h i 49 me i n e o ion 92 El yahu , A r ca R v lut , e r m e 131 mo o 44 Adl , Sa u l , A l , e i it o in 25 mo r im 35 A l a Cap l a , A a , i o t 92 mr m o n 46 Afr ca, S u h , A a Ga , A ob a rd 43 44 m t er m 84 85 90 g , , A s da , , , ri 20 n n b en i 48 Ag ppa, A a Dav d , 20 21 n t o i o 73 II , , A a l , Jac b , “ i o f 46 n ien eo e Th e 119 Aha Shabha , A c t P pl , , “ ” Ah a ro n im 96 n o n 78 , A c a , Ak ed a t Yizh a k 72 n o - ewi oc i io n , A gl J sh Ass at , i 25 28— 30 47 125 133 Ak ba, , , , i en e 70 n t i o n 12 Alb g s s , A g us , o o e 66 71 16 Alb , J s ph , , Al ch a rizi 57 Ant i ewish o o 43 48 82 , Judah , g b ks , , , , e n er 107 é Al xa d I , 107 108 126 n t io 12 II , , , A chus III , a n n a 16 — E h i h an e s 12 14 J L IV ( p p ) , , so n o f ri t o 17 14 A s bulus , V , t h e re 11 n t i e 17 G at, A pat r, e o r o f 12 n i- emit i m i e o f 111 succ ss s , A t S s , R s , o e 117 13 121 M s s , , e n ome 16 An t ok o lsk 129 Al xa dra , Sal , y , Marcus , 136 INDEX

n t o n 18 B a sh a zi El1 a h 49 A y, j , j , o o n i 13 B a sl e Z ion ist o n re a t Ap ll us , , C g ss , in o o m o f 55 114 Aqu , Th as , r 40 44 54 56 68 B a t h o ri t e e n 78 A abs , , , , , , S ph , Ar m 72 ri o in 105 112 a a , Isaac , Bava a, M bs , , r e e er 66 ee o e r 130 A bu s , P t , B r, Jac b H z , r e 19 eer- o fm n n i r 122 A ch laus , B H f a , R cha d , r en t in e 92 B eilis en e 113 A g , , M d l , ri n 43 e 69 A a s , B la IV , ri t o 16 en e i % 65 A s bulus , B d ct III , 16 17 o f o r 54 , Y k, rm e er o n 61 en min o f Neh a wen d 48 A l d , J h , B j a , r er e 10 e r in 80 83 88 90 101 117 A tax x s , B l , , , , , , , Och u s 11 124 131 III , , , r 46 58 re t o f 110 113 A uk , , T a y , , r e o e 97 e rn r o f ir 53 A y h L b , B a d Cla vaux, Asca relli e o r 94 e rn r in o f e re 62 68 , D b ah , B a d F lt , , o o m 120 ern t ein ro n 121 Asch , Sh l , B s , Aa , e 38 en ri 122 Ash , Rab , H , e r b en Y ech ie l 74 e r i 125 Ash , B sa ab a , en i o o mo n 78 e r e 86 Ashk az , S l , B sht, Is a l , imi t io n i t 115 e i o f m t o n S ir 94 Ass la s s , B v s Ha p , n 10 B e z a l el Art o o 125 Assua , Sch l , er e o 129 i i Ch a im m n 119 Au bach , B rth ld , B al k, y Nach a , 18 i t o 108 Augustus , B alys k , t r i 92 B ik u re H a - it t im 123 Aus al a , , ri 83 89 101 102 104 B iu rist s 118 Aust a , , , , , , , 106 109 111 126 e 61 , , , Black Plagu , t o — - fe 66 67 91 o i r n e 54 Au da , , , Bl s , F a c , t o - m n i io n 114 o o - t io n 53 59 62 Au E a c pat , Bl d accusa , , , , i e ron 55 68 87 88 113 Av c b , , , , i n o n 64 B lo o m a rd en o o mo n 121 Av g , g , S l , ri d ei o i o f F er o o o o 93 Aza ah R ss B b b k , r r 94 95 o in e n 81 a a , , B d , J a , i i 2 D. 98 o ern e 1 9 . . w Azula , H J , B , Lud g , o emi 69 B h a , o n i 9 10 36—8 45 o e i i 109 Babyl a , , , , B lsh v k , r ir im 98 o n n n in o f 62 Bacha ach , Ja Hayy , B ds , A ull g , 124 B o n sen o r 73 Bagdad , y , Judah , 17 ib n 55 71 r n ei o i D. 1 Bahya Pakuda , , B a d s , L u s , B a a z ed t n 77 r n n r 128 j II , Sul a , B a , Ma cus , o r rt r 115 r i 91 Bal f u , A hu J B az l , n 70 re 62 76 Balka s , B slau , , m er er e i m n B a r in i emin a t 126 Ba b g , S l g a , Rabb c S ary , 124 re t - it o 109 B s L vsk, r e on i t io n 64 B rima n ro n 113 Ba c l a , D spu at at , , Aa , o ime o n 25 29 ro 125 Bar K chha , S , , B dy,

138 INDEX

M 12 i n f e er in 83 D n . 9 o o w ub o w . , S , Expuls J s , B l , m 108 o emi 83 Du a , B h a , Du n a sh ib n La b ra t 45 n n 60 84 , E gla d , , r n ro fi 73 r n e 60 63 64 Du a , P t, F a c , , , imeo n b en em 75 erm n 62 63 S Z ach, G a y, , n r 69 Hu ga y, en B o n 72 Lu eb eck 105 Eb ha , , H a ez er 75 o r 67 , P tugal , o n 80 in 67 69 Eck, J h , Spa , , w r 60 ien n 88 Ed a d I , V a , er i 123 E b e sch uet z o n n 97 98 Eg , Ak ba , y , J atha , , t 9 10 t h e ri e 10 37 Egyp , , Ezra , Sc b , , in o rn i 131 t h e i 76 E h , Dav d , Kabbal st, i m n r Ez ri l en A. e 76 e e . 88 E s g , J , , i n e rt 112 E s r, Ku , n i 50 r i o ri 64 Eldad Hada , Fa h Est , e b en ri 28 e i i e 129 El azar Aza ah , F l x, El za Rach l , b en e 76 e en ern r 131 J hudah , F ls thal , B a d , b en Ka llir 50 e r in n o f in 67 77 , F d a d Spa , , o f o in 25 o f i 83 M d , I Austr a , Pa d a t h 35 F irk ovit ch r m 49 bar , , Ab aha , “ ” ie e b en H rk a n o s 28 i u d a icu s 23 24 El z r y , F scus J , , i e i 93 e n t 61 El j ah L v ta , Flag lla s , d e Vi 96° o o a n d das , F uld , G dchaux d el e i o 73 i e 116 M d g , Ach ll , o f Wi n 98 F n e 42 43 54 58- 60 63 l a, ra c , , , , , , i b en er 64 74 103 111 121 El sha Abuya (Ach , , , , t h e o t e 29 F r n o 86 Ap s at ) , a k, Jac b , Ell st a et t er o rit 117 r n e e ri 122 132 , M z , F a k l , Z cha ah , , El a ch r 12 r n o - on - t h e - in 88 s a . 4 y , S J . , F a kf rt Ma , , m en i 84 103 131 E d , c ty, , o 98 F ra n zo s r mi 121 Jac b , , Ka l E l , mi r io n ro m i n F re d ick o f erm n 59 E g at f Russ a a d II G a y , , m n i 115 7l Ru a a , Emun o t W e d eo t 47 “ e i e en La w o f , B ll g r t, , n n 60 84 91 92 100 38 E gla d , , , , , , 102 106 109 115 116 t h e re 101 , , , , G at, En o 95 Wi i m 105 Jac b, ll a III , “ n t e e u d en t h um 88 \ 7illia m o f r n en r E d ckt s J , , B a d bu g, o H ak o fe r 49 %8 Eshk l , t i 85 ren e o t io n 105 134 E h cs , F ch R v lu , , Et s im 49 Hay , t in er o 124 Gab iro l se e o o mo n ib n E tl g , Jac b , ( S l ) t o ri 49 i i 49 125 Eupa a , Gal c a , , Ex u sio n o f ew r i m ie 27 28 p J s , A ab a, Ga al l II , , 4i Gan en 49 Ed , i 83 n i 98 Austr a, Ga s , Dav d , INDEX 139

Ga o nim 45 - 8 mo n o e 77 , Ha , J s ph , t e o e 128 n in i 35 Gas r, M s s , Ha a , Rabb , e o f 12 H a sch ilo a ch 123 Gaza, Battl , , e i ib n 98 i ib n S h a ru t 44 50 G dal ah Yahya , Hasda p , , ei er r m 123 131 i im 86 G g , Ab aha , , Has d , wi 128 e e 76 Lud g, S f r, en e 81 i i m 86 G va , Has d s , e m n 41 42 44 52 58 mo n e n 14 G r a y, , , , , , Has a s , 59 61 62 74 80 83 89 H a t o re n 123 , , , , , , , , 92 95 - 7 99 103 105 106 o n 47 , , , , , , Hay Ga , 109 111 113 121 124 o n e emi 86 , , , , Hay , N h ah , n im d n F s e im 124 e o o e e e . . G r Sa ta ( Hayy , R J , Al o r u i o n i 124 q , J shua ) Haza , El jah, er o m b en Me o r im i 124 G sh Judah ( Hay Dav d , ” H a o l h 52 H a zefira h 2 g a ) , , 1 2 Ge ssius o r 20 H ec sid b en m e Fl us , , Judah Sa u l , et t o 78 103 gg Gh , , e t o n o e 121 H eil rin e ie 99 Gh t v l , p , J h l , in er er 114 ein e ein ri 129 G zb g , Ash , H , H ch, Go ld sch mid t eie ro n e i e 81 , M r Aa , H l c, Luk , H elio r l z1 d o u s, 13 Go ld smid r n i H 107 en r 90 , F a c s . , H y II , Go mb in er r m 96 o f o n 65 , Ab aha , II , Arag , Go m e rz i 88 o f n n 60 p , El j ah , III , E gla d , o r in o 120 o f e m n 53 G d , Jac b , IV , G r a y , ” o r o n eo n 119 H e - h e rio 105 G d , Judah L , p p ts , o t 42 e r i 34 G hs , H acl us , r e ein ri 128 e o 17 18 G a tz , H ch , H r d , , n 67 n t i 18 Gra ada , A pas , re it in see n n e r eo o r 114 122 G at Br a ( E gla d ) H zl , Th d , , Gré o ire é 102 e e i 17 g , Abb , H z k ah, re o r 42 43 o n 48 G g y I , , Ga , o f o r 43 i erein d er e t en T u s , H l fsv d u sch ro ein ri 128 e n 125 G ss , H ch , Jud , i Gued eman n o ri 128 e , 26 27 , M tz , H ll l , en r o n 119 36 Gu zbu g, Aar , I I , “ H il eri 3 i e o f t h e er e e 57 p c, 4 Gu d P pl x d , ir on o it d e H sch , Bar M r z , 115 13 i o ib n 94 , 4 Hab b , Jac b , ri n 24- 6 P 117 Had a , aul , i 125 m o n e 132 Ha fa , Sa s Rapha l , l k d l o t 46 m e 131 Ha a o t Ge o , Sa u l , e r t 88 H irsch b ein ere 120 Halb stad , , P z , i 49 H isd a 38 Hal cz , , e 88 Hiz uk Emu n ah 49 Hall , , H a ma id 122 H o f— e H o f- t o r 88 gg , Jud , fac , m r 105 130 H o ld h eim m e 131 Ha bu g, , , Sa u l , 140 INDEX

n se m er m me o f o n 73 H o lla d ( e A st da ) Ja s II , Arag , o me % 108 64 H , VIII , On i n o n 101 104 n n 50 H g, A t , , Ja ah r i i 96 e n er 16 H o o w tz , Isa ah , Al xa d , h n Mish a t 75 o n o 13 H o s e p , Jas (J shua ) , e e r io n 61 62 82 t ro w r 132 H o st D s c at , , , Jas , Ma cus , “ n 37 38 e o 121 Hu a, , J h ash , n 69 81 112 eremi 10 Hu gary, , , J ah , i e 62 ero me 36 Huss t s , J , H rca n u s o n 15 er em 115 124 125 y , J h , J usal , , , ie e o f it 23 S g , by T us , m 56 95 ri n 25 Ib n , , by Had a , Ezra , Abraha n 45 in 70 Ga ah , by Salad , o e 56 e it 78 87 88 M s s , J su s , , , Tib b o n m e 57 71 e 82 , Sa u l , , J sus , me n 15 17 18 ew e see Ye o w Idu a s , , , J Badg ( ll Ikk a rim 66 71 e , , Badg ) mm n e b en o o mo n 72 ewi o o n i io n o i I a u l S l , J sh C l zat Ass c a n n o en 54 io n 134 I c t III , t , 59 Pro a a n d a in o me 23 IV , p g , R , , n i i io n 66 67 70 89 90 ss I qu s t , , , , , e o f 12 e rri o ri Or n i io n Ipsus , Battl , T t al ga zat , b en eir 58 114 134 Isaac M , , b en S h esh et Rib a sh 75 o im r e 83 ( ) , J ach II , Ma grav , ern r 101 o fe o 109 B ha d , J f , Ad lph , Do n 65 o n n b a r Na a h a 35 , J ha a pp , o f ro i 49 i rie 11 T k , h gh p st, so n o f Rab ed 76 b en i 27 , Zakka , 117 o n in o f n n 60 Isaacs , Ru fus , J h , K g E gla d , e 67 H rca n u s 15 Isab lla , y , i d i r n i 75 o in t i ri t io n o mmi Isa ah T a , J D st bu C t m e i 29 t ee 133 Ish a l , Rabb , , i o re o f e i e 43 o n n ee 15 Is d S v ll , J atha , Maccab , m 41 86 o e b a r H a la ft a 30 Isla , , J s , r e it i e i n 132 b en o e 50 Is a l sch All a z , J s , r e o e 129 i 36 Is a ls , J s ph , Rabb , I sserl ein r e 76 o e 11 o f ri 101 , Is a l , J s ph Aust a , , I sserl s o e 95 102 124 , M s s , , 103 38 Italy, Rab , e 85 Rapha l , n e o o o f 27 S o f m e n i Jab h , Sch l , Sa u l Ha ag d , o b en e 75 95 p; Jac b Ash r, , o o e 128 so n o f o i 12 Jac bs , J s ph , T b as , o o n r e 130 o e i 21 51 Jac bs , Is a l , J s phus , Flav us , , ff 125 o b en n n i 28 Ja a , J shua Ha a ah , o b en eir see b en e o 10 Jak b M ( Rab J h zadak , en Ta m o 97 b u ) Jac b ,

142 INDEX

Luzza t t o m e i 128 e i 38 41 78 79 85 86 , Sa u l Dav d , M ss ah , , , , , , , i 14 96 Lys as , e t 102 126 M z , , Ma a seh To b i a h 99 e e 113 y , M y r, Paulus , ee t h e 14 e er eer i o mo 129 Maccab , Judah , M y b , G ac , , ir b en ri 73 130 Mach Aba Ma , ri 68 Me zd z rzecz B e r 86 Mad d , y , a , n e i e o f 12 i r 50 5 1 72 73 Mag s a , Battl , M d ash , , , , n e r 55 Miklo l 70 Mag us Alb tus , , Ma irr o n id es 56 57 71 74 in i t e r ew 117 , , , , , M s s , J s as , 8g i n o m i io n o f 30 M sh ah , C p lat , , Ma mma ea 26 3 3 3 3 , 4, 5, 7, 8 Ad a n u e 67 o mmen r 56 71 h C ta y , , r m 119 Mish n eh o r 56 Mapu, Ab aha , T ah , Ma ra nn o s 65 67 77 79 84 i r i 115 , , , , , , M z ach , 89 91 i r i i 93 , M z ah , El j ah , re i 26 Mo b io en e 34 42 53 54 Marcus Au l us , V l c , , , , , Ma r a lio t o 81 61 62 63 69 87 88 90 g , Jac b , , , , , , , , Ma r a rit h a n o n i 81 103 105 108 g , A t us , , , ri mn e 18 20 o en eo n 94 Ma a , , M d a , L , rin see ib n a n o in 14 Ma us ( G ah ) M d , r in e e r in n 65 o mme 40 41 Ma t z , F d a d , M ha d , , a ie e o f 22 o mme n 33 44 45 65 Massad , S g , M ha da s , , , , , Ma ssek et im 72 79 101 Pur , , Ma t t a t h ia h 14 Mo l ch o o o mo n 79 , , S l , en e 52 103 o n i m 85 May c , , M s , “ Mea sse f Mo nt efio re o e 112 114 , , M s s , , i D d i o r i o 132 e o see elme o o s. M d g ( g , J M a s , Sabat , S o l o r i n re ren 81 . ) M av a B th , e i o i d el 73 o r e i b en i e 75 M d g , El j ah , M d ca H ll l , e in i im e e i b en Nissim 49 M d , Hay H z k ah , , 124 o r l Neb ukim 57 70 71 M , , , , eir o f o t en r 74 a; M R h bu g, i 30 o r en t e n r 109 Rabb , M g hau , H y, ei e o e i 83 o rt r o i o 116 M s ls , M rd ca , M a a , Lud v c , en em b en r 45 Mo rt eira i 85 M ah Sa uk, , Rabb Saul , Men a sseh b en r e 84 o e b e n imo n see Is a l , M s s Ma ( M en d el e t h e bo o ks ell er (see Maimo n id e s ) Ab ra mo wit sch b en m n 64 74 ) Nach a , , en e o n o e 101 b en Uri 84 M d lss h , M s s , , , 117 118 124 ib n r 56 , , Ez a , en e o e e o f — o f o 76 M d s , J s ph (Duk C ucy, o 77 o f eo n 76 Nax s ) , L , r i 77 G ac a , en e 13 m n b a r o 38 M laus , Nah a Jac b, Meo r En i B ra zl a y m, 94 o f t a v, 86 ero in i n in 43 e 42 62 M v g a k gs , Napl s , , INDEX 143

o eo n 104 Pa m u lo v m e 49 Nap l I , p , Sa u l , 116 n t e i m o n i m 85 III , Pa h s (M s ) , i o e 78 r i men t e w me m Nas , J s ph , Pa l a s , J s as t n o f 85 e r o f 105 - 7 Na ha Gaza , b s , o f o me 47 58 Pa o le io n 115 R , , Z , t n t h e Wi e 100 r e e 32 Na ha s , Pa s s , o e o f 77 rt i n 18 32 Nax s , Duk , Pa h a s , , e n e r 9 Pa u l B ish o o f r o 65 N buchad zza , , p Bu g s , Neh a rd ea o o in 37 73 , Sch l , ’ e emi 10 79 N h ah , IV, k h n 86 Pa et a n im 50 H a o e , y , e ro 21 e re t o e 120 N , P z , Isaac L b , e r 24 e r o e 125 N va , P ls , J s ph , Ne w ri i n 90 e r e t io n se e Mo b Vio Ch st a s , P s cu s ( 2 n i n New o r 1 0 e e o t e e r t o . Y k, l c , H s D s c a in i e m n r o f a n d o o t io n Rabb c S i a y , Bl d Accusa ) 124 e r i 9- 11 34 45 P s a , , , i o 107 et er t h e r e 65 N ch las I , P C u l , 108 et ro n i 20 II , P us , Ni rin u s 81 e ffe r o rn o n 82 83 g , P f k , J h , , i n o r 15 ri e e 16 24 N ka , Pha s s , , i o r 124 i e i 123 N k lsbu g, Ph lad lph a , o e ri e 117 i i so n o f e ro 18 N b l p z , Ph l p , H d , o rw 106 o f r n e 63 N ay , IV F a c , rem e r 75 o f r n e 64 Nu b g, V F a c , i i i t e o f 18 Ph l pp , Ba tl , e 108 Ph ili so n wi 122 Od ssa , pp , Lud g , ffen 86 i o 11 O bach , Ph l , e t o r e me 91 i i 98 Ogl h p , Ja s , P ck , Isa ah , m r o en n o f 41 i 38 O a , C v a t , P lpul , n i 13 in 109 O as III , P sk , en e ime r o ri 129 in er e o n 114 Opp h , M tz , P sk , L , m e 88 in i i 120 Sa u l , P sk , Dav d , r im 75 Pirk e i ie er 5 1 O ah Hayy , , Rabb El z , r n i t io n 133 134 i 79 O ga za s , , P us V , O rzesk a i 121 r nt o n in 26 30 , El za , Ma cus A us , , t ro o t 41 F i a t 50 Os g hs , y , Ot t ol en h i o e 116 o o i 86 g , J s ph , P d l a , o n 60 69 79 81 86 87 P la d , , , , , , , o o a t 126 93 109 110 Padua , Sch l , , , Pa la i im 124 o n 113 gg , , P Hay l a , r m 124 o m e 17 Ab aha , P p y, Nissim 124 o n t i i t e 19 Isaac , P us P la , Pa l e i l e 9 10 64 114 115 o e 42 43 54 59 63 65 , , , , , , P p s , , , , , , , iég 7 - 8 82 0 67, 8 0, , 1 5 a ra ct er o f ie in o rt 67 80 85 89- 91 Stud s , P ugal , , , , gg re ewi 118 122 123 P ss , J sh , , , 144 INDEX

e o 117 o e n 85 91 100 Pr uss , Hug , Rh d Isla d , , , rin in 68 79 83 Rib a sh see b en P t g, , , ( Isaac S h esh et Priscu s, 43 ) ro n 24 33 i oe d e io n 54 P paga da , , R chard C ur L , ro t e n t i m 80 81 Rie sser b rie 106 P sta s , , , Ga l , r i S ee er in a n d Ger iet i o e 72 P uss a ( B l R , M s s , m n 101 103 105 Rin d fleisch rio 61 75 a y) , , , t, , o em o f 12 Ro et t in en 61 Pt l y , Egypt, g , so n - in - la w o f imo n t h e o in t 113 S R hl g, Augus , ee 15 Ro k ea h 76 Maccab , , P mb ed it h a o o o f 38 o m no i 79 u , Sch l , , R a , El j ah , 45 47 o o mo n 79 , S l , m 1 o e 7 s . S ee o e R , q ( P p s ) , ie 24 Qu tus , u irin iu s 19 o en e o rri 120 Q , R s f ld , M s , o 75 R sh , see re o eim o sel 83 Rab ( Abba A ka) R sh , J , 39 o i ri d ei Raba , R ss , Aza ah (see Aza Na h ma n i 38 ri Rabba bar , ah) Ra b b en u - H ak a d o sh see u ot en r 62 ( J R h bu g, n i Ro t h sch ild ro n io n e d dah Ha as ) , Ba L l e, Ta m 58 l 07 , i see n i ro n t n ie d e 1 Rabb ( Judah Ha as ) Ba Na ha l , 07 in 38 o e ea n . 100 Rab a , R uss au , J J , in owit o m 120 m n i 110 113 Rab ch , Shal , Ru a a , , m n 74 76 i 82 Ra ba , , Russ a , , o o r o o mo n o ew Rap p t, S l L , 127 Ra sh b a see o o mo n ib n S a a d a o n 47 48 ( S l y Ga , , re S a b b a t a i e i 85 86 98 Ad t) Z v , , , Ra sh b a m 57 58 o r im 38 , , Sab a , i 57 58 S a ch e r Ma so ch e o o vo n Rash , , , L p ld , t i o n 62 63 l zl Ra sb , , en n 33 42 ee 16 Rav a , , Sadduc s , e e io n o f ew n er e 78 95 R b ll J s , u d Saf d , , r n 25 in 70 T aj a , Salad , e o rm o emen 130—2 m n b en ero m 4 R f M v t, Sal a J ha , 8 e o rm t io n 80 82 87 93 o me e n r 16 R f a , , , , Sal Al xa d a , e io m e 127 o mo n i 107 R gg , Isaac Sa u l , Sal s , Dav d, Reisim 120 r 62 , Abr, Salzbu g, ' en i n e 82 93 94 S a m i it a n s o n er io n o f R a ssa c , , , , C v s , e 45 ig R sh Galutha, Met h ib t a 45 m e o f Na h a rd er 37 , Sa u l , Re sp o n sa ( see Te sh ub o t ) b en M eir ( see Ra sh b a m) Re ub en i i 79 S ir er er , Dav d , , H b t, e in o n 82 n i 55 R uchl , J h , Ha ag d , e n 77 ib n Ad i a h R y a, j , 40

MO I NDEX

m o n i n 38 52 n it e t t e se e meri Tal ud , Babyl a , , , U d S a s ( A ca ) 57 58 71 74 79 94 rie o 85 , , , , , U l Ac sta , m i i t io n rie 46 58 n o a t 30 Tal ud c D c a s , , Usha , Sy d , it e r re 74 e m e 98 L atu , Usqu , Sa u l , Ta n a im 30 35 , , r m 34 r 19 Ta gu , Va us , rn o o 125 Va sz o n Wi i m 112 Ta p l , y , ll a , Ta sh b ez imeo n r n 75 en e t i 78 (S Du a ) , V a , Tc h e rn ich o w sk 120 en i e 77 9 y , Saul , V c , Te ru ma t H a — De sh en 76 e r i e re t o f 110 116 , V sa ll s , T a y , , Te sh ub o t e o n 45 48 e i n (R sp sa ) , , , V spas a , 52 74 75 i i d e 96 , , V da , El j ah , eo o ri 41 1en n o n re o f 105 Th d c , V a , C g ss , e o o i 33 o o fo r in a n d Th d s us I , Sch l bl d d ea f 35 m t e 126 II , u s , i e ri o o o f 35 i i o t 43 T b as , Sch l , V s g hs , Tin e iu s 25 it im 96 Rufus , V al , Hayy , i - E szla r 112 122 Vo lh n ia 86 T sa , , y , ish b i 93 T , it 21 VJ a r Wo r 108- 11 T us , , ld , , o e o 65 T l d , “ o er n — i 102 W in t o n eo r e 92 T l a z Ed ct, ash g , G g , o r em o m 66 \Veill e n e r 121 T qu ada , Th as , , Al xa d , Ort o i t t io n 65 W e iel C t e rin e 81 T sa , D spu a at, j g , a h , To sa fist s 58 Wen e in o f o emi 61 , z l , K g B h a , r t t Th eo l o ico o i i We r e ime r S a mso n 88 T ac a us g P l t th , , 85 W e e t i e r 1 cus , s l , Naph al H z , 18 r n 24 We e r wi T aj a , ss ly Ha t g ( see r n i i d i 75 We e T a , Isa ah , s l ) r n - i 82 We t n i o m n T a s Caucas a , s I d a C pa y , 84 Trem elliu s m n e 81 Wi i m o f o rwi 54 , E a u l , ll a N ch , ren o o io n Wi i m o e r 85 91 100 T t, Bl d Accusat at, ll a s , R g , , , ' 62 68 Wi e , s , Isaac M . o n i o f 79 Wo ien 128 C u c l , l f , Luc , Tri la n d 49 o e n o e . 88 g , Jac b , M s s B j rim e r S u sskin d vo n 73 l Vo lfen st e in rt 121 T b g , , , Ma ha , ri o i 24 Wo en r t e 53 T p l , lk bu g , Cas l , Tro czk a i o n 81 Wo ll emb er e o n 116 , J h , g , L , ro t e o n 109 W o rm 53 T sky, L , s , Tr h o n 15 W e r r 53 yp , u zbu g, rim 75 Tu , r 70 77 % n t e n 113 Tu ks , , a ,

r ine 11 S 0 112 . 68 Uk a , , Yahuda , A . , m n 125 Ya lk u t iri 73 U a , Mach , n io n o f meri n e rew S h imeo n i 73 U A ca H b , on re t io n 133 e o w e 54 65 78 102 C g ga s , Y ll Badg , , , , INDEX 147

Y ez ira h e er 46 e r i e i 74 , S f , Z ah ah Hal v , i i 70 120 122 123 Z e ru b b a b e 10 Y dd sh . , , , L Y o reh e 75 e i S a b b a t a i se e D ah , Z v , ( Sab batai) o 16 io n Od e t o 55 Zad k , Z , , Z a n will r e 114 121 o e r o f 113 g , Is a l , , L v s , e o 19 21 27 io n i m 115 Z al ts , , , Z s , , “ ” Z e ma h i 99 o r Dav d , Z ha , Z e ma h o n 46 58 Z u n z e o o 127 Ga , , L p ld , em o ew e e w ei rn o 122 Z stv , J s xclud d Z g , A ld , ro m t h e 108 t e en 122 f , S ph ,