Marquette University e-Publications@Marquette College of Communication Faculty Research and Communication, College of Publications

1-1-1998 Messages of Individualism in French, Spanish, and American Television Advertising Ronald E. Taylor University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Joyce M. Wolburg Marquette University, [email protected]

Published version. World Communication, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1998): 3-30. Publisher link. © 1998 World Communication Association. Used with permission. Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 World Communication 3 Messages of Individualism in French, Spanish, and American Television Advertising Ronald E. Taylor Joyce M. Walburg Individualism is a cenh-al value in french, Spanish, and American cultures. However, wlmt it means to be an individual and how this is expressed varies among cultures. This study explores the ways that television adverlising nflecls individualism in French, Spanish, and American cultures and uses a qualitative approach that allows coding categcrries to eme·rge ..... from the three countries' samples rather than imposing prroiously defined categories from a single culture. Tire study identifies six main advertising message strategies across the three cultures: the Efficient Individual, the Sensual Individual, the Attractive/Healthy Individual, the Esteemed Individual, the Pe!frmnant(e) Individual, and the lnte/lectuallndividual. The sL\: strategies vary in frequency UJith some claims used more than others. Differences within cultures are also identified and implications fw the issues of stmulardizntiDn and specializatiDn are diS­ cussed. Rmmld E. Taylor (Ph.D. University of lllinais) is profer:,"SOI' and head of the Dqmrhnent of Advertising at the U11iversity of Tennessee, Knoxville.J-lis research has appeard in the jaumal of Advertising, Journalism Quarterly, and Ilealth 111nrketing Quarterly. Joyce M. Walburg (Ph.D. University of Tennessee) is assistant professor in the Depmtment of Ad-vertising and Public Relations at Milrquette University. Other research articles are forthcom­ ing in the Journal of AdVCitising and Research in 111nrketing.

An earlier version of this article was presented in Chicago at I he national conference of the Assocation for Education in Joumalism and Mnss Carmmmicatian in 1997. The study was funded by a research award from the University of Tennessee. 171C autlwrs wish to tlumk the editor ami the ananymous rroiewers far their thoughtful contri­ butions and suggestions.

Individualism is widely accepted them nearly invisible to the members as one of the core values in American of a given culture. culture (Lodge, 1975; Hofstede, 1991; What constitutes "individual­ Triandis, 1989). Lodge defines it as the ism" varies from culture to culture. As belief that "fu1fillment lies in an essen­ O'Sullivan et al. {1994) note, • tially lonely struggle in what amounts "Individualism is rarely discussed in to a wilderness where the fit survive studies of communication, but its -and where, if you do not survive, assumptions arc implicit in a great you are somehow unfit" (p. 10). Like variety of theorizing on the subject." all values, individualism is thought to The following study explicates the be perva<>ivc and reflected in society's ways in which messages of individu­ institutions as well as in its cultural alism appear in French, Spanish, and products such as novels, fihns, televi­ American television advertising. The sion programs, popular music, and study begins with an overview of advertising. Yet, the pervasive, taken­ individualism in a historical context for-granted nature of values can make and proceeds to an interpretive analy- 4 World Cornrmmication Volume 27, \Jumbt=r J ~ "1998 sis of advertising content This study moral duty to become a blark~mith is intended neither to be a censu..s of all himself (.\1adntyre, 19tH). the ways in ·which advertLsers make Conception-; of individurJity began to usc of individuali-;m nor tu provide be articulated, and the basic unit in an exact count of the inst;mces of indi­ society began to shift from the com­ vidualism. Ktther, it is intended to (1) munity to the individual. for the first explore the depth and the variation of time, it was conceivable thal the inch­ the portrayal of individualism ns an vidual's interests could be in conflict ingrained v<1lue, (2) to bring its use to with those of society. a con.•.,dou..s levd, and (3) to make John Locke became England's available for discussion the taken-fur­ most prominent spokesmLiberty, and the pursuit of vidualism is reported by Seidman Happiness" (1776, p. 1). (1996) in his examination of individu­ Individualism is so important in alistic behavior among Spaniards in the U.S. that the Bill of Rights and the Madrid during the Spanish Civil War 14th Amendment of the U.S. in 1936-1939. He notes that solidarity Constitution guarantee protection was a problem even at the beginning against unjust acts of government that of the war because so many workers would deprive any person of life, lib­ were more concerned with sell-inter­ erty, or property without due process est than the common good. Aceves of law. The French political philoso­ (1971) notes that Spaniards believe in pher, Alexis de Tocqueville, coined the the individual's inalienable right to do word ".individualism" in De Ia ao; he/she pleases, coupled with the Democratie en Amerique, which implied obligation that his/her described his experiences and obser­ actions do not seriously interfere with vations of the American people of the the rights of others. He quotes a com­ 1830s (Miller, 1967). According to de mon expression of individualism, Tocqueville "llago lo que me de la gana," which is Individualism is a calm and con­ translated as '1'11 do that which J feel .. sidered feeling which disposes like doing" (p. 68) . each citizen to isolate himself from the mass of his fellows and How Social Scientists withdraw into the circle of fami­ See Individualism ly and friends; v.rith this little The polar opposite of individual­ society fom1ed to his taste, he ism is collectivism, a view that holds gladly leaves the greater society that the unit of survival lies in the to look after itself {Bellah, 1985, group, not in the individual. The rela­ p. 37). tive presence of individualism and In 1605 Spain's :Miguel de collectivism within various cultures Cervantes introduced one of the has been discussed by many premises of individualism in Don researchers across disciplines. Social Quixote. A central idea in Cervantes' psychologist Harry Tri.andis (1985) • book is that "each man is the child of suggests that individualism/ collec­ his deeds," which privileges virtue tivism is perhaps the most important over bhth. This idea was in direct dimension of cultural differences in opposition to the belief among the social behavior across the diverse cul­ Spanish aristocracy that inherited tures of the world because the dimen­ nobility determined one's identity sion affects so many institutions in (Mariscal, 1991, p. 154). Because society. Cervantes' work was highly contro­ The Dutch social scientist, Geert versial, it was not until the 19th centu­ Hofstede (1980; 1991), has researched ry that it gained a large measure of the many ways in which individual- 6 World Commumcation Volume 27, !\'umber 3 • 1998 ism and collectivism affect many of information to be spoken or written these institutions including family life, because most of the message is occupations, education, and relation­ asswned as part of the social hierar­ ships in the workplace. He notes that chy, exists in the physical environ­ in most collectivistic societies the fam­ ment, or is implied by the person. ily comists of many people living Very little is in the coded, explicit part closely together - not just the parents of the rnessage. In contrast, individu­ and other children, but grandparents, alistic cultures typically use low-con­ uncles, aunts, and servants. This text communication, which provides "extended family" is the only secure most of the information explicitly. The protection one has against the hard­ United States and Japan are often con­ ships of life, and breaking the loyalty trash~d as examples of low-context to family is one of the most severe and high-context, respectively. offenses a collectivistic person can American contracts, for example, are commit. typically lengthy with details precise­ While single parent families are ly described, while Japanese contracts commonplace, inclividuali.";tic fami­ are very short and inexplicit. The lies typically consist of two parents, Japanese also place more confidence the child, and possibly other children, in verbal, face-to-face agreements but other relatives live elsewhere and than in legal contracts, while that con­ are not seen often. This "nuclear fam­ fidence is reversed among Americans, ily" teaches the child to be independ­ who privilege the written word. ent, and children are expected to leave These differences in family, com­ the parental home as soon as they can munication, education, occupations, stand on their own feet Jn these soci­ and the workplace as noted by eties, once children are independent, Hofstede are summarized in Exlubit they reduce the strength of their rela­ 1, and a more detailed list of charac­ tionships with parents. 1his view of teristics of individuali'>tic cultures is individualism is closely aligned '\vith provided in the Appendix. I Iofstede Lodge's "lonely struggle" because the further notes that affluent countries person in the individualistic culture are statistically more likely to favor lacks the secure protection of the individualism over collectivism extended family against the hardships because as the wealth increases in a of life and must survive on his/her cmmtry, people have resources that own merits. allow personal expression. Hofstede also distinguished The storyteller in the village among cultures on the basis of com­ market is replaced by TV sets, munication from "high-context" to first one per village, but soon "low-context," a dimension previous­ rnore. In wealthy Western family ly described by anthropologist homes every family member Edward T. Hall (1976). High-context may have his or her own TV set. communication is typical of collec­ The caravan through the desert tivistic cultures and requires little is replaced by a nurnber of Volume 27, :\umber 3 • 1998 World Communication 7

buses, and these by a larger sleeps together is replaced by a number of motor cars, until each house v.rith a number of private adult family member drives a rooms. Collective life is replaced different car. The village hut in by individUc'"lllife (1991, p. 76). which the entire family lives and

EXIDBIT 1 Hofstede's Key Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Societies Collectivist Individualist

People are born into extended families Evt'ryone grows up to look after or other ingroups which continue to him/herself and his/her immediate protect them in L"Xchange for loyalty (nuclear) family only

Identity is based in the social network to ldt'ntity is based in the individual which one belongs

Children learn to think in terms of 'we' Children learn to think in terms of 'I'

Harmony should always be maintained Speaking one's mind is a characteristic of •• and direct confrontation.~ avoided an honest person High-context communication Lav;·-conlexl communication

Trespassing leads to shame and loss of Trespa_<;,.'iing leads to guilt and loss of self- face for self and group respect

Purpose of education is learning how to Purpose of education is learning how to do learn

Diplomas provide entry to higher status Diplomas increase economic worth groups and/or self-respect

Employer-employee relationship is Employer -employee relationship is a perceived in moral terms, like a family contract supposed to be based on mutu- link al advantage

Hiring and promotion decisions toke Hiring and promotion decisions are sup- employees' ingroup into account posed to be based on skills and rules only

Management is management of groups Management is management of individ- uals

Relationship prevails over task Task prevails over relationship

flrf;tede, 1991, p. 67 [Used by pc'rntission) 8 lVorld Comrmmiwlion Vulumc 27, I'\ umber 1 e 1'J9H

The Dutch sociill scientist, fons ism are believed to be so ingrained TrompL'llaars (1993), observes that col­ V1rithln a culhtre that all cultural prod­ lectivist societies typically make deci­ ucts, including advertising, should sions by working to achieve consen­ rcQect the v

Individualism in France, the Roles, Expenditures, and United States, and Spain Media Penetration In a 40 cotmtry study of individu­ As a. cultural product, advertising alism in the workplace Hofstede plays Wffcrcnt roles v.ithin diffClt.'nt (1980) identified the United St.ntes, cultures, according to the expectation'> france, and Spain as individualistic. that the culture has for it. llflll cmd 1he Cnited States ranked at the Lop of Hall (1990), for example, have noted tl1e list with ;m individualism score of that the role of advertising in the 91, hance mrlkcd 11th with a score of Crrited Stales is to "hype" the prod­ 71, and Spain ranked 20th with a score uct, in Gennd to which ultimately may increase sales. television. Television is available in In order for these persuasive mes­ 99% of Spanish homes (Leo Burnett sages to be effective, advertisers Co., 1994). "appeal" to hlffi1an needs, such as The Study of Advertising those in Maslow's :Hierarchy of Needs and Cultural Values (Maslow, 1970). Textbooks of creative Since 1980 the major advertising advertising list as many as 24 appeal md marketing journals published strategies, such as affiliation, security, more than 20 studies using content love, plus 11 different kinds of emo­ analysis of cultural values in ads. Of tional appeals (Moriarty, 1991). While these studies, several tracked changes no hierarchy exists among :Moriarty's in values over time within a single list of appeals, Maslow's Hierarchy of country (Belk & Pollay, 1985a; Belk & Needs are ranked from low to high as Pollay, 1985b; Ot.eng, 1994; Gross & follows: physiological (food, drink, Sheth, 1989; Pollay, 1984; Pollay & shelter), safety and SL->eurity (personal, Gallagher, 1990; Zinkh.:m, Hong, & family), belongingness (love, friend­ Lawson, 1990; Zinkhan & ship, affiliation), esteem (peer respect, Shennohamad, 1986). Others exam­ sta.tus, envy), and self-actualization ined values cross-culturally, resulting (self-respect, ego, self-expression). in comparisons of U.S. advertising Hofstede observes that Maslow's with Brazil (Tansey, Hyman, & 1-Iierarchy of :.\'eeds reflects Westem Zinkhan, 1990), China (Cheng, 1994), thinking since the highest goal is self­ Great Britain (Frith & Wesson, 1991), actualization - above that of affilia­ Japan (Mueller, 1987; Belk & Bryce, tion or belonging, which is a central 1986; Belk & Pollay, 198Sc), Mexico goal in collectivistic cultures. Self­ (McCarty & Hatnvick, 1992), and actualization "can only be the Sweden (\1\T!les, Wiles & Tjemlund, supreme motivation in an individual­ 1996). Other international advertising istic society" since in a collectivist cul­ studies have addressed topics such as ture it is the interest of the group that informntion content, gender roles, will be actualized (1991, p. 73). and regulation. Advertising Techniques that Advertising Values and Support Individualism Appeals One of the ways that messages of Advertising is a cultural product individualism are carried to con­ intended to persuade an audience. sumers is through the advertising 10 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 practice of writing to the individual. because they tap into basic needs, Standard American textbooks fre­ they are also meaningful because the quently teach writers to imagine they creative execution of the ads places are writing to just one person. i\"elson the appeal within a context that (1989) recommends that writers speak reflects the culhlre. An ad for a cos­ to a single reader even though ads are metic product targeted toward reproduced for multiple readership, women may appeal to the need for and attempt to maintain the illusion of attractiveness, but the background a salesman-to-buyer relationship by cues such as the presence of admiring writing in an informal, conversation­ men provide rich cultural material al, and where appropriate, intimate that may deliver powerful messages manner. Nelson suggests that a logical of individualism and other core cul­ way of developing a one-reader feel in tural values. These cues are meaning­ copy is by writing in the second per­ ful when considering that the way son. "The word you is deservedly men and women interact and form commonplace in advertising copy" relationships differs in collectivistic (p. 152). and individualistic cultures. For Advertising giant David Ogilvy example, people in V\'estern cultures (1985) also inshucts copywriters to choose friends or mates based on address the consumer as an individ­ attraction, personality, and personal ual. Ogilvy says, "When people read preferences, unlike some collectivistic yotU" copy, they are alone. Pretend you cultures that arrange marriages are writing each of them a letter on between people based on other ntc-cds. behalf of your client. One human Although the incidental, back­ being to another; second person sin­ ground details within an ad may gulLondon International 12 World Comrmmication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998

Advertising Awards (1993). The com­ necessary.) Responses included, menials are not necessarily award­ among others, automobile driving winning. However, since the com­ habits, speech patterns, choice of mercials were submitted by the agen­ reading material, and leisme activi~ cies themselves, they arc thought to ties. Viewing a sample of corrunerciab; represent the be.o;t creative work of with the informants added the mi."B­ French and Spanish agencies. sage clemenlc; of "I will have a Commercial length ranged from ten moment of pleasure; l will gain to sixty seconds and the majority of knowledge; I "Wi.ll enjoy life; I will be commercials lasted thirty seconds. smarter." The 81 American comm(o'ITials ana­ One might ask whether such lyzed for this study appeared on the benefits to the individual are always tapes, Best TV Commercials of 1991 evidence of indlvidualistic rather than (Advertising Age, 1991) and Best TV collL>divistic behavior; for example, is Commercials of 1992 (Advertising attractiveness valued in collL>ctivistic Age, 1992). cultures? For this study, the decision that these items should be coded as Analytical Process indlvidualic;tic i'> based on the lack of Stage 1 - Code Development. stated or implied benE..>fit to a group. Stages 1 through 3 were developed to \t\lhile being attractive may not (mly address RQl. Using Hofstede's key benefit the individual but the family differences in collt..>divic;tic and indi­ of the attractive person, no claims vidualistic societies displayed in were made to that effect; thus, these Exhibit 1, an initial set of codes was ads were regarded as examples of developed to ano;wer the question individualism. Tn collectivistic cul­ "What will happen if I buy and use tures, the advertising may imply that the product?" Some possible answers benefits exist for others in addition to were: I can take better care of myself the individual, but these claims were or my family; I will become more not stated in these ads. Similarly, since "me"; my children will become more care of family was limited to nuclear independent; I will learn how to family, the ad was coded as individu­ learn; I will gain self-respect; I will alistic. If any ad'> had included care of win a promotion or increase my skill extended family members, a category level; 1 will be better or more effident for collectivism would have emerged. at accomplishing my tasks; I will be Stage 2 ······ Analysis of Mnin more attractive; I "Will be healthier. Tn Messages in Commercials. The next addition, informal interviews were stage required the analysis of each conducted among two French and commercial for a dominant message two Spanish natives asking how indl­ element of individualism. Following vidualism might be expressed in their the path of analytic induction (Glaser culture. (Since the researchers are & Strau'>s, 1%7), we a<>ked two ques­ both natives of the U.S., interviews tions for each commercial: (1) does the among Americans wew not deemed commercial carry a message of indi- Volume 27, !'\umber 3 • 1998 World Communication 13 vidualism, and, if so (2) what is the for each ad that contained a message message of individualism. Analytic of individualism. After repeated induction involves vie\ving the com­ viewings, 15 main message elements mercials for message elements, devel­ were identified: oping a working scheme of these ele­ (1) Take better care of myself/my ments, then modifying and refining family the scheme on the basis of subsequent (2) Become more "me" cases (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). (3) Gain self-respect •. Commercials that do not fit the initial (4) Learn how to learn scheme are sought in order to expand, (5) Make children more independ­ adapt, or restrict the original set of ent message elements. (6) Wm a promotion or increase VVhen determining whether a skill level commercial carries a message of indi­ (7) Work more efficiently vidualism, the "main message ele­ (S) Save money ment" was selected as the unit of (9) Become more afuactive/health- analysis. Main message element was defined as the "advertiser's intended (10) Gain'" knowledge overall impression to be gained from (11) Improve mental skills v:ievving the commercial" (Walburg & (12) Have a moment of pleasure Taylor, 1997a, 1997b, 1998). It was (13) I lave fun/ enjoy life deduced by asking hypothetically (14) Become seductive/be seduced after viewing the commercial, ''\Nhat /be romantic will happen if I buy and use the (15) Perform at a certain, though not advertised product." Identifying the necessarily optimal, level main message element is comparable Thirty-six commercials com­ to a stage used in the deconstruction prised a group that were coded as not of ads when inferring the "advertis­ having messages of individualism er's intended meaning" or expected since they merely demonstrated how meaning that a reader might get from a product worked, its function, or its an ad (Frith, 1997; Hall, 1976). V\Thcn applications without reference to deconstructing ads, researchers look individuals. For example, a French for different levels of meaning: the commercial that personified Bacardi surface meaning, the advertiser's Rum and Coca-Cola in a relationship intended meanlng, and the cultural or but showed no people in the ad was ich:ological meaning (Frith, 1997). coded as having no message of indi­ Although some commercials vidualism. In all, the study identified contained elements of more than one 175 commercials of the total 211 that main message element (e.g., it is pos­ contained messages of individualism. sible to gain attractiveness in an effi­ Stage 3 - Refinement of Mnin cient marmer by using fast-acting Message Strategies. TI1e set of commer­ products), the main message element cials was viewed again in order to that was most prominent was coded refine the understanding of the mes- 14 World Communication Volume 27, !\"umber 3 • 1998 sage elements. The 15 mall messages dom utilize statistical analysis, quali­ previously developed were analyzed, tative research does not oppose using and some were combined into a sin­ statistics when the data is appropriate gle category while others were sub­ (Taylor, 1994). The philosophy that sumed under other codes. This step grolmded the study remaim.xi qual:i~ was taken because after working with tative; however, Chi-square analyses the 15 categories, it was apparent that were included to aid the interpreta­ some were more concrete than neces­ tion of the numerical data. sary, and a smaller number of cate­ Stage Five - Atwlysis of Message gories at a higher level of abstraction by Product Category According to would provide a better representation Culture. To address RQ3 the commer­ oi the data. For example, learning cials for each country were assigned how to learn, winning a promotion, to product categories as equitably as increasing skill level, working effi­ possible across cultures, given that ciently; saving money were all sub­ not all products are advertised on tel­ sumed under tl1e concept of efficien­ evision within all three cultures. cy; likewise, the healthy and attractive Since no existing studies could codes were merged because the two serve as a model, product categories ideas were almost always intermin­ were created on the basis of practical­ gled in the ads. In all, six main mes­ ity and logic. In order to avoid having sage strategies were formed. too large a number of separate cate­ The two researchers were able to gories for analysis, six product cate­ serve as coders, since "qualitative gories emerged with products within design requires the researcher to categories linked as closely as possi­ become the research instrumenf' and ble, e.g., Food & Beverage. to observe and analyze the data Then the 175 commercials with Q"anesick, 1994, p. 212). By working as main messages of individualism were a team., a consensu.•:; was reached; further St:.'Parated according to mes­ thus, agreement was 100°/o for identi­ sage strategy within product cate­ fication of the presence/ absence of gories in order to detennine whether individualism and the type of main certain message strategies are better message strategy. suited to some product<> than others. Stage Four Calculating Because 25% of the cells had an entry Frequencies of Individualism Messages. of zero, thi.-; data did not lend itself to To address RQ2, this stage required valid Chi-square analysis. the computation of the numbers and percentages of total messages of indi­ RESULTS vidualism within cultures and the dif­ RQl asked whether individual­ ferent types of main message strategy ism is expressed in the main message across cultures. Chi-square analyses strategy in the advertising of France, were performed to determine Spain, and the C.S., and if so, how it is whether differences were significant. expressed. The study found that over­ While interpretive approaches sel- all individualism is expressed in 83% Volume 27, I\" umber 3 • l'J'JR World Communicntio11 15 of advertising messages by way of six country~ and Tnble 2 shows the num­ wdl-ddined message strategies that ber and percentage of each type of exist across the three countries: the main message 'llratcgy within each Efficient Individual, the Sensual country. Table 1 shows that a large Individual, the Attractive/llealthy number of messages wcre.individual­ Individual, the Esteemed Individual, i..stic (75"0 or more for each conntry's the "Perfonnant(c)" Individual, and sample), and that a greater perccnk"lge the [ntellectuallndividual '[he strate­ of individualism messages were gies one l'Xplalncd .md cx

Ta/1/e 1 Percent Composition of Messages of Individualism

CoWltry # Commercials Analyzed Number (and%) with me1>sage ' SR IR2" Sr.ain "62 58 (9!1"!.,) Lnitcd States Rl 61 71''"., ToW 211 175 (.'13%)

Chl·sg_u

lable 2 shows that there is mn­ least frequently were the Intellectual ~idcrablc variation in the usc of the six Individual, the Estcl'med Individual, diftercnl strategies among the three and the Pl'rformant(e) Individual; cmmtrics. Mes~ages for the Efficknt however, this pattern also varied by Indiyidual and the Sensual country. The French ads med the Individual were used the most fre­ lntellcclual, Altractive/Hmlthy. and quently \vithin the whole sample, but Esteemed messages the least; Spanish variations occuiTCd within the coun­ ads used the Esteemed and tries. Efficiency and Sensuality were Performant(e) the least; and the the strongest message strategies for American ads used the Intellectual France cmd the U.S., but the and Performant(e) the least. futalysis Attractive/! lealthy Individual and confinned that the type of individual­ the Intellectual Individual prevailed ism message was significantly related for Spain. to country. Chi-square (lU, X 175) '- 0\'erall, the categories used the 52.92, p<.Olll. 16 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998

Table 2 Distribution of Main Messages Of lndividuali<>m in Numbtt and Percentage by Country Type of lndividualism Col..U1try Ef.fident Sensual Attrilctive Este(>mc>d Perforrmmt Inwliectual

Prance 22 39'?;, 21 (38%) 1 2%) 2 4% 9 15"/., 1 02% Spoin 11 (19%) 10 (17"/<>) 17 29% 4 07°;;, 4 07% 12 21% u.s. 26 43% 12 (20'1b) 7(11%) 10 (16%) 5 (08%) 1 (02'}i, Total 59 (34%) 43 (25%) 25 (14%) 16 (9%) 18 (10%) 14 (08%) Oli-squan> (10,:\J "'' - ~2.91, pdlOl RQ3 asked what relationship, if shndardJze messages. Food/bcver~ any, exists between message strategy age and personal care products in this and product categories. Table 3 shows sample were more frequently pre­ that all corrunerciaL<> were dassifit'd sented w:ith sensuality claims while into six product categories: food/bev­ bu'>incss/media/financial products, erage (28%), business/financial/ household goods, and automobile/ media (21%), household {09'Yn), per~ transportation products were more sonal care {11%), automobile/trans­ frequently presented with efficiency portation (10%), and other {20%). claims. Future research will be able to Examples of products classified as show whether these patterns emerge "other" included a lottery, a public in other data sets. relief agency, and department stores. Further divisions within product cat­ DISCUSSION egory were made according to type of AND IMPLICATIONS individuali<>m message in order to Observation 1: Advertising pro· a'>sess that relation..<>hip (sec Table 4). motes the value of individualism Although Chi-sguare analysi'> could across cultures. Surprisingly, the rank not performed, some observable order of individualism in Table 1. is trend<> are reported that offer f;ugges--­ exactly the opposite of Hofstede's tions for advertisers attempting to finding regarding the level of individ-

Table 3 Product Cate~ry Composition Across Three Cultures Number and Percentages Culture Product Ca!euorv Total Sample French Soanish American Food/Beverag~=s 49(28%) 19 (34%) 15 (26%) 15 (25%) Business/Media/ Financi,'ll 37 (21%) 10 (1S%) 13 (22%) 14(23%) Household 17 (10%) 8(14%) 7(12%) 2(03%) P0.rsonal Care 20 (11%) 10 (17'/o) 7(12%) 3(U"i%) Automotive/ Tran.<>portation 7 {10%) 6 (11'){,) 4 (07'/o) 7(12%)

Oth~ 35 (20%) 3 ((JS%) 12 (21%) 20 (32°/,>) Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 l'\'orld Communication 17

Table 4 Main Message of Individualism Across Product Category In Percentages (N-175) T}'pe of Individualism Product Attractivl'i Category Effici~nt Sensual Healthy Esteemed Perfmrnant(e) Intellectual Food/ &l'erages 7(H%)' 27(55%) 10 (20%) 2(4%) 3(6%) IJ(0"1o) Bu.'>/Media/ F!!lilru:ial 26(70%) 0(0%) O(G%) 1(3%) 5(16%) 4(11%) •· Household 12(71%) 1(6%) 1 (6%) 2(12%) 1 (6%) 0(0%) r~~onaJ Dre 4 (20%) 9(45%) 7(35%) 0(0%) 0(0%) () (0"/o) Automotive/ Tr.msportation H(47%) 5(29',(,) 0(0%) 2(12%) 2(12%) 0(0%) O

• Rmv Perr;ml within Product Categary

ualism in each country. That is, appear in advertising because they do Spanish television advertising carried not encourage product purchase. a higher percentage of messages of Obsetvation 2. Across the three individualism than either France or cultures advertising uses six main the United States. 1his study suggests messages of individualism; The that French and American advertising Efficient Individual, the Sensual are more similar than Spanish adver­ Individual, the Attractive Individual, tising, which. is surprising consider­ the Esteemed Individual, the ing that France and Spain are both Performant(e) Individual, and the high context cultures and lower in Intellectual Individual. The type of individualism than the United States. individualism varies considerably 1he ®expected ranking may be due across cultures (fable 2). In this sec­ to the sample studied or could sug­ tion, we describe the six categories, gest that advertising as a cultural phe­ give examples of ads, and show how nomenon is somehow different from these message strategies operate other institutions that reflect individ­ within the different countries. ualism. Another characteristic of The Efficient Individual. The advertising, which is suggested by Efficient Individual is the most preva­ this sh.ldy, is that it does not reflect lent message strategy in the total sam­ fully all the facets of individualism in ple with both the American and a given culture. Some types of indi­ French ads containing more efficiency vidualism such as automobile driving claims than others. The Efficient habits may not lend themselves to Individual is made up of the message main message strategies. On the other elements of "children more inde­ hand, certain types of individualism pendent," "learn how to learn," "win such as The Religious Individual or a promotion or increase skill level," The Thrifty Individual may not "save money;" and ''become more 18 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 efficient." In an individualist society. other Alfapac bags, supposedly also tasks and task completion prevail filled with garbage. The voice-over over relationships. Certain products tells us that the new bag is "more promise to make people more effi­ bag" than "trash." cient in their work and household A Spanish commercial takes tasks, or to "save" time or mcmey advantage of stereotypes about crime Forty-three percent of the American and individuality in the United States messages of individuali<>m were to show three people being pho­ directed to being efficient and 39 per­ tographed front and side at a police cent of the French messages of indi­ station. The voice-over says, vidualism were so directed. Only 19 "Salvatore Borcellino robbed 36 banks percent of the Spanish messages of in 14 states. Little Jack O'Brien hit the individualism were directed to effi­ .Pittsburgh mail train nine times. Ciency. Mildred Peterson made off vvith three In an American commercial for pizza<;, only paid for two of them. But Nissan Altima, a man stacks 10 wlltc now anybody can get three piz7.as glasses in a pyramid on the arr's and only pay for two, and it's legal." hood. The car is started and the Three pizzas on a table comprise the speedometer reaches 100 mph. Two ending shot. voice-overs explain that while the The comparatiydy high percmt­ viewer may have seen a demonstra­ age of efficiency messages directed to tion like thi<> cme for a luxury car, this American and French consumers demonstration is for a $13,000 car. The seems to indicate that advertisers in commercial concludes with "It's time these two cultures operate with a to expect more from a car." view of individualism that is different A French commercial for Alfapac from the view of Spanish advertisers. garbage bags combines efficiency The Sensual Individual. The with humor. We see an elegantly­ Sensual Individual i'> made up of the dressed woman in a black evening message elements of "have a moment dress and elbow-length black gloves. of pleasure," "have fun/ enjoy life," She closes the ties on the garbage bag and "become seductive/romantic." as a female voice-over notes that the Sensuality plays a bigger role in Alfapac new line of plastic bags with French advertising (38%) than it does sliding straps i.•> so resi'>tant, so light, in either Spanish (17%) or American and so practical that everyone will advertising (20%); however, it is want to snatch it. She walks dovvn appreciably present in all three cul­ steps outside her house to the side­ tures. walk and two men on a motorcycle A French commercial for St. Yorre race by and snatch the bag from her mineral water shows individuals hands. She half-heartedly yells, engaged in a variety of physical activ­ ''Jhi.ef!" as the two ride away The ities such as running, playing tennis, two thieves open the bag only to dis­ and cyding. A voice-over tells us that cover trash and toss it upon a pile of the mineral water craves for us, it Volume 27, I'\ umber 3 • 1998 World Communication 19 thirsts for our strength, our energy, Tite Attractive/Healthy Individual is and our taste. While other ads for the made up of the messages of elements same product might logically use an of "become more attractive" and attractive/healthy claim because the "become healthier." This was the product itself can offer healthiness as most often used strategy in the sam­ a benefit, this particular ad used a ple of Spanish commercials. Spanish stronger sensual claim than health advertisers' appeals to the claim with its seductive use of craving Attractive/Healthy Individual ac­ and its reference to thirst and taste. counted for 29 percent of the mes­ An American commercial for sages of individualism. ln the United Blossom Hill wine demonstrates States, appeals to the Attractive/ through a series of visuals and Healthy Individual accounted for 11 tongue-in-cheek voiceovcrs that wine percent of the messages while in is preferable to flowers as a gift for France such appeals accounted for men to give women. At the commer­ only 2 percent of the messages. cial's closing, wine is poured, a In a Spanish conunercial for woman caresses her cheek with glass Carbonel Vlrgln Olive Oil, a male of wine and thinks of the man who voice-over speaks to the viewer while gave her the wine. images of the VIrgin Mary appear on A Spanish commercial for Limon screen: Kas soft drinks shows an attractive, The blessed virgin of perpetual young man and woman on a stage as help sheltered us from the they sing "The night is young... young winds. The bl€ssed virgin of the 'Nith limon Kas ... \\ith limon Kas, sorrows brought us rain. The young is the night." Viewers see a blessed virgin of hope kept the series of nlght scenes including bright frost away: The blessed virgin of city lights, people dancing, and other the rosary watched over the har­ people out on the street The overall vest. The blessed virgin of the impression is the pleasure within the wayside protected the farmers. sophisticated night life of the city. Carbonel Vlrgin Olive Oil pro­ Sensuality and romanticism are tects your health. integral parts of French culture and A French commercial for Lactel are often grouped under the advertis­ milk is set around the breakfast table ing strategy of la seduction, (Taylor, 'Aith father, mother, a son, and two Hoy, & Haley, 1996), which translates daughters. As the children reject their as "enticing, channing, alluring." It father's explanation that boys arc represents the idea that products can bom in cabbage patches and girls in seduce consumers. In American and rose gardens, a voice-over tells us that Spanish advertising, sensuality is because Lactcl milk contains vitamins more commonly expressed along the it is ideal for growth and develop­ lines of "moment of pleasurable ment Similarly, in an American com­ taste" or ''having fun." mercial for Verilux bifocals the brand­ The Attractive/Healthy Individual. ed no-line bifocals are presented as 20 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 the "perfect disguise" for "those who in them to help others without receiv­ refuse to be seen in bifocals." ing somc!hlng in retum?" A<; one The Esteemed Individual. The man turns as though volunteering, Esteemed Individual i<; one who feels the following word<; arc superim­ better about himself/herself psycho­ posed on the screen: "Red Cross logically or emotionally because of Voluntc>ers. 3006565. Call Us." Self­ the w;e of certain products. The esh..>em through product purchase Fsteemed Individual strategy is made and use is not a heavily used appeal up of the elements of "become more in any of the thn'e cultures. However, "' me" and "gain self-respL'<"t." This it is associated much more with message of individualism accounted American advertising than with for 16 percent of American messages either French or Spanish advertising. of individualism, 7 percent of Spanish Tfze Peifomumt(e) Individual. The messages, and 4 percent of French Performant(e) Individual emerged messages. from the French sample although it An American McDonald's com­ exists in the samples for the other mercial titled "Perfect Season," fea­ countries. It is best aligned with tures sa:.'nes of elementary school-age French culture; thus, the language children participating in football chosen for the term is French rather games. Their fathers are coaches and than English or Spani'lh. The perfur­ two fathers form a goal post. lhe mant(e) message strategy is made up commercial includes this voiceover: of the messages clements of "it "So McDonald's would like to salute works" or "it works well." The effi­ the pk-"tyers, the coaches, and the fam­ ciency message of "it works better ilies who helped to make thls season than something else" or "it works the perfa.:t season." A player asks: quicker" is not a part of t:hls message "Can we go to McDonald's now, strategy This strategy eschews com­ Coach?" The coach humorously parisons that might be made in the replies, "After the game, Lenny. It's messages of individual efficiency and only half time. Go sit down." reflects the self-effacing characteristics In a French commercial for of individuals. It differs from the Scottex bathroom tissue, a young boy Esteemed Individual strategy in that is riding his bicycle in the country the individual does not feel better for when he discovers an abandoned having something that works or per­ baby bird. He t.1.kcs the bird home forms. The message elements and the and creates a nest of tissue in a shoe­ strategy category came from sugges­ box. The l:agline tells the' viewer the tions made by our French and product is "soft like you." Spanish native informants about how In a Spanish commercial for Red individualism is expressed in those Cross volunteers, a crowd of people is cultures. '(his strategy accounts for 15 walking away from the viewers so percent o( French messages of indi­ that we see {mly their backs. A voice­ vidualism, 8 percent of American over asks, "f-low many people have it messages, and 7 percent of Spanish Volume 27, Number 3 ~ 1998 World Comnnmiwtion 21 commercial.,. for), but -the bank's ability lo perform ln a French commercial for Stihl appears to be stronger than its ability chainf;aws, we see a man tm vacation to deliver sell-esteem; thus, the per­ in a beach house. The view out his formant(e) coding is used. tvindow is partially blocked by off­ American National Bank, visuals screen and we hear the sound of a show a man who owns a busines.s of chain saw starting and nmning. The selling buttons. He tells the viewer man returns to sit in his chair. An exte­ how important his business is for rior shot shows us his beach house is paying for his and his workers' food, elevated by still" and we sec his house clothes, houses, and !heir children's fall to the beach k'vel, giving hlln an education. A voice-over a'>k'l, "It's unobstructed view of the ocean. The your life's work. Does your bank ad plays off the surprise that he has understand that?" Similar to the sawed the stilts that support his house Spanish ad for lber Caja Bank, this instead of the overhanging tree limb; c.ommt:.'Tcial claims ihe bank will per­ however, the overall impression we form by understanding the impor­ gain is that the product work" for tance of the client's business. No whatever need we may have. There is claims of efficiency are made, and no neither a claim that the Stihlsaw is the explicit comparison., are made with best tool for the job, nor a claim of sav­ other bank<>. ings of time, effort, or money; thus, lhis appeal to individualism the claim is not one of efficiency. would appear to run counter to cla<>­ Tn a Spanish commercial for Tber sic American advertising strategit..-s Caja bank a young literature teacher, offered by advertising giants, such as dressed in black leather jacket and the unique selling proposition as short skirt, waits for somt..>One in the practiced by Rosser Reeves, preemp­ street She dismisses a man who tries tion as advocated by Claude to pick her up. Anotber man, whom Hopkins, and brand personality and she is presumably waiting fo11 comes differentiation as suggested by David by and they walk together. 'I he voice­ Ogilvy.lts use indicates that individu­ over tells us, "At lber Caja we know als can be modest and self"effacing, that with time you can attain every­ even in highly individualistic cul­ thing you aim for. Thafswhywehelp turl:.'S. you from the very beginning. 1ber The lnteliectual Individual. The Caja. Your future is also our future." Inte\ledual Individual is made up of 1lUs ad lacks any claims of better use the message elements of "gain know l­ of money, better ocrvices, higher inter­ edge" and "improve mental skills." It est rates, etc., that would have made accounts for 21 percent of Spanish the claim one of efficiency instead of messages of individualism but only 2 mere performance. The claim may percent of American messages and 2 also delivt..>r a subtle esteem message percent of french messages. (you can attain everything you aim A Spani'ih commercial for a fairy 22 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 tale book associates the Big Bad Wolf Observation 3: Messages of with Saddam Hussein, the little Toy individualism reflect cultural pat­ Soldier with Gen. Norman terns more so than they do product Schwarzkopf, the Happy Prince with categories. As noted earlier, commer­ Prince Charles, and Little Red Riding cials were classified into six product Hood with Margaret Thatcher. A categories, and an attempt was made voice-over asks, "If these are the tales to aggregate products into compara­ your children are dreaming about, ble categories across cultures; howev­ aren't they missing something very er, it should be noted that regulation important. Let them discover the does affect the analysis. For example, Universal Tales of Orbis - the real of the 45 commercials classified in the t.:"tl.es." business/financial/media category; A French commercial uses a 12 are French, 19 are American, and futuristic urban setting for a Sega 14 are Spanish. However, France does video game. A villainous man by­ not permit the advertising of books or passes building security to enter into movies on television whereas Spanish a video game. He becomes part of the and American television system.s do. game and is destroyed. We learn that Four of the Spanish commercials in he is really a robot. The closing line this category were for media products challenges us to play the game that that could not be advertised on televi­ has a "stronger mind than we do." sion in France. The products adver­ Similarly, an American commercial tised in this study appear to be repre­ for Tnne magazine promotes an issue sentative of those typically advertised of the magazine that feahtres a cover in the respective countries since the story on abortion. The final voice-over product category composition of states, "Why Roe versus Wade is French commercials in the present moot. If it's important to you, you1l study is comparable to what find it in Tune." Zandpour, Chang & Catalano (1992) To an extent the variation in find­ reported for broadcast advertising in ings for this category is probably France, and the composition of more a reflection of regulation and American commercials in the present media choices than they are true shtdy is comparable to those reported expressions of differences in ind.ividu­ by the top 25 network television ali<;ll in the three cultures. For exam­ advertisers (Television Bureau of ple, the French are among the most Advertising, 1994). prolific book buyers and readers in When messages of individualism the world (Hall and Hall 1990); how­ are cross-tabulated with product cate­ ever, because French media regula­ gory without regard to culture (fable tions prevent books from being 4), several relation._"lhips emerge. A.5 advertised on television, the French noted previously, the food and bever­ messages directed to the Intellectual age category and personal care prod­ Individual are to be fotmd in media ucts most often use appeal"! to the other than television. Sen..o:,ual Individual although personal Volume 27, ;\lumber 3 • 1998 World Communication 23 care goods can also appeal strongly to ture,, the Attractive/Healthy Individual. Message Strategy and Individual­ Household goods, business/media/ ism. The question of whether or not financial products, and automo­ individualism varies across cultures is biles/transportation appeal most new to advertising research. This often to the Efficient Individual. study demonstrates that individual­ However, only two of these patterns ism is a complex cultural value that are true for all three cultures individ­ can be expressed in a variety of ways ually: (1) messages of efficiency dom­ depending upon what specific ele­ inate the household products catego­ ments are valued within a culture. ry in all three cultures, and (2) food Findings show that the most certain and beverage commercials are way for Americans to achieve indi­ designed to appeal to individual sen­ vidualism is by being efficient; for the suality". One pattern holds true for two French, efficiency and sensuality are of the three cultures: in both the almost equally strong paths; and the lJnited States and France, appeals to Spanish find the most certain path The Efficient Individual are most through attractiveness /healthiness. often associated vvith business and Advertisers previously treated financial institutions. Beyond these individualism as one value. Tilis three p.•ttems, there is considerable study suggests that in order to create variation. messages that resonate with con­ SlllTlers, advertisers must not only CONCLUSIONS determine the presence/absence of Contributions of this Study individualism within a given country, This study contributes to the but also to find out what paths exist body of knowledge about advertising for its expression and which are the and culhrral values in several ways. strongest. In particular it offers an alternate Issues of Standardization/ Special­ methodology, provides insight into ization. The issue of whether to adopt the multiple expressions of individu­ a standardized product line and a alism, and addresses issues of stan­ standardized communications pro­ dardization and specialization. gram for all cultures or to adopt indi­ Limitations and suggested avenues vidual strategies for each culture is a for future research are discussed. basic decision every management Method. 1his study demonstrates team must m.,1.ke within the multina­ an alternative to standard content tional corporation. Generally, those analyses for examining advertising managers who advocate a standard­ and drawing comparisons across cul­ ized approach believe that people of tures. Instead of using existing cate­ diverse cultures share basic needs and gories that might have been sufficient motivatioR'> that can be reached uni­ for one culture but insufficient for versally through a single approach. another, a method was chosen to Standardized strategies also offer maximize the variations among cul- unity of brand image and economy of 24 World Communication Volume 27, Number 3 • 1998 advertising development. On the strategies would appear in the same other hand, some managers argue distribution patterns reported here. that even if produds are not culhlral­ This study uses only television com­ ly-bound, the advertising for such mercials; if other media lk1d been products typically is. included, then additional message Ironically, advice from the aca­ strategies might have been identified. demic researrh community is often As noted, given the restrictions placed contradictory to that of management. on advertising in various cultures, a For example, some researchers have sampling of advertisements from all suggested that food and fashion available mt:.Uia is necessary to devel­ products will best lend themselves to op a complete typology of individual­ standardized approaches (Domzal & ism in a particular culture. By study­ Kernan, 1993); other researchers have ing what appears in advertising, this suggested that food is the product study makes no claim about how least amenable to standardization individualism manifes-ts itself in other (Moriarty & Duncan, 1990), while still in.stitution_s within culture. Those others have suggested that the differ­ type.:; of individualism may be slight­ ence may lie between durables and ly different from the kinds reported nondrnables (Cutler & Tavalgi, 1992). here. To add even more fuel to the fire, this A further limitation is that when study suggests that at least for French,. analyzing product category by indi­ Spanish and American cultures vidualism message, a 36 cell matrix household goods and foocl and bev­ resul-ts. This requires a large sample erages would be most amenable to a size to have adequate entries for all stcmdardized approach. However, the cells. A larger data set would over­ more important finding is that culture come fuis difficulty. supersedes product category Future Research Limitations This study demonstrates that six The results of this study are based types of individualism are sufficient on samples drawn from exemplars of for analyzing messages of individual­ television advertising in French, ism in the three cultures nnder study Spanish, and American culhtres. Future research in this area could Exemplars are appropriate for a study begin with the identified six types of whose purpose is to identify and individualism and inductively extend develop culhlral categories (Stake, this analysis to other cultures. For 1994). Even though the product cate­ example, it would helpful to know gory compositions for the French how many additional main messages commercials and the American com­ of individualism would be needed if mercials are comparable to other other countries high in individualism known and studied samples, this such as Australia, Great Britain, docs not necessarily mean that in Canada, the Netherlands, New these societies the main message Zealand, Italy, &lgium, Denmark, Volume 27, Numbtor 3 • 1998 World Communication 25 Sweden, Ireland, Switzerland, Germany, South Africa, and I\:onvay; Aries, e (1981). The hour of aur death. were added to the study. Similarly, (H. Weaver, Trans.). New York adcling additional media categories to Alfred A Knopf. the existing study would be helpful. In contrast, the examination and Baumeister, R. F. (1987). 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Wiles, C. R., Wiles, J. A. & Tjemlund, Zinkhan, C. M., Hong, J. W., & A (1996). 'I he ideology of adverf::is.. Lawson, L. (1990). Achievement ing: The United States and and affiliation motivation. journal Sweden. Journal of Advertising of Business Research, 20, 135-144. Research, :tvlay /Jnne: 57-66. Zinkhan, C. M., & Shermohamad, A. Walburg, J. M. & '18ylor, R E. (1997a). (1986). ls other-directedness on the An investigation of three culhlral increase? An rn1.pirical test of values in American advertising: Riesman's theory of social charac­ The role of the individual, the ter. fmmurl of Consumer Research, 13, d~c'Piction of Lime, and the configu­ 127-130. raticm of space. Presented at the 30 World Communication Vo!um~ 27, Number 3 • 1998 APPENDIX Summary of Hofstede's Characteristics of Individualistic Cultures Family Life Family Life Education Wmk Ideas and Philosophy 1. Orildren grow up in l. Children are encour­ 1. The worker's self­ l. lndi>~dual interests nud~ar families aged to speak up in interest and employer's prevail m·er collective 2. People look after das.s and expn's.' their intere;;tshould coincide interu;.ts lhemselws and their own opinion without 2. \1\lorkers are indiVid­ 2. Everyone has a right immediate family; dlil­ consulting the group or uals with their own to privacy and is drm break vvith par­ working in groups combination of eco­ expecred to have a pri­ ents or ke~p rela~=­ 2. Students expect to be nomic and p>ychologi­ vate opinion ships to a mini:mwn at lrffited impartially by cal needs 3. Laws and rights are adulthood i<'achers 3. Working relation­ supposed to be the 3. Children learn to 3. Students from differ­ ships with farruly same for ,ill spend time alone, ent ethnic groups are members are consid­ 4. Individualisllc cul­ unlike coUecti,~st chil­ not bouru::l to an ered undesirable ture.<, usually have df('n who are almost ingroup and mix more because they may lead higher per capita GNPs never alone fn.'ely (o nepotism or conf!Kt than collective cultures 4. Speakingone"s mind 4 Students form of interest. 5. A restrained role of is a virtue and is char­ groups on an ad hoc 4. Poor performance of the stat.? rather than a ~cleri-;tic of a sillo:re ba.'is according to the the employee or a bet· dominant role preva~ls and honfst person task or to par!Jcular ter pay offer from in the economic sysl€m 5. Independent think­ friendships and skills another employer are 6. The o:'Conomy is ing a.nd confmnmtion 5. Teachers who legil:i!rute a.nd socially based on individual lead to higher truth favored stud<>n!s of the accepted reason.~ for rather than collectiw 6. Lru:Jdren are expro­ same cthnic back· terminating a work interests ed and encouraged to ground would be con­ relationship. 7. Political power is develop opm.ions of sidered guilty of nepo­ 5. Management skill~ exercised by voters their own, and children tism and inuru:Jral reqwrc !IIllll how to spend connicts are highly than by ind1rert, face­ control of press 8. Finanaal and ritual regarded even at the saving taches 10. ldeologi<'S of indi­ ob!i.g.llions to the fami­ <>xpeose of hllrmony 8 Universalism (treat­ vidual frc~dom prevrul ly are less compuhory 7. The purpose of edu· ing everybody alike) is over ideologi~-s of than in coli~'Ctivis! cui­ cation i• to teach people valued over particular­ equahty lures to learn to cope with ism (trcating one's 11. Self-actualization 9. Conversation~ are new, UIJfOI\!seen situa· friends beth!r than olh" {realizing the creative compulsory; silence 15 tio:ns that will arise ec} potential within the cnnsidNed abnormaL through life rather than 9. Tasks prevail over individual to the 10. Communication is looking upon learning personal relationsh1ps fullest) is the ultimate more often explicit(1mv as a one-time pi'O<.-ess lQ. Important goals on goal for every individ­ context commun.ica­ for the yocmg the job are having llid "oo} 8. Diplomas 1mprove enough personal time 11. Self-respect (defined the holder's economic for family, having the from the point of view worth but al•o his or freedom to adopt of the indi~·idual---not her self-respect because own's own approach to the social environment) it provides a sense of the job, and having i' the doses! counter­ achievement challenging work to do part to the colled::ivistic 9. Individual sclf­ concept of face; hke­ resp...,:t IS more impor­ wise, guilt vs. shame tant than the social acc~tance that diplo­ mas can provide

Hafttede, J 991; Summary of mfrmrlll/UJrl IJI1 pp. 49-78. {Used by pemussian]