Doctor of Philosophy in English

RUMI AND SHAKESPEARE: UNRAVELLING RUMI’S SUFISM IN SELECT SHAKESPEAREAN TEXTS

THESIS

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy In English

BY MOHAMMAD WAHEED KHAN

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University PROF. SAMINA KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH INDIA 2019 Professor Samina Khan Department of English Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Phone No: 09997398308 [email protected]

Certificate

Certified that the thesis entitled “Rumi and Shakespeare: Unravelling Rumi’s Sufism in Select Shakespearean Texts” submitted by Mr. Mohammad Waheed Khan for the award of the degree of the Doctor of Philosophy is an original work carried out under my supervision and has not been submitted before, in part or full, to this university or any other university.

Prof. Samina Khan Date: Supervisor Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Department of English Aligarh Muslim University CHAIRPERSON Aligarh Phone No. 0091–571–2700920 -925 Extension No.: 1425, 1426 Email: [email protected]

Certificate

Certified that the thesis entitled “Rumi and Shakespeare: Unravelling Rumi’s Sufism in Select Shakespearean Texts” submitted by Mr. Mohammad Waheed Khan is an original investigation that has been independently carried out by him. It has not been submitted before to this or any other university.

Chairperson Date:

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Department of English Aligarh Muslim University CHAIRPERSON Aligarh Phone No. 0091–571–2700920 -925 Extension No.: 1425, 1426 Email: [email protected]

Certificate

Certified that Mr. Mohammad Waheed Khan (Enrolment No. GE9256) has successfully completed his Ph.D. course work and passed the examination of the same held in the month of November 2016.

Chairperson Date:

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Department of English Aligarh Muslim University CHAIRPERSON Aligarh Phone No. 0091–571–2700920 -925 Extension No.: 1425, 1426 Email: [email protected]

Certificate

Certified that Mr. Mohammad Waheed Khan (Enrolment No. GE9256) has successfully completed the pre-submission seminar on the thesis entitled “Rumi and Shakespeare: Unravelling Rumi’s Sufism in Select Shakespearean Texts” held on 31 August, 2019.

ChairpersonMaulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim UniversityDate:

Title of the Thesis: Rumi and Shakespeare: Unravelling Rumi’s Sufism in Select Shakespearean Texts

Candidate’s Name: Mr. Mohammad Waheed Khan

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D. degree.

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Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provided that the source and the University’s copyright notice are indicated.

`Declaration

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “Rumi and Shakespeare: Unravelling Rumi’s Sufism in Select Shakespearean Texts” is an original investigation that has been independently carried out by me. It has not been submitted before to this or any other university.

Aligarh Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh MuslimMohammad University Waheed Khan Date:

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my Supervisor, Prof. Samina Khan, who constantly guided and supported me throughout my research work. Without her guidance and cooperation, this project could not have been possible within the stipulated time. I would like to place on record my deepest gratitude to late Prof. Masoodul Hasan who always helped me with his valuable suggestions and insightful comments. Besides this, he provided me some important books related to my topic and they helped me a lot in formulating ideas and thoughts expressed in the thesis. I sincerely pray to Allah to give him a place in Paradise. I am especially indebted to Prof. Abdur Raheem Kidwai for his continuous support and insightful comments on my topic of research. He has been a great help during the completion of my research. I am also highly obliged to the consistent support and good wishes of Prof. Mohammad Asim Siddiqui. I owe special gratitude to Prof. Jawed S. Ahmad who took extra pain for reading through the proof of the thesis and assisting me with his comments and suggestions. I also express my sincere thanks to Prof. Raashid Nehal for his valuable remarks on my thesis. I am thankful to Chairperson, Department of English and Dean, Faculty of Arts, AMU, Aligarh for their constant support at every stage of this work. I also acknowledge my indebtedness to Maulana Azad Library, and HRDC Library, AMU. Without their valuable books and journals, this project would not have been possible. I want to extend my thanks to my senior research scholars, Dr. Fatima Aleeba, and Dr. Abdul Mabood, Dr. Farhan Ahmad for helping me in this task as well as showing their extra care for my well-being during this turbulent time. My appreciation is due to my junior fellow researcher, VuzraMaulana Adil, who Azad earnestly Library, helped meAligarh in proofreading. Muslim University Special thanks are also due to my close friends, Asad Bin Saadat, Haris Bin Mansoor, Md. Firoj Ahmed and Aurangzeb Ansari who always stood beside me for any help throughout my research. They profoundly helped me in proofreading, printing and binding the thesis. Last but not least, I am much thankful to my father and mother in accomplishing this task. My family remained a constant source of inspiration throughout my professional success and personal gratification.

Mohammad Waheed Khan

RUMI AND SHAKESPEARE: UNRAVELLING RUMI’S SUFISM IN SELECT SHAKESPEAREAN TEXTS

ABTSRACT OF THE THESIS

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy In English

BY MOHAMMAD WAHEED KHAN

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University PROF. SAMINA KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH INDIA 2019 Abstract

The thesis critically examines William Shakespeare‟s select plays and sonnets to discover the probable affinities between his thoughts and the concepts of Sufism. Jalaluddin Rumi, an eminent figure of Sufism, has been selected first to carry out the study of this oriental philosophy and then to find out his possible impact on Shakespearean themes as reflected in his various plays and sonnets. But, the thesis in no way claims that this English dramatist was directly influenced by Rumi. As a matter of fact, there were historical, cultural, religious and geographical differences between these two literary figures, Rumi and Shakespeare, so, the former‟s direct influence on the latter seems to be a distant idea. Besides this, the translations of the Sufic treatises including Rumi‟s works in English as well as in other European languages were done very late in 18th and 19th century. Keeping all these facts in mind, the thesis makes its argument that though, the possibility of Shakespeare‟s knowledge of the Sufic treatise is less, his awareness of the general phenomenon of Sufism cannot be ruled out. The thesis substantiates its argument that this English playwright was well informed about the religion, culture and tradition of the Turks as he made numerous biased allusions to them in his works, then, how it was possible for him to remain unaware of this oriental philosophy of Sufism which was at its peak in the nearby Ottoman Empire during the Elizabethan England. The thesis concludes with an assertion that there is a line of similarities between Sufic notions and Shakespearean thoughts and it strengthens the argument that he was either consciously or unconsciously aware of this oriental philosophy. But, due to the political and religious differences with the Ottoman Turks, Shakespeare could not directly acknowledge its impact on him. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The thesis has been divided into six chapters. While selecting Shakespeare‟s works for this study, it has been tried to take at least one representative play from each genre of his plays. His two universal tragedies, King Lear and Hamlet, his tragicomedy, The Tempest, his one of the problem plays, Measure for Measure, his last romantic comedy, Twelfth Night, and his sonnet 116 and 144 have been selected to carry out this research.

The first chapter has been dedicated to the study of Sufism. This chapter discusses about the definition of Sufism, its emergence and growth, and its relation with other mysticism. The chapter talks about several Sufic stations and stages. Meanwhile, it discusses about several terms related to the Sufic metaphysics. The chapter concludes with the statement that due to the destruction of lives and wealth on a large scale in the horrible two World Wars, the horror-stricken humanity has been searching for peace and calm and it finds solace in this religion of love and peace. Therefore, since 1950s, there is a surge of interest in Sufism in the West as well as in the East.

The second chapter has been devoted to give an account of historical and biographical details of both the authors. It marks out the old conflict between faith and reason after the debacle of the Islamic Golden Age which extended almost five centuries from eighth to 13th century. It points out to the theological and metaphysical debates among the Islamic scholars about God and universe. Some of them, especially, Avicenna and Averroes, strongly believed that the universe is governed by the secondary causes created by the first cause, that is God. They thought that this world is regulated by some universal laws formulated by God Himself and so it functions without the direct intervention of God. But some of other scholars, particularly, Abul Hasan Al-Ashari and Al- Ghazali, vehemently opposed this idea and argued that God rules His universe through His direct intervention. The latter declared the impossibility of discovering truth and God with the help of logic and reason and emphasized that it is love which leads people to God. This same debate of faith and reason permeated the whole of Europe in the late medieval times. Aristotle‟s writings beganMaulana to reach EuropeAzad throughLibrary, Arabic Aligarh and He Muslimbrew translations University and they started to pose a threat to the dogmatic teachings of the Church. With declining power of the Church, it tried to reclaim its lost position and assigned some eminent Christian philosophers like Thomas Aquinas, to present a working synthesis between the Bible and Aristotle. These assigned scholars adopted the methods of the Muslim philosophers to reach out this synthesis. This approach and method was called scholasticism. The chapter shows a similarity between the periods of Rumi and Shakespaere as both were born in such a time when the old tradition was being threatened by the approaching modernity. But, they transcended the forces of their

2 time and tried to conserve and cherish the old traditions in their writings. Besides this, the chapters shows many similarities between Rumi‟s and Shakespeare‟s ideas and thoughts. A number of texts by both the authors have been used to show affinities between their methods and approach.

The third chapter is one of the three chapters of this thesis in which the working hypothesis of the research has been applied. It critically examines Shakespeare‟s universal tragedy, King Lear, to discover Sufic echoes, images, motifs and themes. This chapter finds Edgar as a Sufic figure. His quest for truth resembles a Sufi‟s journey to seek union with the Absolute. Almost all seven Sufic stations (Maqamaat), repentance (Tauba), abstinence (Taqwa), renunciation (Zuhd), poverty (Faqr), patience (Sabr), complete trust on God (Tawakkul) and satisfaction (Tumaninah) are found in Edgar‟s characterization. His journey to seek out truth begins with his repentance on his bad deeds in past when he committed them following the orders of his lesser self (Nafs). With the awakening of his real self, Edgar abstains himself from the temptations of the devil. Despite suffering from the difficult phase of his life, he never entertains the contemplation of suicide. He adopts a complete renunciation from the worldly affairs and lives in a hovel. Edgar‟s poverty is apparent from his adopted name during his disguise as poor Tom Bedlam. Edgar is a monument of patience. His patience is appreciable when he endures afflictions and pain without any complaint. Edgar has a complete reliance on God. He is probably the only character in the play who never loses his hope in God. When Cordelia-led French army is defeated by Edmund-led English forces, it is he who preaches his father, Gloucester, to maintain his trust in the functioning of God. He leads his father from anMaulana eternal despair Azad to aLibrary, hope in God. Aligarh He is always Muslim sure Universitythat evil will be routed by good in its final combat. As far as his satisfaction is concerned, after his self-exile to escape from the persecution of his father and then consequently his realization of the self, he appears to be well satisfied with God‟s judgements. His kind exhortation to his father, “Men must endure / Their going hence even their coming hither. / Ripeness is all” (5.2.9-11) best represents his satisfaction with the judgement of God. Apart from the characterization of Edgar, the Sufic theme of self-discovery is one of the major themes of this play. Nosce teipsum (A Latin phrase meaning „Know thyself‟) is a perspective through which the characters of Lear and Gloucester can be be analysed.

Both of these characters represent Everyman of the morality play. They appear to be unable to make a difference between good and evil because they are unaware of their self. Their pride and arrogance keep them ignorant of their self. They are cured from their ignorance and pride through suffering from afflictions and pain. The character of Cordelia has also been presented as a saintly figure much like Jesus Christ. The play associates many words and adjectives with her, for example, “most rich being poor” (1.1.252 ), “soul in bliss” (4.7.46) etc. which point out to her portrayal as a Sufic woman.

The fourth chapter of this thesis has been allotted to read out Sufic prototypes and patterns in Shakespeare‟s remarkable play, Hamlet. The play has been designed in the fashion of the Elizabethan revenge tragedy, but, it goes out from its general framework. In the beginning of the play, Hamlet has been depicted as an indecisive man caught between dilemma of „to be or not to be‟. He has been portrayed as a person who is „sick in his soul‟. His heart becomes a battle ground for the forces of good and evil. On one hand, he is propelled by his sentimentality to rush to avenge the murder of his father while on other hand he is restrained by his moral and spiritual conscience to indulge in some act which has been prohibited by God. He is caught between these two forces causing anxieties and perplexities in his mind. His spiritual awareness has been highlighted by two foil characters, Laertes and Fortinbras. Both of these two young men proceed with their revenge without paying any heed to the aspect of morality or immorality of their act. In the play, it also appears that they are helped by the playwright for creating some favourable circumstances for them to achieve their revenge while in the case of Hamlet, Shakespeare seems to be reluctant to give him anyMaulana opportunity Azad to fulfil Library, his promise Aligarh made to Muslim the ghost ofUniversity his father. So, it is not Hamlet but Shakespeare who wants to make his readers understand what does it mean to take personal revenge? This chapter also elaborates the event which transforms Hamlet from a confused young man to a person having unshakable faith in the working of God. The chapter discusses that after the episode of sea-voyage in the fourth Act in which Hamlet is fortunately saved from the evil design of Claudius and rescued from the clutches of the sea-pirates, he develops a firm faith in the divine dispensation of God. After this miraculous episode, he is no longer in the grips of uncertainty and unease. His conversation with his close friend, Horatio, when the

4 latter tries to dissuade him not to accept the challenge of Laertes at duel reflects his complete reliance (Tawakkul) on the functioning of God. In fact, this reliance on God brings peace and tranquility to his perplexed mind and worried soul. He preaches his friend that a human is not required to be perturbed for his/her life and death because everything is in the hands of God and even a sparrow cannot dies without His wish. Therefore, what is demanded from a human is that he/she must be ready all the time to endure the judgements of God. Hamlet‟s resignation of himself to the will of God portrays him as a Sufic figure having unshakable belief in the divine dispensation of God.

The fifth chapter of the thesis is a comprehensive analysis of select Shakespearean plays and sonnets other than tragedies. It consists of four sections. The first section deals with Shakespeare‟s tragi-comedy, The Tempest, while his problem play, Measure for Measure, has been discussed in the second section. The third section has been allotted to discuss his romantic comedy, Twelfth Night , and his only two sonnets, 116 and 144 have been dealt with in the last fourth section. This chapter attempts to observe Sufic motifs and themes in all of the four sections. The first section begins with the characterization of rightful Duke, Prospero, in The Tempest. His character has been presented as a saintly figure. Prospero becomes much fond of some secret studies. He begins to value his rare books above his dukedom. His depleting interest in the affairs of his dukedom result in its usurpation by his brother, Antonio. From Prospero‟s speeches, the Sufic wisdom emanates. He compares the human life with a dream to point out its ephermerality. He compares human life to an illusion. The play highlights the significance of mercy and forgiveness in human life. RespondingMaulana to Ariel Azad when Library, he says that Aligarh he has becomeMuslim poignant University after watching the King of Naples toiling and languishing under his spell, Prospero says “the rarer action is / In virtue than in vengeance” (5.127-28). Instead of taking his personal revenge from his enemies, he forgets them. The play concludes with a Sufic lesson that mercy is a blessing for both, the receiver and the giver. If the former gets salvation, the latter reaches the status of sanctification through mercy and forgiveness. The chapter proceeds with the second section in which another play of Shakespeare, Measure for Measure has been analysed. Like The Tempest, this play is also dominated by the theme of mercy and forgiveness. It depicts the conflict between law

5 and mercy and establishes the latter‟s significance in human‟s life. Vincentio, the Duke of Vienna, is characterized as a Sufic figure. He abdicates his power so that he can discover himself. He appoints Angelo as his deputy and tells people that he is going to Poland for some important work. But he does not go anywhere and disguises himself as poor friar. Through disguise, it becomes easy for him to talk to common people and to know about their views about the present governance and to keep a secret watch on his deputy‟s administrative functioning. The Sufic wisdom emanates from his conversation with Claudio who is about to be punished with death for fornication he committed with his fiancée, Juliet. The Duke‟s preaching him about nothingness of this mortal world shows his Sufic characteristic. He appears to be worried about every human soul, whether it is Claudio, or Juliet or Isabella, or Mariana or Angelo. Like a true Sufi, he makes his efforts to achieve goodness for all (Sulh-e-Kul). Through the character of Angelo, the play shows the human invulnerability to the temptation of the evil. In fact, the playwright wants to give the lesson that the abode of evil is within the human soul and nobody is protected from its influence. Hence, virtue lies in stopping oneself from being tempted by this evil which is within oneself. That is why abstinence (Taqwa) is required for being a true Sufi. The play criticizes the human hypocrisy in demanding justice and seeking mercy. Wherever, they happen to be victims, they demand the strict implementation of laws to ensure justice but wherever they are oppressors, they desperately seek mercy. The play concludes with a lesson that the measure one takes to deal with others will also be used on him/her. The chapter moves to its third section where Shakespeare‟s last romantic comedy, Twelfth Night, has been analysed from a Sufic perspective. As the play is dominated by the theme of true or mature love, it depicts different shades of love through a number of characters. The playwright‟s definition Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University of true love has been reflected through the characterization of Viola. Her love is characterized as patient and sacrificing in its nature. It prefers sacrifices to possession. Patience and sacrifice, the two hallmarks in Shakespeare‟s definition of true love, show rich similarities between his concept of true love and the notion of Sufic love. The final section of this chapter has been allotted to deal with his two sonnets, 116, and 144. Again, these two sonnets are marked by the theme of love. True love has been characterized by its inalterability, its guiding property and its permanence. It does not change due to any change in the object of love. It leads people to truth and

6 virtue like a star guiding every bark in the sea at night. All of these characteristics one can easily find in the Sufic definition of love.

In the sixth chapter, the conclusion and research findings of this study have been presented. It finds that Shakespeare‟ primary concern is always to evolve his characters from their fallen nature. Unlike other playwrights of his age, he is not only concerned with human salvation but he also depicts his characters moving from mere Renaissance scheme of salvation to some higher station of sanctification. This research also finds him to be a very religious person. Due to the rise of the secular forces in Renaissance England and the secularization of drama in the second half of the 16th century, he could refer to the real God in his play. But his treatment of pagan gods is completely different from those of Homer and Sophocles in their respective works. Shakespeare talks of pagan gods but he always means the real one God. The other important finding this research could find is that contrary to the general perception, Shakespeare was not a child of Renaissance but he was the last man of the medieval time. The thoughts presented in his plays show more inclination towards the medieval tradition rather than the Renaissance modernity. The most important finding this research could discover during the analysis of Shakespeare‟s select texts is that he was well aware of the oriental philosophy of Sufism. A number of affinities between his thoughts and Sufic idea substantiate this argument. However, it appears due to the political and religious differences with the Ottoman Empire with which the Europe associated this religion of love and peace, Shakespeare could not directly acknowledge the impact of this oriental philosophy on his thoughts.

MaulanaThe Sufic Azad journey Library, of Edgar Aligarh to find outMuslim truth of University existence, Lear‟s self- discovery, Hamlet‟s transformation from an indecisive state to to a staunch believer are some instances to show the impact of Sufism on Shakespearean thoughts. All these illustrations from his various plays and sonnets substantiate the hypothesis of this research that he was either consciously or unconsciously aware of the ideas and concepts of Sufism. However, it appears that, due to the political and religious rivalry between Europe and the Ottoman Empire with which they associated the philosophy of Sufism, Shakespeare could not directly acknowledge the influence of Sufism in his works.

CONTENTS

Certificates

Acknowledgements

Contents

Chapter 1: A Background to the Study of Sufism: An 1-48 Introduction

Chapter 2: Tracing Rumi’s Footprints in the 49-82 Shakespearean Thoughts

Chapter 3: Exploration of Sufism in King Lear 83-117

Chapter 4: Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet 118-146

Chapter 5: Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, 147-176 Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets

Chapter 6: Conclusion 177-191

Bibliography 192-210

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Chapter 1

A Background to the Study of Sufism: An Introduction

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Sufism is a movement that started with the Prophet Muhammad himself. Although, there is much controversy among scholars about the exact timing of its origin, it appeared as an Islamic cult during the Prophet‟s life itself. There is also disagreement about the origin of the word, Sufism; some says that this word has been derived from Suffa, a platform outside the Prophet‟s mosque in the city of Madina where those companions of his who were very poor and homeless usually stayed at. According to some scholars, it has been borrowed from Safa which means the cleanliness of heart in Arabic. Others suggest that the word, Sufism, is the derivative of Suf; this is a kind of coarse garment generally worn by the poor as well as by those who gave preference to ascetic life over the luxurious life of this world as wearing coarse clothes was the mark of simplicity and humbleness at a time when rich people donned themselves with silk or other precious garments. This last explanation seems to be more compatible with the spirit of this movement. It is worthwhile to note here that the word, Sufi, an Arabic word, is the translation of the word, mystic, but it is not equivalent to its translation as the latter is a general term that can be applied to any mystic irrespective of his or her religion and beliefs while the former having the religious connotation is a specific term which can be applied only to that mystic who believes in Islam. Having Islamic belief is the prerequisite for a Sufi; that is why it is said that Islam is cardinal to Sufism.

Maulana As Sufism Azadis the nameLibrary, of Islamic Aligarh mysticism, Muslim its spirit University and true meaning are always elusive and it is next to impossible to explain it in the terms of the feeble human intellect and skeptic philosophy. It is not based on the flawed human reasoning, imperfect logic, and all other things which are proudly regarded as the human achievements. It completely relies on the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Prophet as its sources. Once, Abu Sarraj (d. 988), the writer of the first treatise on Sufism, was asked to elaborate its doctrines, and to explain its relation with the Quran and the Apostolic Traditions, he quoted a verse from the Quran, 3: 16 where those people who have firm faith in God have been entitled as “the possessors of

Introduction knowledge” (Ulul Ilm). The Prophet says that savants are heirs to prophets. Sarraj has divided religious knowledge into three categories in his treatise, Kitabul Luma (The Book of Light). Those learned men who are well versed in the Quran and Apostolic Traditions are usually called Traditionists. Those intellectuals who are bestowed the knowledge of Islamic laws are known as Jurists (Fuqaha) while those who got the knowledge of the realities of faith are regarded as Sufis. A Sufi is defined as a person who continuously struggles to keep on purging his/her conducts and behaviours from baser things just like gold is purged from other base materials. Although, attaining purity is beyond human capability and a true Sufi acknowledges that impurity is the characteristic of human beings, he/she constantly makes efforts to make himself/herself less impure. A true Sufi strives much to make his/her tomorrow better than his/her today through cleaning his/her heart from natural strains. According to an early Sufi master, Usman al-Hujwiri (1009-1077), Sufism is „the quest for inward purity‟. After explaining a number of possible words from which the word, Sufism, may have been said to be derived, he advocates no possible original word for it as everything in this world is impure, then, how can a word denoting purity be derived from its opposites.

Before becoming or attaining the status of a true Sufi, an initiator undergoes a difficult process of pain and suffering. This aspirant is called as Mutasawwif. This word is an Arabic word. In the Arabic language, this word means „taking trouble‟. Actually, the notion of Sufism shares some properties, if not all, with metaphysics; the problem in defining it is almost same as when metaphysic is tried to be defined. In fact, only those things that are limited are capable of definition while those which are infinite in theirMaulana nature cannot Azad be Library, defined. AsAligarh more studiously Muslim oneUniversity tries to define Sufism, more immensely he/she mars it.

Islam like Judeo-Christian and other religions has exoteric and esoteric interpretation of its doctrines. But, unlike other religions, the distinction between them is sharper. The former signifies the basic or social meaning of Islamic doctrines. Its basic meaning is easier to understand and can be easily comprehended by all alike. But the latter denotes its mysterious meaning that is much elusive, and cannot be understood effortlessly by an ordinary mind. According to one of traditions of the

Introduction

Prophet, he said that Islam is easier to understand. This easier part is what we call as exoteric meaning while its esoteric meaning requires much more labour and intellect to understand it. Although, they are different from each other, they do not have any contradictory relationship. Actually, they are complementary to each other. Both exoteric and esoteric meanings are the parts of a same thing. Exoteric carries the physical appearance or exterior meaning of a thing while esoteric embodies essence and core meaning of a thing.

As much as the originality or the foreign influences on Sufism is concerned, it is impossible to believe that mysticism is specific only with some particular race, religion and culture. In fact, it is a universal asset and every culture and religion has equal rights to claim it. Mysticism is a human phenomenon to which various religions, nations, languages and cultures contributed. There is no doubt that the methods and practices of mysticism may be different from religion to religion and culture to culture but its sole aim is always the same everywhere, that is to make personal communion with God. Some theorists have argued that Sufism is an Iranian reaction against the Arab conquests. The logic for their argument is that the Semitic religions, their languages, and their people are unfit for the art and sciences, and, in fact, mysticism in Semitic religions has been introduced by the Aryan race. To comprehend their point clearly, it must be borne in mind that Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and their languages, Hebrew, Arabic etc. are termed as the Semitic religions and languages while the Aryan race includes Iranian race and the Persian is the prominent language of Indo-European languages. But this claim has been objected by other theorists. Refuting this idea of Sufism as an Iranian reaction againstMaulana the conquering Azad Arab, Library, a noted Aligarh Catholic Muslim scholar of University Islam, Louis Massignon (1883-1962) says in his book, Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism (1997)

It is a priori theory that wrongly generalizes from a few special cases. It assumes the indemonstrable idea that Iran in the seventh century A.D. was peopled solely by Aryans with an entirely Aryan culture. In reality Shiism, which is presented to us as a specifically Persian Islamic heresy, was propagated in Persia by pure Arab colonists, who had come from Kufa to

Introduction

Qum. The Kurds and Afghans, pure Iranian by race, have always been anti- Shiite. The list of great Muslim thinkers said to be of “Persian origin”, because their nisba refers to a city in Persia, are misleading. Most of these men thought and wrote only in Arabic, and were no more separate from the Islamic world, whether they were the sons of clients (mawali) or Arab colonists, than was Lucan of Cordova or Augustine of Tagaste from the Roman. (Massignon 77)

Although it can be rightly argued that Sufism shares some notions with other older mystical cults, especially Christianity, Buddhism and some ancient Hindu cults, these foreign notions may be emanating from the main source, i. e. the Divine revelation, and it is the same source for Sufism. The idea of foreign influence on Sufism is a highly debatable topic among the Orientalists and the Islamic scholars. Titus Burckhardt (1908-1984), a prominent member of the “Traditionalist School” of 20th century authors, rejected the idea of foreign influence in his book, An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (1959). He explained that some Sufic terms might be analogous to other mystical systems, for example, fana and baqa to nirvana and moksa respectively, but it did not mean that it had been derived from the Hindu doctrines. He further elaborated that Sufic cosmology might be expressed through those ideas which were already presented by the ancient philosophers, Empedocles and Plotinus but making the use of their ideas for the convenience of the expression of some Sufic terminology did not indicate that it had been borrowed from them. In fact, the universal truth can be reached through different sources and every source justifies the validity of the other source in discovering the truth but it cannot be claimed that one source has been derived from the other. Likewise, if some notions of Sufism appear identical or parallel to teachingsMaulana of Plato Azad or Christianity Library, Aligarhor Hinduism Muslim or Buddhism University or any other cult, it simply reflects that Sufism is justifying their validity but it does not mean that it has been derived from them. Endorsing the idea that Sufism is purely of Muhammadan origin, Burckhardt says:

The decisive argument in favor of the Muḥammadan origin of Sufism lies, however, in Sufism itself. If Sufic wisdom came from a source outside Islam, those who aspire to that wisdom— which is assuredly neither bookish nor purely mental in its nature—could not rely on the symbolism of the Qurʾān for

Introduction

realizing that wisdom ever afresh, whereas in fact everything that forms an integral part of the spiritual method of Sufism is constantly and of necessity drawn out of the Qurʾān and from the teaching of the Prophet. (Burckhardt 4- 5)

Apart from Titus Burckhardt, other eminent members of the “Traditionalist School” of 20th century authors like Frithjof Schuon (!907-1998) and Martin Lings (1909- 2005) have also supported the idea that Sufism has purely Islamic origin. While other writers like Henry Corbin (1903-1978) and Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1933) trace its origin to the pre-Islamic Iranian thought and find Shite connection in its origin. Robert Charles Zaehner (1913-1974) explores in it the colours of the ancient Hindu philosophy. Toshihiko Izutsu (1914-1993), a Japanese scholar, finds the Buddhist milieu in the doctrines of Sufism.

Reynold A. Nicholson (1868-1945), a renowned English Orientalist, in the introduction of his well-known translated book, The Mystics of Islam (1914), made all his efforts to convince that Sufism was inspired by Christian ideals, for example, Sufis clad themselves with coarse woolen clothes in imitation of Christian hermits. In another place in the same introduction, the author suggested that lips sealed by holy mysteries and eyes closed in visionary rapture, the two important characteristics of Sufis, were adopted, later on, from Greek religion. He did not believe in defining Sufism in the light of basic doctrines of Islam, though its Western counterpart, Christian mysticism, he did believe, can not be studied without reference to Christianity. Unlike Christian mysticism, he viewed Sufism in the outward and inwardMaulana development Azad of Islam, Library, or more Aligarhappropriately Muslim, in its growth University as a political power rather than in its basic principles. He opined that until the eighth century, Sufism was characterized by fear rather than love. He asserted that fear of punishment, fear of hell that has been vividly described in the Quran, and fear of death and sin, were the leading motives of all prayers and devotions among Sufis, and Sufism was characterized by fear until the first Muslim woman mystic, Rabia al-Daweyah (d. 801), condemned the idea of reward or punishment in devotions and prayers and staunchly advocated for the selfless love, unadulterated by any motives of hope and fear, in Godly prayers. Nicholson also added that the relationship between God and

Introduction humans in Islam is that of master and slaves while in Christianity the relationship between the Creator and creatures is like the relationship between a father and his children. From all these in-depth considerations and insights whatever he tried to prove is that Sufism is an imported idea that is foreign to the basic tenets of Islam. The concept of Sufism, he considered, is a derivative either from Greek philosophy which later on seeped into European culture and literature or it was formed by meeting of Islam, in the wake of the Muslim conquests, with different cultures and religions of the foreign lands.

To trace the origin of Sufism, references must be made to the oldest treatises on Sufism. After the first surviving treatise on this subject by Abul Nasr Sarraj, the second oldest surviving treatise is Kashful- Mahjoob (Unveiling the Hidden Lore) by the Sufi-master Usman al-Hujwiri. In the translated version of this book, there is a chapter titled “On the Wearing of Patched Frocks” in which Hujwiri showed that wearing patched frocks and coarse woolen clothes was considered as the Prophet‟s tradition (Sunnah). He maintained that the Prophet Muhammad himself wore this type of clothes to give preference to humility and simplicity over arrogance and showoff which other kinds of clothes exhibited at that time. In fact, wearing of coarse woolen clothes was a mark of worldly renunciation while silk and other fashionable precious garments of that time reflected worldly attachment. Hujwiri says “Know that the wearing of a muraqqaa (patched frock) is the badge of aspirants to Sufism. The wearing of these garments is a Sunna (custom of the Prophet), for the Apostle said: “……. See that ye wear woolen raiment, that ye may feel the sweetness of faith”. (Hujwiri 45) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Nicholson maintained that Muslim mystics wore rough woolen clothes to imitate Christian mystics but the quoted excerpt from the aforementioned treatise on Sufism elucidated the fact that cladding ordinary woolen clothes was regarded as a custom of the Prophet, and sticking to this custom of their beloved Prophet, his every companion was seen as wearing this sufic garments in the battle of Badar. His companions cannot be considered as Sufis in that specific term in which Nicholson is trying to explain Islamic mysticism, nevertheless, they preferred themselves to be seen in those clothes which their beloved liked to dress himself merely due to their

Introduction profound love and respect for him rather than imitating anybody. Hence, relating the attire of Muslim mystics with Christian mystics and claiming this act as an imitation can be debunked. The irony of this matter is that Nicholson claimed it in the introduction of his translated book, Mystics of Islam, which got published in the year 1914, though he himself translated Hujwiri‟s kashful- Mahjoob into English from Persian just three years before in 1911. In fact, wearing of patched frock or ordinary clothes has nothing to do with Sufism or any kind of mysticism as when the fashion of wearing these kinds of clothes became prevalent among the people to boast upon their virtues and piety, the true Sufis began to abandon the practice to clad them with this Sufic attire.

The second considerable point Nicholson raised in the above mentioned book to prove that Sufism is a derivative of Christian mysticism is that Sufism is marked by selfless love for God while in Islam the relationship between God and human is that of master and slave. He further explained that fear not love of God is predominant in actions of believers in Islam; in the Quran, fear of hell, fear of God, and fear of death have been vividly and repeatedly described while love of God has not been given much significance. What he meant to establish is that fear, not love, is the dominant passion in Muslim devotees, whereas Christianity is full of love for God. He elaborated that unlike Islam, the relationship between God and human in Christianity is just like love between a father and his children, therefore, he argued, Sufism‟s basic principle of selfless love for God seems to be foreign and derived from Christianity.

This raised question on the originality of Sufism can be easily answered when one carefullyMaulana examine Azads Library,the monotheistic Aligarh properties Muslim of University Islam. Pure form of monotheism has been much more emphasized on in several places of the Quran and in multiple hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad. Any notion, imagery, or thing which even implies polytheism has been avoided while in Christianity, though monotheistic in its creed and maintaining unity in Trinity, is not as much particular in dealing with its monotheistic belief. Apart from this fact, God has been described in the Quran as “There is nothing that is anything like Him” (Al-Quran 42:11), and speculating Him in the image of human or anything else has been strictly prohibited in Islam while Christianity vividly described one of its three gods, Jesus, in the image of man; Jesus

Introduction shared many human qualities, for example, he was born, he ate food, and he died too according to the Christian belief. This idea of humanized version of God was also common among the Arabs before Islam. Islam vehemently criticized the idea of attributing human qualities to God. The Quran has laid much emphasis on avoiding any image of God drawn by human fancies and imagination because He is beyond them. Therefore, probably, the relationship between God and human in Islam cannot be described ile father-children relationship because it explicitly depicts God in the humanized version. It is true that Islam has portrayed the relationship between God and human in term of master and slave relationship, but before jumping to any conclusion, it seems pertinent to closely examine master-slave relationship. While analyzing this relation, one point is much certain that a master is always different from his slave; likewise, the other point is that a slave completely depends on his master for his well-being. The negative connotation in the master-slave relationship includes cruelty, exploitation, and curtailment of slave‟s liberty and freedom by his master. Its negative connotation always eclipses its positive meanings. Master-slave relationship is often considered in a negative sense but this fact must not be neglected that speculating human‟s slavery for God on the basis of that slavery where a human owns another human will be a blunder. In fact, slavery cannot be justified for a human because here top, that is master, and bottom, that is slave, are indistinguishable and the slave is not different from his master. The Quran has mentioned slavery for God in a positive sense in its several places. Being a slave of God, according to Islam, is the most appreciable quality of a human. So, it can be said that describing God and human relationship in term of master and slave relationship does not undermine the idea of love but actually it enhances it. Due to its strict adherence to the monotheistic principles, Islam abstains from making any as such analogy to define God and human Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University relationship which even implicitly indicates dualism or polytheism. Therefore, the use of master-slave analogy in Islam to explain the relationship between God and human cannot be a basis to claim that Islam undermines love and propels fear to be a main motive in the Muslim worship.

Sufism is much extensive and difficult to be properly defined just like an elephant in a dark room which is tried to be defined by people according to which of its part they have touched. Undoubtedly, Sufism assimilated many diverse and

Introduction different ideas from various cultures; nevertheless, Islam remained to be its center throughout the history of its development. The most important characteristic of Sufism can be defined as selfless love for God. The journey of a Sufi always begins with annihilation of his or her self. Two things, love and knowledge, must be considered while dealing with this elusive concept of Sufism. These two things have always been enchaining human spirit. Forgetting of self is known as love while realization of self is called as knowledge. At the surface level, both are contradictory to each other as love is marked by giving and scarifying while knowledge is the name of taking and acquiring. One is passive in its pursuance while other is energetic and vitalistic in its approach. But at the deeper level of understanding, both are not contradictory but complimentary to each other as when one loves anything, he/she crave to know more about the object of his/her love. In fact, knowledge of the beloved adds to his/her love for it. Before dwelling on the idea of selflessness or self- mortification in the scheme of Sufism in detail, the different stages (Maqamat) of Sufism should be discussed because they have a strong relationship with the idea of selflessness.

In Kitabul Luma, written by Abu Nasr Sarraj, its seven stages have been mentioned as repentance (Tauba), abstinence (Taqwa), renunciation (Zuhd), poverty (Faqr), patience (Sabr), trust in God (Tawakkul), and satisfaction (Tumaninah). The first of them begins as an awakening of the soul and realization of sins and misdeeds. Every succeeding stage is the result of its preceding stage. After a little pondering on these seven stages, it becomes apparent that they have been designed to make an initiator to attain self-mortification. After repentance that marks the beginning of a new life,Maulana abstinence Azad from Library, achieving Aligarh worldly things,Muslim renunciation University of all worldly comfort and leisure, poverty, and patience do nothing but weaken and sometimes even annihilate that self which is known as the lesser self (Nafs). A true Sufi is characterized as someone possessing nothing and possessed by nothing. To eliminate ego, pride, and arrogance which are basic properties of the lesser self, many Sufis gave preference to poverty over wealth. The early Sufis led humble and poor life. In fact, poverty was willingly adopted by the Prophet Muhammad himself, though Islam never prohibits acquiring wealth when it is earned through legal means and the shares of others in it are paid accordingly. The ideal of poverty in Sufism must be

Introduction distinguished from the poverty of a Faqeer (beggar). A Faqeer and a Sufi seem to be similar as both of them survive themselves through the means of begging but in fact, both are poles apart. The former keeps begging for the survival of his self while the latter begs only to annihilate his self. The former‟s poverty is inevitable while the latterst‟s is willingly self-chosen.

It is commonplace to read in the anecdotes of Sufis that their guide instructed them to lead a humble life so that their selves could be mortified or at least weakened. Poverty is marked as an effective tool in process of unselfing for a Sufi. In fact, self is a huge impediment to a Sufi‟s ardent struggle to reach the union with the Absolute. Self is born with humans; and it is hereditary and it comes from their ancestry of brute. According to Islamic belief, as the Elizabethans also used to believe the same, that human has been made of two opposite forces, brutish and angelic; his/her lower part contains the animalistic properties while his/her upper part which contains the heart and mind is composed of the angelic qualities. It was commonplace among Muslims as well as among the Elizabethans that there is a perpetual strife between these two opposite forces in human; whenever the animalistic forces defeats the angelic forces and his/her upper part is regulated by his/her lower part, his/her status is considered to be below even animals; and whenever his/her angelic forces defeat its opposite forces and the upper part controls the lower part, he/she is believed to be in a higher position than an angel. A normal human is often between these two opposite ranks; sometimes, he/she falls downward but he/she rarely moves upward. Christian mystics express the same idea in different proportions as angelic forces are the army of God whereas animalistic forces are the army of Satan and the heart of human is the battlefield for Maulanathem. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

When one talks about the idea of self that is, undoubtedly, a significant part of all mystical systems including Sufism, generally, its three linear phases in the journey to make union with God are mentioned . First, comes the awakening of the self, second, the purification of the self, and then finally the illumination of the self. The first mystic state begins with conversion. This conversion is defined as awakening of the real self that begins with the realization of sins and misdeeds committed by the unreal self. Evelyn Underhill (1875-1941), an authority on mysticism, has pointed out

Introduction in her landmark book, Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness (1911), that this „conversion‟ is not religious conversion as generally understood by common people; it often awakens abruptly and disturbs the equilibrium of the self; it causes consciousness to move from the lower self to the higher self and its center of interest moves from its subject to an object that has been brought up by this abrupt spiritual consciousness. Elaborating the awakening of the self in the mystic journey to God, Underhill says:

This awakening, from the psychological point of view, appears to be an intense form of the phenomenon of “conversion”; and closely akin to those deep and permanent conversions of the adult type which some religious psychologists call “sanctification.” It is a disturbance of the equilibrium of the self, which results in the shifting of the field of consciousness from lower to higher levels, with a consequent removal of the centre of interest from the subject to an object now brought into view: the necessary beginning of any process of transcendence. It must not, however, be confused or identified with religious conversion as ordinarily understood: the sudden and emotional acceptance of theological beliefs which the self had previously either rejected or treated as conventions dwelling upon the margin of consciousness and having no meaning for her actual life. The mechanical process may be much the same; but the material involved, the results attained, belong to a higher order of reality. (Underhill 164)

As it has been earlier pointed out that human is born with a self that creates an unreal world Maulana where he/she Azad is the Library, center and Aligarh all other thingsMuslim are University his/her periphery. He/she considers and measures all things other than his/her self in accordance with his/her false notions. This illusion of real world constructed by the lower self is brought down by the awakening of the higher self. This awakening of the self that is known as beginning of the soul‟s journey to make union with the Absolute is called as repentance (Tauba) in the Sufic lexicon. A Sufi begins his/her journey only after confession of his misdeeds and seeking true repentance from Allah. Underhill has emphasized that this awakening often comes to those who are already religious; she also explains that it is often abrupt but sometimes gradually develops without

Introduction realization. In Sufism, repentance, which is parallel to Christian concept of spiritual awakening, is for both religious and irreligious people alike. In fact, repentance is a gift bestowed by God upon whom He wishes. Repentance may be a continuous process and comes for both religious and irreligious people as the former may repent after being conscious of minor sins (Gunah-e- Saghirah) they committed while the latter may realize their major sins (Gunah-e- Kabirah) and then repent and seek forgiveness from God. Sometimes, even a highly religious person may repent of indulging in legal worldly things which may be remora in his/her sail to the Absolute.

Apart from categorization of sins in Saghirah (minor) and Kabirah (major) in Islamic jurisprudence, for a Sufi, a sin appears minor or major according to the proportion of his/her spiritual awakening. Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111), one of the greatest authorities on Sufism, defined Tauba (repentance) in his Sufic treatise, Ihya Ulum-id-din (Revival of Religious Sciences), as an effective tool of purification for one who wishes to come close to God. It, according to him, consists of three components, Knowledge, repentance, and determination. He elaborated that the first component of Tauba is the realization of sins and the knowledge that harms of committing sin are grave. After the realization of sins, the second component is to sincerely repent on the past misdeeds. The final component is the firm determination one makes that he/she will never commit that sin again in his/ her whole life.

The second stage of this Sufic journey comes as the purification of the self. The second, the third, and the fourth stages of Sufism that have been mentioned above are exercised to purify the self. The last three stages, patience, trust in God, and satisfaction, areMaulana the ensuing Azad condition Library, of poverty. Aligarh A SufiMuslim tries to University escape from the prison made by the lower self, and makes his/her efforts to get rid of entanglement in illusions and moves forward to discover reality. This stage may be compared to Plato‟s prisoners‟ escape from the cave of illusion and then their search for reality. Imam Ghazzali has discussed the purification in his above mentioned book. He quotes from the Quran as “Therein there are men who love purity and God loves the pure.”(9:109). He presents a hadith in the support of observance of cleanliness and purification as the Prophet said “Cleanliness is one half of belief” (qtd. in Al-Ghazzali 122). Ghazzali opined that cleanliness that has been called as one half of faith

Introduction includes not only physical cleanliness as ordinarily understood but also the purification of the heart from entertaining evil thoughts. He said that a proper understanding of this aforementioned Quranic verse and hadith clearly established that they are primarily meant the purification of soul from worldly things whereas cleaning the body from dirt and excrements is their literal and secondary meaning. Sticking, he said, only to their literal meaning would be erroneous and impossible as cleanliness of just bodily organs seemed not be one half of faith in God.

Ghazzali has defined cleanliness in four stages. The first stage is to sanitize body from excrements and other filths. The second stage is to protect one‟s physical organs from committing any sinful act. The third stage of cleanliness is to keep one‟s heart pure from any contemplation of evil. The fourth stage is the purification of inner self from anything other than God. This final stage of cleanliness is much difficult to be achieved by ordinary people and it falls in the realm of prophets and saints. These four stages are linked with each other and are in the shape of a ladder. Nobody can move to the top step without ascending through the lower steps and each stage is the preparation for the next stage.

In fact, the idea of purification is rooted in the spirit of Islam. Its kalma-e- Shahadat begins with the negation of other gods and then the affirmation of Allah as the only God. A little insight is required to apprehend that actually, the negation is the act of purification without which faith in God will be worthless. The glass of heart, first, needs to be made completely empty from the toxic beverage of the worldly concerns and then the wine of divine love should be poured down in it. For a Sufi, purificMaulanaation of the selfAzad is the Library, first half Aligarhof his/her journeyMuslim while University glorification of God is its completion. This is the sense, as Ghazzali also claimed, in which it has been said by the Prophet that cleanliness (Purification) is one half of belief.

Purification of the self is almost equally important for every mystic irrespective of his/her religion and faith. The first of seven terraces of Mount Purgatory Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) climbs with the Roman poet Virgil as his guide in the part, Purgatorio, of his masterpiece, Divine Comedy (1320) is that of pride. He cannot climb further without purging his soul from pride. He sees proud

Introduction souls purging their sin off pride. The pride here has been depicted as a burden on their backs due to which they cannot move easily. These poor souls are in a miserable state as their knees are opposite to their chests. Dante compares these figures to corbels which are used to support a roof. After seeing these poor souls in despair, he comments on the status of human beings in Canto 10:

Do ye not comprehend that we are worms,

Born to bring forth the angelic butterfly

That flieth unto judgement without screen?

Why floats aloft your spirit high in air?

Like are ye unto insects undeveloped

Even as the worms in whom formation fails! (line 124-129)

What Dante is trying to convince is that without the purification of the self from baser instincts which one is born with and the cultivation of his/her angelic elements, he/she can not fly to seek union with the Absolute because without purification humans are like worms crawling on the earth and as one knows that they cannot fly because they have no wings. The sin of pride is purged only to raise humility as the duo see a number of statutes representing humility before watching these penitent souls. Without erasing the letter „P‟ that stands for pride from his forehead, and cultivating humility, Dante could not move upward on the Mount Purgatory.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Similarly, in Fariduddin Attar‟s (d. 1221) Mantiq-ut-Tayr (The Conference of the Birds) (1177), the first thing the hoopoe preaches its fellow birds is to set the soul free. Here, the soul stands for the lesser self which needs to be purified before starting the journey through the seven valleys to reach the kingdom of Simurgh, a mythical Persian bird but, more appropriately, here it means those thirty birds which prove themselves true to their determination for this quest and finally reached their destination where they realize after watching their shadow in the lake that, in fact, they themselves are Simurgh who they were desperately searching for. The word, Simurgh, functions here as a pun as Simurgh means a mythical bird as well as thirty 14

Introduction birds in Persian language. Here, what the point of contention is that the hoopoe emphasizes upon the purification of the self before starting the journey to meet Simurgh which obviously stands here for the Absolute. The hoopoe says:

If you desire this quest, give up your soul,

And make our sovereign‟s court your only goal.

First wash up your hands of life if you would say:

„I am pilgrim of our sovereign‟s Way;‟

Renounce your soul for love; He you pursue

Will scarify His inmost soul for you. (Attar 16)

The same idea of purification before sailing to God is echoed by Sanai (1180-1131) in his Hadiqat- ul- Haqiqat (The Walled Garden of Truth). Sanai who is one of three Persian Sufi giants alongwith Attar and Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-73), is the oldest of the three. But unfortunately he could not get such recognition from the West as enjoyed by Rumi and Attar, though his magnificence has been acknowledged by Rumi himself in his Masnavi Manavi. In his aforementioned work on Sufism, Sanai makes stress upon the purification of the self before starting the journey to God. He has used the cloth imagery to elucidate his point as the stained coat is a metaphor for the lesser self and giving it to the fuller is a metaphor for the purification of the soul. Sanai says about the purification of the self:

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Dost thou desire thy collar of lace to be washed, then first give thy coat to the fuller. Strip off thy coat, for on the road to the King's gate there are many to tear it. At the first step that Adam took, the wolf of affliction tore his coat: when Cain became athirst to oppress, did not Abel give up his coat and die? Was it not when Idris threw off his coat that he saw the door of Paradise open to him? When the Friend of God remorselessly tore their garments from star and moon and sun, his night became bright as day, and the fire of Nimrod became a garden and a rose-bower. Look at Solomon, who in his justice gave the coat of his hope to the fuller; jinn and men, birds and ants and locusts, in 15

Introduction

the depth of the: waters of the Red Sea, on the tips of the branches, all raised their face to him, all became subservient to his command; when the lustre of his nature had been burnt in the fire of his soul, the heavens laid his body on the back of the wind. (Sanai 45)

Another Persian Sufi Poet, Mahmoud Shabestari (1288-1340) has termed worldly relations as “a bond, a spell, a fairy dream, an absolute illusion” which restrains the traveller from beginning his journey to the Real. Encouraging the metaphorical traveller to purge himself and then to start his journey, he says in his book, The Secret Rose Garden (1311):

See your companions have gone;

Will you not too make a start?

If you desire to take wing as a bird,

Then leave to the vultures this carrion world.

….The traveller on the path,

„Tis he who knows from whence he cometh;

Then doth his journey hastily,

Becoming as pure from self as fire from smoke. (Shabestari 39-40)

The idea of self which is much significant in Sufism has also been dealt to a large Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University extent by the Eastern poet, Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) in his Asrar-e-Khudi (The Secrets of the Self) (1915). But his treatment of the self is seemingly opposite to its treatment in Sufic scheme. In fact, there remains no such contradiction after giving an insightful reading to his concept of the self. Muhammad Iqbal, in his Secrets of the Self, talks about that Self that emerges after the destruction of the unreal self that is most appropriately called as the lesser self (Nafs). Iqbal does not mention the real self by its name and whenever he says self, he means the true self that is equally desired by both Sufis and Iqbal.

Introduction

But, undoubtedly, there is a stark difference in the matter of annihilation of this true self in God. According to Sufic conception and other mystic traditions, after the discovery of the real self, it is annihilated in God and loses its existence just like a drop of water in a boundless ocean. This conception of pantheism was very much prevalent among ancient Hindu and Buddhist intellectuals. It is generally believed that this fascinating idea of pantheism was foreign to Islam and seemingly contradictory to its basic creed of monotheism. It is assumed that the conception of pantheism was introduced to Islam by the cross-cultural influences brought about by multiple conquests of foreign lands by Muslim warriors. In Sufism, Bayazid Bastami (804- 874), Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), the martyr of love, and the thirteenth century Spanish Sufi master, Ibn-ul- Arabi (d.1240) are credited and severely criticized too by the orthodox Islam for championing this pagan ideal. The debate on pantheism, its origin, and its pertinence to Islam is much complex and difficult to be elaborated here; hence, its proper discussion should be left to its apt time. The opposite view, as presented by Iqbal, on the real self after its discovery is its subsistence. He believed that the real-self absorbs God in itself like a drop of water containing the whole of ocean in it.

For the purification of the self, it seems better to adopt two tested methods which are called as the Negative Method of Purification, and Positive Method of Purification. Theologica Germanica has dealt with these two basic methods in its chapter xiv with the reversal of their order. Evelyn Underhill has first mentioned the Negative Purification and then went out to elaborate the Positive Purification as it appears more appropriate and comprehensible. What the Negative Method of PurificationMaulana means Azad is that Library, the self should Aligarh be strippedMuslim of University all those things that are superfluous, unreal and harmful. It signifies the complete abandonment of all those things to which the self sticks due to its brutish ancestry and its natural dotage on unreal and worldly things. The self is required to cut itself from all worldly and illusionary things. A Sufi struggles much to detach himself/herself from those harmful things that bring obstacles in his/her journey to make union with the Absolute. The fundamental thing a mystic does to detach him/her is to choose poverty voluntarily. He/she gives preference to poverty over wealth.

Introduction

As much as poverty is concerned in Sufism, it is appreciated as one of the high virtues and merits of Sufis. Here, it can be rightly argued that welcoming poverty is a remarkable feature of asceticism. It is commonly believed that except Islam, all other religions including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism etc. draw their substantial philosophy and their practices from the concept of asceticism. Apart from main stream Islam, almost all religions uphold the universal view that through weakening the physical body by mortification and sometimes even self-inflictions, one can make one‟s soul strong. This philosophy believes in avoiding worldly pleasures and even worldly happiness to seek spiritual goals.

It is natural asceticism when a person willingly chooses the extreme form of poverty and sometimes lacks even basic necessities of life. When a person himself or herself begins to torment him or her physically, it is called unnatural asceticism. But Islam which is cardinal to Sufism does not believe in self-afflictions or any harm done to the body. It also does not consider it to be bad to seek physical pleasure if it is done in a legal and permissible manner. Due to the permission in Islam to seek comforts for body and to receive physical pleasure in a legitimate manner, it is contemptuously termed by the radicals of other religions as the pleasure-seeking religion. They argue that the Prophet prohibited celibacy and condemned monasticism, the two virtues staunchly advocated by Catholicism. Without proper understanding of Christianity, or Islam or any other religion, it will be irrational and also bias to favour or condemn any one of them.

As it is known that human life consists of two substances, physical and spiritual or bodyMaulana and soul, Azad they are Library, recognized Aligarh as two polesMuslim apart Universityby every religion. The progression of one is the regression for the other. The body is often considered as an obstacle in the soul‟s soaring to reach God. Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and ancient Judaism pronounce their first rule as hating the body and loving the soul. Without the hateful engagement with the body, it is assumed, nobody can get the eternal bliss. The human existence and its beginning are always depicted, especially in Christianity, in a very lowly manner. The whole of medieval literature sees humans as masses without any distinction or more aptly, worms crawling on the surface of the earth. The Christian emphasis on the idea of the predestination resulted in the

Introduction presentation of human as tied to the Wheel of Fortune having no control on his/her actions and consequences. This pitiful portrayal of human that is much prominent in the medieval art and literature evokes the extreme form of loathing for human existence and for this world which is not more than a stinking marsh. This projection of the world brings forth apathy and passiveness among human beings.

In fact, this was the reason that the German philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), harshly criticized Christianity and its ideals. As one of the radical philosophers of vitalism and human evolution, he saw this projection of human and world as a real cause for human inaction and passivity. Although, Islam also gives preference to the soul over the body, it maintains a distinction from other religions by not completely neglecting the latter. It entertains the body but not at the cost of the soul. It draws a moderate line between these two opposite poles. It allows eating meats of only permissible animals but prohibits drinking wine. It celebrates marriage and condemns rape and fornication. One can find in the Quran the picture of human as profound and elevated as the best and the most beautiful creation of God surpassing angles in their attributes. One can also see in the Quran the human portrayal in an undignified and lowly manner where he/she is more inferior even to beasts. It places human somewhere between the predestination and the free will as he/she cannot change his/her destiny but he/she is responsible for his/her acts. His/her position between the predestination and the free will is described as he/she can raise his/her one leg from the ground but cannot raise his/her both legs simultaneously.

Instead of hating the world, Islam, unlike Christianity, admonishes its followrs to be Maulana indifferent toAzad it because Library, hating Aligarh is an engaging Muslim act University that can distract one‟s attention from reformation of his/her soul. Probably, this is the reason that Islam did not make its stand clear on poverty and wealth as which of them is better. Both are boons until a human is indifferent to them and they become curses when he/she is distracted by either of them from pursuing his/her spiritual goals. It is right to say that poverty has been more acclaimed than wealth as the Prophet himself and his companions preferred it to wealth but actually it was their indifference to both that was commendable. A wealthy human may be a true Sufi if his/her wealth does not breach his/her indifference towards the world and a poor human may not be a true

Introduction

Sufi if his/her poverty and hunger distract him/her from God. That is why the Prophet prayed to Allah to protect him from that poverty which leads to infidelity. God‟s protection has also been sought from that wealth which results in the forgetfulness of Him. This is probably the reason that poverty in the Sufic scheme has been necessarily followed by self-satisfaction that is the characteristic of being indifferent towards the world.

To adopt poverty voluntarily is a form of detachment from the world. Gazzali says that poverty is an effective instrument that brings a human closer to God. In his Revival of Religious Learning, volume iv, he has discussed the five classes of poverty. The first class of poverty is that when a human chooses renunciation from this material world. He/she hates and flees from wealth, though it comes to him/her without making any effort. His/her escape from riches reflects his/her apprehension that lest his/her spiritual growth fizzles out due to it. Gazzali says that it is the highest class of poverty. The second class of poverty belongs to those poor persons who do not hate wealth and want to live above their necessities rather than living under them. They take wealth if it comes to them without any effort. The third class of poverty is explained as those poor people who love wealth but they do not make serious efforts to acquire it. Those greedy poor humans fall in the fourth class of poverty who wish to accumulate wealth and do their utmost efforts to earn it. The fifth and final class belongs to those poor people who have their unfulfilled necessities but have no wealth to fulfill them.

After explaining these classes of poverty, Gazzali mentions a kind of people who are completelyMaulana indifferent Azad to Library,both riches Aligarhand rags. IfMuslim wealth comes University to them they are not pleased and if it goes away from them they are not displeased. Apparently, they are poor but their inner being is wealthy. In fact, they are beyond the conditions of poverty and wealth as they have attained the self-satisfaction that is the highest form of wealth. The practitioners of Christian mystics aspire to reach the first class of poverty as loving poverty and hating wealth are the hallmarks of Christianity while practitioners of Sufism aim at achieving the status of self-satisfaction that goes beyond the notions of poverty and wealth. In fact, the former is engaged to some extent in the worldly concerns as hating something is also an act of engagement while

Introduction the latter maintains the holy indifference towards unreal things to concentrate on the Real. This nuance has been elaborated by Gazzali in his Revival of Religious Learning.

The third phase of this Sufic journey is known as the illumination of the self. In this elevated phase, a Sufi feels a sense of delightful apprehension of the Absolute. All things in this world in their being as well as in their becoming are disclosed to his/her eyes. He/she begins to see the secrets of the universe. But this apprehension of the Divine should not be confused with the complete union of the self with God that is the last post of mystic journey in the scheme of Christian mysticism and some Sufic schools of thoughts as well. But, it is considered as second to the last post of Sufic journey in most of the schools of Sufism. This state of the self is marked by a beginning of subconscious power which makes him/her a new human that can make a direct communication with God, can hear His voices, and get visions directly from Him.

The Sufi metaphysics consists of two schools of thoughts known as monism (Wahdatul Wajood), and apparentism (Wahdat-al-Shahood). They debated much among them to logically explain the nature of God‟s existence, the existence of this universe, and obviously the existence of human as well. They differed with each other at the surface level but the proper insight of their seemingly opposite arguments makes it much clear that there is, basically, no such difference between them. In fact, their arguments are the two sides of the same coin. These two metaphysical thoughts are also termed as Mysticism of Infinity and Mysticism of Personality respectively. The firstMaulana school of Azadthought Library, believes that Aligarh there is Muslimno reality exceptUniversity God. According to it, all those things which are visible to one‟s eyes in this world are just a reflection of God; they are a part of continuous emanation from Him. The advocates of this school make no distinction between the Creator and His creature; in fact, they deny even the existence of anything other than God. This notion of God is basically incompatible with the concept of creation of the universe which is found in almost every religion. The renowned German Orientalist, Annemarie Schimmel (1922-2003), has pointed out to the incompatibility between the metaphysical idea of the unity of being and the basic principles of religion in her book, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (1975). She

Introduction comments “the idea of continuous emanation in contrast to the unique divine act of creation was considered, by both Muslim and Christian mystics, to be incompatible with the Biblico-Koranic idea of a creatio ex nihilo.” (Schimmel 5) This extreme form of monism, probably, found its inspiration from some Buddhist or Hindu conception of God.

When the geographical boundaries of Islam began to widely extend out of Arabia in the wake of several conquests of new lands made by Islamic soldiers, it necessarily followed that various cultures and different ideas of the new lands came in contact with Islamic culture and ideas and as a result of this cross-cultural fertilization of ideas, Sufism amalgamated some foreign ideas and ideals in its vast and complex corpus. The beginning of „Islamic pantheism‟ is marked with Bayazid Bastami. He is generally believed to be the first who introduced the conception of the unity of being in Sufism. He was born in Iran as his surname, Bastami, comes from a place, Bastam, in Iran. His grandfather was a Zoroastrian but later on, he embraced Islam when Iran came under the rule of Muslim Empire. It is probable that Bayazid took his inspiration for his conception of the unity of being from Zoroastrianism which is one of the oldest religions of the world, as he might have been familiar with beliefs of this religion of his land. Here, it should be kept in mind that Zoroastrianism has many affinities with Vedic religion which is the basis of Hinduism. These similarities between these two oldest religions of the world can be elaborated and reasoned out that before the migration of the Aryans, Indo-Aryans and Iranians were the same people without any distinction. They shared same beliefs and culture among them. It seems more reasonable that Bastami got knowledge of this idea through his past Zoroastrian connectionMaulana than Azad the claim Library, that he Aligarh learnt it from Muslim some HinduUniversity sages or he came to know it during his visit to India. There is dearth of materials on Bayazid Bastami. Probably, he did not write in his lifetime or his writings have been lost. He is particularly known for his notion of the absorption of the self in the Godhead. He is considered the pioneer of the idea of ecstasy (Sukr) in Sufism.

The unity of being (Wahdatul Wajood) is a foreign conception seemingly derived from Advaita Vedanta philosophy. The thought-system of Plotinus (204-270) is believed to be the alternate source of this intellectual philosophy. But claiming

Introduction

Plotinus to be its alternate source does not seem appropriate because his philosophy is further elaboration of Advaita Vedanta. He was born in 204 in Egypt that was ruled by the Roman Empire at that time; he came to Alexandria to study different philosophies. He deeply studied Iranian and Indian philosophies there. As there are ample proofs that there was a direct trade relation between Indian and Alexandria in the ancient time, it is highly probable that this philosophy of Adavita came to it through merchants and traders who frequently visited India. His idea of „One‟ is identical to Advaita Vedanta to a large extent.

Plotinus elaborated the idea of „One‟ as the supreme and the transcendent, beyond all the categorization of beings and not beings. He stated that there is no multiplicity or division in this supreme reality that is the source of all being and not beings in this world. He asserted that this One is not the sum of all beings but it is something without which nothing can exist. More or less similar explanation can also be presented about the Advaita philosophy. Advaita Vedanta is a Sanskrit phrase which means „not-two‟. It explains that the soul is not different from the highest metaphysical reality and both are same. There is no distinction between the soul (Atma) and the greatest metaphysical reality (Brahman). This philosophy is based on the oldest Upanishads that is dated in first millennium BCE. According to it, liberation (Mokash, or Vimukti) can be attained only through knowledge (Vidya). The idea of salvation in the Christian theology is similar to this idea of knowledge in the liberation of mankind. In Sufism, the idea of the unity of being is similar to those of Plotinus‟s ideas and Advaita philosophy. The advocates of Wahdatul Wajood believe that there is no reality except God and all existent things are nothing but the continuousMaulana emanation Azad from Library, this ultimate Aligarh reality. Muslim University

But there is a basic point of difference between Advaita Vedantis and Sufism. The former believes in knowledge as the force of liberation. The highest administrative body of education in India, the Union Grant Commission (UGC), has probably taken its motto, Gyan-Vigyan Vimuktaye (Knowledge Liberates), from this philosophy of Advaita Vedantis. The idea of knowledge as the liberating force is not unfamiliar in India. The latter believes in love as the working force of liberty and love means to make union with the Absolute. For the proper understanding of the

Introduction difference between Advaita Vedantis and Sufism, some insights in the concept of metaphysics and theology are required. At outset, it should be understood that metaphysics always relies on intellect while theology is always based on sentimentality. But it should not be thought that religion is totally sentimental, and has no room for intellect and logic. What needs to be learnt here is that the most important characteristic of any religion is its sentimentality, and no religion works without its own sentimentality. Religions vary from each other in taking the amount of sentimentalism as some contain much while some have the less. However, whatever the proportion of sentimentality may be, its inclusion is essential for the survival of a religion; and no religion can be called a religion without it.

It is true that theology is nearer to metaphysics in its conception than science but it is also undeniable fact that the most essential ingredients of both metaphysics and theology are different. It must be borne in mind that the term of metaphysics completely applies to the ancient Indian philosophies for their purely intellectual properties. Ancient Hindu thought-system was all but never religious and there was no role for theology in its formation. This claim is further strengthened by a French intellectual, Rene Guenon (1886-1951), who claimed in his book, Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1945), that except Islam where metaphysic and theology got their due proportion, in the East there was the absence of the religious point of view; it was metaphysics which was prevalent there in its absence; while in the West there was the absence of metaphysics leading to the dominance of theology. Pronouncing the relations between metaphysic and theology he says:

To returnMaulana to the question Azad thatLibrary, chiefly Aligarhconcerns us Muslim at present, University we shall remind the reader that we have already pointed out the most essential difference between a metaphysical doctrine and a religious dogma; whereas the metaphysical point of view is purely intellectual, the religious point of view implies as a fundamental characteristic the presence of sentimental element affecting the doctrine itself, which does not allow of its preserving an attitude of entirely disinterested speculation; this is indeed what occurs in theology, though to a degree that is more or less strongly marked according to the particular branch under consideration. This emotional element nowhere plays

Introduction

a bigger part than in the “mystical” form of religious thought; and let us take this opportunity of declaring that contrary to a far too prevalent opinion, mysticism, from the very fact that it is inconceivable apart from the religious point of view, is quite unknown in the East. (Guenon 123-124)

All religious mysticism including Sufism thrive on sentiments, though, they are intellectually structured and logically designed. Therefore, the claim that Sufism and the Bhakti movement which basically grew in the Indian soil and got inspired and informed by the ancient Vedic traditions are same seems unjustifiable because both depend on different sources and characteristics for their functioning. This point is also apparent in the Sufic terminology of knowledge and ecstasy. The basic notion of ancient Hindu intellectual philosophy revolves around the knowledge of the Absolute. According to it, trying to know about anything is a pure act of intellect and mind. This philosophy has no room for experience or sensation, or intuition for the Absolute while Sufism gives much space for sensation and intuition and tries to maintain a proper balance between knowledge and ecstasy. The intense form of sensation or experience is called as ecstasy in Sufic lexicon.

After Bayazid Bastami, this Platonic notion of emanation or the unity of being found its ardent and great advocate, Ibne Arabi. He was a great Sufi master. It was he who widely propagated this idea of Oneness in the corpus of Islamic philosophy. Before him in the tenth century, Mansur al-Hallaj was executed for his claim to be in union with the Absolute. He openly exclaimed that there is nothing inside my garments but God. He was hanged by the erstwhile orthodox government for his open claim, Maulana“I am the Truth.” Azad In Library, the Christian Aligarh West, he Muslim is widely University known as the „martyr of divine love‟. Ibne Arabi, the Spanish Sufi master, was one of few Islamic philosophers who dared to think as well as to speak out their thoughts which were seemingly in opposition to basic doctrines of the holy Quran. Possibly, the apprehension of persecution and sometimes even the fear of execution on the hand of the Islamic orthodoxy of that time compelled him, like some of other philosophers, to complicate his conception of God, human, universe etc. to ensure his safety. Although his notion of Godhead or the unity of being is much simple and easily comprehensible, he deliberately intended to employ paradoxical language and

Introduction intertwined philosophy to obscure his notion of the unity of being to save himself from the trial as well as from being called as a heretic.

It is interesting to know that Ibne Arabi‟s intense form of monism unwittingly or seemingly leads to polytheism. According to Islam, there is no God except Allah; and He has created all universes. But, unlike the belief of the majority of Muslims, this Sufi master believes that there is nothing but Allah and except Him there is no reality; he does not believe in the idea of creation. He does not have any faith in the idea of any intermediary or logos or the first cause between the Creator and His creature. Most of the Muslim philosophers believe that God is the first cause for the creation of the universe. They maintain a distinction between the Creator and his creation. There are many of verses in the Quran that affirm this concept of „creatio ex nihilo.‟ This idea of creation was also favoured by the neo-Platonic philosopher, Plotinus, who asserted that Reality is the cause for everything. But Ibne Arabi was at opposition to this idea of God as the first cause. He never believed that God is the cause but essence of all things. He accepted the multiplicity of things but he thought that all existing things are composed of the same essence and that is One. He tried to reconcile his conception of God with that of the Quranic conception, but the apparent contradiction between them is so wide that it seems irreconcilable at least for an ordinary reader and thinker.

For an ordinary reader or someone who has little knowledge about Ibne Arabi‟s ideas, the Quranic description of God as “There is nothing that is anything like Him” (Al-Quran 42:11) appears in a stark contrast to his idea as „God is everything‟. HeMaulana believes that Azad God Library,is infinite and Aligarh His infinity Muslim is visible University in everything of this world and everything is nothing but mere a reflection of Him. His complicated idea can be better understood with the help of the classical Greek dialectic and reasoning. According to Plato, every existent thing is made of two things, essence and existence. The Greek philosophers in ancient times, Arab philosophers in the medieval times, and modern philosophers in the present times could not decide among them about which of them comes first, essence or existence? Here, there is not need to dwell on this philosophical debate. What needs to be understood here is that essence is something that is a prerequisite for existence of anything. Nothing can exist without

Introduction its essence. Both existence and essence are same and cannot be separated from each other. A human can not realize his/her essence unless and until his/her essence comes to existence. Likewise, any existence cannot be found without having its essence. According to the majority of the ancient Greek and Arab philosophers, essence predates the existence while other philosophers consider that existence comes first, and then one realizes his/her essence. There are also some philosophers like Averroes (1126-1198) who thought that neither of them precedes or succeeds other; in fact, both come altogether and they are realized simultaneously. The last view implies that both are equal without any distinction.

Probably, Ibne Arabi considered this last view more appropriate and conforming to it, he elaborated God and His manifestations in accordance with his theory of the unity of being. He suggests that God is an essence and He realizes His essence through the whole of universe. There is a famous hadith quoted from the Prophet Muhammad, which strengthens Ibne Arabi‟s idea of creation as His further manifestation. The Prophet says that Allah says “I was a hidden treasure and so I created this creation in order that I might be known.” (qtd. in Khosla 21) Ibne Arabi believes that there is no duality or multiplicity, and there is only one reality that is God; and all other existent things are mere reflections of this ultimate and One Reality. He employed at least twenty two various metaphors drawn from different fields to clearly define his conception of God and creation in his books, Fusasul Hikam, and Futuhat-e- Makkiyyah. He has used the metaphor of object and mirrors to explain God and His creation. As an object reflects in mirrors and seems to be multiple objects, God manifests Himself in His creations. This imagery of mirrors shouldMaulana be understood Azad that Library, though, it Aligarhappears that Muslim there are University many objects, the fact is that there is the only one object and it is being reflected in different mirrors; actually many objects do not exist but they are mere reflections of the one real object. Likewise, God is an essence which is reflected in various animate and inanimate things which are nothing more than a shadow or a reflection of the Ultimate Reality.

Apart from this metaphor, Ibne Arabi also employed the metaphor of water to make an analogy between water that is considered to be the source of all living beings in this universe and God. He emphasizes to highlight the correspondence between

Introduction them as water takes different shapes as liquid, gas, and ice. It can flow like any liquid; it can fly like any gas in the atmosphere; and it can also be firm like any other solid things. Ibne Arabi says that though these things are seemingly different from one another, all are made of the same substance that is water. Like the water, Ibne Arabi explained, God manifests Himself in different creations which are made of the same essence, the essence of God. Thus, according to him, God exhibited his essence to Himself. He makes a distinction between a finite God of religion and the infinite God of mysticism. According to him, God of religion is multiple and He varies from religion to religion while the God of mysticism is one and the same everywhere. He explains that the God of religion manifests Himself to common humans in the gambit of virtue and sin while the God of mystics reveals Himself to them beyond this limited concept of virtue and sin. Ibne Arabi has celebrated the oneness of God in his mystical odes titled „Tarjumanul Ashwaq.‟ Acclaiming the unity of God, he says:

My heart is capable of every form,

A cloister for the monk, a fane for idols,

A pasture for gazelles, the pilgrim's Ka'ba,

The Tables of the Torah, the Koran.

Love is the faith I hold : wherever turn

His camels, still the one true faith is mine. (qtd. in Landau 28)

At the surficial level, Ibne Arabi‟s idea of the unity of being reflects polytheism. Due to his seemingMaulana endorsement Azad of this Library, pagan idea Aligarh of polytheism, Muslim he drew University flak during his life-time and later on too. But a proper insight into his idea supports the fact that undoubtedly, he was a monotheist rather than a polytheist. Recent researches are proving his credentials as a pure monotheist. He emphasized that one sees multiplicity in this universe because he/she, as a human being, is incapable of watching the whole; one sees only the parts of the whole and he/she mistakenly thinks that there is plurality while the fact is that they are mere the part of the whole. Therefore, according to his idea of the unity of being, the knower, the known, and the act of knowing are not different things but, in fact, they are one. This fascinating idea of the 28

Introduction unity of subject, object and the function is much similar to the unity of lover, beloved and love in the Sufic scheme.

The other school of thought in Sufic metaphysics is known as „Wahdat-al- Shahood‟ (Apparentism). According to its doctrine, there is a distinction between God and His creation, nothing is made out of His essence; and nothing is like Him. This school of thought emerged out in a protest against heresies of the believers of the unit of being. The Persian mystic poet, Ala ud-Daula Simnani (d.1336) is generally considered to be the first advocate of this metaphysical idea of Sufism. This doctrine does not see God as transcendent but immanent. It is in correspondence with the Quranic philosophy about God and His creations. One of the major orders of Sufism, Naqshbandi Order, ardently follows this doctrine.

A number of Islamic philosophers and Orientalists see the contradictions between these two schools of thought in their different languages. They say that the contradictions between them ensued due to their languages which were different from each other. They believe that it was the obscurity of their languages which presented the similar notions of both schools in such a contradictory manner to each other that consequently led to severe controversies and to the charges of apostasy labeled by the followers of them against each other. In mystic poetry, one usually does not find a watertight compartment between these two doctrines as the same poet suggests the pang of divine love in terms of the separation between lover and the beloved in some lines of his/her poem while some other lines of the same poem contain the pantheistic illustrations. In India, one too finds the representation of both these Sufic metaphysicalMaulana doctrines Azad in Library, poems, Bollywood Aligarh songs,Muslim and University music. The famous Sufi song, Kun Faya kun, composed by A. R. Rahman, in the Bollywood movie Rockstar (2011), directed by Imtiyaz Ali, has the interpretation of both these doctrines but the notion of Wahadatul -al- Shuhud (Apparentism) is more apparent than the idea of Wahdatul Wajud (Unity of Being). Some verses of the song whose lyrics have been written by Irshad Kamil are read:

Introduction

O Mujhpe Karam Sarkar Tera

Araz Tujhe, Karde Mujhe, Mujhse Hi Riha

Ab Mujhko Bhi Ho, Deedaar Mera

Karde Mujhe, Mujhse Hi Riha

Mujhse Hi Rihaaaaaaaa

(It would be your generosity upon me, Oh master

My request, Free me from myself

Even I should see myself

Make me free from myself

From myself.) (Rockstar 2011)

The above lines as well as the refrain of the song suggest a distinction between God and His creature, and depict a devotee‟s yearning for the union with the Almighty in term of a passionate lover fiercely seeking the union with his beloved. These lines are in accordance with the philosophy of the Unity of Appearances. However, the line “Free me from myself/ Even I should see myself” undoubtedly, reflect the notion of the Unity of Being. What needs to be learnt here is that both these doctrines are still prevalent in popular culture of the present time. It will not be an exaggeration to claim that Sufi ideas and diction have so much seeped in the languages of the Indian subcontinent, especially Urdu, Hindi and Punjabi, that no poem or song or any other Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University thing in them that evoke feeling of love and emotion can be complete without deriving from Sufic metaphors, similes and imagery. One can easily find the smell of the Sufic doctrines in love songs and poems written in these languages.

Apart from these two metaphysical doctrines, there are also two important terms about the final phase of the inner experience in Sufism. They are called as „Fana’ (Annihilation) and „Baqa’ (Subsistence). „Fana‟, an Arabic word, literally means to die or to lose one‟s existence while „Baqa‟, again an Arabic word, denotes the meaning of surviving or to have one‟s existence continuously. In Sufic lexicon, 30

Introduction annihilation is counted as the top achievement a Sufi always dreams to attain. Those Sufi theorists, particularly Ibne Arabi and his followers, who believe in the Oneness of Beings viewed „Fana’ as the final post of the Sufic journey. They supported the view that the ultimate aim of a Sufi is to lose his existence in Godhead as a drop of water in the ocean.

There is another group of theorists who thought that the last post of Sufic journey is not to lose one‟s existence and identity and to assimilate with the Almighty, but to survive and hold his/her identity different from God. They advocated that the last post of this Sufic pilgrimage is „baqa’ that is subsistence; there must be a realization on the part of a Sufi in this stage that He is God while he/she is just His slave; both can never be attributed by the same essence; he/she must be conscious of God‟s majesty during the phase of annihilation or assimilation. These theorists especially the Naqshbandi Order of Sufism fervently believe that the real knowledge of the Absolute brings the highest kind of fear, whose little effect can be seen on one‟s face when he/she sees any majestic or natural phenomenon and consequently realize his/her insignificance and unworthiness in the universe. They staunchly believe that the distinction between God and human can never be obliterated and the ultimate honour for a Sufi lies in realizing this distinction. Muhammad Iqbal, an ardent supporter of vitalistic philosophy, harshly criticized the Sufic notion of the annihilation. He blamed such ideas for causing passivity and inactivity in the Muslim society. He stated that as much as a human goes near to God he/she realizes more of his/her existence and he/she keeps on going nearer and nearer to Him, and becomes the Perfect Man (Al- Insaan Al-kamil or Marde Momin). His idea can be further elaboratedMaulana that when Azad a human Library, becomes Aligarh nearest toMuslim God, he/she University does not lose his/her individuality like a single drop of water in the ocean but on contrary absorbs God in himself/herself like a drop of water containing the whole of the ocean. He has elaborated this idea in a detail in his book, Asare khudi (The Secrets of the Self). Explaining Iqbal‟s ideas in the introduction to his translation of Asare khudi, Reynold A. Nicholson says:

The moral and religious ideal of man is not self -negation but self- affirmation, and he attains to this ideal by becoming more and more individual, more and

Introduction

more unique. The Prophet said, Takhallaqu bi-akhlaq Allah,'' Create in yourselves the attributes of God.' Thus man becomes unique by becoming more and more like the most unique Individual. What then is life? It is individual: its highest form, so far, is the Ego (Khudi) in which the individual becomes a self-contained exclusive center. Physically as well as spiritually man is a self-contained center, but he is not yet a complete individual. The greater his distance from God, the less his individuality. He who comes nearest to God is the completest person. Not that he is finally absorbed in God. On the contrary, he absorbs God into himself. The true person not only absorbs the world of matter; by mastering it he absorbs God Himself into his Ego. (Iqbal, Introduction xviii-xx)

It must be kept in mind that Fana and Baqa, both are internal experiences which are attained through difficult endeavour. An initiator is first required to correct his/her beliefs and to protect himself/herself from committing any big sin and to prevent himself/herself from small sins as much as he/she can. He/she is required to fulfill his/her all obligations fixed by Islamic Shariah. He/she is further demanded to observe all those Sunnah which the Prophet Muhammad recommended. It is contrary to Islamic faith that a human can get the experiences of Fana and Baqa without performing obligatory prayers and conforming to Islamic beliefs. There are a few Orientalists who consider that Fana is the last and final post of the Sufic journey while the notion of Baqa has been superfluously contrived as a figment to make Sufism in accordance with the beliefs of the orthodox Islam. But it is just their assumption without any reliable evidence from history, religion and the earliest treatises of Sufism.Maulana What needsAzad to Library, be reminded Aligarh here is that Muslim Sufism Universitycannot be thought of in isolation from Islam. It has more relationship with Islam than what the Christian mysticism has with Christianity. Undoubtedly, Sufism is not a religion in itself or an independent cult apart from Islam.

There are two significant terms in Sufic terminology, station (Maqam) and state (Hal). Station is usually earned by a Sufi through his/her hard work and patience while state is bestowed upon a Sufi by God as a His divine gift. In fact, Fana and Baqa are two mystic states which cannot be achieved by human struggle and pursuit

Introduction until God Himself shows His special favour to a Sufi for his/her achievement. These two terms are also interpreted as „intoxication‟ (sukr) and „sobriety‟ (shaw) respectively. An aspirant to this state, besides fulfilling all obligations imposed by Islamic Shariah and Sunnah, is required to chant particular litanies most of time. This way of remembering God is called as „Dhikr‟ (Remembrance). After doing it for a considerable time, he/she becomes able to enter into meditation (Muraqabah). He/she supposes that God is before him/her; he/she imagines that he/she can see God, though he/she cannot see Him. This feigned attempt to see God on the part of a Sufi ultimately culminates into the assimilation in the Godhead. Finally, when he/she is divinely favoured to be in the state of intoxication, he/she begins to lose his/her humanly attributes becoming void of his/her individuality in Godhead and he/she is compensated by the divine attributes.

This notion of losing humanly qualities and then their compensation by Godly attributes is supported by a hadith from the Prophet Muhammad as “the Prophet told that God said: „When I love a servant, I, the Lord, am his ear, so that he hears by Me, and his eye, so he sees by Me, and his tongue, so that he speaks by Me, and his hand, so that he takes by Me”. (qtd in Nicholson 10). In this state, there are two levels of union with the Absolute and they are different from each other. When a mystic makes experience with Oneness at the first level, he/she is conscious of his/her difference form God. This level is called as the stage of union (maqam-i-jam). And in the next level, he/she, while experiencing the union with God, becomes unconscious of the difference between Divine and human attributes, it is considered as higher level of union and termed as the stage of the absolute union (jam-e-jam). Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Generally, it is believed that there is no higher state in the Sufic inner experience after the union, or more precisely, annihilation in „One‟. The reason for these assumptions lies in neo-Platonic philosophy as well as the ancient Buddhist philosophy of Nirvana. As has been earlier discussed that probably these philosophies formed the basic point for the Sufic doctrine of Wahdatul Wajood (The Unity of Being), they made the notion of God as imminent and all creations as mere the shadows of One Reality prevalent in human consciousness. Apart from these, there are few verses from the Quran which can also be interpreted to support the immanent

Introduction aspect of God. God says in the Quran: “So wherever you turn, there is the Face of God. (The Quran, 2: 115)

Probably, the Neo-Platonist Greek philosopher, Plotinus, was a lasting influence on the Arab philosophers. Although it is a highly debatable point to discuss the effect of his philosophy on Islamic philosophy, it seems possible that the Muslim philosophers came to know him after the conquest of Egypt. One knows that Plotinus came to Alexandria to study philosophy and here he lived for nearly eleven years. He was a well-known philosopher during the conquest of Egypt by the Muslim soldiers. Therefore, it is possible that his idea of the One, the Intellect, and the Soul might have been read by the Muslim philosophers and Sufism which is much comprehensive in its ideas might have derived some of its doctrines form this philosopher.

As much as the ancient Buddhist philosophy of Nirvana is concerned, there are sufficient proofs to show a direct trade links between the Arab countries and India in the ancient time. It is probable that this fascinating philosophy of pantheism might have reached them through the Arab merchants who frequently visited India for their trade. This is not a proper place to discuss these possibilities, but one thing is much certain and clear that the Sufi doctrine of Fana is a derivative philosophy or at least contains some foreign elements. Probably, these are some reasons which have strengthened the idea that the absolute unity is the highest truth. And this is why that some Sufi thinkers believe that there is no stage of experience after the annihilation.

But, besides Ibn-e-Arabi and his followers, many Sufi theorists believe that annihilation (MaulanaFana) is not Azad the final Library, stage of Aligarh the Sufic Muslim journey, University but there remains subsistence (Baqa), the highest stage of this journey, after it. A Sufi is elevated to the higher state of sobriety only with the divine grace. After the gnosis (marifat) of the Absolute, he/she becomes conscious of the distinction between God and him/her. And this awareness of the self provides him/her his/her individuality. But it is not necessary that intoxication is always followed by sobriety. There are few Sufis who got both experiences for example, Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624) while few could receive the experience of „Fana’ only. The famous example of the latter category is Mansoor Hallaj who was executed before he could achieve the higher stage of

Introduction sobriety. Those Sufis who believes in the Oneness of Being think that the separation after the union is a decent from a higher stage of the divine experience but according to those who regard sobriety as the higher stage say that this post union separation must not be considered like the separation of pre union. This separation is not for him or her but it is only for Him and with Him; and it is higher experience than the experience of union with the Absolute. Giving the higher place to sobriety than to annihilation in the rank of Sufic experience, Al-Qushayri (986-1072) says in his Al- Risāla al-Qushayriyya:

After this (i.e. the experience of jam-„l-jam or absolute union) there is a glorious state („halat azizah‟) which the Sufis call the second separation („al- farq-‘l-thani’), that is the state when the Sufi is returned to sobriety („al- shaw’) at the time of obligatory prayers (faraid) so that he may perform his duties at their times. His return (ruju) is, therefore, for God and with God, not for him and with him. He perceives in this state that God controls him completely, that He is the originator of his essence and existence by His own power and the Producer of his acts and states by his knowledge and will. (qtd. in Ansari 37)

Gnosis (Marifah) is another important term in the Sufic lexicon. This idea of gnosis propounded by Dhul-Nun al-Misri (d.859) marked a distinction between knowledge (Ilm) and gnosis (marifah). Nicholson and other Orientalists suggest that this conception of gnosis in Sufism has been derived from Hellenistic religion. But the notion of Marifah was already present in the Quran. There are several verses from the Quran Maulanawhich appreciate Azad and Library, celebrate Aligarhthose people Muslim who have University been graced with gnosis of God. Dhul-Nun al-Misri was an early Sufi born in Egypt. Dhul-Nun was his honorific name while his actual name was Abū l-Fayḍ Thawbān b. Ibrāhīm. There is a famous anecdote mentioned by Farid al-Din Attar in his book, Tazkirah al- Auliya (Muslim Saints and Mystics, translated by A. J. Arberry) about his honorific name (laqab). Once he boarded a ship, and a jewel was stolen from a merchant on the ship. All the people on that ship were searched one by one until no one was left but Dhul- Nun. He was assumed to steal that jewel and was mistreated and dishonoured. Nevertheless, he remained silent till his patience broke out and he cried “O Creator,

Introduction

Thou knowest”. At that time, many fishes appeared in the sea and they were spiraling with waves with jewel in their mouths. He took the jewel from the mouth of one of fishes and gave it to the merchant. All were taken aback by this miracle and realized his innocence. They fell on his feet and sought his forgiveness for their mistreatment. After this event, he was called in honor by the name of Dhul- Nun which means in Arabic „the Man of the Fish‟. He is generally credited with the introduction of gnosis (Marifah or Haqiqah) in the development of Sufism. The anecdote of his conversion is very famous. He went to Syria and met many Christian ascetics who impressed him so profoundly that he became a devout Sufi.

The term „Marifah’ (gnosis) or „Haqiqah’ is usually put in opposition to Shariah (Islamic jurisprudence). Dhul-Nun is the first who distinguished the knowledge of the reality acquired through the means of the mystical experience from the knowledge of reality achieved through the means of logic and reason as philosophers do and also from the knowledge of reality attained through the means of the religious laws and practices as theologians do. In fact, gnosis means the inner experience of the reality, the true knowledge of faith, sincerity, oneness of God, all religious obligations which go beyond the realm of common faith. Explaining the difference between this inner experience of reality which is more properly called love (mahabbat) and other philosophical, traditional and intellectual knowledge called „ilm’, he says:

True knowledge of God is not the knowledge that God is One, which is possessed by all believers; nor the knowledge of Him derived from proof and demonstration,Maulana which Azad belong Library, to philosophers, Aligarh rhetoricians,Muslim University and theologians; but it is the knowledge of the attributes of the Divine Unity, which belongs to the Saints of God, those who behold God with their hearts in such wise that he reveals unto them what he revealeth not unto anyone else in the world. (qtd. in Nicholson 9-10)

Through this idea of gnosis in Sufism a controversial debate arised out between Islamic jurisprudence (Shariyah) and the knowledge of the Divine attributes (Haqiqah); and what is the relation between them? There are different views among

Introduction

Sufis about this particular question. Some, for example, Ahmad Sirhindi, believe that there is no difference between Shariyah and Marifah. They say that Islamic jurisprudence is not only a code of rules and regulations which supervise the religious and ritual practices of the common faith. According to them, it is not only external part of the religion that is essential for the establishment of the structure of common faith, but it also defines and illustrates inner meaning of faith, and provides inner experiences of the Divine reality. They further explain their view that Sufic path is a way of life which tells the process of attaining the religious life as prescribed by Shariah; and the latter does not reveal or add anything that is new to the former. They emphasize that Shariah is both form and meaning and there is nothing outside it.

Other Sufis are of the opinion that there is a difference between Shariah and Marifah; the former is just a code of conducts which regulates the external behaviour of the religious life while the latter is the experience of the realities of faith. They suggest that the reality of the faith lies beyond Shariyah and it can not only be achieved through the Sufic path. They consider Shariyah without gnosis (marifah) as the body without soul, bone without marrow, and chaff without grain. There is also a small group of Sufis who believes that Shariyah is for the common people who do not have the experience of the Divine Reality and those people who have reached the status of gnosis do not need to observe the religious obligations prescribed by Islamic laws. They assume that Shariah is completely different from Haqiqah and the former has been made basically for the common people or for those people who have not much intelligence to understand the working of the Divine Providence while the latter that is always attained by the intelligent people makes the former unnecessary for those whoMaulana have reached Azad HaqiqahLibrary,. This Aligarh group hasMuslim been very University much condemned by Ahmad Sirhindi and other Muslim Sufis for undermining the significance of Shariah. Although, most of Sufi thinkers believe that Islamic law is just the temporary means while the true knowledge of the Reality is an end, they have consensus among them on the issue that Islamic obligations imposed by Islamic Sharaiah must be observed by all people alike, without any distinction between common people and those who have attained the true knowledge of God.

Introduction

Although the Prophet Muhammad and his son-in-law Hazrat Ali are regarded as the two ultimate sources of this religion of love, Hasan of Basra (642-728) is unanimously considered the first Sufi practitioner and thinker after them. He is the first in the list of Muslim saints and mystics whose brief but compact biographical sketches have been drawn by the distinguished Persian mystic poet, Farid ud- Din Attar, in his biography of Muslim saints and mystic, Tadhkirat-ul-Awliya. Hasan of Basra met many of the Prophet‟s companions in his life time. He was marked for his simplicity and his unhindered devotion towards God. As he was a brilliant orator, he was outspoken against wealth and worldliness. As it is known that in 7th and 8th centuries the Muslim Empire rose to prominence and its soldiers and warriors made conquest of many lands which had different cultures, religions and thoughts. This cross-cultural contact which happened due to the extending Islamic boundaries caused to the emergence of many theological issues and debates. These hairsplitting theological problems and debates engaged Islamic scholars for more than two centuries. Although these issues were theological in nature, they involved Greek logic, philosophy, and reasoning on the existence of God, universe, and human.

As a matter of fact, a new subject, kalam (Islamic Scholastic Theology) emerged out as an outcome of these religious as well as philosophical debates. Later on, it proved to be the base on which Christian scholasticism thrived in the medieval time Europe. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of the major beneficiaries of this subject of Islamic scholastic theology. As a result, professionalism appeared in Islamic scholarship. People gave more attention to these philosophical debates while the aspect of love for God in their mind became blurred if not completely erased. It created a negativeMaulana tendency Azad towards Library, the Islamic Aligarh jurisprudence Muslim among University the lovers of God. Sufis, at that time, rose against these phenomena of focusing only on laws while giving scant attention towards love and devotion. Probably, this is the reason that a Sufi is defined as the person who is not kufi. Kufa is a town in Baghdad which was known for its distinguished jurists. In fact, the rise of Sufism is traced to the protest against the increasing interest of the people in philosophy, logic, reasoning and other modes of knowledge which were devoid of pure love for God during the expansion of Islamic Empire. Abu Talib al- Makki (d. 996) in his famous work, Qut al-qulub, has pointed out to this fashion of scholastic theology that was unknown in the Prophet and

Introduction his God-loving companions. Criticizing the writings of dogmatic theology and philosophical speculations and reminding people of the correct Islamic tradition, he says:

They used to receive the instruction one from the other and preserved it carefully, because their hearts were clear of doubts, free from worldly preoccupations, and unsullied by passion; because their purpose was lofty, their resolution strong, and their intention excellent. Then, after the year 200, and when three centuries had elapsed, in this deplorable fourth century the compilations on scholastic theology (kalam) first appeared, and the scholastic theologians began to write according to opinion, reason, and analogy. Gone now was the instruction (ilm) of the pious, vanished the intuitive knowledge (ma’rifa) of the firm of faith—the teaching of piety, the inspiration of rectitude and belief. So matters have continued to develop down to this present time. Now the scholastic theologians are called („ulama’), the mere romancers are named gnostics (arifin), the narrators and informants learned, though they have no true grounding in religious lore nor the appreciation that comes to faith. (qtd. in Arberry 68-69)

Undoubtedly, the Sufis were the first who reminded the people that it is love rather than reason which will ultimately lead to God. . At that time, Sufis who still remembered the message of their Prophet and were not led astray from the right path rose against this development and reminded the people of the real purpose of this earthly life. This movement, called as Sufism, put itself in opposition to worldly concernsMaulana and mere Azadprofessional Library, scholarship. Aligarh This Muslim notion of SuficUniversity love in seeking God was ultimately favoured by Al-Ghazali. After devoting a considerable part of his life in pursuing Greek logic and reasoning to prove the existence of God, universe and many concerned religious issues, he came to the conclusion that the mysteries related to God and universes can never be understood in the light of Greek logic and reasoning and probably this was a reason that in his remaining life he shifted his attention from reason to love. He believed that seeking to know the mysteries connected with the existence of God and His universe through the way of feeble human intellect would only baffle human mind and human‟s faculty of imperfect

Introduction reasoning was incapable of the proper knowledge of God and His perfect design. This stand taken by Al-Ghazali against Greek logic and reasoning was not supported by other champions of Greek logic especially Averroes. Al-Ghazali wrote a book entitled, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, to elucidate his point that philosophy and reasoning did not lead to a proper solution of a problem but it created confusion and its flimsy arguments ultimately messed up in incoherence and absurdity.

Due to his batting for love against reason, he has been harshly criticized by his contemporaries as well as by many Orientalists later on. He is usually blamed for preventing the Muslim nation from becoming the leader of the world in the arena of science and technology. Although he was a great scholar of Greek reasoning and logic, he is generally considered to be the person who curbed the growth of reasoning in the Muslim world. But, after the proper understanding of his statements and arguments against the philosophers, he is justified in his assertion. He believed that there was no difference between the infallible and ultimate reasoning and faith but the problem, he believed, lied in the immaturity and imperfection of human reasoning. That was why he abandoned his engagement with the philosophy and reasoning and resorted to Sufism in his later life. He himself trod the Sufic path and became a true Sufi. He wrote a well-known Sufic treatise, Ihya ulum al-din, to show his love for this Sufic movement. He also served as a bridge between Sufism and orthodoxy. It was he who introduced Sufism to the orthodox Sunni theology in a positive manner.

In fact, the development of Sufism was parallel to the expansion of Islamic Empire after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 7th century. It emerged out against a backgrouMaulanand where Azad the Library, new breed Aligarh of Muslims Muslim was being University allured by the wealth and riches coming from the conquest of new lands. It was a reminder for them to realize that the Prophet and their predecessors‟ aim was not to earn this world but the hereafter, their preferred life was not the life of prosperity but of poverty, their main concern was to fly to heaven rather than to fall down on earth.

After the proper establishment of Sufism in 11th century, the following century marked the foundation of the great Sufi Orders (Silsila). A Silsila is a school whose founder relates his spiritual practices and esoteric knowledge to the Prophet

Introduction

Muhammad through a chain. This long chain of the transmission of Sufic practices and knowledge often goes through Hazrat Ali to the Prophet. Prior to the formation of Sufic Orders, men and women individually devoted themselves to concentrate on God and refined their souls from the worldly concerns in far-flung deserts and forests. But in the 12th century, convents (Ribat, Khanqah) were made for initiating people in the Sufic path. Unlike the individual endeavour, it launched congressional effort for the purification of the soul; it was headed by a Sufi master who is commonly acknowledged by all people living in the convent. This Sufi guide was called as Shaikh, or Pir and his followers were known as Shagird or Murid.

There were around 12 original Orders. The first of these Orders is Qadiri, named after the great Sufi master Muhyi al-din Abd al-Qadir jilani (1077-1166). Born in Persia, he migrated to Iraq to learn Hanbali jurisprudence. Apart from Iraq and Iran, he became much eminent in the Indian subcontinent. At present, in India there are a large number of people who associate themselves with this Sufic Order. This Order never taught anything which was contradictory to religious laws and that is why there is a cordial relation between this Order and the orthodox Sunni theology. His book, Al-Ghunya li-Talibi Tariq al-Haqq, is a book of manual instructions for the initiating Sufis. This book gives much stress on following religious duties in accordance with Shariyah. It severely criticizes any idea of incarnation and antinomianism. Probably, this was the reason that this Silsila was taken by the orthodox theology positively. One thing must be noted down that though the foundation of these Sufic convents (Khanqah) resembles the catholic convents but they were basically different from them as all Sufi were free to marry and they never celebratedMaulana celibacy. Azad Unlike Library, Christianity, Aligarh Islam Muslim strictly prohibits University celibacy and the Prophet Muhammad said “No monkery (Rahbaniyat) in Islam” and that is why almost all Sufis got married in their life.

Rufaee Order is the next order. It was founded by Ahmed Saeed Rufaee. The followers of this Order were known among the European travellers as „the Howling Dervishes.‟ Apart from it, there are Suhrawardiyah, Kubrawiyah, Shadhhliya, Naqshbandi, Chisti, and Mauliwiah Orders. Suhrawardiyah Order was named after Shahab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi (1144-1234). Born in Persia, he was an

Introduction example of the moderate orthodox. His disciples included the celebrated Persian poet Saadi (1210-1292). Shahab al-Din wrote Awarif al-maarif. This influential book is the fundamental book for Suhrawardi Order. This Silsila is popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Shadhhliya Silsila was founded by Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (1196- 1258). This order is well known in Egypt, Arabia, Syria and North Africa. Naqshbandi Order is usually followed by Sunni world. It was founded by Baha-ud- Din Naqshband Bukhari (1318-1389). It is characterized by the strict adherence to the Islamic Shariyah and the belief in the metaphysical concept of Immanence (Wahdat al-Shahood). The Chishti Order is much more famous in India and its shrines and convents are located here and there. It was founded by Moinuddin Chishti (1142- 1236). The shrine of Ajmer in India, is a pilgrimage to innumerable followers from India and abroad. This order is marked by tolerance, love and moderation. Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273) founded Mauliwiah Order. It is also known as the Dervish Order. Its monasteries were widely spread in the Ottoman Empire. With the increasing interest in Sufism after the Second World War, the Maulawiah Order has become much familiar in the United Kingdom and the United States. The Westerners call the Sufis of the Maulawiah Order as the whirling dervishes. They consider their practice and ritual of Sama as Sufic dance.

Urs (expousal) and Qawwali (devotional Songs) are organized in the shrines and dargaah of the Sufis to commemorate their birth and death. But with the passage of time, many unwanted and religiously non-appreciable rituals and practices emerged out in these Sufic convents and consequently invited the anger of the orthodox theology. Many myths and legends have been created by the general populace about these Sufis. AsMaulana a natural courseAzad of Library, events, the Aligarh veneration Muslim and respect University for the mystic were transformed into popular superstitions and disbeliefs. Music and dance are another two heated issues among these Orders. Most of them allow them as they elevate the soul in its flight towards the Absolute but Naqshbandiyah vehemently denounces them as they take away human consciousness and create overwhelming passion which ultimately leads to sins and crimes. For the proper understanding of Sufism and its possible sources, let us trace its appearance, its growth, and the early Islamic reaction to it.

Introduction

Hasan of Basra and Junayd of Baghdad (835-910) are the two most important figures in the history of Sufism. Both of them had multiple disciples who not only continued their teaching but also carried it to new heights. Both of these Sufi masters are common links in every Sufi Order‟s chain of transmission of spiritual practices and esoteric knowledge. But, neither Hasan nor Junayd wrote any Sufic treatise describing the nature and meaning of Sufism. It can be more precisely said that they might have written but unfortunately, their writings have been lost or their contribution was not written but oral as writing was not as much common at that time as it became later on. As it is known that by the 11th century, Sufism was properly established. Many books were written to elaborate its doctrines and history. In this respect, one of Junayd‟s disciples, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Jabbar ibn al-Hasan an- Niffarī (d.961), wrote two books entitled as Kitabul al-Mawaqif (The Book of Halts), and Kitab al-Mukhatabat. The Book of Halts is a book written in a refined language and lucid style. It talks about the journey of the author to God and depicts him as standing before Him, and listening to Him. Before Niffari, one does not find any such Sufic writing which portrays the journey of the soul to God. But this book, though having a Sufic theme, did not mention the principles, doctrines or the history of Sufism. After the execution of al-Hallaj in 10th century, it was felt that a systematic history of Sufism must be written where the chain of transmission of every Order to the Prophet Muhammad must be explained clearly. It also became essential to explain to the orthodoxy that Sufism did not, in any way, refute the teachings of Islam but, actually, it supported them. Due to the lack of knowledge about it, general multitudes unwittingly considered it against the principles of Islam. Probably, this was one of reasons which necessitated writing the history of Sufism. In the time of high conservatism, Sufic movement needed to be rehabilitated. This necessity produced Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University some men who contributed to it.

Abu Said Ibn al- Arabi (d.952) wrote Tabaqat al-nussak (Classes of the Pious). Although, this book was lost, through the quotations from this book used by other writers it maintains that it gave full account of Sufic doctrines and practices. The other book written about this movement is Hikayatul al-auliya (Tales of the Saints) by Abu Muhammad al-Khuldi (d. 959). But, unfortunately, this book is also lost. The oldest surviving treatise on Sufism, one finds, is Kitab al Luma by Abu Nasr

Introduction al-Sarraj. This book basically analyses the Sufi doctrines and practices in detail and talks of the theosophy more than the principles of Sufism. It also describes the schools of Sufism, discusses their differences, and comments on the errors of some Sufi theories and practices. Abu Talib al- Makki (d.996) is another Sufi writer whose book, Qut al-qulub, staunchly supports the orthodoxy of Sufism and vehemently denies any non-Islamic connection to it. It discusses the whole design of Sufism in a larger detail and explains Islamic practices and rituals from the mystical point of view. A. J. Arberry (1905-1969) said that this book was one of books which formed Al-Ghazali‟s mode of thoughts. In his book, Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam, Arberry says of the book, Qut al-qulub “nevertheless the book is of primary importance, as being the first- and a very successful- attempt to construct an overall design for orthodox Sufism; like al-Muhasibi, Talib al- Makki was carefully studied by al- Ghazali and exercised considerable influence on his mode of thought and writing.” (Arberry 68)

Later on, another Sufi writer, Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi (d. 1000) wrote a book entitled Al-Taarruf li-madhhab ahl al-tasauwf to discuss the principles of Sufism in the relationship with the Islamic theology. The old debate of Islamic theology versus Sufism was still much pertinent and that was why it was the prime concern of this book. Kalabadhi, in this book, first explained the religious laws and then reflected upon the practices of Sufism in that light and concluded that there was no contradiction between Islamic theology and Sufism. He also explained the mystical doctrines of Sufism in some details. Another important figure who wrote extensively in this regard was Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami (d. 1021). Best known for his celebrated biographiesMaulana of AzadSufis, Tabaqat Library, al- SufiyinAligarh, he Muslimalso wrote Universitya commentary on the Quran in accordance with the perspective of Sufism. This commentary is known as Tafseer-e- Sulami.

The first massive Sufi biography, one ever finds, is Hilyat al-auliya written by Abu Nuaim al-Isbahani (d. 1038). This encyclopedia of Sufi biography consists of ten volumes. It included not only a large number of the Prophet‟s companions and their followers in the list of Muslim saints but also the founders of the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence. The inclusion of the four eminent jurists of the Sunni theology in

Introduction the list of Sufis was an affirmation on the part of the author that there was no such contradictory relation between Sufism and theology as it was wrongfully understood by the ordinary multitudes. After some period of time, another piece of writing on Sufism, though not as extensive as that of Isbahani, by Abul-Qasim al-Qushairi (d. 1074) appeared. It was titled the Risala. This concise Risala gives us brief but complete description of the theoretical design of Sufism. Qushairi‟s contemporary, Hujwiri began the formal study of this movement in his Sufic treatise, Kashf al- Mahjub. This book is famous at present among the Muslim scholars as well as among the Orientalists.

From the 12th century onwards, the most effective and comprehensive writings were written in Persian language rather than Arabic. There is a long list of Persian Sufi poets and writers who immensely contributed to the Sufic writings. The precursor of the dawn of the Persian Sufi literature was Abd Allah Ansari (d. 1088). Apart from writing a biographical work on Sufism in Persian as Tabaqat al-Sufiya, and a well-known brief sketch in Arabic on the Sufic theory, Manazil al-sairin, he was a great poet who wrote in Persian. He and his senior contemporary Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr (d.1049) paved the way for the coming generations of Sufi poets like Sinai, Attar, Rumi, Hafiz, Jami etc. who immortalized the principles and doctrines of Sufism in their memorable verses.

Although there are many evidences to prove that Europe was aware of this Oriental philosophy of Sufism in the medieval time, it never openly acknowledged it. In the 19th century, the term, Sufism, was politically coined by Europe to make a differenceMaulana between Azad liberal Library,and radical AligarhIslam as this Muslim religion Universityof love was known by the name of Tassawuf among the Islamic world. The translations of Sufic treatises in English and other European languages began to appear during 18th and 19th century, but Europe was well conscious of the Sufic phenomenon that was flourishing in the nearby Ottoman Empire. Probably, they wrongly associated it with mere Turks and that was why their political and religious differences with the Ottoman Empire prevented them from publicly acknowledging the influence of their enemies‟ ideas on them.

Introduction

Since the 1950s onwards, the interest in Sufism has increased. After the destruction of lives and wealth in the terrible two World Wars in 20th century, mankind has been unsuccessfully searching for serenity, harmony, and the peace of mind. Probably, Sufism is appearing to horror-stricken humanity as a place where they can find solace from the perplexities of their mind and the horrors of their soul. Sufism has emerged out as a major subject of inquiry among the Western people in general and the Western scholars in particular. Most of Western scholars, if not all, struggle to make the point that Sufism is completely different from Islam and place it in opposition to what they call an orthodox Islam. But the fact is that Islam is cardinal to Sufism and nobody can be a true Sufi without having Islamic beliefs and observing Islamic practices. It is true that Sufism got influenced by some foreign ideas and ideals as a result of extending Islamic boundaries in the wake of several conquests of new lands, but it cannot also be denied that its basic principles and values were already present in the Quran and hadiths. Therefore, the Western insistence on their assumption of Sufism as a new religion can be best explained as an outcome of their historical differences with Islam, the three consecutive crusaders of the Middle Ages, the unfortunate post Second World War theory of Clash of Civilizations (COC) propounded by the political scientist Samuel P. Huntington (1927-2008), and the so called Islamic terrorism of 21st century which fanned Islamophobia in the Western mind. Probably, this is the reason that the acknowledgement of being attracted by Sufism is much easier for them than by the acknowledgement of being attracted to Islam.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Introduction

Works Cited

Al- Hujwiri, Usman. Kashful- Mahjoob. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson, Luzac & Co., 1911. Alighieri, Dante. Divine Comedy- Purgatorio. Translated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Creative Commons, 2008. Ansari, Muhammad Abdul Haq. Sufism and Shariah. The Islamic Foundation, 1986. Arberry, A. J. Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1956. Attar, Fariduddin. Mantiq-ut-Tayr. Translated by Afham Darbandi and Dick Davis, Penguin, 1984. ---. Tadakirat al-Auliya. Translated by A. J. Arberry, Omphaloskepsis, 2000. Browne, E. G. A Literary History of Persia. T. Fisher Unwin, 1909. Burckhardt, Titus. Introduction to Sufi Doctrine. World Wisdom Inc., 2008. Corbin, Henry. Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibne-Arabi. Translated by Ralph Manhe, Routledge and Kegan Publications, 1969. Ghazali, Al. Ihya Ulum-id-din. Translated by Fazl-Ul-Karim, Darul- Ishaat, 1993. ---. Tahafut al- Falasifah. Translated by Sabih Ahmad Kamali, Pakistan Philosophical Congress, 1963. Guenon, Rene. Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines. Translated by Marco Pallis, Luzac & Co., 1945. Hammad, Ahmad Zaki, translator. The Gracious Quran: A Modern-Phrased Interpretation in English. Lucent Interpretations, 2009. Iqbal, Muhammad. Asrar-i-Khudi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson, Macmillan Maulanaand Co., 1920. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Izutsu, Toshihiko. Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts. University of California Press, 1984. Khosla, K. The Sufism of Rumi. Element Books Ltd., 1987. Landau, Rom. The Philosophy of Ibn Arabi. Ruskin House George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1959. Lings, Martin. What is Sufism? The Islamic Texts Society, 2006. Massignon, Louis. Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic

Introduction

Mysticism. Translated by Benjamin Clark. University of Notre Dame Press, 1997. Nicholson, Reynold A. The Idea of Personality in Sufism. Cambridge University Press, 1923. ---, translator. The Mystics of Islam. By Fariduddin Attar, Routledge, 1914. Sanai, Hakim Abdul Majd Majdud. Hadiqat-ul- Haqiqat. Translated by J. Stephenson, Baptist Mission Press, 1910. Sarraj, Abu Nasar. Kitab-al- Luma. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson, Luzac & Co, 1914. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. The University of Carolina Press, 1975. Schuon, Frithjof. Understanding Islam. World Wisdom, Inc., 1998. Shabestari, Saduddin Mahmoud. The Secret Rose Garden. Translated by Florence Lederer, Wisdom of the East, 1920. Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness. Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1911. Zaehner, R. C. Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. Schocken Books, 1969.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Chapter 2

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints in the Shakespearean Thoughts

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts Chapter 2

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints in the Shakespearean Thoughts

At the first reading of the title above, one feels awkward but equally inquisitive about the Persian poet, Jalaluddin Rumi‟s possible impact on William Shakespeare‟s thoughts reflected in his excellent plays and his celebrated sonnets, as there are geographical, cultural, and linguistic differences between these two literary giants. Besides, there is the difference of almost three hundred years in the periods of these two eminent writers. After due consideration of all these indisputable facts, it seems impertinent and sometimes even irrational to make endeavour to locate the former‟s imprints on the latter. But for a researcher in humanities, it will not be deemed a commendable step to make decision hurriedly about anything without its proper consideration. Although, there is more than one difference between them, the possibility of discovering the archetypal and intellectual affinities between them cannot be ruled out. Apart from these archetypal affinities, this chapter tries to examine multiple historical evidences, ideas, institutions which strongly suggest the probable influence of this Persian poet on Shakespeare.

The first half of the 13th century, in which Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273) was born, marks the decline of the Islamic Golden Age. The study of this Golden period that extended from eighth century to 13th century is essential to get a proper understandingMaulana of Rumi‟s Azad thoughts Library, and Aligarh his mystic Muslim ideas in relation University to the events which happened during these more than five centuries of the Muslim rule. It is generally accepted that during this long period, Islamic theology walked hand in hand with the non-theological advancements, for example, scientific, philosophical, astronomical, cultural, and economic progression, though the clash between faith and reason could be easily located in the 10th century itself. The Islamic Scholasticism, whose model was immensely hailed by Europe during the Middle Ages when Christian beliefs and the skepticism of the ancient Greek philosophy, that reached them through Arabic and Hebrew translations and then their translations in Latin and other Romance languages,

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts conflicted with each other, was followed by Albertus Magnus (1200-1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and other eminent theologians of that time to seek a reconciliation between the Bible and Aristotle. In fact, Islamic Scholasticism was a way of logical and rational persuasion of minds to comprehend that religion and reason had not a contradictory but a complimentary relation.

The Islamic philosophers and logicians before the ninth century considered God as the First Cause, and believed that it is He who created the whole of universe, but they supposed that besides the First Cause, its resultant effect can be a direct as well as an independent cause for another effect which, in its turn, may be another cause for another effect and so on and so forth. In other words, one can say that, according to them, God created the entire universe and enacted some universal laws which govern and regulate it. The relation between cause and effect is governed by these universal laws formed by God Himself. They further elaborated that whenever cotton, for example, comes into contact with fire; it gets burnt because fire is an independent and a direct cause for burning cotton. This universal principle between fire and cotton works independently of God. Actually, God Himself, they further explained, designed these laws to govern His universe which works on the principle of cause and effect. In brief, it should be understood that these Islamic philosophers believed in the existence of secondary causes in this universe and they thought that these secondary causes work without the direct intervention of God.

Probably, it was the first time in the Islamic history when, in the ninth century, the Asharite school of theology, that was named after the great theologian, Abul Hasan Al-Ashari (873-935), launched a harsh criticism against this school of thought. Its occasional doctrine challenged the synthesis presented by the Muslim philosophers Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University who were immensely inspired by the ancient Greek philosophy. The Asharites negated the idea of second causation and maintained that the universe is ruled by the direct intervention of God rather than by His formulated independent laws. This claim which seemed more tilted towards religion than reason got its well-known advocate, Al- Ghazal in 10th century. Al- Ghazali, the man who is often blamed for preventing the Muslims from becoming a great scientific nation, probably was the first person in the Muslim world that pointed out the impossibility of synthesis between philosophy and faith, or more appropriately, between reason and faith. Before him, Al- Kindi (801-873), Al Farabi (872-950), Avicenna (980-1037) and their followers struggled to 50

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts maintain a working synthesis between reason and faith. Considering Aristotle as their First Teacher, they interpreted the Quran and Islamic theology in the light of the ancient Greek philosophy. Wherever they found any contradiction between them, they rushed to synthesize it. There is no doubt that they were devoted and faithful Muslims, but they loved the ancient Greek philosophy too much and believed it to be flawless, and so, they unwittingly fell prey to it. They unconsciously inclined more towards reason than faith in preparing their synthesis. And as a result, reason and logic engaged their minds more than their religion in their synthesis.

Probably, it was Al- Ghazali who realized, for the first time, that the classical Greek philosophy was incompatible with the Quranic philosophy. He, probably, was the first sceptic in the Muslim world who questioned the authority of the Muslim philosophers in interpreting the Quran in the light of ancient Greek philosophy. Expressing this same idea of incompatibility between the ancient Greek philosophy and the spirit of the Quran, Muhammad Iqbal says in his book, The Reconstruction of the Religious Thoughts in Islam:

As we all know, Greek philosophy has been a great cultural force in the history of Islam. Yet a careful study of the Quran and the various schools of scholastic theology that arose under the inspiration of Greek thought disclose the remarkable fact that while Greek philosophy very much broadened the outlook of Muslim thinkers, it, on the whole, obscured their vision of the Quran. Socrates concentrated his attention on the human world alone. To him the proper study of man was man and not the world of plants, insects, and stars. How unlike the spirit of the Quran, which sees in the humble bee a recipient of Divine inspiration and constantly calls upon the reader to observe Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University the perpetual change of the winds, the alternation of day and night, the clouds, the starry heavens, and the planets swimming through infinite space! As a true disciple of Socrates, Plato despised sense– perception which, in his view, yielded mere opinion and no real knowledge. How unlike the Quran, which regards „hearing‟ and „sight‟ as the most valuable Divine gifts and declares them to be accountable to God for their activity in this world. This is what the earlier Muslim students of the Quran completely missed under the spell of classical speculation. They read the Quran in the light of Greek thought. It took them over two hundred years to perceive - though not quite clearly - that 51

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

the spirit of the Quran was essentially anti-classical, and the result of this perception was a kind of intellectual revolt, the full significance of which has not been realized even up to the present day. It was partly owing to this revolt and partly to his personal history that Ghazali based religion on philosophical scepticism - a rather unsafe basis for religion and not wholly justified by the spirit of the Quran. (Iqbal 4-5)

Al-Ghazali wrote The Incoherence of the Philosophers to highlight unintelligibility of philosophies. He criticized Muslim philosophers, Avicenna and Al-Farabi. He pointed out twenty errors Avicenna had committed in his doctrines. He created a doubt and skepticism about the ancient Greek philosophy that was completely relied on and remained unquestioned before him. He explained in his Incoherence of the Philosophers that whenever cotton comes in contact with fire, it is caused to be burnt due to the direct intervention of God rather than His general and universal laws. He further explained that God directly governs the universe rather than indirectly ruling it through His formulated laws. He elaborated his scepticism and maintained that human logic and reasoning were not the reliable sources in the process of discovering the Truth and God. But, unlike other sceptics, he discovered an alternate way to trace God. He put his complete trust in mysticism to find God. That was why he moved from reasoning to mysticism and he himself followed the mystic path. His new reliance upon mysticism for attaining the Truth can be easily observed in his epoch- making book, The Revival of the Religious Learnings (Ihya Ulum-id-Din).

This aspect of conversion from reasoning to Sufism in Al-Ghazali‟s life very much influenced Rumi as he also believed the same that Sufism rather than reasoning ultimate proved the existence of God. Probably, this might be the reason that he called Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University his Sufic book, Masnavi Manavi, in its preface as “the greatest science of God and the clearest (religious) way of God and the most manifest evidence of God.” (Nicholson 3). But it should be kept in mind that Al-Ghazali made his intention behind writing this book very clear that he had no issue with other branches of philosophy, for example, physics, astronomy, logic, and mathematics, the only problem he had was with metaphysics. He claimed that the philosophers did not apply the same logic to metaphysics as they did in other branches of philosophy. In the light of this fact, the accusation of Al-Ghazali for preventing Muslims from becoming a great scientific nation seems unjustifiable. 52

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

The philosophical doubt created by Al-Ghazali towards the Aristotelian philosophy was tried to be cleared by another great philosopher of the Islamic Golden Age, Ibne Rushd (1126-1198). Born in Islamic Andalus, now Spain, Ibne Rushd, popularly known by the name of Averroes in Europe, is regarded as the great Islamic philosopher who had a tremendous influence on the medieval Europe. He is important from two perspectives; first, he was a true and a great admirer of Aristotle. He attempted to make Islamic philosophy, which was up till now a composite of Platonism, Neo-Platonism, and Aristotailianism, purely Aristotelian in its nature. He condemned Avicenna and Al-Farabi for their Platonic and Neo-Platonic biases. He wrote a remarkable commentary on Aristotle that was extensively used by the Latin Europe to understand Aristotle. Second, he continued the synthesis of reason and faith that was discontinued by Al-Ghazali. He criticized him for claiming that there could be no reconciliation between religion and philosophy. He wrote The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-tahafut) to counter Al-Ghazali‟s The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafatul falasifa). He explained that God Himself in the Quran commanded His true devotees to the study of philosophy. He also disagreed with Al- Ghazil in his occasional doctrine. He maintained that apart from the First Cause, there might be second causes and world is governed by some laws formulated by God. He does not believe in the direct intervention of God in the working of day to day events. He even said that human could see the burning of cotton due to fire, so he/she could say that cotton got burnt due to fire rather than the direct intervention of God.

It is likely that due to his unshakable faith in human logic and reasoning Ibne Rushd could never get that place which was enjoyed by Al-Ghazali in the orthodox Islam. It is interesting to know that Al-Ghazali‟s early life which is marked by his pursuanceMaulana of philosophy Azad and Library, logic is remarkableAligarh Muslimfor Europe University while his later life when he attacked the Greek philosophy and shifted from reasoning to Sufism to seek God is significant for the orthodox Muslims. This is the reason that Al-Ghazali finds a substantial place while Ibne Rush is put on the margin of the discourse in the Indian and sub-continental madrasas.

Throughout this long battle between faith and reason, there always existed another method of discovering the Ultimate Reality, and this was the way of Sufis whose method of finding God was in sharp contrast to Greek dialectic and logic. They propagated that it was not logic but love and not reason but intuition which ultimately 53

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts led human to God. They abhorred those philosophers and theologians who employed fallible human reasoning and logic to comprehend God and His universe. Rumi‟s father‟s hatred towards Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1150-1210) was not due to any competition to get a vain glory at the court of Khawarizimshah but due the latter‟s employment of reasoning in the religious discourse. And this is also the reason that we find negative attributes associated with him in the references made to him in Rumi‟s Masnavi.

This was the situation of the Islamic world when Rumi was born. On one hand, it was being threatened by the attack of the plundering Mongols, and on the other hand, the continuous conflict between faith and reason posed a substantial threat towards its internal disintegration. It was a time when the Islamic Golden Age was on its decline and ultimately it breathed its last in 1258 when the last Abbasid caliph was killed by the mighty Mongol forces.

Jalaluddin Rumi was born in Balkh in 1207. His father, Mohammad ibn al- Hoseyn Baha'oddin, was an eminent theologian of his times. His paternal lineage is claimed to come from the first caliph of Islam, Abu Bakr. He was called as „the king of scholars‟ (Sultanul Ulema) by his contemporaries. It is said that probably this title was conferred upon Rumi‟s father by the Prophet himself in a dream. It is also claimed that this same dream was seen by most of erstwhile scholars about giving him this title by the Prophet. His father was also a great Sufi, and, according to his grandson, Valad, he followed the Gazzalian School of mysticism. It is generally assumed that there was a kind of antagonism between Baha‟oddin and Imam Al- Razi who was a great commentator of the Quran. Apart from his well-known commentary, Razi was marked by his belief in the cerebral approach to religion, and probably this Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University might be a strong reason for the ensuing enmity between him and other Sufi people, including Rumi‟s father at that time. But it was the threat of the Mongol attack, rather than the growing influence of Razi at the court of khwarezmshah, which caused Baha‟oddin‟s migration from Balkh around 1219. Balkh was crushed and ultimately converted by the Mongols into ruins in 1220.

The family of Rumi moved from Balkh to the central Anatolia, the present day modern Turkey. During their journey, they came across Khurasan, Syria, and also performed pilgrimage to Mecca. Finally, they settled in Konya, a part of Anatolia,

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts and, therefore, Rumi got his surname, Rumi, as Rum is a region in Anatolia which Seljuk Turks conquered from the Byzantine Empire. After the death of his father, Rumi became his successor. In his youth, he was more attracted by outward sciences and liked much to read difficult verses of the Arabic poetry. Like the young scholars of his time, he threw himself in attaining outward knowledge. It was not before the arrival of a former disciple of his father at Konya that he moved from this outward learning to the mystical knowledge which would characterize his later life.

Burhanoddin Muhaqqiq was a favorite disciple of his father. He fled to his hometown, Termez, during the Mongol onslaught. Later on, he came to Konya and intended to train the son of his benevolent teacher who died just before his arrival. It was he who initiated this young scholar in the ocean of the inspired wisdom, „Ilm ladoni‟. On his advice, Rumi took a journey to Syria and lived there for a considerable span of time. Syria was a home to many mystics of the different religions, especially the Christian mystics. Since a long time, it was considered an abode of the Christian mysticism. It is far from doubt that Rumi might have met there some prominent Christian mystics and might have adopted their mystic ideas which conferred to his Islamic beliefs. It is believed that there in Syria he met Shamsuddin of Tabriz, but his eyes could not see the spiritual sun hidden in him at their first encounter. It is also claimed that Rumi met there the Spanish Sufi master, Ibne Arabi.

After his return to Konya, Rumi again started to render his academic and religious duties under the guidance of Burhanoddin. According to one account, it is said that Burhanoddin felt the coming of his spiritual superior to Konya and so he left it for another place. After the arrival of Shamsuddin of Tabriz at Konya, Rumi for the first time could discern the brightness and radiance of this spiritual sun. Many legends Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University and anecdotes have been formed around the mystical meeting of these two spiritual men. It is said that both stayed at the home of Salahuddin Zarkub for six months discussing mystical things without eating, drinking, and the fulfillment of other human needs. The Persian historian, Eflaki, has highlighted the mysterious nature of Shams Tabriz‟s personality in his Menaqibul Arifin which has been translated by James Redhouse (1811-1892) in an abridged version as The Acts of the Adepts, prefixed to his first versified translation of Masnavi. Eflaki says about this mystic:

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Shemsu-d-din of Tebrīz was surnamed the Sultan of Mendicants, the Mystery of God upon earth, the Perfect in word and deed. Some had styled him the Flier, because he travelled about so much; and others spoke of him as the Perfect One of Tebrīz. He went about seeking for instruction, human and spiritual. He had visited many of the chief spiritual teachers of the world; but he had found none equal to himself. The teachers of all lands became, therefore, pupils and disciples to him. (Redhouse 69)

Very little is known about Shamsuddin of Tabriz. There is no reliable and sufficient record about Rumi‟s mystical friend. Whatever is known about him is that he was a wandering dervish, a qalandar, who roamed from one place to another seeking a person who could see the spiritual sun within him. Annemarie Schimmel says about him in her book, The Triumphal Sun:

We do not know much about him. The legends woven around him show him as an overpowering personality who, with immense spiritual pride, wandered through the Near Eastern countries in search for a master none of the living mystics could evade his biting criticism. He himself tells in his Maqalat that he was for a while the disciple of a certain basket-weaver in Tabriz whom he left later:

In me there was something which my sheykh did not see. Indeed nobody had ever seen it. But my lord Mowlana saw it. (Schimmel 20-21)

It is worthwhile to note here that this very time Anatolia was crawling under the barbarous and terrified assault of the Tartars. Almost whole of the Muslim Empire in the central Asia including Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Afghanistan and other adjacent countries Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University was crumbled down under the wrath of the mighty Mongol and Tartar forces which united to conquer the large parts of Eurasia. Rumi‟s many verses reflect this backward position of Muslims on the political front at that time. Muslims rulers could do nothing to make their political condition better, and common Muslim particularly Sufis considered the Tartar attack as a punishment by God for their inclination and indulgence in the worldly life, and they began to raise the slogan, „back to God‟ and termed it as the only remedy to cure the Muslim society from its political, and social decay. As a result, these backwardness and upheaval on the political level were counterbalanced, in a few years, by the advancement and order on the spiritual level. 56

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

The Khwarazmian dynasty, which was crushed by the Tartars, was replaced by the Ilkhanate dynasty. This new regime, established by the Tartars, could successfully defeat the Muslim kings but was, in turn, prevailed upon by Islam. First, it converted to Buddhism and then embraced Islam, the religion of its enemy, and finally declared it as its official religion in 1295. Although this religious conversion on the part of the Ilkhanate dynasty, according to some scholars, was done only to gain the political mileage as it aimed at widening its territories, justifying its rule, maintaining peace and order, and keeping any sort of rebellions at bay, the considerable role of Sufis in drawing the attention of the ruling Tartars towards the sublimity and beauty of Islam cannot be undermined. It was they who transformed the archenemies of Islam not only in its followers but also in its faithful defenders. A historical allusion to this significant event has marvelously been made by the Poet of East, Muhammad Iqbal, in one of his famous couplets:

Hai ayaan yoorish-e- tataar ke afsaane se

Pasbaan mil gaye kabe ko sanam khane se

(It is evident from the story of the Tartar‟s onslaught

That Kaba (Islam) got its defenders among its archenemies, the idols- worshippers.) (Iqbal 235)

Coming back to the discussion on Rumi‟s life, Shams was a mystic whose spiritual friendship tremendously affected Rumi. Rumi was so much immersed in talking to his mystic friend that he could not pay as much attention to his son and his disciples as he used to do before his arrival. Probably, this deep and mystic friendship between them incitedMaulana the envy of Azad Rumi‟s Library, son, Valad, Aligarh and his Muslim disciples forUniversity Sham. As it has been earlier said that very little is known about Shams‟s life, some stories and anecdotes are narrated about him. It is said that he once met Ibne Arabi and scorned at his mystic ideas. He termed them immature and far away from reality. He is often compared to Socrates as both were wandering genius seeking a person who could see through their hidden treasure of wisdom and knowledge. Both roamed to find a worthy person to whom they could transfer their intellectual and spiritual knowledge. Both were a sort of mystics who did not write any philosophical and spiritual treatises. They served only as inspiration for people. Describing these similarities

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts between Socrates and Shams, E. G. Browne quoted from Nicholson in his book, A Literary History of Persia, volume II:

He was comparatively illiterate, but his tremendous spiritual enthusiasm, based on the conviction that he was a chosen organ and mouthpiece of Deity, cast a spell over all who entered the enchanted circle of his power. In this respect, as in many others, for example, in his strong passions, his poverty, and his violent death Shams-i-Tabriz curiously resembles Socrates; both imposed themselves upon men of genius, who gave their crude ideas artistic expression; both proclaim the futility of the external knowledge, the need of illumination, the value of love; but wild raptures and arrogant defiance of every human law can ill atone for the lack of that „sweet reasonableness‟ and moral grandeur which distinguish the sage from the devotee. (qtd. in Browne 517)

When Shamsuddin got to know about the jealousy of the people for him, he secretly left Konya and moved to an unknown place in Syria. When Rumi knew of his departure from his land, he was so much shocked and disappointed that he became lifeless. He expressed his longings for him in his several couplets and wrote a number of letters which could never reach him. News came to Konya about Shams as he was seen in a place in Syria, Rumi sent his son to Syria to fetch this mystic friend to his home again. When he came back, it seemed as if Rumi had been blessed with another life. He was filled with joys and raptures after seeing his lost friend. This time, to ensure Shams‟ stay at his home, Rumi made him married to one of girls who were brought up in his home. He also provided a room nearby his cottage for this couple.

But theMaulana increasing attentionAzad Library, of Rumi towards Aligarh his Muslimfriend resulted University in his murder. There are many speculations about his disappearance. According to some scholars including Eflaki, he was murdered on the order of Soltan Valad because he was envious of him due to his intimate relationship with his father. But this account has been doubted from its inception to the recent time that such a heinous crime like murder would not be committed by a mystic and religious person. According to other scholars, he was stabbed by an unknown person in the night and his body was thrown in a well behind Rumi‟s home. When Soltan Valad saw his body in the well he took it out and buried it in a tomb nearby which was first cemented and then covered with the

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts earth. Soltan Valad hurriedly performed all these things without informing his father about the death of his mystic friend. He was not informed about the death of Shamsoddin for a long time. The echo of pining love due to his separation can be easily seen in his verses.

The second person who took the place of Shamsoddin was a goldsmith named, Salahuddin Zarkub. He was an illiterate person who could not read and write; nevertheless, he held a significant place in Rumi‟s life. It was in his shop Rumi initiated his Sama, a kind of trance in which a Sufi performs some particular actions while supposing his union with God. This trance, which is often wrongly considered as dervish dance, is very popular in Europe and The United States of America during the present time. The increasing intimacy between Zarkub and Rumi invited the people‟s jealousy for the former. But, he always defended his friend and criticized those people who talked against Zarkub. To maintain the durability of their friendship, Rumi made his son, Sultan Valad, married to Salahuddin‟s daughter, Fatimah. He also exhorted his son to treat his wife well. In 1258, Salahuddin Zarkub fell ill and after a prolonged illness, died in the same year. It is said that after the death of his friend Rumi did not mourn but celebrated the event with his Sama that was accompanied by music. He said that this was the moment of happiness and joy not of sorrow and pain because the soul of his friend had reunited with God. Instead of reading an elegy, he recited a nuptial song in his honour as death, according to Sufis, is the spiritual wedding.

There was three inspirational friends in the life of Jalaluddin Rumi, first Shamsuddin of Tabriz, second, the goldsmith Salahuddin Zarkub, and the third and final, his long-term disciple, Hishamuddin. In his life there was always a friend who Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University became a source of inspiration for his life. The first two died during Rumi‟s life but Hishmuddin outlived him. It was he who persuaded his master to commit his ideas, thoughts, and Sufic wisdom in written form for the benefit of his disciples. It was none but he who inspired Rumi to write his magnum opus, Mathnavi Manavi. He was officially appointed as Rumi‟s Khalifa in 1262. He also appears as Rumi‟s friend in the discourse about the mystery of Shams at the beginning of the Masnavi.

The great book, Masnavi Manavi, which is often considered as „the Quran in Pahlavi language‟ consists of multiple stories, folktales, anecdotes, legends,

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts hagiography etc. The structure of the book is incoherent; the tales are not logically related to each other but are combined sometimes with mere the association of words. The derivation of folktales and legends are from different cultures and languages. Its some tales reflect the influence of ancient Hindu folktales, for example, the story of blind men and the elephant, which was first translated from Sanskrit into Persian and then into Arabic and it was composed and titled „Kalila wa Dimna‟, while some of its other stories show impact that was transmitted from Arab, Persian, Greek and Roman civilizations. The beauty of the Masnavi is that heterogeneous ideas which are often paradoxical in nature have been yoked together only to serve the scheme of his moral lessons. Once, referring to the adaptation of his tales from the famous Arabic collection of ancient fables, Kalila Wa Dimna, Rumi claimed that its tales were husk while his stories are the kernel of the soul. The point to be noted here is that he is not boasting upon his narrative talent in this claim but he is, in fact, pointing out to his treatment of these ancient stories where he illustrated and highlighted the aspects of the soul. Probably, this is the point that Rumi employed a number of bawdy tales in his Masnavi and shifted their main focus from sexuality to the concerns of the soul.

Although Rumi had an overwhelming literary output, as apart from Masnavi, he wrote Diwan-e- Shams-e-Tabrizi, which consists of more than 35000 verses. It was dedicated to and named after his mystic friend, Shamsuddin of Tabriz. Another literary text written by him is Fiha-ma-fihi; it is a collection of his discourses addressed to his disciples. But, Rumi‟s fame generally rests on his masterpiece, Masnavi Manavi, a voluminous collection of poems, divided into six books and consisting of 25632 verses. The possible influences on his magnum opus are said to be Sanai and Attar. Rumi himself accepted their influence in his Masnavi saying that Attar was his Maulanasoul and Sinai Azad was hisLibrary, two eyes. Aligarh Describing Muslim his masterpiece, University Rumi says “the Mathnawi is the shop for unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the one (God) is an idol.” (Rumi, Delphi Classics) It is itself evident in the book that Sanai, the Ghaznavid poet‟s noble thoughts and direct style were followed by him wherever he dealt with the mystical problem of love and faith. Although Attar is also remarkable in making a tremendous influence on Rumi, he seems too refined and melancholic to be a direct impact on Masnavi. In this connection, the Italian poet, Dante, seems more faithful follower of Attar than Rumi in his melancholic style and diction.

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

The proem of Masnavi reminds one the story of the reed flute that tells the secrets of a king. This story has been beautifully narrated by Sinai in his Hadiqa. Both Sanai and Rumi appreciate the reed flute (it is called „ney’ in Persian language); both give significance to music in the elevation of the soul and in creating a sense of nostalgia for a time when it was united with God before its separation. Although, Naqshbandiya and other hardline Sufi Orders have strictly prohibited the playing of and listening to music, other Sufis particularly Rumi not only allowed it but recommended it because it helped in surging of the soul. It is worthwhile to note here that the music that was endorsed by him should not be made a basis for allowing modern music in Islam because the former illuminates the soul while the latter incites the body only. There is no need to dwell on the legality or illegality of music in Islam because this debate lies beyond the scope of this study.

Masnavi Manavi has been divided into six volumes consisting of more than 25000 verses, its first book, containing around 4000-odd verses, and was dictated probably somewhere between 1256 and 1258. The date of its composition is remarkable as these years were witness to the end of the Islamic Golden Age which began with the reign of the fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (763-809), the man who established the acclaimed library, House of Wisdom (Baith-ul-Hikma) in Baghdad, and came to an end with the killing of last Abbasid Caliph by the Mongol forces in 1258. The fateful year depicts a picture of contrasting images where the swords and the blood of the mass killing by the victorious Mongols were counterbalanced by the pens and the ink of the glorious Sufis. The first book begins with the story of the reed flute that gives its account that it is not the pleasant melody of joy coming from its within but, actually, it is the saddest tone of agony and pain that happenedMaulana due Azadto its cutting Library, down Aligarhand separation Muslim from Universityits sister reeds. Now, it is remembering, with a sense of loss, of those happy days when it used to dance with its sisters with the coming and going gusts and used to enjoy the rain and rays alike. The proem has been written in an allegorical form as here its secondary meaning is more important than its primary and apparent meaning. The reed flute stands here for an individual soul while the jungle-bed from where it has been cut down represent Godhead, the source, which all creations have emanated from. The soul constantly struggles to return to its source just as the reed flute desperately wants to go back to

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts its jungle-bed. Not only the soul, as the proem says, but everything in this universe wants to return to its source.

The idea of the reed flute narrating its pain and suffering seems to be derived from Sanai‟a Hadiqa. In his Hadiqa, it is said about a king who has many secrets but he has not any confidant to share with. So, he used to go to a lake and reveal his secrets to it. Around that lake, there was a jungle of reed, and when it was cut down and made into a flute, it reveals all the secrets of the king before people. The speaking reed flute to people is an identical element in both these stories, because this Ghaznavid poet had a remarkable influence on Rumi; it is likely that this story might have been a working force behind the proem of Masnavi.

It is argued that Sanai and indirectly Rumi derived the nucleus of this tale from the ancient Greek tale of King Midas. It is also stated that the story of Midas was very popular in pre-Islamic Antolia. King Midas, well known for his gift empowering him to turn everything into gold by his touch as related in Ovid‟s Metamorphoses XI, is said to be the listener to a music competition between Apollo and Pan with the mountain-god, Tmolus, as a judge. Pan starts his rustic music that fascinates only his faithful follower, King Midas. Apollo strikes his lyre and creates a wonderful melody. Tmolus announces victory for Apollo. Everybody is satisfied with this judgment except King Midas who questions its rationality. Apollo becomes angry and was astonished to know that a man having ears, instead of being satisfied with his music, should be contented with Pan‟s rustic music. Apollo, then, says that he must have the ears of a donkey, so, Midas‟s ears change into those of a donkey. Now, Midas wears a large turban to hide his donkey-ears from people but his barber knows this secret. The barber is put under pressure by the king not to share this secret with anybody. The Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University barber could not keep this secret and he goes to a jungle and digs a hole and tells his secrets and then buries it. A reed sprouts from this hole and when it is made into a flute, it reveals King Midas‟s secret saying before people that Midas has the ears of a donkey!

Sometimes this story is related to Ali Ibne Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in- law of Muhammad. It is related that Muhammad entrusted some secrets to him and he reveals them to a reed and when it is cut down and shaped into a flute, it makes those secrets public. Whatever might be the source and inspiration behind the proem of the

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Masnavi, Rumi adapted different tales which originated from different places and cultures only to bring home his moral teaching. This is probably the reason that Rumi referred to these stories as husk while he called his adaptation of them as the kernel of the soul. Apart from Sanai, Rumi seems to be much inspired in his Masnavi by Attar‟s Mantiq- ot- teyr and Musibatname. The story of a spiritual quest through several stages and finally the hero‟s realization that God who he has been seeking for is nowhere but in the ocean of his soul is often echoed in his Masnavi. Apart from Sanai and Attar, the other references in Masnavi that one observes are related to Kalila wa Dimna, an ancient collection of beast fables, whose origin is believed to be related to the ancient India, was first translated from Sanskrit into old Persian, and then into Arabic from middle Persian in the 8th century by Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 756). This beast fable became a milestone in Arabic prose literature. It was so much popular among the people that it was studied by a vast multitude of people ranging from politicians and philosophers to simple and innocent minded-children.

Iranian folklores and mythology appear to be a partial influence on Rumi in the working of Masnavi. There are occasional references to Rustam, the great hero of Firdausi‟s epic poem, Shahnameh. Rustam is often compared to Ali as both are paragon of humanity and known for their heroic qualities. Apart from it, the tragic romantic stories of the medieval Persian literature also get a considerable representation in Masnavi. The love story of Laila and Majnu, Shirin and Farhad occur in its different verses but with their changed nucleus, as the story of the physical love has been adapted into the spiritual one. Besides Iranian influences, the impact of the erstwhile corpus of the Arabic literature is apparent on his allusions, imagery, metaphors, and other literary techniques. Some Arabic authors, for example, Abul ʿAla AlMaulana-Maʿarri (973 Azad-1057), Library, and Abu Aligarh Nuwas (756Muslim-814), University have been shown in the negative light while others like Al-Mutanabbi (915-965) and Al-Hariri (1054-1122), have been much appreciated. Rumi‟s fascination with Al- Mutanabbi was from his childhood days. He often used to recite his verses with immense fervour.

The style of Masnavi Manavi is cryptic and digressive. It has not any systematic structure and plot. It sometimes moves from one story to another without any logical connection. Sometimes, it switches over from one story to another merely through the association of words. Due to its loose structure and rambling manner, it becomes difficult for the readers to understand it properly. It is a marvelous 63

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts amalgamation of serious and meditative and joyful and delighted mind. But his melancholic rendering of verses is much larger in proportion than his happy rendering. Commenting on the enormous nature of this work, E. G. Browne says in his A Literary History of Persia Volume II:

It contains a great number of rambling anecdotes of the most various character, some sublime and dignified, others grotesque and even (to our ideas) disgusting, interspersed with mystical and theosophical digressions, often of the most abstruse character, in sharp contrast with the narrative portions, which, though presenting some peculiarities of diction, are as a rule couched in very simple and plain language. (Browne 520)

The meaning and form or experience and expression have been so nicely woven together that one cannot be separated from the other. The words are just like tresses around the face of the beloved whose sun-like face cannot be seen except by those who see through the words and reach the true meaning. But, as tresses add to the beauty of the beloved and without them beauty is imperfect, form enhances meaning and without it meaning is incomplete. Elaborating the design of reconciliation and harmony between form and meaning in Masnavi, Schimmel says:

Rumi has often tried to solve this riddle of the relation between words and meaning, of experience and expression, but always returns to the feeling that words are merely dust on the mirror of 'experience', dust brought forth from the movement of the broom 'tongue' . . . and the true meaning, the 'soul of the story' can be found only when man loses himself in the presence of the Beloved where neither dust nor forms remain. (Schimmel 44) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The age which Shakespeare was born in was a peak time of Renaissance in England. The forces of Renaissance which were first located in Italy during 14th century came to England via Germany and France in the early 16th century. The same conflict between reason and faith that had been observed in the medieval Islamic period was going on in the 14th and 15th century Europe. The Church no longer remained an unquestioned authority. The medieval tradition of Scholasticism, which was modeled on the synthesis of the Islamic philosophers, Averroes and Avicenna, for making a reconciliation of contradictions between the authoritative texts, Aristotelian works and the Bible, was already rejected by the late medieval theologians, John Duns Scotus 64

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

(1266-1308) and William of Ockham (1285-1347). The latter rejected the medieval idea of applying reason to faith and stated that reason worked independently of faith. He paved the way to separate science from faith and philosophy. The Renaissance, a French word meaning rebirth, or revival, was basically an empirical revolt against the medieval belief in rationalism and deductive reasoning. In science, a new kind of reasoning, known as inductive reasoning, was introduced by Francis Bacon (1561- 1626). The old war between empiricism and rationalism in the ancient Greek period was reignited in this age. The former relied on observation and sense perception as the real source of inquiring truth while the latter completely banked upon human reasoning to discover truth. They believed that truth can be rationally deducted without the help of observation and any sense perception. In other words, one can understand that Renaissance was marked by its confidence in common sense while the Middle Age was identified with its unshakable faith in the human intellect. Therefore, Renaissance was, in fact, a revolt of the common sense against the intellect.

There is no doubt that the High Middle Age was an intellectual period in the European history. It is still considered as a storeroom of intellectual ideas. Although it is undeniable that the emergence of Renaissance in the 14th century halted the intellectual progression of the medieval times, the hangover with this intellectual period was always there. Despite the forces of their age, a number of the authors who lived in the Renaissance time never neglected the intellectual properties of the medieval times, and tried their utmost to preserve them in their works. Undoubtedly, Dante, Shakespeare, and John Milton (1608-1674), in their treatment of the Middle Ages, belonged to the list of these authors. Probably, this is the reason that reading the intellectual and philosophical debates and discussion in their works, one is more remindedMaulana of the medieval Azad Library, times rather Aligarh than Renaissance. Muslim University Supporting the idea that Shakespearean works are more characterized by the medieval tradition than Renaissance, Martin Lings (1909-2005), a metaphysician and an authority on Shakespeare, says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of sacred Art (1966):

In the form of his drama Shakespeare belongs to his age. Marlowe‟s Dr. Faustus is outwardly in some respects more medieval than anything Shakespeare wrote. But in outlook Marlowe was altogether a man of the Renaissance, whereas Shakespeare seems in a sense to go back as time goes forward and by the turn of the century he had become, unlike many of his 65

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fellow dramatists, the continuer and the summer-up of the past, the last outpost of a quickly vanishing age. To say this is not really to say anything new; it is rather a case of putting two and two together. (Lings 10)

Unlike Renaissance which was originally European in its approach and its system of thoughts, the Middle Age was a derivative from the different oriental cultures and civilisations. Their intellectual properties can be perceived in the medieval European architecture, paintings, literature, and in the other branches of the fine arts. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), and Raphael (1483-1520), the great three Italian painters and the archetypal Renaissance men, shifted from the Church‟s exhortation, “Paint the soul, never mind the legs and arms” (Browning, Fra Lippo Lippi), to the real depiction of human flesh and body. Under the general impact of humanism, they concentrated more on the earthly body than on the heavenly soul. There is more divinity in Simone Martini‟s (1284-1344) painting than Michelangelo‟s painting of the Creator himself. Human qualities are apparent in his portrayal of David and the image of the Creator. As human became the measure of all things, the painters moved from the study of the ideal and divine to the close study of the proportions of human body and the realistic perspectives. Elaborating the intellectual tradition in the medieval paintings, Martin Lings says in his above mentioned book:

A medieval portrait is above all a portrait of the Spirit shining from behind a human veil. In other words, it is as a window opening from the particular on to the universal, and while being enshrined in its own age and civilization as eminently typical of a particular period and place, it has at the same time, in virtue of this opening, something that is neither of the East nor of the West, nor of any one age more than other. (Lings 4) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Likewise, whenever one pays a visit to any Gothic architecture, for example, a great cathedral or an abbey, he/she cannot be remained uninfluenced by its sublimity and magnificence. The difference he/she notices between the Gothic and Renaissance architectures is what one finds between the intellect and the common sense. Further explaining the intellectual qualities of the Middle ages and comparing them to those of Renaissance, Martin Lings in his book quotes from Frithjof Schuon‟s book, The Transcendent Unity of Religions “When standing in front of a Romanesque or Gothic cathedral, we feel that we are at the centre of the world; when standing in a

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Renaissance, Baroque or Rococo Church we are merely conscious of being in Europe.” (qtd. in Lings 5)

Without further dwelling on the intellectual tradition of the Middle Ages, some biographical details about William Shakespeare are required. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire in England in 1564. According to the record of the parish register of Holy Trinity Church, he was baptized on 26th April. His birth date is believed to be on 23th of April, 1564. The correct and verified information related to this great English dramatist is very little. Pointing out to this dearth of biographical information about William Shakespeare, the great 18th century Shakespearean commentator, George Steevens (1736-1800), says “all that is known with any degree of certainty concerning Shakespeare, is- that he was born at Stratford upon Avon-married and had children there, - went to London, where he commenced actor, and wrote poems and plays, returned to Stratford, made his will, died, and was buried.” (qtd. in Wells 1)

Although from 18th century to the present day, much has been explored about this natural genius and Steevens‟s claim seems to be, to some extent, an exaggeration, as stated by S. Schoenbaum in his essay titled The Life of Shakespeare, in The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies (1986), edited by Stanley Wells, very little is known about his parents, siblings, education, and his early life with any degree of reliability. The reason for this scant knowledge related to his biographical details is given as no biography or any account of his was written before almost a century after his death in 1616. It was Nicholas Rowe (1674-1718); the first who made a serious toil to collect materials related to Shakespeare‟s biography and prefixed it to his The Works of William Shakespeare (1709). Shakespeare‟s father, John Shakespeare was a Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University tradesman and a dealer in wool and leather. His mother, Mary Arden, was a daughter of a small land-owner who lived in his neighborhood. His parents married before the accession of Queen Elizabeth I in 1558. Shakespeare had eight siblings, and he was the third child and the eldest son of the family. It is generally assumed that he was taught at a local Grammar School and learnt a little Latin, as Latin was regarded to be an intellectual language of his age and it enjoyed the same status in the medieval Europe which is being enjoyed by the English language at present time. Nothing is known about his boyhood and teenage.

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Another significant thing known about Shakespeare is that he married Anne Hathaway who was eight years senior to him in 1582. He lived at Stratford with his wife and three children. A daughter, Susanna, who was born in 1583, and the twins, Hamnet and Judith, were born out of this marriage. A number of stories has been invented to explain the reason for his migration to London and then, his association with the stage, but all stories are mere a matter of conjecture. There are no substantial proofs for the justification of these old wife‟s tales. The years from 1585 in which his twins were born to 1592 in which he, for the first time, was alluded to in Thomas Greene‟s Tract is called the missing years of his life. There is no trustworthy record of these years and nobody knows where Shakespeare lived and what he did during this period.

The first significant reference to Shakespeare from a reliable source one finds is Greene‟s Groatsworth of Wit (1592). It provides a strong proof that until 1592, he was able to secure for himself a respectable position in the theatrical world. Greene‟s this tract is famous for a passage which alludes to this young playwright beginning his career as an actor and a playwright and struggling to make a place in the English theatre. His biased comment on Shakespeare as “an upstart crow beautified with our feathers that with his “Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide”, supposes he is as well able to bombast out [i.e. write] a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country” (Grazia and Wells 4) indicates an uneasiness and jealousy among the circle of the erstwhile playwrights due to this intruder. Greene criticized him for his excessive confidence to compete with the most learned playwrights, particularly Christopher Marlowe (1564- 1593), Thomas Nashe (1567-1601), and Robert Greene (1558-1592) himself who were the brightMaulana members of Azad the University Library, Wits, Aligarh in writing Muslim plays. University

He got literary recognition with the publication of Venus and Adonis (1593), and The Rape of the Lucrece (1594), both dedicated to his patron and friend, the young Earl of Southampton, though, he earlier wrote Henry VI three plays (1591) but plays were not counted as a literary production at that time. The year 1594 was important for him because the Lord Chamberlain‟s Company was formed in it and Shakespeare took its membership which lasted his active theatrical life or possibly his death. In the coming 15 years after the publication of his two narrative poems, he produced a number of comedies and tragedies which carried the English drama to new 68

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts heights. All his four universal tragedies, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth were written in the span of this period. Apart from these plays, all romantic comedies, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Merchant of the Venice, As You Like It, Twelfth Night, romantic tragedies, Romeo and Juliet, Troilus and Cressida, history plays, Henry IV both parts, Henry V, Richard II, Julius Caesar etc. were written by him in this literary enriched period. After 1609, it is said that the literary inspiration in this genius began to decline. The romances, Pericles, Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and finally his last complete play The Tempest which were produced after 1609, are not at par with the imaginative and literary qualities of his earlier written universal plays. After 1613, no play is attributed to him. He died on 23rd April, 1616, and was buried in the Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-Avon.

During sixteenth century, there were multiple impacts of various movements, for example, Pythagorean, Rosicrucian, Hermetic, Illuminist, Alchemical, Cabalistic etc. in the whole of Europe. The ideas of these movements were floating in the air when Shakespeare was born in England. In the Renaissance time, the crusaders remained no longer a force to push the Christians against the Muslim Turks. As Renaissance marked the waning power of the Church, and the relaxation of Europe from the religious fervor, it provided a space for the study of secular literature and foreign cultures, but hatred and prejudices towards the Ottomans which were Muslims still persisted. When the last Christian power was routed with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Crusaders were replaced by the Christian missionaries. One significant among them was The Society of Jesus, founded in 1543. Writing about these missionaries, a British explorer, Timothy Severin (1940) says in his book, The Oriental Adventure: Explorers of the East (1976) “(they) helped to bring about a revolutionMaulana in Western Azad knowledge Library, about Aligarh the orient.” Muslim (qtd. in HasanUniversity 45)

Apart from these martyrdom-seeking missionaries, travellers, and the merchants who had been coming to the East also brought information related to the East to their land, there was another source through which the oriental culture, ideas and traditions flowed towards the West. The European captives which were often captured in Egypt and Algeria due to their illegal activities of piracy by the Ottoman forces were released at the request of the Queen and they shared their experience of the oriental culture and tradition with people at their home. Their number was profound as Nabil Matar has mentioned in his book, Islam in Britain 1558-1685 “J. B. 69

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Gramaye, who was cited by Purchas, wrote in 1619 that in the kingdom of Algeria, there were 200000 Christians most of whom were “Renegados of Apostatas” (Matar 16). It is likely that when these captives were released on the request of the erstwhile English kings, they might have taken the conventions and notions of Algeria which was renowned for Sufism to Europe.

Besides this, there was a diplomatic relationship between England and other countries like Persia and India. The English ambassadors used to go different countries for their diplomatic purposes. Its relation with these countries where the Sufic practices and conventions seeped into the social life of that time strongly suggests that England was well aware of this oriental philosophy of Sufism and of its eminent masters. One more evidence can also be given to further strengthen the claim that the 16th century Europe knew of Islamic mysticism through their association with the orient as the English Rosicrucian movement, which was noted for its mystical ideas, metaphysical knowledge, and alchemical studies, was itself a benefactor of Sufic ideas and its tradition of mystical love and union. This movement which shares many of its features with Sufism influenced almost all great literary figures of that time. Its founder, Christian Rosenkreuz, was a 14th century German scholar who travelled to Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and the Holy Land for the quest of the mystic knowledge. It is also acknowledged that in Syria he met some Suifi masters and adopted different Sufic notions from them. A Rosicrucian text, Fama Fraternitatis, was translated into English in 1615. This text was remarkable for introducing this Islamic cult to the West.

It seems highly probable that Shakespeare was consciously or unconsciously influenced by these foreign notions. When one reads or watches his plays, he/she Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University discovers that his primary concern in several of his plays is to deal first with the purification of the soul from its fallen nature, and then its perfection and finally its union with the Absolute. Besides the learned authors of his time, Edmund Spenser, John Lyly, George Chapman, and Ben Jonson, Shakespeare was also aware of the alchemical process and its terminology. He knew well of the famous rule of alchemy that when sulphur and quicksilver are mixed, it results in the perfected and the resurrected soul. One sees in his plays that he often employs imagery drawn from the subject of alchemy wherever he is concerned with purgation and purification of the soul. 70

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It is obvious that the practice of drawing imagery from the subject of alchemy is common to both, Shakespeare‟s plays and Sufic treatises including Rumi‟s Masnavi Manavi. The influence of alchemy is apparent in his poem, The Phoenix and the Turtle, published in 1601. This poem is remarkable from the point of the mystical love and union. This poem which is allegorical in its nature takes the metaphor of bird for the soul. The practice of representing the soul as a bird is much common in the Sufic circle. Attar also took the symbol of a bird for the soul in his well-known book, The Parliament of the Birds. The identification of the soul with a bird is still prevalent in popular songs and lore. Describing the union of mystical love between the phoenix and the turtle, Shakespeare says:

So they lov'd, as love in twain

Had the essence but in one;

Two distincts, division none:

Number there in love was slain.

Hearts remote, yet not asunder;

Distance and no space was seen

'Twixt this Turtle and his queen:

But in them it were a wonder. (line 25-32)

The poet asserts that the mystical union between two lovers cannot be understood through logic and reasoning. Reason, the poet claims, is confounded to get the clear pictureMaulana of the mystical Azad union Library, between Aligarhtwo lovers. Muslim Apart from University this poem, Shakespeare wrote multiple plays which have the theme of mystical union. In his plays written in 1590s, he employed some mystic symbols and motifs to reflect serious and somber themes but it was after 1600 that he began to enter these symbols and motifs to further explore new and unknown meanings. As it has been earlier mentioned that Shakespeare seems to be more oriented towards the intellectual Middle Ages than the individual Renaissance in putting philosophical ideas and mystic thoughts in the mouths of his characters, but this assertion seems unjustifiable in the writings of his earlier plays. From Henry VI plays (1590-92) to his farewell to comedy, Twelfth Night

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

(1600), there is not a single play of his that can be compared to his prominent plays written after 1600 in respect of the elevated thoughts and lofty ideas, though, there are a number of passages in these earlier plays which are filled with intellect and wisdom. In fact, these occasional passages in his earlier plays were heralding the approaching perfection and maturity in his later coming plays.

With the publication of Hamlet in 1601, probably for the first time, the author not only represented the Renaissance zeal and humanistic fervour but also concentrated on some intellectual themes which were definitely associated with the Middle Ages. This curiosity in medieval ideas on the part of Shakespeare increased with the coming years. The playwright began to shift his focus of attention from mere glorification of human to some larger issues of human suffering and misery. With the passage of time he drifted from his concern of human to human relationship to relationship between human and nature as it is clearly echoed in his more mature play, King Lear. Through the character of Edgar, the playwright had attempted to show his quest for truth and virtue. This upgradation of ideas continued and ultimately cultivated in his last paly, The Tempest, which is much noted for its mystic ideas and ideals. Martin Lings has explained the playwright‟s progress from immature themes of his early plays to esoteric and theosophical themes of his later plays in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of sacred Art. He says:

Let us suppose, to bring home our meaning, that Shakespeare had not lived to reach his maturity, or, in other words, that we had to build our estimate of his greatness on the basis of Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night‟s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Richard II, Henry IV, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It, Julius Caesar and Twelfth Night, these being probably the best of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University his earlier plays. The difference between that estimate and the one we are happily able to make would differ considerably from judge to judge, but it could not fail in any case to be vast. For it was only after these plays had been written, that is, just after the turn of the century, that there came a sharp and lasting change, not in orientation but in intensity. It was as if Shakespeare had suddenly come to grips with the universe after having contemplated it for some time with a half-detached serenity. From being in earnest, he had come to be in very deadly earnest. (Lings 7)

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

As much as the matter of affinities between the two literary icons of the East and the West, Rumi and Shakespeare respectively, is concerned, the writings of both of them are instrumental in their nature and treatment. There is no doubt that there is a body of writings attributed to them which are read with the purpose of mere enjoyment and entertainment, but their primary concern is didactic and instrumental. As it has been earlier pointed out that in Rumi‟s poetry, jocund and delighted mood is occasional and it is always dominated by some serious and meditative tone, the same can be claimed about Shakespeare‟s later writings. One notices that after writing Twelfth Night in 1600, he bade farewell to the world of comedy, and wrote not a single comedy in his remaining years. Shakespeare moved towards the realm of contemplative and pensive issues of suffering humanity.

Both the authors have same similar story of fining a muse who became an inspiration for their works. Rumi himself accepted that his life was completely changed with the coming of his friend, Shamsuddin of Tabriz. Likewise, Shakespeare got his literary inspiration from his anonymous patron who is known only by his initials, Mr. W. H. This unidentified young man, whose identity has been a bone of contention among the Shakespearean scholars and researchers since a long time, is the dedicatee of the first 126 sonnets of his collection consisting of 154 sonnets. Like Mr. W. H., Shamsuddin is the dedicatee of Rumi‟s mystical love poetry, Diwan-e-Shamse Tabriz.

There are rich affinities between Rumi and Shakespeare. Both are on the side of tradition and the mystical value system in the wake of dawning modernity in their time. Some recent writers exploring the possible influence of the former on the latter, for instance, Wes Jamroz, have even claimed that actually Rumi is one of alien pens Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University which Shakespeare mentioned in his sonnet series, The Rival Poet, to state that he was asked to study these foreign poets to enhance his poetic abilities. Wes Jamzon in his book, Shakespeare’s Sequel to Rumi’s Teaching (2015) describe Rumi‟s impact on Shakespeare:

There is much more in common between these two titans of poetry who lived some 350 years and 2000 miles apart. In his Sonnets Shakespeare acknowledges that his writings were inspired by Rumi‟s poetry. He referred to Rumi as one of “Alien pens” whom he was asked to study. He described Rumi

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as “He of tall building, and of goodly pride”. Shakespeare admitted that Rumi‟s verses were so powerful that they were stopping his thoughts before he was able to formulate them. (Jamroz 8)

When one tries to observe a similar patterns and proto-types discernible in Rumi‟s and Shakespeare‟s teaching, he/she notices that both are concerned not only with getting Paradise and salvation but are aspiring for a higher goal of acquiring selfless love and sanctification. Rumi, as it is known, was always against the hairsplitting theological debates of his time, though, he never believed that the observation of the Islamic laws were not essential for being a true Muslim, but he was against the tendency towards paying significance only to laws and neglecting the equally important aspect of love in the worship of God. According to him, Islamic laws are necessary and they have been formulated only to help a human to reach at the divine union with God. He believed that in fact, they are instrumental in assisting a human to soar high in the sky of love. This was the reason that he hated the obsession of the theologians and philosophers with laws and logic and their little regard, if not disregard, for love and devotion.

Likewise, the thing that is most peculiar in Shakespeare‟s later plays is that he intends his characters to ascend from the Renaissance scheme of mere salvation to some high station of sanctification. He wants human not only to retain his/her lost heavenly seat but also the eternal bliss and innocence which were lost due to the fall. But to follow the path of sanctification after the roll out of renaissance humanism and relaxation of drama from the liturgical monopoly and then its secularization in the first half of the sixteenth century was a dangerous task for a playwright. This might be a reason that instead of Christian God, Shakespeare had to choose Greco-Roman gods Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University for his plays. What was emboldened during this period was that a playwright‟s primary concern must have been only the human salvation while its sanctification was a distant ideal, but Shakespeare, like Dante, transcended the forces of his time and tried to continue the tradition of esoteric knowledge of the Middle Ages. Hence, his treatment of pagan gods in his plays is never in the same vein as usually done by Homer and Sophocles in their respective works. He seems to be a devout Christian in the time of the marching atheistic and secular forces.

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

The Sufic quest for the ultimate truth and God is overwhelmingly evident through the character of Edgar in his play, King Lear. His disguise as the poor Tom Bedlam and his seemingly unusual behaviour which causes people to call him insane are reminiscent of wandering dervishes and qalanders whose bizarre actions and poverty led people of their time to treat them as mad beggars. It is the irony of life that one is considered sane until he/she is unable to recognize his/her trues self, but the time he/she begins to be aware of himself/herself, he/she remains no longer sane in people‟s eyes. This play which contains the maximum number of references to the word, God, questions His divine dispensation. It consists of multiple perspectives on His divine justice and the nature of His existence. On one hand, the disinheritance of Cordellia reminds one of the fall of human and the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, on the other hand, the banishment of the faithful Edgar and aggrandizement of immoral Edmund take one to the issues of poetic justice as well as to the very question of God‟s existence itself that is still relevant in the present day discourse.

It is often said that Shakespeare‟s own thoughts cannot be ascertained through the portrayal of his heroes and villains, and every relevant idea gets its representation through his various characters. But, when his plays are closely read, it is discovered that the ideas develop and evolve through some form of dialectical process, and the right views and thoughts favoured by Shakespeare are reached at not before the end of the play and during this course of time the merits and demerits of the opposing views and ideas are critically evaluated. Generally, Shakespeare‟s own views and thoughts belong to the concluding part of his plays. Here, the example of King Lear can be given to illustrate it. This play has such lines spoken by Gloucester that point out to the cruelty and mistreatment of God “As flies to wanton boys, are we to the gods; / They killMaulana us for their Azad sport” Library, (4.1.38-39). Aligarh Muslim University

But it must be kept in mind that Gloucester‟s idea of God as cruel is developing and did not reach its perfection. With Edgar‟s efforts to save his father from the contemplation of suicide and from the eternal despair, Gloucester evolves from his dejection to hopefulness. Later on in the play, he says “Henceforth I‟ll bear / Affliction till it do cry out itself / „Enough, enough‟, and die” (4.6.75-77). Gloucester‟s faith in the nobility of God continuously evolves with proceeding Acts and Scenes and ultimately arrives at its perfection in the final Act when he says about

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

God “You ever-gentle gods, take my breath from me / Let not my worser spirit tempt me again / To die before you please!” (4.6.213-215).

This sort of mystic journey from a non-believer or weak believer to a staunch devotee is clearly visible in the character of Gloucester and his noble son, Edgar. The mystic and Neo-Platonic line of thoughts can be easily observed in Hamlet‟s soliloquies. Although the tradition of melancholy was popularized in the English imagination by Robert Burton‟s Anatomy of Melancholy and the ancient Greek psychological theory of the four humors, an analogy can be drawn between this malcontent Renaissance prince and a contemplative and brooding mystic man. Like a beginner in Sufic practices, Hamlet also gradually develops from his indisposed habit of “to be or not to be” to a person having a complete and unshakable faith in God in the concluding part of the play. His firm faith in God which appears identical to the Sufic step of Tawakkul (Trust) reflects from his assertion to his friend, Horatio, “There‟s a divinity that shapes our ends, / Rough-hew them how we will” (5.2.10-11).

His unshakable faith in God gets its complete maturity when he develops a strong belief in the fact that nothing occurs without the direct intervention of God. He dispels all superstitions and becomes ready for the duel with Laertes despite the persuasion of his friend to abstain from it. He says to his friend that even a sparrow does not fall without the will of God, hence, he should not be afraid of his death, if he dies in the combat, it will be predetermined and nobody can change it and he will be saved from future‟s apprehension of death; and if he does not die today, he will die some other day in future as death is inevitable. Hamlet further explains the reality of this ephemeral life as nobody can take a bit of wealth earned here to the Afterlife, then, what is benefit if a human lives longer or a loss if he/she dies a premature death? Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Hamlet‟s steady belief in God is evident in his conversation with Horatio “there is special providence in the fall of sparrow. If it be, „tis not to come. If it be not to come, it will be now. If it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all, since no man of aught he leaves knows what is‟t to leave betimes” (5.2.197-201).

Hamlet instructs Horatio that if this is the reality of life, then, what a human can do is that he/she should all the time be ready to bear the will of God. Probably, Hamlet‟s exhortation to his friend, “The readiness is all” (5.2.200) strikes the same idea as Edgar‟s counsel, “Ripeness is all” (5.2.11), to his father in King Lear, does. It

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts is likely the central idea of the play, Hamlet. This final instruction by Shakespeare to his recipients seems to be parallel to the Sufic step of resignation to the will of God.

The same lesson of one‟s complete resignation to the will of God is taught in another play of his, Measure for Measure. The character of Vincentio, the Duke of Vienna, who relinquish his duty to a Puritan-minded judge, Angelo, to take care of his Dukedom and he lives there in the disguise of a poor friar, is comparable to a mystic person. Like a dervish, he wanders at night to see the plight of his countrymen in this new governance. He gives a sympathetic ear to the poor and homeless people. Claudio, who has premarital sex with his fiancée, is sentenced to death by Angelo for his crime. Claudio is perturbed to learn that he will be hanged. The disguised Duke preaches him to be prepared for the will of God and explains to him the ephemerality of this earthy life in a remarkable speech. The Duke comments on this mortal life:

Be absolute for death; either death or life

Shall thereby be the sweeter. Reason thus with life:

If I do lose thee, I do lose a thing

That none but fools would keep.

…….Thy best of rest is sleep,

And that thou oft provokest; yet grossly fear‟st

Thy death, which is no more.

...... Thou hast nor youth nor age, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University But, as it were, an after-dinner‟s sleep,

Dreaming on both. (3.1.5-34)

This memorable speech reminds one of Sufic wisdom which makes him/her realize that his/her mortal life is nothing more than his/her dreams. The making of a comparison between life and dream is a common poetic device to both Rumi‟s couplets and Shakespeare‟s plays. Life is compared to a dream because both are a type of illusion and are far away from reality; both are identical as they begin and end abruptly. The more or less same idea is expressed in his other plays about life and 77

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts death. One more significant example regarding this idea can be quoted from his last completed play, The Tempest. The protagonist, Prospero who is dethroned by his brother due to his shifting attention from politics to books and wisdom, is a self-exiled Duke who takes a shelter with his young daughter, Miranda, to an inhabited island. There, he learns the white magic and maintains his authority on a spirit called Ariel, whom he rescues from the black magic of Sycorax. Addressing Ferdinand he says that he has dissolved all those illusions into nothing which he made, through the help of Ariel, to organize a masque for the young couple. He further elaborates that just like these dissolved visions which had nothing to do with reality, one day, the whole universe and all things in it will be vanished and melt away in nothingness. Prospero comments on the reality of human existence:

And like the baseless fabric of this vision,

The cloud-capp‟d towers, the gorgeous palaces,

The solemn temples, the great globe itself,

Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,

And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,

Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff

As dreams are made on; and our little life

Is rounded with a sleep. (4.1.151-158)

Although music is strictly prohibited by the orthodox Islam, Rumi allowed the use of moderate music.Maulana According Azad to him, Library, music elevates Aligarh the humanMuslim soul University and reminds it of the time of pre-separation when it was united with Godhead. Rumi‟s love for music reflects from the scheme of his Masnavi where its proem has been dedicated to the story of a reed-flute. Rumi says:

When you come visiting my grave,

My roofed tomb will appear to you dancing . . .

Do not come without tambourine to my tomb, brother!

For a grieved person does not fit in God's banquet! (qtd. in Schimmel 35) 78

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

However, the music he advocated should not be understood as the modern music which is composed with the aim to ignite physical passion and excitement. Rumi‟s concept of music has no such relation to corporeal feelings and frenzy. Probably, this negative aspect of music might have been a reason for orthodox Islam to prohibit it altogether. The study does not concern with the theological debate about legality or illegality of music, but it tries to explain that music holds a significant position in Rumi‟s Sufism. When Shakespeare‟s plays are read, particularly, his romantic comedies, it is found that no talk of love is complete without music. In his plays, love is always followed by music. In Twelfth Night, the lovelorn Duke, Orsino, says in the very opening of the play:

If music be the food of love, play on,

Give me the excess of it…

O, it came over my ear like the sweet sound

That breathes upon a bank of violets,

Stealing and giving odour. (1.1.1-7)

There have been identical remarks concerning music in Rumi‟s Masnavi too. However, there is a basic difference between Rumi‟s and Shakespeare‟s idea of love and music as the latter‟s is not as purely spiritual as the former‟s. Nevertheless, Shakespeare‟s treatment of love and music cannot be considered as completely base and profane. His conception of mature or true love comprises of more than one element of spiritual love. Like Shakespeare, Rumi also cherishes music. Elaborating the intimate relation between love and music, Rumi says: Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Oh, music is the meat of all, who love,

Music uplifts the soul to realms above.

The ashes glow, the latent fires increase:

We listen and are fed with joy and peace. (Masnavi: Volume IV)

Apart from these above mentioned plays, there are many plays centered on such themes which appear identical to Sufic quest for esoteric knowledge and divine

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts wisdom. The third and fourth chapters have been entirely dedicated to locate Sufic themes and motifs in Shakespeare‟s significant plays, King Lear and Hamlet respectively. Shakespeare‟s representative tragicomedy, The Tempest, his problem play, Measure for Measure, his last romantic comedy, Twelfth Night and his two sonnets have been selected to be analysed in the light of Sufic wisdom in a separate fifth chapter. It has been tried to select representative plays from every genre of Shakespeare‟s works in this study. During analysis of these texts, the primary aim of the study is to show that how Shakespeare characterizes his heroes as pilgrims who set out through purgatory to the illuminative world of divine love and knowledge.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Works Cited

Browne, E. G. A Literary History of Persia. T. Fisher Unwin, 1909.

Grazia, Margreta de and Stanley Wells, editors. The Cambridge Companion to

Shakespeare. Cambridge University press, 2003.

Hasan, Masoodul. Sufism and English Literature, Chaucer to Present Age: Echoes

and Image. Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2007.

Iqbal, Muhammad. Kulliyat-E-Iqbal. Markazi Maktaba Islami Publishers, 2014.

---. The Reconstruction of the Religious Thought in Islam. Macmillan and Co., 1920.

Jamroz, Wes. Shakespeare’s Sequel to Rumi’s Teaching. Troubadour Publications,

2015.

Lings, Martin. The Secret of Shakespeare: His Greatest Plays Seen in the Light of the

Sacred Art. Quinta Essentia, 1996.

Matar, Nabil. Islam in Britain 1558-1685. Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Nicholson, Reynold A., translator. Selected Poems of Rumi. By Jalaluddin Rumi and

edited by Susan L. Rattiner. Dover publications, Inc., 2011.

Redhouse, James, translator. Collected Poetical Works of Rumi. By Jalāl ad-Dīn

MaulanaMuhammad Azad Rūmī, Library,Delphi Poets Aligarh Series Book Muslim 58, Delphi University Classics, 2015.

---. The Acts of the Adepts. Trubner & CO., Ludgate hill, 1881.

Rumi, Jalaluddin. Collected Poetical Works of Rumi. Translated by James Redhouse,

Delphi Poets Series Book 58, Delphi Classics, 2015.

---. The Mathnawi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson, Luzac and Company, 1925.

Schimmel, Annemarie. The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi. State University of New York Press. 1993. 81

Tracing Rumi’s Footprints In The Shakespearean Thoughts

Schuon, Frithjof. The Transcendent Unity of Religions. Theosophical Publishing

House, 2005.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Ann Thompson and Neil Taylor, The Arden

Shakespeare, 2013.

---. King Lear. Edited by R. A. Foakes, The Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

---. Measure for Measure. Edited by J. W. Lever, The Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

---. The Poems: Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece, The Phoenix and the

Turtle,The Passionate Pilgrim, A Lover's Complaint. Edited by John Roe, The

New Cambridge Shakespeare, 2006.

---. The Tempest. Edited by Frank Kermode, The Arden Shakespeare, 1994.

---. Twelfth Night or what You Will. Edited by Keir Elam, The Arden Shakespeare,

2013.

Wells, Stanley, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies.

Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Chapter 3

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Exploration of Sufism in King Lear Chapter 3

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

King Lear stands as a colossus among the tragedies written by William Shakespeare. The play appears to be written in the form of an allegory narrating the whole history of mankind. Its dramatic exposition reminds us of the fall and of the original sin. It also like his other tragedies, particularly Othello, is dominated by the theme of love. Although, Othello depicts love and relation between a husband and his wife, the concerned play portrays love and relation between parents and their children. The common theme shared by both plays is love. Their eponymous characters represent Everyman and the human soul while Desdemona in Othello and Cordelia in King Lear are the embodiment of the spirit. The play seems to start in the middle of things much more like an epic. Its dramatic exposition presupposes a primordial age that symbolizes the age of innocence before the fall.

The play begins with the reversal of an order. This inversion of things is obvious in King Lear‟s and Gloucester‟s, as they represent Everyman in the main plot and sub-plot of the play respectively, obsession with the physical charms and indifference towards spiritual attributes of characters. The preference given to Goneril, Regan and Edmund, instead of Cordellia, Edgar and Kent suggests man‟s first disobedience of eating the forbidden fruit. Due to the man‟s first disobedience, the divine was changed for something mortal and transient. Likewise, here in the play, appearance is appreciated while reality is condemned. The characters which represent the evilMaulana are favoured Azad against Library, those representing Aligarh theMuslim good. This University inversion is indicated in the opening of the play. While speaking to Kent, Gloucester admires his bastard child, Edmund, more than his elder and lawful son, Edgar, because he is handsome, good-looking and well-mannered. The fascination with worldly charms and ostensibility has been marked out in the opening scene. Gloucester like Everyman is impressed by physical beauty and he is concerned only with what is on surface and does not bother about going in deep. Pointing out to Gloucester‟s love for worldliness and appearances, R. B. Heilman (1906-2004) says in his book, This Great Stage: Image and Structure in King Lear (1948):

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

Gloucester's tragic flaw is a special kind of lack of insight. Gloucester is not a stupid man, but he is a man who does not ask enough questions, who takes evidence at its face value, who confounds appearance and substance. He is the man of the world, the sophisticate, as we might say, who has the naivete ironically inseparable from the type. His whole history is consistent. Long before the time of the play he enjoyed an adulterous liaison of which Edmund was the fruit a liaison which indicated that he viewed sex morality entirely as a man of the world. His unperceptive worldliness is the opening note of the play: in the first few lines he talks to Kent with jaunty wit about his escapade with Edmund's mother even, it appears, within earshot of Edmund. Gloucester does not take the trouble to go beneath the surface, he falls in with whatever is going on about him: this is his way of avoiding responsibility. (Heliman 41- 42)

The same attraction towards ostentation and display is echoed in King Lear‟s speech when he reveals his strange intention of dividing his kingdom into three parts. He says that his daughters should express their love for their father and the excessive display of their love will be the merit for holding the larger part of his kingdom. He considers flattery as love and makes it as essential criteria for acquiring the greater part of his kingdom. Here, one thing to be noticed is that words are more appreciated than deeds. In the production of this play, both Goneril and Regan kneel down before the King to demonstrate their love while Cordelia remains stand still without displaying any love. Both Goneril and Regan are rewarded with the enriched and fertile parts of his kingdom as both flatter the king through exhibiting their hypocritical love for him. But Cordelia is unable to put her love on display as she cannot heave her heart into mouth. Here, deedsMaulana are suggested Azad toLibrary, be inexpressible Aligarh in words.Muslim University

The same tussle between appearance and reality, soul and body, and human‟s two opposite compositions of angel and beast has been shown in the play. In the second scene of the first Act, Edmund, in a very striking and engaging way, evokes the same comparison through the debate between nature and custom. He argues that he is more well-formed and handsome than Edgar then why should he be called as bastard? Making a scathing attack on the customs of the society and declaring his allegiance to the laws of the jungle, he says:

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

Thou, Nature, art my goddess; to thy law

My services are bound. Wherefore should I

Stand in the plague of custom, and permit

The curiosity of nations to deprive me?

For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines

Lag of a brother? Wherefore base?

When my dimensions are as well compact,

My mind as generous and my shape as true

As honest madam‟s issue? Why brand they us

With base? With baseness, bastardy? Base, base?

Who in the lusty stealth of nature take

More composition and fierce quality

Than doth within a dull stale tired bed

Go to the creating of a whole tribe of fops

Got „tween a sleep and wake. (1.2.1-15)

Edmund pays more prominence to the physical qualities than the spiritual ones. In this above quoted soliloquy, he appears to be a rebel against the customs of the society. In fact, theMaulana character ofAzad Edmund Library, has been Aligarh based on MuslimSatan of the University medieval morality plays as both are fascinating and engaging in their ways. Apart from it, the other thing that is noticeable in his characterization is that he embraces typical Renaissance view as he seems to favour the idea that old men should give the charge of their properties to their young sons. This notion of handing over inheritance to young sons while the parents are in their old ages was common in Renaissance Europe. The justification for this argument was that young sons will be both physically and intellectually efficient enough to take a proper care of their properties and old parents should be relieved of their responsibilities.

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

This idea got much attention with the publication of the essay, Of the Affection of Fathers to their Children, by the French essayist, Michel de Montaigne (1533- 1592). Several lines from this play refer to the idea presented in this essay. King Lear‟s wish to divide his kingdom among his daughters and to make himself relieved of the responsibilities of his kingdom so that he can easily crawl unburdened towards death, strikes the same Renaissance idea. It is highly probable that Shakespeare, who referred to many world literature books in his different plays and sonnets, might have known about his essays which were well known during his time. He was also acquainted with the erstwhile debate on giving the inheritance to sons during their young age or to hold it by their parents till their death between the medieval tradition and Renaissance modernity. Shakespeare has presented both the views with their arguments in this play.

The play has a number of Sufic motifs and patterns recurring throughout its action. It appears to have the same pattern and scheme of the medieval morality play in its structure and thought. The play allegorically is concerned with the struggle of soul and body. The former is neglected and even discarded while the latter with its imperfection is preferred to and admired upon. There are two characters or three if we include the later active and conscious Albany in this list who embody the soul, Cordelia in the main plot while Edgar in its sub-plot. Both are thrown away and replaced with someone earthy and unscrupulous. Goneril and Regans represent the body in the main plot while the same is symbolized by Edmund in the sub-plot. King Lear and Gloucester act as Everyman of the morality play with their misjudgment and ignorance. The husbands of Lear‟s three daughters signify the three different categories of people. Cornwall, Regan‟s husband, represents Nafse Ammarah, Goneril‟s husband,Maulana Albany, Azad embodies Library, Nafse Aligarh Lauwamah Muslim and Nafse University Mutmayinnah is exemplified by the King of France.

The play is in a form of proper allegory. The very first scene reminds one of the Fall when the first act of human transgression resulted in the loss of his heavenly seat and his consequent departure from the blissful seat of heaven to the suffering and miseries of the earth. Here, in the play, the transgression or disobedience has been depicted through the human fondness of flattery and self-love. There is no doubt that like the act of eating from the forbidden plant, the desire of being flattered and admired upon has been strictly prohibited. The first scene of the play is an enactment 86

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear of the Fall as virtue is abandoned in the favour of vice, reality for appearance, good for evil, and truth for falsity. Watching or reading this play from this perspective, it appears to be the whole history of humankind. Striking the same idea about this play, Martin Lings says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art (1966):

Of the three higher aspects of a work of art mentioned by Dante, it is the allegorical meaning which asserts itself most immediately in the very dramatic first scene of King Lear; and though it subsequently withdraws into the background, we are kept conscious throughout of the presence of the allegory, that is, of the play as an image of the history of mankind. (Lings 88)

The play, King Lear, can be discussed and elaborated in the prism of some of its prominent themes, for example, the theme of gratitude and ingratitude, self- discovery, authority versus obedience, appearance versus reality, parent and children relationship and finally the theme of being and becoming. The play indicates the inversion of order in the wake of rejecting truth and virtues while greeting falsity and vices.

The dramatic exposition of the play successfully depicts the reenactment of the fall. The long reign of Lear suggests the age of innocence. It was based on order and justice that is why Kent, the embodiment of fidelity and virtue, is never reported before to stand against the order of his revered old king. Although there is no such reference in the play which points out towards the age of innocence, constant fidelity and obedience of Kent for his venerated king for a long span of time before the beginning of the play reflects the age of innocence and harmony when human lived peacefully in the heavenly abode. In fact, the very beginning of the play portrays the idea ofMaulana transgression Azad and Library, disobedience. Aligarh At the Muslim outset of University the play, the theme of appearance versus reality is noted. This same theme is easily understood through the conversation between Gloucester and Kent in the very first scene of the play. Physical charm and appearance are favoured against the virtue and reality. Gloucester says that he has two sons; one is by the way of lawful marriage while other is by the way of his dark desires. The issue of the former, Edgar, is not as much liked and appreciated as the issue of the latter, Edmund, because the former is not well built and handsome as the latter. This same theme of appearance versus reality is again repeated in King Lear‟s darker purposes when he discloses his intention of dividing the kingdom

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear among his three daughters in accordance with the proportions of their display of love for their father. Two things are objectionable in Lear‟s this strange intention. First, as a king he has no right to make the division of his kingdom because the lands belonged to the people and not to the king. They are owners of the lands while the king is mere the custodian of their lands. Hence, his intention to divide his kingdom among his daughters was strange and highly condemnable for the Elizabethan audience. The other thing which is equally objectionable is that he has made flattery a criteria for getting reward. Here, flattery has been encouraged at the expense of the devotion and true love.

As it has been earlier pointed out that the play begins with inversion of order, multiple imagery has been employed to show this ensuing disorder. When Cordelia is disinherited from her father‟s properties because she could not heave her heart into her mouth to exhibit her profound love and devotion to her father as her sisters marvellously did, Kent does his utmost effort to convince the king to revoke his decision. As a loyal and obedient servant to his old king, he sees the correction of Lear‟s folly at this moment as his best service he ever meted out to him. Instead of flattering and appreciating the king in his wrong decision like his two daughters and sons-in-law, he makes his efforts to draw his attention to the difference between words and deeds, between flattery and love, and between appearance and reality. When his advice and suggestion is turned down and he himself is threatened for his life, he points out to this disorder and unnatural thing “Do kill thy physician, and thy fee bestow / Upon the foul disease.” (1.1.164)

This is the first imagery which clearly shows this disorder where good has been replaced with evil, appearance with reality and love with flattery. The decision Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University of Lear is the reminiscent of the act of eating the forbidden fruit. As Adam and Eve ate apples and subsequently they changed their immortality for mortality, divine for earthly and everlasting bliss for perpetual suffering and pain, Lear does the same by choosing wicked Goneril and Regan against the saint- like Cordelia. Another imagery has been used to suggest this disorder in the next lines of the play. When Kent is rebuked and even threatened by Lear for daring to come between his judgment and authority and ultimately he is given five days to be exiled from his kingdom, he portrays the real picture of Lear‟s court as “Freedom lives hence and banishment is here” (1.1.182). In the case of Adam and Eve, they were banished from Paradise for 88

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear their act of transgression and disobedience, but here, Lear has banished Paradise from himself as it is represented by the characters of Cordelia and Kent in the play. In the dramatic exposition of this play, the enactment of first disobedience is completed through the banishment of Cordelia and Kent.

It is important to note here that in this inversion of order where vices are promoted and virtues are discouraged, any character which represents good cannot be tolerated to live in Lear‟s world. That is why Kent has to disguise himself and hide his virtues to live in this land of follies. Likewise, the fool is also allowed to live here because he is virtue masquerading as folly. As far as Albany is concerned, at the beginning of the play, he seems to be neutral and he is tilted neither towards good nor towards evil or he is kept ignorant of action by his wife for as long as possible. His opportunity to be an active character will come late in the play. It is observed that only those characters are allowed to remain in Lear‟s world who are embodiment of evil and those too which chose to hide their virtues. One thing that is most obvious in the opening of this play is that there is inversion of order, and that is why reality, virtue, and love are discarded while appearance, misdeed, and flattery are appreciated. This inversion is the main theme of the conversation the fool frequently does with Lear.

This same theme of appearance versus reality is more remarkably apparent in the sub-plot. In fact, the sub-plot echoes and reflects the action of the main plot. Here, a lawful and obedient son is disinherited and an unlawful and treacherous son is favoured. Both Edgar and Cordellia are saint like figures, both are depreciated, and thrown away and their values are not recognized until the concluding parts of the play. The world of Lear is a place of folly and foolishness where virtues and good Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University deeds cannot be tolerated.

As one knows that the action of the main plot is clearly echoed in the sub-plot of the play, the discarding of Cordelia, which is equal to throwing away of the pearl, is reflected in misconception of Gloucester about his son, Edgar. As it has been earlier said that Gloucester is Everyman who is prone to the nefarious designs of evil, embodied by Edmund, the former blindly believes in the latter and dispels his noble son, Edgar, from the inheritance of his properties. Moreover, he is threatened of his life, so he is compelled to disguise himself as a poor Tom Bedlam to adjust himself in

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear this world of follies. It is worth noting here that the journey of Edgar is much similar to the journey of a Sufi to realize the truth. The first thing to be noticed here is that until he is not aware of truth, and indulges in the worldly pleasures, everybody considers him as a sane person but when he realizes the evil designs of this worldly life during his exile, he is considered to be a mad man. After his realization of truth, everybody considers him as an insane. It is noticeable that when he is faced by difficult and challenging circumstances, he changes from a self-indulgent person to a man having firm and unshakable belief in God. There is no mention of Edgar after the third scene of the second Act in the play until he is discovered by Lear to be a poor creature crawling in the hovel in Act three, scene four. Edgar‟s journey from the earthly allures to the reality and aim of human life develops offstage. He evolves from Epicurean and hedonistic man to an ardent believer in God. When a beast-looking Edgar is asked by Lear of his identity, he informs him about himself and about what he used to be in the past in a much detailed manner. Describing himself and his past habits, he says:

A serving man, proud in heart and mind, that curled my hair, wore gloves in my cap, served the lust of my mistress‟ heart and did the act of darkness with her; swore as many oaths as I spake words and broke them in the sweet face of heaven. One that slept in the contriving of lust and waked to do it. Wine loved I deeply, dice dearly; and, in woman, out-paramoured the Turk: false of heart, light of ear, bloody of hand; hog in sloth, fox in stealth, wolf in greediness, dog in madness, lion in prey. (3.4.82-92)

The first thing he says about himself is that he is “a serving man”. The commentators on the text have commented that the possible meaning of this phrase is that Edgar is Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University saying that he is an attendant in the court of the King or a servant or a lover. But, the most probable meaning of this phrase here seems to be a man who is always busy in serving his negative self (Nafs). This meaning is also supported by following sentences which reflect his involvement in bad deeds which have been strictly prohibited by God. He says of himself that he is proud, lecherous, gambler, drunkard, lazy, hypocrite, thief and greedy. During his exile, he learns that he was passing his life as being a slave serving only his self (Nafs). This harsh circumstance proves to be an eye opener for him. He laments at his way of life and exhorts everybody to be away from pleasure-seeking life. 90

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

Edgar‟s journey also exhibits how a person can evolve from a beast to a perfect human. There is no doubt that if Cordelia is „the Perfect Woman‟ of the main plot, Edgar is „the Perfect Man‟ of the sub-plot. Although Shakespeare never used the phrase, „the Perfect Man‟, in his plays but his depiction of an ideal Christian man is very similar to the idea of the Perfect Man in Rumi‟s scheme. Both the authors, Rumi and Shakespeare, share the same notion that if a human has no aim except to sleep and feed, he is no better than a beast. This idea about man has been expressed by the eponymous character in the play, Hamlet “What is a man / If his chief good and market of his time / Be but to sleep and feed? A beast – no more” (4.4.32-34).

Rumi has also mentioned similar notions about human beings in several places in his Masnavi. He says that a human is the best creature among God‟s multiple creatures because he has some divine purposes; he always makes his soul evolve and be better than his physical body. In fact, some divine purpose for which human beings have been created makes humans superior to animals, plants and everything created in this universe. Without fulfilling that purpose, humans are not better than beasts and sometimes they are even worse than animals.

The same idea is being reflected in the characterization of Edgar. In the beginning of the play, he has been shown as the lawful son of Gloucester, though nothing has been mentioned about his faith in God. Unless he develops a firm faith in God, he is just like a beast. The play shows that when he is caught in the nefarious design of his bastard brother, Edmund, and their father is convinced by him that actually his lawful son has intentions to murder him so that he can inherit all of his properties, he is compelled to take a self-exile, otherwise, he will be arrested and may be killed by his own father. He becomes well aware of his situation that he has been Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University declared as an absconding criminal and no port is free from securities which are desperately seeking to arrest him. After this onslaught of evil on him, he realizes the status of a human for the first time. He says:

I heard myself proclaimed,

And by the happy hollow of a tree

Escaped the hunt. No port is free, no place

That guard and most unusual vigilance 91

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

Does not attend my taking. While I may scape

I will preserve myself, and am bethought

To take the beast and most poorest shape

That every penury in contempt of man

Brought near to man. (2.2.172-180)

This debate as whether a human is superior or equal to a beast can be easily discerned in this play. In fact, the above mentioned debate was very much common amongst the people in the Elizabethan time. Actually, this debate goes beyond any specific religion, culture, region, and nation and it is common to all. In spite of having different culture, language and time, the similar debate related to the status of human being in this universe is discovered in Rumi‟s Masnavi Manavi. As a true believer in God, he always thought that undoubtedly, it is the divine purpose of creation that gives humans an edge over other things created in this universe. According to Rumi, if a human cannot fulfill this divine purpose, he/she cannot claim any status superior to animals. This same idea has been expressed in Edgar‟s journey. Apart from Edgar, Shakespeare has often compared humans to nature, as he did in the concerned play, and to animals, as visible in both Hamlet and King Lear. The only reason which seems probable for making this comparison is that Shakespeare like Rumi believes that it is the divine purpose of the creation which makes human superior to animals and other natural things and objects. This comparison is also important to note that the playwright is expressing a universal truth that there is nothing inherent which makes a human more prominent than a beast because both eat, drink and sleep; so it is good deeds and gesturesMaulana which haveAzad been Library, required Aligarhby God that Muslim give humans University a status above beasts, plants and other natural objects.

After being declared as an outlaw, Edgar realizes this fact that there is no distinction between a human and an animal. Although he smears his face with dust and tears his clothes to become more like a beast with intention of escaping from detention and arrest, the playwright‟s aim to depict the affinities between humans and beasts is itself obvious. Later on, he is observed by Lear when he is discarded by both of his daughters. When the doors of his daughters are shut down on him while there is thunder storm and nature is showing its rages, he exposes himself to the fury of 92

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear nature. After moving here and there with his Fool, and Kent, Lear comes to a hovel and sees a creature with wonder. In fact, this creature is nobody but Edgar who is behaving like an animal. After watching this naked man, Lear comments:

Why thou wert better in a grave than to answer with thy uncovered body this extremity of the skies. Is man no more than this? Consider him well. Thou ow‟st the worm no silk, the beast no hide, this sheep no wool, the cat no perfume. Ha? Hare‟s three on‟s us are sophisticated; thou art the thing itself. Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art. Off, off, you lendings: come, unbutton here. (3.4.99-107)

Here, Lear thinks that it is an accommodation, clothes, and other adorable things which provide significance to a human. In other words, it can be said that he is making a difference between a human and a beast on the basis of civilization. Without civilization, he says, human is equal to animal. Then, he, suddenly, realizes that Edgar is the real man God has created; he has not adulterated himself with scraps of human civilization like clothes, silk, hides, wool and perfume. He appreciates Edgar as for the first time he sees a real human without any superfluous things. Following an urge to look like a real human God has created, he himself begins to unclothe him. Some critics believe that Lear‟s act of unclothing him is the starting point of his madness. But, it seems more likely that he despises human civilization because it corrupts human beings and that is why he started to put off his clothes. Lear‟s speech seems to be extensively affected by Montaigne‟s ideas about human. The likely influence of this French essayist came to Shakespeare through John Florio‟s translation of Montaigne‟s Essays in 1603. His ideas which had a large corpus of metaphysics, religious and secular thoughts, and philosophy became much popular in the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Elizabethan England. His skepticism towards traditional human thoughts and knowledge was a matter of discussion among the Elizabethan people.

Montaigne made a comparison between humans and beasts in his essay titled „Apologie of Raymond Sebond. His argument is that human is not superior to other creatures on the earth. He sees no glorification in human build and form because he thought that they are as miserable as crawling worms and other tiny insects in this world. He disdainfully says about humans:

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

This many-headed, divers-armed, and furiously-raging monster, is man, wretched, weake and miserable man; whom, if you consider well, what is he but a crawling and evermoving ants-nest?'…A gust of contrarie winds, the croking of a flight of Ravens, the false pase of a horse, the casual flight of an Eagle, a dream, a sodaine voyce, a false signe, a mornings mist, an evenings fogge, are enough to overthrow, sufficient to overwhelme and able to pull him to the ground. Let the Sunne but shine hot upon his face, hee faints and swelters with heat: cast but a little dust in his eyes, as to the Bees mentioned by our Poet, all our ensignes, all our legions, yea great Pompey himselfe, in the forefront of them is overthrowne and put to rout. (Montaigne 481-82)

The essayist sees no point in the Renaissance glorification of humans and their belief in immense human capabilities. In fact, two ideas have been expressed through this portrayal of humans. First, they are unaware of their own nature. It means that they are ignorant of their selves. Second, nature or their self has been much weakened and corrupted by culture and civilization. Both of these ideas have been taken up by Shakespeare in King Lear. As has been earlier pointed out that the theme of self is one of the important themes of this play, it is not civilization and culture which make human superior to animals but his/her consciousness of his/her self or more appropriately his/her awareness of the divine purpose of his/her creation makes him/her superior to other creatures living on the earth. This self-realization or self- discovery that happens in Lear and Gloucester is delayed until both of the common men are purged of their sins and wrong assumptions.

Edgar‟s feigned madness is much similar to seeming foolishness of Sufis. But when he is listened properly, his actions seem justifiable. After disguising as a poor Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Tom Bedlam, when he first meets Lear in the storm, he talks about his difficult situation from which he is going through. He says that he was chased by the devil in the fire and water. In fact, what he is trying to express is that after taking self-exile to escape from persecution by his father on the basis of false charges made by his brother, he was so dejected and depraved that he was convinced by the devil that there was no hope in his life, and he must put his miseries to an end through committing suicide. But fortunately, he resisted this temptation and did not lose hope in God.

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

When Lear finds Edgar in a very poor and dejected state, he considers him to be suffering from the same difficulties as he is facing right now. He mistakenly thinks of him as a man discarded and cheated by his cruel daughters. Although, Lear is corrected by Kent that actually the poor man has no daughters, he remains adamant in his misperception. He strongly believes that this deplorable condition can only be brought to a man by his mean daughters. Actually, Lear is so harshly tormented by rude behaviour of his daughters that he assumes that such depraved and soul-stricken situation befalling to one like that of his can only be caused by one‟s unkind daughters. After considering Edgar to be suffering from same situation, Lear asks him that has he given all his properties to his daughters? He replies and introduces himself before Lear. He talks about his several temptations to commit suicide and how did he successfully resist them. Edgar says:

Who gives anything to Poor Tom? Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o‟er bog and quagmire; that hath laid knives under his pillow and halters in his pew; set ratsbane by his porridge, made him proud of heart, to ride on a bay trotting horse over four- inched bridges, to course his own shadow for a traitor. Bless thy five wits, Tom‟s a-cold. O do, de, do, de, do, de: bless thee from whirlwinds, star- blasting and taking. Do Poor Tom some charity, whom the foul fiend vexes. There could I have him now, and there, and there again, and there. (3.4.50-61)

This above mentioned quotation is important as it shows how Edgar was tempted and pursued by the devil to end his life. The devil is traditionally known to come to the despaired people and tries to persuade them to commit suicide. But Edgar resisted this temptation and he was not frustrated from the mercy of God. The aforementioned Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University quotation also reflects that Edgar was tempted several times by the devil to commit suicide through burning him, or drowning in the sea, or through hanging himself by a rope. But, Edgar successfully prevented all these temptations. What is to be noticed here is that committing suicide is a disgraceful act both to Rumi and Shakespeare. Rumi also preaches about never losing hope in God. Islam and Christianity both have discouraged this act and even the thought of committing suicide and being hopeless of God‟s mercy has been condemned. In the concerned play, the same character, Edgar, prevents his blind father from committing suicide in the coming scenes of the play. His father, Gloucester, wants to end his life because he becomes completely abject in 95

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear his soul but he is guided by his noble son, Edgar, from the valley of despondency to the palace of hope and faith in God.

Edgar seems to talk about something which cannot be comprehensible. But when he is asked about his profession by Lear as he never considers Edgar as a madman, he says that his profession is “How to prevent the fiend and to kill vermin” (3.4.155). Lear addresses him as a “philosopher” and a “learned Theban”. Many commentators of the text have commented upon the word, „philosopher‟, as magicians. According to them, Lear considers Edgar as a magician or occult scientist because of his knowledge about devils. In the play, he talks much about devils and fiends, though; it reflects the part of his feigned madness. If it is considered that he is not mad and he is not behaving in a madly manner, it appears plausible that he has learned the knowledge about supernatural beings during his exile. F. G. Butler talks about Tom in his article titled “Who are King Lear's Philosophers? An answer, with some Help from Erasmus” in English Studies, volume 67 (1986):

Tom as philosopher has not been given much attention, partly because critics have been unable to identify him. If we accept--- as we must--- that there is always some reason in Lear‟s madness, we ought to ask ourselves: is there anything in the appearance, utterances or character of Tom that could possibly bring a philosopher, or school of philosophers, to mind? A man, unkempt, dirty, in a blanket or cloak, with beggar‟s wallet: that is the image which poor Tom presents to the audience and to Lear. It is also the image--- as Dover Wilson has observed in a footnote---which the Cynics, most otherworldly of Greek schools, presented: those learned renouncers and denouncers of „art‟ as the corrupter of „nature‟. Jane Donawerth has followed Dover Wilson‟s lead. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University He says:

Such an epithet (i.e. philosopher) for the beggar is madness to one who envisages the philosopher as well-fed and cleanly academic, a Plato or Cicero. But the Renaissance also knew the cynical philosopher who stubbornly kept himself ill-fed, ill-housed, ragged and unkempt in order to become wise, one who threw off superfluous things in order to study more thoroughly the man beneath them. Edgar‟s description of his “How to prevent the fiend, and to kill vermin” (III, iv. 159) reflects the riddling and sententious style of the Cynics,

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

aw sell as his simplicity…Lear‟s madness in calling Poor Tom „philosopher‟ is a wise one: he is looking for someone to teach him to bear suffering. (English Studies, 67.6. 511)

It seems highly probable that either Shakespeare might have himself seen wandering dervishes or read about them in some popular books in his life time. There is little doubt that the Elizabethans were aware of these wandering mendicants. But, due to their seemingly rigid behaviour, their simple living style, and their aloofness from the worldly affairs, people assumed them to be cynics or madmen. The character of Edgar convincingly approves this fact that the Elizabethans were familiar with Sufis and their way of living. It becomes much easy to accept it when one comes to know that there was a strong diplomatic relationship between Ottoman Empire which remained a centre of Sufism since a long time and England during the time of Renaissance. Queen Elizabeth I used to write letters and send emissaries to Sultan of Turks to release the prisoners. A number of English prisoners who were released on the request of the Queen took the Turkish culture with them to their lands and it was one of many sources through which this Islamic cult of Sufism was transmitted to the British land. Nabil Matar, an expert of Muslims-Christians relations during the European Renaissance, writes about the relationship between Ottoman Empire and Europe in his book, Islam in Britain (1998):

Throughout the period roughly extending from the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558 until the death of Charles II in 1685, Britons and other Europeans met Muslims from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas. For the peoples of Spain, France, Italy and Germany, the physical proximity with Islam in continental Europe and the Mediterranean Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University made encounters with the Muslims inevitable: as a result, their literature frequently alludes to Islam and Muslims. In the case of the British Isles, there was a vast distance between London or Edinburgh and Istanbul, but still, the likelihood of an Englishman‟s or a Scotsman‟s meeting a Muslim was higher than that of meeting a native American or a sub-Saharan African because Muslims were present throughout the Mediterranean basin- which at a time of turmoil in Europe, particularly during the Thirty Years War, provided a faster and safer means of transport for traders and travelers than the continental land route. Indeed, the Muslims who had the greatest impact on Britons in the early 97

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modern period belonged to the Mediterranean basin. Theirs was the Islam which included Istanbul (to which English writers nearly always referred as Constantinople), the center of the Ottoman Empire; Aleppo, a crucial link in the silk route that led to China; Beirut, “the Mart-towne whereunto all the ships comming from Europe doe arrive”; Jerusalem. A city of pilgrimage; Cairo, a center of trade in the period “before European hegemony”, to use Janet Abu-Lughod‟s phrase, witnessing “the greatest concourse of Mankind in these times, and perhaps that ever was”; Algiers, “the whip of the Christian World, the wall of the Barbarian, terror of Europe, the bridle of both Hesperias (Italy and Spaine), Scourge of the Iland”; and Fez, “a world for a city” which “may rather second Cairo than subjoin itself to Constantinople, being far superior in greatness with Aleppo. (Matar 2-3)

From the above quotation, it becomes apparent that English were well aware of the culture and traditions of the Ottoman Empire. This argument is further substantiated by the fact that Turks, who were politically and economically much powerful during that time, always considered Europeans as inferior and backward. The Europeans were also envious of their immense wealth and status. Their jealousy towards them can be easily seen in literature written during that period. When they were aware of their fashions, foods, dress, culture and religions, it seems illogical to assume that they were ignorant of Sufism or Sufi men at a time when it was in the air of Ottoman Empire. Great nations and rich countries are always emulated by people. Their fashion and culture dominate other cultures. Their customs and traditions become ideals to be cherished and imitated by other nations and countries. Therefore, it appears highly probable that to the English, like to their other neighbouring European countries, SuficMaulana conceptions Azad and ideas Library, were properly Aligarh known. Muslim University

The character of Edgar is an important character to unravel Sufism in Shakespeare‟s thoughts. Edgar takes self-exile to save him from the fury of his father; this exile lasts for seven years. While meeting Lear, Kent and the Fool in the hovel, he tells them that he has been eating frogs, toads, tadpole etc. for seven years. His journey of seven harsh years appears like the training period of an initiator in Sufism. It is usual for a Sufi initiator to leave his/her home for the pursuance of God. Although Edgar leaves his home to escape from the prosecution, his journey is identical to a Sufic journey. While talking to Lear in the hovel, he appears to be a 98

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear learned man. His perfection is visible when he leads his father, Gloucester, whose eyes are gouged out by Cornwall, from despair to hope. Gloucester‟s progress from extreme despondency to an unshakable faith and belief in God happens only due to his noble son, Edgar.

After being successful in disinheriting his brother, Edgar, from the properties of their father and proclaiming him an outlaw, Edmund gets an opportunity to dislodge his father from his position. Considering Edmund to be his loyal son, Gloucester tells him that he does not like Cornwall‟s and Regan‟s cruel behaviour and mistreatment meted out to the old king; he wishes to secretly help the king in spite of their displeasure. Gloucester also informs Edmund that cruelty done to Lear will be avenged as a large contingent of troops from France has marched to arrive here. He also tells him about the letter regarding it he has received. He asks Edmund to be by the King‟s side and request him to engage Cornwall in conversation so that he can easily help Lear in this time of his extreme distress.

Edmund sees it as an opportunity to remove his father from his position and to replace him as the Earl of Gloucester. As he declares crude nature to be his goddess, he craves for getting wealth and earthly success at any expense. He says “The younger rises when the old doth fall” (3.3.24). He makes arrangements to implicate his father in the crime of treason. He informs Cornwall that Gloucester is secretly passing information to France. He also produces the letter which Gloucester locked in his closet to prove it. His hypocrisy can be seen when he says to Cornwall that he is extremely sad to inform him about the treason of his father as he is preferring loyalty towards him to his natural love for his father. He claims that he never wished to tell this secret to him but his loyalty to him and his country forced him to betray his Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University natural affection for his parent. Indeed, Edmund wishes to win Cornwall‟s confidence so that he will appoint him as the Earl of Gloucester in place of his father. Cornwall is convinced by his false accusation and believes that Gloucester has indulged in treasonous activities against him and his country. Consequently, Gloucester‟s both eyes are plucked out and when he says that my son, Edmund, will take revenge of this inhuman act, he is informed by Regan that it is his son, Edmund, who informed them about his treacherous act. After that Gloucester realizes that actually he has done wrongs to his son, Edgar. Now, he wishes only for one thing and that is to meet and touch his son, Edgar, before his death. 99

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Edgar has unshakable faith in God. He assumes that he is living in the worst condition and there can be no worse situation than this. He envisages that he does not need to be in fear as he is already at the bottom of the worst. Now, he expects for a change and that will definitely be from worse to good. But his optimism disappears when he sees his father blind and being led by a poor old man. But still, he does not lose his hope in God. Although his father begins to think of gods as unjust, cruel and indifferent to humans, Edgar never seems to be so much dejected and even to lose his belief in gods. After experiencing humiliation and extreme pain, Gloucester‟s faith in gods as kind and just vanishes and he painfully says of gods “As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods, / They kill us for their sport” (4.1.38-39).

The irony of his statement is that gods have fulfilled his wish to meet Edgar but he is unaware of it as he cannot see Edgar. When he sees his father indulging in despair and hopelessness, he prays for him. He makes request to Poor Tom to guide him to lofty cliff of Dover so that he can put a stop to his misery and pain by throwing himself down from it. Edgar is well aware of his father‟s intention that actually he wants to commit suicide. He makes a plan to cure his hopelessness and despair. As he does not still reveal his real identity to his blind father, he says to him that he knows the way to reach the cliff of Dover. He is given money by Gloucester as his wage to lead him to that place. During their journey to it, Edgar keeps on chanting few devils‟ names to appear and behave like a lunatic beggar. Although throughout their journey to Dover cliff Edgar deliberately plays the role of traditional devil in prompting Gloucester to commit suicide, indeed, he deceives his father to restore his faith and belief in God which he has lost due to harsh circumstances of his life.

Ultimately, he takes Gloucester to a place which is only two feet high from the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University plain ground and says that they are on the top of the cliff and he can see from here that the fishermen on the shore are appearing like little mice and tall masts of the ships seem to be tiny boats. Edgar says that he can no longer stand here as he is feeling deranged and he is afraid of falling down. When Gloucester is informed by Edgar that he has reached the edge of the high cliff, he gives a second purse containing some jewels and other valuable things to help this poor lunatic beggar. Gloucester asks him to leave and after that when he becomes sure of his departure, he plunges from this two feet high place. Edgar who did not leave and was watching this event comes to his father and says that he is startled to see that how can a man still be 100

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear alive after jumping from this high cliff. He tries to makes Gloucester convinced that, in fact, he has been saved by the great gods.

Edgar‟s deception of Gloucester invites many criticisms from various critics terming this episode as absurd, tragic, grotesque and even farcical. This episode has been managed by Shakespeare through the character of Edgar to cure Gloucester of his ill thoughts of suicide. He thinks that he is in the worst situation and loses hope in God. For the first time in the play, the gods are seen in momentary action, though; it has been contrived by Edgar. Some critics argue that this episode strengthens the idea that there is no God and so there can be no miracle. They contend that miracles and divine action can never take place without the intervention of humans. But, before reading the whole of the play it cannot be deemed appreciable to jump to an early conclusion.

What needs to be comprehended here is that Edgar wants to save his father‟s life and to protect him from eternal despair. In fact, this whole episode can be understood in the term of a stage device in which a character dies and then comes to life. This stage device was common among the Elizabethan playwrights but it was generally employed in comedy rather than tragedy. But Shakespeare has overturned the convention and used it in a tragedy to heighten the tragic effect on the audience through the criss cross of joy and fear. After making Gloucester realize that he has actually jumped from the cliff but has been saved through the intervention of God, Edgar says that he saw when Gloucester was being led to this cliff by an evil spirit. He convinces him to believe that he was taken to this place by a devil and he has seen this fiend as having thousand noses and horns. Now, when his father began to believe that gods intervened to save his life, he abandons his ill thoughts and exclaims “I do Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University remember now. Henceforth I‟ll bear / Affliction till it do cry out itself / „Enough, enough‟ and die” (4.6.75-77).

Gloucester‟s belief in gods is further strengthened by his sudden encounter by the mad Lear who appears sporting crown of wild flowers on his head. Lear mixes rational and irrational things in his conversation with Gloucester. This conversation between these two old men, one mad while other blind, portrays the extreme pain and suffering in this world. This sad episode creates much pathos and gloom in the minds of audience and readers. The gory sight of this event makes Edgar who listens to them

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Exploration of Sufism in King Lear and stands nearby to wish to have not seen it. When a gentleman and some attendants who are sent by Cordelia to bring his father come to take him, he runs away. Edgar asks this gentleman about both the armies of France and England. He informs Edgar that the French army has reached but it is waiting for Cordelia‟s order to proceed as she has gone on a special cause to search her mad father. He also informs Edgar that the English army is rapidly approaching and they can reach there any moment. This tragic encounter further improves Gloucester‟s faith in gods and so he says “You ever gentle gods, take my breath from me; / Let no my worser spirit tempt me again / To die before you please” (4.6.213-215).

After watching Lear‟s misery, Gloucester realizes that his pain and suffering is not comparable to those of Lear. He develops strength to cope with his harsh situation but after some time he starts again to be in ill thoughts. As it is declared by Regan that who will kill the blind Gloucester will be rewarded a prize, Oswald, Goneril‟s loyal servant, sees him and considers him to be a good opportunity to get wealth. He tries to procure this declared prize by killing the old and blind Gloucester. When he comes near to kill him, Gloucester asks him to murder him so that he can get rid of his misery and pain. Once again, he is protected by disguised Edgar from Oswald as well as from his ill thought of committing suicide. Gloucester, as it has been earlier pointed out, is a representative of Everyman of morality plays. As Everyman begins to contemplate to commit suicide when he or she found himself or herself in harsh circumstances, likewise, Gloucester reacts to his difficult situation. It is only his noble saint like son, Edgar, who always saves him from despair. Both Gloucester and Edgar are suffering from more or less equal difficult circumstances but the latter never loses his hope and belief in gods. It seems that Edgar has developed this firm and unshakable faithMaulana in gods during Azad his Library, exile. Aligarh Muslim University

Edgar‟s strong faith in gods is apparent when he is able to maintain it while Cordelia led French army has been retreated by the English forces and it appears that there is no escape from being captured by them. When he informs his father that Lear and Cordelia have been arrested and the French forces have been routed, Gloucester again starts to indulge in despair and loses his wish to live any more. Edgar again preaches to his father that humans should be ready to endure what is sent to them by gods. He emphasized that they were sent to this world without asking them of their wishes and they will also be called back without asking them of their wishes. Edgar 102

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear preaches his father the commonplace that life and death are beyond one‟s control, so, one should be ready to bear patiently whatever comes to him/her and never complain about it. Edgar exhorts this moral lesson in a very memorable and emotive style “Men must endure / Their going hence even their coming hither. / Ripeness is all” (5.2.9- 11).

Edgar never loses hope in gods‟ dispensation, though; the evil embodied by Edmund, Regan and Goneril appears to be triumphant. It is to be remembered that when Oswald is slain by Edgar, he finds a letter written by Goneril to Edmund in his pocket. Goneril in this letter expresses her love for Edmund and reveals his plot to kill her husband, Albany, so that they can marry with each other. After being aware of this letter, Edgar moves with this letter to meet Albany who has set out to join the battle. Edgar requests the marching Albany to stop and listen to him. He informs him about the plot and the evil intention of Edmund. Therefore, when Edmund comes victoriously from the battle and tries to seize the royal power, he is arrested by Albany. Both Regan and his wife Goneril favour Edmund against Albany. This infuriates Albany and he challenges Edmund that if nobody who is equal to Edmund in birth and status comes to fight him in a single combat, he himself will fight him.

An announcement is made that anybody who is equal to Edmund in his quality and who claims that Edmund is a traitor should come forward to fight him and he must response until the trumpet is blown for the third time. The trumpet is blown thrice and ultimately an armoured person appears from the stationed army. This person is none but Edgar. When he is asked to tell his name, his status and his purpose to fight, he exclaims that Edmund is treacherous and he is as noble as his adversary. But he does not reveal his name and says that he has lost his name. Although Edgar Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University does not reveal his identity, Edmund becomes ready to fight him in a single combat because Edgar appears to be of noble birth through his speech and appearance.

They fight in this duel and finally Edmund is routed and falls down. He asks Edgar to reveal his identity so that he can find some solace in his defeat if he is a noble man by birth. Then, Edgar gets his real identity which he has lost due to malignant design of his brother. He does not only reveal his identity but also justifies the ways of gods to human. He says that he is Edgar and gods are just in their divine dispensation. As in the beginning of the play Edmund raised questions against the

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Exploration of Sufism in King Lear existence of gods and even denied their existence and declared the cruel laws of nature to be his goddess, Edgar gives answers to them in this concluding part of the play. Edgar also justifies the treatment meted out by gods to his father, Gloucester, as his eyes were gouged out. He says that his father lost his eyes because of the adultery which resulted in the birth of Edmund. He speaks out in a very striking manner which finally answers the questions raised upon the divine dispensation in the play:

I am no less in blood than thou art, Edmund;

If more, the more thou‟st wronged me.

My name is Edgar and thy father‟s son.

The gods are just and of our pleasant vices

Make instruments to plague us:

The dark and vicious place where thee he got

Cost him his eyes. (5.3.165-171)

The single combat between Edgar and Edmund symbolizes the battle between the good and the evil. The above mentioned lines clearly point out that the evil can never defeat the good in its ultimate fight. Although it may appear to humans that the evil is proceeding and getting success while the good is being suppressing, ultimately, it will be routed by the good. The final defeat of Edmund on the hands of Edgar also certifies the fact that no matter how much strong, sharp minded, powerful, and handsome the evil is, it will be ultimately defeated by the good. Being evil mars all merits of strength, intellect and richness while being good compensates all the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University demerits of weakness, poverty and hardship. Before his death, Edmund himself accepts this fact that “the wheel is come full circle” (V, iii, 173 page no. 378). He admits it that the evil can thrive but it will be ultimately punished. In the beginning of the play, Edmund mocked at the idea of the wheel of fortune and considered it to be due to the surfeits of humans‟ own behaviour as he did not believe in gods but now he accepts that the gods are just in their dealing with humans and their ways to human can never be questioned.

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If Edgar is a saintly figure in the sub-plot of this play, Cordelia is the saintly woman in the main plot. She is a precious jewel which has been ignorantly thrown away. She is a Christ-like figure in the play. Like Desdemona in Othello, she represents the spirit. In the opening of the first scene, it is indicated that the suitor to her may get larger portion of King Lear‟s empire than her two sisters, Goneril and Regan, because she is the youngest and the most beloved child of the King. She is courted by two princes, the lord of France and the lord of Burgundy. At the outset of the play, King Lear reveals his secret purpose to divide his kingdom among his three daughters in proportion to love they are able to express for their father. King Lear asks for a map of his kingdom and tears its parts representing the regions to allot them to his daughters. Both Goneril and Regan vie with each other to exhibit their profound love for their father and they are successfully rewarded their parts in the kingdom.

But, unlike her sisters, Cordelia cannot falsely express her love for her father. She says that she “cannot heave her heart into her mouth” (1.1.91-92). and her love is more substantial than words. She also says that if she marries a man, half of her love and duty will be claimed by her husband, so, she will never marry and will continue to love and care for her father with full love and duty. She is abhorred and disinherited by her father. King Lear‟s strange behaviour is apparent when his most beloved daughter turned into a loathsome creature just because of the fact that she cannot display her love for him. It becomes clear from Lear‟s strange treatment of Cordelia that the King likes sycophancy and showoff and it is the criteria in his court to get his favour. When she is disinherited, then, the lord of Burgundy shows no interest in taking her as his bride without getting any dowry. But, the lord of France who is taken aback by King Lear‟s hasty and strange decision to disqualify his most beloved youngestMaulana daughter Azadpronounces Library, that she Aligarh herself is Muslim a dowry. UniversityChastising Burgundy and defining the idea of true love, he says “Love‟s not love / When it is mingled with regards that stands / Aloof from the entire point” (1.1.240-242).

The lord of France terms Cordelia as “most rich being poor” (1.1.252 ) and “unprized, precious maid” (1.1.261) and becomes agree to seize upon virtues which have been discarded. He alludes to biblical paradoxes relating to Jesus Christ where he has been described as „having nothing, and yet possessing all things‟. Cordelia is Christ like figure in the play. The banishment of Cordelia symbolizes the crucifixion

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Exploration of Sufism in King Lear of Jesus Christ. Commenting on Cordelia as saintly figure, Martin Lings says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art:

In Cordelia the veil of humanity which hides the Spirit is almost transparent. She is not only incorruptible but also undeceiveable.

I know you what you are;

And like a sister am almost loth to call

Your faults as they are nam‟d,

She says to her sisters in the first scene. She is also, in a sense, unassailable, like an impregnable fortress. While leaving in the world she has a hermit‟s detachment from it. (Lings 75)

Cordelia does not appear after the first Act and first Scene until the Act 4, Scene 3, though few references are made to her during her absence in the play. It is noted that the Fool who is absent in the first Act and the concluding part remains most of times with King Lear during this course of her absence. Actually, both characters of Cordelia and the Fool were played by a single artist, so, it was obligatory on the part of the playwright to avoid a scene which requires both characters at the same time on the stage. Therefore, it is observed in the play that when Cordelia exits with the Lord of France, the Fool comes in the play and when Cordelia again enters with a doctor in the fourth Act, the Fool disappears from the stage.

Although Cordelia is absent throughout this course of action in the play and goes to France, she always keeps herself informed about the condition of her father in England. It comesMaulana to light Azadthrough Library, the secret letterAligarh written Muslim to Gloucester. University When she is informed about the cruel treatment of her sisters with their father, she entreats her husband, the King of France, to send an army with her to protect her father. She asks a physician to cure her father of madness at any cost. The scene where Lear meets Cordelia for the first time after her banishment is full of pathos and poignancy. She always addresses her father as my lord because she believes that he is still the King of the country. When Lear is recovered from his madness, he addresses her in a much pitiful tone:

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You do me wrong to take me out o‟th grave.

Thou art soul in bliss, but I am bound

Upon the wheel of fire that mine own tears

Do scald like molten lead. (4.7.45-48)

Lear supposes that he has died, so, when Cordelia tries to wake him up, he considers her to be a blissful spirit. He envisages that he is suffering as damned soul and she is a happy soul living in heaven. Just like Gloucester, he also wants to end his life because he can no longer suffer pain. But both are revived from their death in a sense to endure more suffering and pain. Both Lear and Gloucester represent Everyman who has been tried to be taken by both forces of good and evil. Good is symbolized by Cordelia, Edgar and Kent while evil is represented by Goneril, Regan, Cornwall, Edmund and Oswald. Lear chooses evil in the shape of his pelican daughters and discards good embodied by Cordelia; therefore, it caused him to suffer. Likewise, Gloucester favours evil symbolized by his bastard son, Edmund, and abandons good represented by his noble son, Edgar; so, it led him to blindness and pain.

Lear assumes himself to be dead and he thinks that now he is being punished in Hell by tying up to a wheel of fire. Actually, this imagery has been derived by Shakespeare from a Greek myth where Ixion is punished by Zeus by tying him to an ever moving wheel of fire due to his wishes to seduce Zeus‟s wife, Juno. After touching himself again and again he realizes that he is still alive and the girl whom he is thinking of a spirit is none but his youngest daughter, Cordelia. He regains his senses and recognizes Cordelia. Although Lear appears to be ashamed of his mistakes he committedMaulana to Cordelia, Azad Library,she never showsAligarh any disdainMuslim to herUniversity father. When both are captured in the battle as the French army is defeated by the British forces led by Edmund, she weeps because she failed to protect her father but her sacrifices are marked by Lear as something reared by gods. Consoling weeping Cordelia, he says “Upon such sacrifices, my Cordelia, / The gods themselves throw incense” (5.3.20- 21)

Cordelia loses her life while protecting her father. Like Jesus Christ‟s sacrifices to redeem humanity from its original sin, her sacrifices are also to protect Lear and to be a compensation for his mistakes. Shakespeare has been highly 107

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear criticized for betraying the expectation of audience and for denying the sense of poetic justice through showing the death of Cordelia. Her death, whose shock can never be properly understood in this age of sadism and mass level violence, sent a wave of intense pain among the audience. The intensity of this shock during that time can be understood by the fact that a playwright, Nahum Tate, wrote the same play with an alteration in which Cordelia did not die at the end of the play. Indeed, the chronicle also certifies Tate‟s ending but Shakespeare heightened the effect of tragedy through hanging of Cordelia. It is clear that he was aware of the chronicle‟s ending but, in fact, he wished to depict the character of Cordelia as a saintly figure or Christ like figure and to fulfill this purpose, it was necessary to show her martyrdom. This interpretation seems to be a probable reason for his deviation from the original story of the chronicle. Apart from heightening the tragic effect on audience, portraying Cordelia as a saintly woman might have been decided by the playwright. This possible interpretation is also supported by many adjectives and words which have been associated with Cordelia throughout the play. These words and adjectives like “most rich being poor”, “soul in bliss” etc. indicates her saintly figure.

As it have been earlier pointed out that Lear and Gloucester are representing common men, they are unaware of themselves. The forces of both good and evil fight with each other to seize upon them. If Lear is the representative of Everyman in the main plot, Gloucester functions the same in the subplot. The main plot is often echoed by the sub-plot. Both are deceived by evil and both abandon good and choose evil in place of good. One becomes mad while other is made blind due to their ignorance. One of the important themes of this play is self-discovery. The play shows Lear‟s self-ignorance in its several scenes. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The play, King Lear, has been interpreted through several perspectives. One of them is the perspective of Nosce teipsum (A Latin phrase meaning „Know thyself‟). It is surprising to learn that Nosce teipsum was one of prevalent debates among the Elizabethans. Montaigne‟s essays were known to Shakespeare and the latter has made many veiled references to his ideas in his plays. Although Montaigne did not write any essay on this particular topic, he could be regarded the first of few who illustrated self-examination in their works. Apart from him, Sir John Davies (1569-1626) wrote his most famous poem, Nosce Teipsum, in 1599. This poem written on the topic of self-discovery got so much acclamation from people and King James I (1566-1625) 108

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear that the poet was promoted to a higher position in Ireland. Philippe de Mornay‟s (1549-1623) The True Knowledge of a Man’s Owne Selfe which was translated by Anthony Munday in 1602 and John Frith‟s (1503-1533) A Mirrour or Glasse to Know Thyselfe published in 1533 were other two significant books written on the subject of self-discovery. Lear‟s utterance at shocking and surprising response of Goneril about hooliganism of his retinue as “Who is it that can tell me who I am?” (1.4.221) makes a reference to this subject which was well known in the Elizabethan England. It is crystal clear that self-discovery is an evident theme of this play. But the question is what is self-discovery or self-knowledge? Should it be interpreted mere Lear‟s recognition of error in his judgment as assumed by other than theologically oriented critics or should it be interpreted something more comprehensive and significant? The Renaissance writings on the subject support the latter interpretation.

It is generally accepted that two things make self-discovery difficult for a human- pride and flattery. King Lear appears to be possessed by both. He seems to be much arrogant and violent when he appears in the first scene. Besides being proud and violent, Lear is fond of sycophancy. He remained unaware of himself until his old age because flatterers always made him realize that he was always right, though, he several times happened to be wrong. He is kept unaware of himself by false admiration of his daughters, Goneril and Regan. Probably, this is the reason that when he is tried to be corrected by Cordelia, he considers her act as insolence and unkind. He confuses flattery with love and obedience. Lear has been so much accustomed to self-love and cajolery that he has become completely blind to see differences between his well-wishers and mere sycophants. The loyal servant of King Lear, Kent, faces his wrath when he pleads with him to review his decision of disinheriting Cordelia. Lear considersMaulana Kent‟s this Azad act as Library, disobedience Aligarh and contempt Muslim to his University authority. Kent is exiled from his kingdom yet he disguises himself to serve him better. Lear realizes his mistake which is fondness of self-love and flattery. When he is discarded by both of his daughters, Goneril and Regan and casted away to wander in the open sky to face the storm, he undergoes a series of afflictions to realize his errors and misjudgment. Talking to Gloucester who has been blinded due to his own errors, he says:

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear

wind to make me chatter; when the thunder would not peace at my bidding, there I found „em, there I smelt „em out. Go to, they are not men o‟their words: they told me I was everything; „‟tis a lie, I am not ague-proof. (4.6.96- 104)

The irony to be noted here is that Lear could never realize his mistakes when he was sane or he was considered to be sane. He is able to recognize his errors only after he becomes insane or he appears to be insane. Here, the irony is that when one is ignorant of one‟s self, he/she is considered as sane by people but when he or she becomes aware of himself or herself, he/she becomes no longer normal and sane in the eyes of the people. Lear‟s blindness to his mistakes and to his Self is echoed in the sub-plot. The blindness of Gloucester in the sub-plot may be a covert indication to Lear‟s self-blindness to see distinction between good and evil. Apart from having fondness of sycophancy, he appears to be very proud and arrogant in his behaviour. His intense anger at Cordelia when she does not flatter him in exhibiting her love for him is a witness to his tall pride and arrogance. He compares his own daughter to the barbarous Scythians who were stereotypically assumed to eat the flesh of their own children. His prompt identification of his most beloved daughter with a legendary savage race depicts his pride and arrogance. Kent‟s instant banishment from his kingdom due to his sympathy for her further strengthens this argument. He asks him to “come not between the dragon and his wrath!” (1.1.122) The passion and emotion dominates King Lear from the very beginning of the play. The emotion of wrath and anger completely eclipses his reasoning. The capability to control one‟s passion and emotion through his/her faculty of reasoning is the most required thing in the way towards discovery of self. It is widely accepted logic that nobody can be aware of his/her self unlessMaulana he/she Azadmust be Library, capable enough Aligarh to regulate Muslim his/her University emotions. It is observed in the play that King Lear is completely overwhelmed by his one of four humors, choler. This perfusing choler which is further added by the infirmity of his age prevents Lear from the realization of his self.

Lear has never known himself. It is discussed by Regan with Goneril, after the dismissal of Cordelia. After being startled by the strange decision of their father to disinherit Cordelia, both Goneril and Regan talk about this sudden change in his behaviour. Regan explains his behavior as it is due to “‟Tis the infirmity of his age, yet he hath ever but slenderly known himself” (1.1.294-95). The question of self is 110

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear again repeated by Lear himself when he is offended by Goneril as she asks him to change his whimsical behaviour. Feeling insulted by such remarks of Goneril, Lear surprisingly says:

Does any here know me? Why, this is not Lear.

Does Lear walk thus, speak thus? Where are his eyes?

Either his notion weakens, or his discernings are

Lethargied- Ha! Sleeping or waking sure „tis not so.

Who is it that can tell me who I am? (1.4.217-221)

Lear is so much shaken by such rebuke of Goneril that he thinks that it is a dream and not a reality. He never faced such humiliation in his life. The quotations mentioned above also indicate that he was so much accustomed to flattery and self-love that he could never get any opportunity to know himself. The only way to get rid of self-love and pride is affliction. First, one has to be purged from self-love and pride through affliction and only then he/she is able to get self-knowledge. According to Renaissance treatises on the subject of self-knowledge which Shakespeare seems to follow in his plays, after overpowering passion and emotion and making a balance between body and mind, one has to undergo pain and affliction to be completely purified from the infirmities of the soul; only after that one will be able to get the knowledge of his/her self. Elaborating this same point in his book, Lear’s Self- Discovery (1967) Paul A. Jorgensen (1916-2000) says:

If flattery and pride make self-knowledge especially difficult, it is to be Maulanaexpected- and Azad the treatisesLibrary, grimly Aligarh confirm Muslim this fact University- that the surest guide to self-knowledge is affliction. John Davies of Hereford, we recall, had said:

Then sith the Prowd doe never looke so low

That skill nere comes but with their overthrow.

Affliction, heads (I, 36) makes “us know our selves at the first sight/ And bring‟st us to our selves, our selves to see. (Jorgensen 18-19)

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Lear‟s penance starts with the disinheritance of Cordelia and the banishment of Kent. He is ridiculed by the Fool several times in the play. He is even denied his identity by the Fool as he calls him Lear‟s shadow. Lear‟s authority is flouted even by a servant of Goneril, Oswald. He is asked by his mistress to pay no heed and to show disrespect to the commands of her father. His newly hired servant, Kent, who is actually in disguise to serve his master better, is kept in stocks by Cornwall and Regan. Lear‟s retinue is reduced from hundred to only fifty knights. The number is further tried to be decreased to twenty five, then to five, and then to none. Lear‟s full penance can be noted when the doors of Gloucester‟s castle are shut on him by both of his pelican daughters at the time of raging storm. Lear alongwith his Fool and Kent wanders in the open sky having no shelter to cover his head.

If this play generally reflects the world‟s cruelty and disrespect towards old and weak people, it also specifically shows Lear‟s purgation from his self-love and pride. After the abdication of royal power and the division of his kingdom among his daughters, he, for the first time, began to learn patience during the period of his suffering and pain. He struggles to stop his hysteria which has been his defining characteristic in the beginning of the play. He tries to control his hysteria when he is informed by disguised Kent about Regan‟s cold response to his letter. He was always in the clutch of this hysteria and it can be observed in his sudden change of mood in the case of the disinheritance of Cordelia and the sudden banishment of Kent. But, now he begins to realize his hysteria. After being informed of the cold response of Regan, he struggles to suppress his hysteria. He says “O, how this mother swells up toward my heart! / Hysteria passio, down, thou climbing sorrow, / Thy emement‟s below” (2.2.246-48). Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Lear seems to be misogynist in his speeches later on as he compares women to centaurs, having their above half of human and the lower half of fiend beneath their girdle. This misogynist remark is not the opinion of the playwright but it is from an old man who has received a harsh treatment from his cruel daughters. This remark seems to be natural and much expected from a man harshly treated by women. Lear appears to be so much disgruntled by their treatment that he cannot resort to shedding of tears because it is women‟s weapon. During the time of distress, Lear chooses rage instead of tear as his tears appear to him like molten lead dropping on his body. He accepts the healing power of tears only after his restoration to sanity and 112

Exploration of Sufism in King Lear reconciliation with Cordelia. He struggles to maintain his patience even during the storm scene. Commenting upon Lear‟s efforts to keep himself calm despite mistreatment meted out to him by his pelican daughters in his book, Lear’s Self- Discovery, Jorgensen says:

His struggle to remain “patient”, even when he is rapidly receiving blow after blow to his pride and very identity, is one of his most remarkable achievements. Exhausted and bewildered as he is refused admission to Gloucester‟s castle, he succeeds in checking his hysterical rage while he tries to analyze what may be the cause of emotion in himself as well as the cause of heartlessness in Regan and Cornwall. (Jorgensen 36-37)

One thing that Lear learns through his harsh circumstances is that only patience can save him from becoming mad. Due to his difficult situation, he is always afraid of becoming insane. During the harsh conversation with his daughters when they do not agree to accommodate him and his retinue in their home, he struggles to cope with grief and pain through patience. He invokes gods to bestow upon him patience. Lear says “But for true need- / You heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!” (2.2.459-60). During the raging storm, he wanders with his bald head in the open sky. He is requested by the disguised Kent and the Fool to enter a hovel but he does not become ready to do so because the storm in his mind is mightier than the storm in the weather. Negating Kent‟s and the Fool‟s suggestion to take a shelter from this bad weather, Lear wants to become an example of patience as he says “No, I will be the pattern of all patience, / I will say nothing” (3.2.37-38). He does not want to enter the hovel because the raging storm distracts him from reflecting upon his tough circumstances. As the storm in his mind is stronger than the actual storm, he knows it Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University well that if he enters the hovel, he will begin to think of his deplorable plight and it will ultimately result in his madness. In fact, the raging storm has been employed as a symbol to depict the internal storm in the mind of Lear. He asks Kent and the Fool to not force him to enter this shelter. He says to them:

This tempest in my mind

Doth from my senses take all feeling else,

Save what beats there, filial ingratitude.

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Is it not as this mouth should tear this hand

For lifting food to‟t? (3.4.12-16)

He justifies his stay in the open sky by saying “Prithee go in thyself, seek thine own ease. / This tempest will not give me leave to ponder / On things would hurt me more” (3.4. 23-25). But, ultimately, Lear enters the hovel not to protect himself from the storm but to save his two companions from it. He knows that until he does not enter, they will also not go inside. Probably, for the first time, Lear moves from his self-love to care for other people whom he had forgotten due to his excessive pride and arrogance. Upon entering the hovel, he thinks of naked and poor people of his kingdom, crawling like worms on the earth. He realizes his faults and shortcomings during the governance of his kingdom as he did not make proper shelter houses for poor people so that they could take rest and protect themselves during the bad weather. He accepts that he did not pay any heed to take care of his poor subject and remained indulged in pomp and pride. Now, he begins to realize his mistakes in the past. This is his first step in the direction of the self-discovery. Envisaging the poor of his country, Lear accepts his mistakes. He says:

Poor naked wretches, wheresoe‟er you are,

That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,

How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,

Your looped and windowed raggedness, defend you

From seasons such as these? Take physic, pomp, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel,

That thou mayst shake the superflux to them

And show the heavens more just. (3.4.28-36)

Probably, for the first time, Lear‟s attention is shifted from his self-care to the problems of other people living in his country. During the long tenure of his monarchy, he could never realize his responsibilities and duties as a king. But when he undergoes affliction and pain, he begins to acknowledge others‟ sufferings.

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Actually, affliction is a process through which pride and self-love are cured and without undergoing this process, no proud and selfish person can achieve his/her self- knowledge. After meeting the disguised Edgar in the hovel, he develops an understanding of the problems of the poor. Although his mind has endured much sorrow and pain due to the cruel behaviour of his daughters, his attention is shifted from his own problems to the problems of others. Lear becomes mad and talks both sense and nonsense when he happens to meet blind Gloucester and the disguised Edgar. Edgar sorrowfully terms Lear‟s conversation as “O matter and impertinency mixed, / Reason in madness” (4.6.170-71). Now, Lear appears to be more worried about the problems of other people, though, he has lost his sanity. Probably, he can better feel their pain due to the experience of his personal grief. Lear says of poor people:

Through tattered clothes great vices do appear;

Robes and furred gowns hide all. Plate sin with gold,

And the strong lance of justice hurtles breaks;

Arm it in rags, a pigmy‟s straw does pierce it. (4.6.160-63)

Despite his insanity, Lear seems to be aware of humans‟ foolishness. He realizes the fact that humans are ignorant of their selves. Lear characterizes the whole of world as the great stage of fools. Lear comments on the human ignorance as “When we are born we cry that we are come / To this great stage of fools” (4.6.178-179). The blind Gloucester who mournfully listens to his conversation mixed with wisdom and madness recognizes the voice of his King. He wishes to kiss his hands but Lear respondsMaulana him “Let Azad me wipe Library, it first, Aligarh it smells ofMuslim mortality” University (4.6.129). This above quoted line is much significant from the Sufic point of view. Lear seems to talk about wiping out complete sins from his hands. First he realizes his sins and then he tries to clean himself from all sins- big and small. Commenting upon this remark of Lear, Ling says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art:

This remark contains not only the very essence of the play but also of most of Shakespeare‟s other maturer plays; for in the course of them what does Shakespeare do but wipe away mortality, that is, the sin of Adam, from the

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hand of the hero? The hand must be altogether clean: there is no question of more or less. (Lings 19)

In conclusion it can be said that the pattern of three Sufic stages: the awakening of the Self, the purification of the Self and then finally the illumination of the Self, is apparent in the play. First, Lear becomes conscious of his sins and it starts with his repentance as he did nothing to take care of his poor subjects and then, he intends to wipe out his sins before his hands are kissed by Gloucester and ultimately, he reaches the stage of illumination when he, though politically and economically reduced to nothing, becomes a uniquely invaluable person with his increasing awareness of the Self and now he really deserves something which the whole world with its pomp and power is unable to dispense. He deserves such a place of peace and calm which is beyond precincts of this cruel world. Kent‟s final tribute to his master indicates it. He says “Vex not his ghost; O, let him pass. He hates him / That would upon the rack of this tough world / Stretch him out longer.” (5.3.312-314)

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Works Cited

Butler, F. G. “Who are King Lear's Philosophers? An answer, with Some Help from Erasmus.” English Studies, vol. 67, no. 6, 1986, pp. 511.

Heilman, R. B. This Great Stage: Image and Structure in King Lear. World Public

Library, 1948.

Lings, Martin. The Secret of Shakespeare: His Greatest Plays Seen in the Light of the

Sacred Art. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1996.

Matar, Nabil. Islam in Britain 1558-1685. Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Montaigne, Michel de. Montaigne's Essays. Translated by John Florio, Everyman‟s

Library, 1904.

Jorgensen, Paul A. Lear’s Self-Discovery. University of California Press. 1967.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Ann Thompson and Neil Taylor, The Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

---. King Lear. Edited by R. A. Foakes, The Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

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Chapter 4

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet Chapter 4

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

The play, Hamlet, is apparently a revenge tragedy written probably as the first modern psychological tragedy of its type. No play of Shakespeare focuses as much as the concerned play does on the psychological examination of its protagonist. The play is also remarkable from the point of view that unlike his other equal great tragedies like King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth; it is dominated by the eponymous character rather than its plot, setting and theme. A large number of lines in the play have been uttered by Hamlet alone. Apart from it, not two or three but seven soliloquies have been employed to reveal the inner working of Hamlet‟s mind to the audience. The play seemingly raises the issue of revenge which was a burning topic during the medieval and Renaissance Europe. Structured and informed by the opinion of Christianity on the issue of revenge, it appears to be guided by the medieval notion about revenge. It seems to repudiate the Renaissance outcry for taking revenge. The play contains Christian motifs and themes and several allusions have been made to the Bible and other spiritual traditions in its several places.

Before indicating the Sufic motifs and themes in the play, it is pertinent to comment upon its dramatic exposition. The play begins with two sentinels talking to each other while keeping a tight vigil on the boundaries of Denmark. In the beginning of the performance of this play, these two men appear as tiny figures in the background of the large and wide structure of the palace. This very first image of the play implicitlyMaulana indicates Azad theLibrary, insignificance Aligarh of Muslim human beings. University This image will be explicitly displayed in the last Act of the play. The conversation between these two sentinels points out to some unusual event which seems to have occurred during their duty of vigils in previous nights. This unusual event which first appears to be a rumour is further confirmed by Horatio as he asks Barnardo about its reoccurrence. Horatio remains skeptic about it unless he himself happens to see the ghost through his own eyes.

The first important point to note here is that the play begins with the introduction of a ghost which is a well-known feature of a revenge tragedy. The ghost 118

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet is of the dead King Hamlet who is believed to have died a few days before due to the biting of a poisonous viper. The ghost is featured as wearing the same armour that was sported by King Hamlet when he routed the King of Norway. When it is reported to the prince Hamlet who comes from Wittenberg in Germany to Denmark to mourn the sad demise of his beloved father, he becomes curious to know about this strange event. The ghost informs prince Hamlet of the foul murder of his father by his uncle, Claudius, to claim the throne of Denmark and the Queen, his mother. Prince Hamlet‟s hostility towards King Claudius at the beginning of the play is further increased through the ghost‟s revelation of his murder. The ghost urges Hamlet to take of his revenge but pleads with him to leave his mother to be punished by her conscience and by the heaven. The ghost prevents him to take any forceful action against his mother. What the ghost is emphasizing upon is that Hamlet must “Let not the royal bed of Denmark be / A couch for luxury and damned incest” (1.5.82-83). Incest rather than throne seems to be a primary reason for which the ghost motivates Hamlet to take revenge. The marriage between Claudius and Gertrude is termed by the ghost as incest.

According to Christian laws of marriage, a man is not permitted to marry the widow of his brother. But King Henry viii (1491-1547) managed to get the papal sanction to marry Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), the widow of his elder brother, Prince Arthur (1486-1502). Later on, King Henry viii began to court Anne Boleyn (1501-1536), the mother of the future Queen Elizabeth I, because Catherine could not give birth to a baby boy. He cited his marriage to Catherine as incestuous because she happened to be the wife of his late brother. As the English history records this event that his insistence on his second marriage caused grave disagreement between him and the Pope,Maulana Clement VII Azad (1478 Library,-1534), which Aligarh ultimately Muslim resulted University in breaking away of England from Roman Catholicism and led to the supremacy of the King and to the English Reformation. It seems highly probable that Shakespeare intended to make Queen Elizabeth I delighted and happy through portraying the marriage between Claudius and Gertrude as incestuous because King Henry viii also cited the Christian laws to annul his marriage to Catherine and termed it unlawful and incestuous. This appears to be a likely reason for Shakespeare to make more emphasis on incest rather than on the crown to achieve royal favour.

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It is noteworthy that the play is apparently dominated by the theme of a tyrant usurping the throne from a rightful king or from its rightful heir but it is still overshadowed by the theme of incest. Undoubtedly, this is the point which makes the play different from Shakespeare‟s other plays having the identical theme of a tyrant usurping the throne from a rightful king, for example, Macbeth, Richard II and Richard III. In the dramatic exposition of the play, Hamlet appears to be mournful. He prolongs the days of his mourning. Unlike others at the court, he still wears the black attire to mark the death of his father. His grief and sorrow are further enhanced by the hasty marriage of his mother. Before the revelation of the ghost about the foul murder of his father, he appears to doubt his uncle‟s action. The first sentence which he utters in response to the King‟s kind and endearing words declaring him as his son shows his resentment. He responds to the King with a proverb. He says “A little more than kin, and less than kind” (1.2.65). This proverb which is Hamlet‟s first line in the play says that a nearer relative to one is often less kind to him. The King exclaims his excessive love for him as a father and as an uncle but Hamlet seems to be doubtful of his claim.

Since centuries, Hamlet has been subjected to multiple interpretations causing some 400 books, articles, and essays being written on this play every year. No play of Shakespeare invited so much criticism as this play did. The reason for such numbers of interpretations is sought in the confusing character of prince Hamlet. Here in this play, the character of Hamlet rather than his action has been the bone of contention among the critics and commentators. The whole of action in the play rises due to the murder of King Hamlet which happens offstage. The main focus of the play is on the protagonist‟s resolution to take the revenge of the murder of his father. Differentiating betweenMaulana Hamlet and Azad Shakespeare‟s Library, other Aligarh tragedies, Muslim A C Bradley University (1851-1935) says in his book, Shakespearean Tragedy (1904) “In Hamlet, though we have a villain, he is small one. The murder which gives rise to the action lies outside the play, and the centre of attention within the play lies in the hero‟s efforts to do his duty”. (Bradley 66)

There are five major themes which one finds in Shakespeare‟s plays. These five themes are related to the medieval life, usurpation of a crown, dueling and feuds, overenthusiastic pursuit and protection of honour, nations going to war over petty disputes, and taking hasty revenge. Almost all of these five themes can be found in 120

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet this play. One can read Claudius‟s usurpation of the throne, the duel between Hamlet and Laertes, the latter‟s overzealous pursuit to protect the honour of his sister, Ophelia, Fortinbras‟ Norwegian army marching to fight the Polish forces over a small piece of land, and finally Hamlet‟s resolution to sweep to the revenge of the murder of his father. At the very outset of the play, it is significant to note that prince Hamlet is an outstandingly moral man. Although he is not aware of his father‟s foul murder, he shows his displeasure at his mother‟s hasty marriage to his brother-in-law on the moral grounds. Nobody in the court has enough morality and potential to question it. Hamlet is not happy with the hasty marriage of his mother, though, he also does not like his uncle to replace his father. It is this hasty marriage which torments his soul. His mother seems to be the primary object of his anger at the starting of the play. It is a possible reason for his misogynistic comments he made in the view of this marriage. In his first soliloquy, he vents his anger at his mother:

That it should come thus:

But two months dead- nay not so much, not two-

So excellent a king, that was to this

Hyperion to satyr, so loving to my mother

That he might not beteem the winds of heaven

Visit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth,

Must I remember? Why, she should hang on him

As if increase of appetite had grown Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University By what it fed on. And yet within a month

(Let me not think on‟t- Frailty, thy name is Woman),

A little month, or e‟er those shoes were old

With which she followed my poor father‟s body,

Like Niobe, all tears. (1. 2.138-149)

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In the above quoted extract from the play, Hamlet laments on the quickness with which his father has been forgotten by his mother. Indeed, it was inappropriate on the moral ground to get married just after a short period of her first husband‟s death. Apart from it, Hamlet is also seen objecting to the tradition of heavy drinking in the court. He deplores the custom of heavy drinking in his country as it brings shame to it in the eyes of other nations. It is noteworthy that young princes are known by their general characteristics of heavy drinking and merry-making, but he is distinguished from the general habits of young princes. Although this is the custom of his country, he does not like it. He says to his friend Horatio that due to this bad custom in Denmark, they are called by bad names as drunkard by the people of other countries. His high morality can be known through his detestation of even those evil traditions which are in his own country. His moral and spiritual consciousness can be estimated from his statement that a slight mixture of evil with a large body of good can turn it into its own disgrace. In other words, he is asserting the fact that virtue must be pure and uncontaminated even by the slightest evil. Elaborating upon this fact, he says “the dram of eale (Evil) / Doth all the noble substance of a doubt / To his own scandal” (1.4.36-38). It is justifiable to make this notion that before the revelation of the ghost, the playwright has tried to establish the character of prince Hamlet as high moral and spiritual man of his time. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) has also remarked about Hamlet being of a high moral character. There is no objection in accepting this fact that he is spiritually as well as intellectually superior to other people of his country. So, there is no problem in proposing the argument that he is morally higher than other people of his time.

But the painstaking question arises that why he is not able to take the revenge at the Maulanaearliest when Azad he is soLibrary, sure of the Aligarh foul murder Muslim of his Universityfather? Had he promptly acted upon the revelation of the ghost, the seven murders would have been prevented. His indecisiveness caused a march of death in the last Act of the play. Apart from the main villain, Claudius, old diplomat Polonius, obedient Ophelia, two snooping friends of prince Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, the Queen, Gertrude, the fiery Laertes and the prince Hamlet himself, all are dead at the conclusion of the play. If Hamlet did not delay his revenge, seven lives could have been saved. One simple answer to this question can be given that, in fact, this has been designed so by the playwright to heighten the tragic effect of the play and if Hamlet had quickly

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Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet proceeded with his revenge, the play would have suddenly come to an end. But, still Hamlet‟s indecisiveness demands some deeper understanding of his characterization through which Shakespeare seems to give some spiritual lessons to his audience. This argued notion will extensively help in understanding the complexities and sometimes seemingly confusing nature of this complex character. First, the characterization of Hamlet should be discussed.

When one sees Hamlet for the first time in the play, he/she finds him to be inwardly sad. Although other characters are happy in Denmark, only Hamlet is looking very sad. He has prolonged the period of mourning. He still wears black clothes to mark the demise of his father. When he is alone on the stage, he reveals his inward sadness which is reflecting his outer self. His misery and mental pain can be easily known through his first soliloquy. Expressing his painful mood, Hamlet says:

O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,

Thaw and resolve itself into a dew!

Or that the Everlasting had not fix'd

His canon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God! O God!

How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable

Seem to me all the uses of this world!

Fie on't! ah fie I 'tis an unweeded garden,

That grows to seed; things rank and gross in nature Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Possess it merely. (1.2.129-137)

The reason for his mental agony and pain is the death of his father and then the hasty marriage of his mother to his uncle, Claudius, whom he dislikes. Hamlet wants to leave Denmark so that his mental suffering may be reduced. With this objective, he shows his intention to go back to Wittenberg in Germany to continue his study but he is forced by his mother to stay with her at Denmark. This is to note that before the emergence of the ghost, Hamlet is suffering from an inner wound in his soul. He is sick in soul. But this agony is further enhanced by the revelation of the ghost that his

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Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet father has been murdered by his uncle. Now, one thing which can save Hamlet from this severest pain is that he should forget all these incidents and try to live a new life by considering the whole narration of the ghost as false and baseless. One of the central ironies of the play is that he needs forgetfulness to feel normal; however, the ghost enjoins him that he must remember him. It is remarkable to note the ironic meaning in the last sentence of the departing ghost. The ghost enjoins him “Adieu, adieu! Hamlet, remember me” (1.5.91). Now, the only thing which can restore him to his normal status is his profound love for Ophelia. After the death of his father and disloyalty of his mother, only her love can create a meaning in his meaningless life. But this last hope is also taken from him because obeying her father‟s command, she refuses to meet him. Therefore, Hamlet has no option left and he is alone in the journey of his mental pain.

While analysing the character of Hamlet, generally two theories are put forth; one, he is suffering from some neurosis problems or from some malaise while the other is that he is caught between some moral dilemma as between taking prompt action and ideal thought. It has been observed in this play that it successfully depicts the conflict between irresponsible emotions which cause to take hasty revenge and spiritual and morally correct decision. The play portrays the triumph of spirituality over the crude emotions till just before the conclusion of the play. Unlike other characters like Lear, Othello, and Macbeth who are guided by their emotions to take their decisions, Hamlet is led by his moral and spiritual traits while thinking to take the revenge of his father. It is noticeable that whenever he is caught by his severe emotion, he instantly resolves to take his revenge. In the first Act, he is completely overpowered by his emotions when the ghost of his father reveals the story of his foul murderMaulana by his uncle. Azad He becomesLibrary, so Aligarhagitated that Muslim he intends University to take his revenge as early as possible. After the disappearance of the ghost, Hamlet says in high rage:

O all you host of heaven, O earth- what else?-

And shall I couple hell? O fie! Hold, hold, my heart,

And you, my sinew, grow not instant old

But bear me swiftly up. Remember thee?

Ay, thou poor ghost, whiles memory holds a seat 124

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

In this distracted globe. Remember thee?

Yea, from the table of my memory

I‟ll wipe away all trivial fond records,

All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past

That youth and observation copied there

And thy commandment all alone shall live

Within the book and volume of my brain

Unmixed with baser matter. (1.5.91-103)

Shakespeare has vividly portrayed the psychological working of Hamlet‟s mind. As a normal human being, he is moved by the ghost‟s revelation and his reason is eclipsed by his emotion. Instantly, he makes revenge the only purpose of his life. He wants to take the revenge at the earliest. But it is seen that he begins to lack this firm resolution; he appears to be incapable of taking revenge. The critics have given several reasons for his delay in taking revenge. One of the possible reasons is the external difficulties as he is waiting for a suitable time in which he can kill his uncle because he is a king and so is escorted by many security forces. It is not easy to kill a king while he is being protected by his security men.

Although this reason appears to be good to argue and justify the delay of Hamlet in taking the revenge, it does not fit his state of mind as he is weary of his mortal life. He sees the world as “unweeded garden” (1.2.135). He shows several times his desireMaulana to put an Azadend to hisLibrary, earthly li Aligarhfe by committing Muslim suicide University but he cannot do it because it has been prohibited by God. Apart from it, he never mentions in his soliloquies any external hurdle in avenging the murder of his father. It appears logically justifiable that if he is weary of his earthly life after the ghost‟s revelation and had suicide been not prohibited by God, he earnestly would have put an end to his mortal life; it is not a difficult task for a prince like him to avenge. It is easier to understand in this age of militancy where desperate people can kill anybody despite being guarded by well-equipped forces through suicide attacks. Besides this, in the capacity of being a prince, he has a free access to meet the King and the Queen; he

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Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet can easily accomplish the injunctions of the spirit of his father. Despite all these, if Hamlet does not promptly act upon his promises made to the ghost, the reason seems to be other than the external difficulties.

The other reason which has been given by the critics for Hamlet‟s delay in avenging the murder of his father is that he is very humble and submissive and to murder somebody is beyond his power. They stressed that although he promises the ghost of his father to take revenge, later on, he realizes that he is unable to murder someone much less his own uncle because it is beyond his frail nature. According to A. C. Bradley, this idea of humble nature of Hamlet has been presented by Goethe; he has portrayed Hamlet as a romantic young Werther. Bradley has refuted this opinion as it will amount to deny the status of hero to Hamlet in the play. This sentimental view of Hamlet has been strongly rejected by him while analysing Hamlet‟s indecisiveness in taking the revenge in his book, Shakespearean Tragedy. This cause for the delay is not supported by the text of the play as well. This theory of Hamlet‟s frail nature can be abandoned while watching a few scenes of the play reflecting his courage and valiance. One sees that Hamlet has been portrayed by the playwright as a young and strong prince. In the very first Act, he has courage enough to trail the steps of the ghost alone, though his friends warn him of danger in doing so. He appears to be fearless while talking to the ghost. Another scene showing his courage is that when he outwits old Polonius through his feigned madness. Hamlet makes him believe that he is love-sick. He also successfully devises a play, the mousetrap scene, before the King to read his expression and to verify the statement of the ghost. When he sees that Claudius has suddenly left the play, he follows him but unfortunately, Claudius is at prayer at this time; and if he kills him during his prayer, it will unintentionally lead to helpingMaulana the murderer Azad of hisLibrary, father becauseAligarh it willMuslim directly University send him to Paradise. Watching Claudius at his prayer, Hamlet says:

Now might

I do it pat, now a' is a-praying—

And now I willdo't, [he draws his sword] and so a' goes to heaven,

And so am I revenged. That would be scanned:

A villain kills my father, and for that 126

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

1 his sole son do this same villain send

To heaven....

"Why, this is bait and salary, not revenge.

A' took my father grossly, full of bread,

"With all his crimes broad blown, as flush as May,

And how his audit stands who knows save heaven?

But in our circumstance and course of thought,

Tis heavy with him: and am I then revenged

To take him in the purging of his soul,

When he is fit and seasoned for his passage?

No. (he sheathes his sword)

Up, sword, and know thou a more horrid hent,

When he is drunk asleep, or in his rage,

Or in th'incestuous pleasure of his bed,

At game, a-swearing, or about some act

That has no relish of salvation in't,

Then trip him that his heels may kick at heaven, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University And that his soul may be as damned and black

As hell whereto it goes; my mother stays,

This physic but prolongs thy sickly days, (he passes on) (3.3.73-96)

Hamlet himself explains that why does not he kill the murderer of his father at this time as it will ultimately give him profit and he will be forgiven of his sins. Hamlet is leaving the king this time not due to his frail and weak nature but this time seems not suitable to kill him. He spares him till the time when he will be indulging in drinking 127

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet and incestuous act, so that; his soul may directly go to Hell. Hamlet‟s argument cannot be considered as his excuse to justify the theory of indecisiveness and frail nature because he rushes to kill the person who hides himself behind an arras to eavesdrop on the conversation between the Queen Gertrude and Hamlet in the Closet Scene. He considers this hidden person to be Claudius and moves his sword through the arras but unfortunately, this person happens to be Polonius. This Closet scene of the play dispels the theory of Hamlet‟s indecisiveness because the prince amlet has enough courage to kill the murderer of his father; and this is why when he mistakenly thinks this eavesdropping and hidden person to be the King who is in the incestuous act as he is in his mother‟s chamber, he storms to kill this person who, unfortunately, happens to be Polonius.

There are also other scenes which help us rejecting the romantic theory of projecting Hamlet as weak and frail Werther. Hamlet becomes ready to fight with Laertes in a duel in the last Act, though the latter is considered as the best and well trained at rapier. Prior to this scene, he also fights with him in Ophelia‟s grave. Hamlet‟s fighting with pirates at their ship in the voyage scene, and outwitting Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in sending them to England for their waiting death; all these events reflect Hamlet‟s ability and courage to avenge the murder of his father. These are a few illustrations to show his courage and valiance. So, to claim weakness and fragility to be the reason for Hamlet‟s delay in taking the revenge seems to be unaided by the logic. Commenting upon this theory of Hamlet as weak and frail, Abdulla Al-Dabbagh says in his book, Shakespeare, the Orient and the Critics (2010):

It is a common cliché that Hamlet was incapable of acting which has come down to us from the romantic critics, especially the German critics, and then Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University by the way of Goethe and Coleridge down to the modern psychological critics, who ascribe it to a subconscious impediment, that is simplified thus in the minds of common readers, as the blurb to the famous Olivier film version of the play says: Hamlet is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind.

This, in fact, is one of the most notorious misreadings of the play. If anything, Hamlet is not the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind, but of one who all too decisively faced and accepted his destiny. (Dabbagh 71)

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The most reasonable factor which convincingly reasons out Hamlet‟s delay appears to be in his internal difficulties. Although the internal difficulties have also been refuted by Bradley to be a reason for his delay, the text of the play supports it in several places. It is Hamlet‟s spiritual consciousness which always prevents him from taking his personal revenge. His spirituality and morality are further marked by two foil characters, Fortinbras and Laertes. Both of these characters suffer from the same problem as the fathers of both are murdered. Fortinbras, a young prince of Norway, marches with his army to Poland to take a piece of land. From Claudius‟s speech in the first Act, one comes to know that the young Fortinbras intends to reclaim those lands which were lost by his father to the courageous King Hamlet. Fortinbras is like other people of his age who do not have any morality and spiritual awareness to ponder over the issue of revenge. Unlike Hamlet, he believes in taking his personal revenge without paying any heed to its illegality and prohibition in Christianity.

But the other side of Hamlet‟s problem should also be understood. He loves his father too much and he knows that his own uncle has murdered him and stained his mother. This feeling makes him to take his revenge. On one side, he is propelled by his sentimentality to avenge the murder of his father, while on the other side; he is restrained by his spiritual consciousness and morality to indulge in this prohibited act of God‟s disobedience. Indeed, his heart becomes a battle ground for the forces of good and evil. Due to these double and mixed feelings, he appears to be suffering from some mental malaise or from nervous breakdown.

One can observe this deplorable condition of Hamlet as caught between two agencies of good and evil in the fourth Act, Scene four where he is informed by a Captain that the prince Fortinbras is marching with his 20000 army men to Poland to Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University fight Polish forces to gain a very small piece of land which is no more than an eggshell. The Captain says that they are going to gain it only for the sake of their name. Then, Hamlet‟s sentimentality is evoked by this episode where some 20000 thousands men are marching to fight just to defend their name while he has enough reason to act but he is still not proceeding. He criticizes himself for his lack of action in the following soliloquy:

How all occasions do inform against me

And spur my dull revenge. What is a man 129

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

If his chief good and market of his time

Be but to sleep and feed? A beast- no more.

Sure he that made us with such large discourse,

Looking before and after, gave us not

That capability and godlike reason

To fust in us unused. Now whether it be

Bestial oblivion or some craven scruple

Of thinking too precisely on th‟event

(A thought which quartered hath but one part wisdom

And ever three parts coward) I do not know

Why yet I live to say this thing‟s to do,

Sith I have cause and will and strength and means

To do‟t. (4.4.31-45)

Hamlet himself seems to be not sure of the reason for his delay in taking the revenge. He gives two reasons as “whether it is bestial oblivion or some craven scruple of thinking too precisely on th‟event” (4.4.38-40). He himself claims that he has enough cause, will, strength, and means to act upon the promised words to the ghost. Then, why does he seem to be unable to rush to his revenge? The first reason cited by him as “bestialMaulana oblivion” doesAzad not Library,appears to beAligarh an appropriate Muslim cause University as he is seen throughout the play as much conscious and anxious about the foul murder of his father. He abandons his love relation with Ophelia only not to be distracted by it in pursuing his revenge. He is scarcely seen to be indulging in any pleasure-seeking thing. He even plans a mousetrap play to know the actual reaction of his uncle and to make himself dead sure of the ghost‟s truthfulness. He feigns madness to deceive the King and other people at the court not to let them know of the real cause of his sorrow and pain. All these episodes clearly point out the fact that the notion of revenge is never absent from his mind.

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Then, why does he say that possibly the forgetfulness is a reason for his inaction? It is highly probable that in the wake of prince Fortinbras‟s daring march to Poland, he criticizes his irresolution and becomes ironic of his own response to the ghost‟s final words “remember me” (1.5.91) that

Remember thee?

Yea, from the table of my memory

I‟ll wipe away all trivial fond records,

All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past

That youth and observation copied there

And thy commandment all alone shall live

Within the book and volume of my brain

Unmixed with baser matter. (1.5.96-103)

Hamlet is denigrating himself because much time has passed since he committed to the ghost to promptly avenge the murder of his father. As the text shows that he has never forgotten his revenge, it seems that he, disappointedly, is considering his lack of resolution as forgetfulness in the above mentioned soliloquy. One can see in the above quotation that Hamlet has called his long pondering over the revenge as an act of more cowardice and less wisdom. He is incited by his sentimentality but contained by his spirituality and this tussle between them causes a type of frustration and desperation to him. Whenever he sees a man of action, he is stricken by his sentimentalityMaulana which is craving Azad for Library, revenge. Aligarh Muslim University

Likewise, one sees a sharp contrast between him and Laertes. His father, Polonius, is mistakenly killed by Hamlet. He is suffering from the same trouble as faced by Hamlet but unlike him, Laertes is a man of action. When he gains the sympathy of the people, he does not sit idly but leads a violent protest against the king. Due to this remarkable difference between Hamlet and Fortinbras and Laertes, some critics have termed Hamlet as „man of thought‟. There is not even the slightest doubt that he thinks too much as he himself acknowledges it. But the question still remains unanswered as why is he thinking too much? And what is he actually 131

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet thinking? Is he not sure of the ghost‟s trustworthiness? Or is he just a malcontent typical Renaissance man? Or is it his spiritual and moral conscience which always compels him to give a second thought to his plan of taking revenge? The first two questions cannot be answered unless the last three are properly dealt with.

It seems logical that one should not raise the first of last three questions after the Mousetrap scene. After the Mousetrap scene, which is also known as the Murder of Gonzago, which is designed by Hamlet to know whether or not Claudius is guilty of the murder of his father and ultimately, Hamlet becomes sure of his crime when Claudius showing his guilt on his face leaves the play, the question of Hamlet‟s doubt of the ghost‟s reliability cannot be considered. Now, he is dead sure of his uncle‟s crime but still he reflects too much in avenging the murder. Therefore, the question of the reliability of the ghost‟s revelation seems no longer to be a reason for Hamlet‟s delay.

The next question that whether Hamlet is a malcontent man in Renaissance fashion, needs to be clearly understood. It is historically true that the Hippocratic theory of four humors was much popular during the Renaissance England. Apart from Shakespeare, many eminent writers and dramatists of the Elizabethan period wrote treatises and plays in compliance with this theory of four humours, for example, Robert Burton (1577-1640) and Ben Jonson (1572-1637). It is possible that Shakespeare followed the tradition of the playwrights of his age while characterizing Hamlet as a melancholic man. This explanation has also been supported by Bradley. But Bradley defines Hamlet‟s melancholy in a sense different from its present meaning. He explains his melancholy as nervous instability. He suggests that although Hamlet is far from any insanity, he is suffering from a condition in which a person Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University shows an extreme change of mood and feeling. He further elaborates that this condition was brought about by the sudden disclosure of his mother‟s nature and it leads him to nervous instability.

But this theory of nervous instability cannot be justified after the episode of voyage to England in which Hamlet‟s ship is attacked by the pirates but, fortunately, Hamlet somehow manages to get himself free from the pirates‟ captivity, though, it appears to be pertinent before this event. A remarkable shift in Hamlet‟s temperament can be observed after this episode. He is no longer in the dilemma of “to be or not to

132

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet be”. One is unable to find a single instance of his nervous instability after this episode. He seems to develop a firm faith in the functioning of God. He says to his bosom friend, Horatio, that nothing takes place without the permission of God. This drastic change in his behaviour from being an indecisive man to a resolute man having strong faith in God does not uphold Bradley‟s theory of nervous instability for Hamlet‟s delay in avenging the murder of his father in the concluding parts of the play. Therefore, terming Hamlet as a melancholic man in the Renaissance tradition appears to be not entirely justifiable, particularly, in the final Act of the play.

Now, the third and final question is that whether it is his spiritual and moral conscience which always forces him to review his mindset whenever he determines to rush to his revenge, requires a comprehensive understanding of Hamlet‟s character. As it has been earlier pointed out that Hamlet is a moral person far superior to the people of his age, his spiritual and moral conscience always comes as a hurdle in his way to take the revenge. After the scene of the Murder of Gonzago, he comes very near to his revenge but then he sees that Claudius is at his prayer and if he kills him during his worship, he will directly go to the heaven. Thus, he will unintentionally help the murderer of his father to get everlasting bliss and happiness. He says that Claudius murdered his father when he was in his leisure time, so, the meaningful revenge will be achieved only when he kills him during his indulgence in the act of drinking and merry-making, so that his soul could directly go to Hell. Therefore, he leaves Claudius and goes away. Here, one can see that he is, fortunately, prevented by a divine will to act upon the orders of his sentimentality that is, undoubtedly, regulated by the forces of evil. One observes that even during this moment, Hamlet is able to maintain his spiritual and moral properties; otherwise, a revengeful person does rarely makeMaulana a distinction Azad between Library, leisure Aligarh and worship Muslim time University of his/her victim while taking his/her revenge.

Actually, Hamlet sees beyond mere the killing the murderer of his father. There is a sharp difference between Hamlet‟s and Laertes‟ approach to the same problem. One can easily see a significant difference between their approaches to revenge when Laertes becomes ready to be an effective instrument in the design of King Claudius to kill prince Hamlet. When the King tries to examine Laertes‟s resolution to kill the murderer of his father, the latter replies to him that he will feel no guilt even if he will have to cut Hamlet‟s throat in the Church. Laertes is so much 133

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet preoccupied with the idea of taking his revenge that he is not even slightly concerned about the sanctity of the Church. His determination is appreciated by the King. The conversation between the King and Laertes reminds us of the scene where Hamlet withdraws himself from killing the King because he is at his prayer. The King asks Laertes:

King: What would you undertake

To show yourself in deed your father‟s son

More than in words?

Laertes: To cut his throat i‟ th‟ church

King: No place indeed should murder sanctuarize.

Revenge should have no bounds. (4.7.122-126)

By way of contrast, the above quoted lines from the play indirectly delineate the moral conscience of Hamlet which always happens to be a major hurdle in accomplishing his revenge. Unlike Laertes, he seems to be much worried about the hereafter. If he kills the murderer of his father during his prayer, he will unwittingly help him to directly go to Paradise; so, he will not kill him this time. The same will be applied to Hamlet if he happens to be slain by Laertes in the Church. But the latter is not concerned about the life of the hereafter. He is not worried about the fact that his act of killing will directly send Hamlet to Paradise. Unlike Hamlet; he has no moral scruple which may prevent him from taking his revenge. This is the stark contrast between the characters of Hamlet and Laertes. Pointing out to Hamlet‟s moral nature and hisMaulana different approach Azad Library,to the revenge, Aligarh Robert Muslim Palfery Utter, University Jr. says in his article, “In Defense of Hamlet”:

In the light of this moral quality of Hamlet we can understand why Hamlet sees more in the revenge problem than anyone else would. We know that Laertes sees nothing in it beyond killing the killer. This contrast between Laertes and Hamlet when each is confronted by fundamentally the same problem is one of the main points of the play and serves to bring out in a subtle fashion the moral issue. That Hamlet sees more in revenge than personal retaliation, the "eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" philosophy, 134

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet

may be seen in his reaction to the problem after he has had a few minutes to think it over. After the Ghost has gone, after he has vowed to forget all else but the Ghost's commands, after he has made Horatio and Marcellus swear to secrecy, after he has warned them not to give away his secret in case he feigns madness, after all is said and done, he muses to himself: The time is out of joint-O cursed spite/ That ever I was born to set it right! We see from this that he desires to do a great deal more than merely “sweep to his revenge”. He here show again what in the emotionalism of the Ghost‟s first revelation, had been momentarily clouded, namely, his intensely moral nature. He wants to set the time right, but he does not know how to do so. (College English, 12. 3.138- 144)

After the episode of voyage to England, a glaring change can be observed in Hamlet. After this event in which he somehow manages to escape from the detention of the pirates, he develops from a common university boy to a complete man having unshakable faith in the functioning of God. It is also noteworthy that his melancholy which occurred due to the demise of his father and the hasty marriage of his mother begins to erode after this episode. Hamlet now seems to be well informed about the fact that nothing can happen without the intention of God. This belief in the working of God becomes firm in Hamlet when he contemplates the event of his sea voyage. Prior to it, he sneaks in the night to Rosencrantz‟s and Guildenstern‟s cabin and succeeds in having an access to the royal letter which has been written by Claudius to the King of England. He reads the letter in which the King of Denmark has asked the King of England to put the bearer of this letter to death without any delay. Hamlet writes a new letter in the similar handwriting and fortunately, he had a signet ring of his dead fatherMaulana to make it Azad appear Library,like a royal Aligarh letter. A lthoughMuslim he Universityreplaces the royal letter with this new letter, the course of his further action is still uncertain. He was asked by the King to go with his two friends on a voyage to England so that he could be saved from the persecution in the wake of his killing of Polonius.

One sees that Hamlet starts his voyage in company of his two friends assigned by the King himself. Hamlet‟s faith in God gets matured when he sees events which take place during his voyage. His ship is attacked by the pirates and when they intend to brave these sea robbers, Hamlet happens to be fighting them while boarding their ship. Suddenly, both the ships get disengaged, and the pirates‟ ship on which Hamlet 135

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet is on board quickly sails towards a different direction. The pirates do not kill him, though, he is in their captivity. Unexpectedly, they show their mercy to him and ultimately, he manages himself to be free from their clutch in exchange of some favours from him.

This incident is not a usual one. It becomes a turning point in Hamlet‟s life. He develops from a confused man suffering from some type of nervous instability to a perfect man possessing an unshakeable belief in God. The firmness of his faith and belief can be compared to a Sufi. Just like a Sufi, Hamlet takes his journey from self- negation to self-realization. He realizes the fact that whatever happens to a human is nothing but due to the will of God. Undoubtedly, this realization and belief could mitigate his grief and anger which were brought up by his sense of betrayal by his mother and the murder of his father. Commenting upon the structure of the play and how does it begin with worldly wisdom and then gradually proceeds to the spiritual wisdom through its course of action, Martin Lings says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art:

In Hamlet, as also in King Lear, the play begins with worldly wisdom in a state of triumph. It is as if Shakespeare had set up a pair of scales, and to begins with he allows the weight of worldly wisdom in one scale to lift the opposite scale of spiritual wisdom right up into the air, so that it appears as „light‟ as folly. But as the play goes on, more and more weight is thrown into the spiritual scale until, even before the last act, it has sunk down to rest on a solid, somber foundation. By the time King Lear is drawing to its close the Fool has disappeared, Edgar has ceased to feign madness, and Lear has recovered his sanity. Similarly in Hamlet, we see no more of the Prince‟s Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University „madness‟ after he has left for England; and when he returns he astonishes Horatio with hi new found strength and determination. Meantime it is the scale of worldly wisdom which, found sadly wanting, hangs poised aloft in insecure suspense; and the „lightness‟ of this world, unstable and transitory as it is, racing towards decay, ruin and death, is pictured in the madness of Ophelia. (Lings 37)

The episode of sea voyage is completed before the starting of the fifth Act. The final Act begins with the illustration of insignificance of the human beings. The fifth Act

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Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet begins in a graveyard. Shakespeare seems to convey that the protagonist, after having developed a firm faith in God, can easily see the nothingness of humans in this world which is controlled by His will. This representation of humans as insignificant in this final Act can be better studied in the backdrop of Renaissance zeal and enthusiasm for human dignity. Although the Renaissance glorification of human has also been presented in the second Act of the play, the medieval asceticism and misanthropy are apparent in the final Act.

In fact, the debate between the medieval misanthropy and Renaissance humanism is not only specific to this play but it is common to most of Shakespeare‟s mature plays which have been written during the later part of his life. Shakespeare has tried to present both views in his plays. He depicts human in the fashion of Renaissance humanism when Hamlet talks to his university friends about humans “what piece of work is a man- how noble in reason; how infinite in faculties, in form and moving; how express and admirable in action; how like an angel in apprehension; how like a god; the beauty of the world; the paragon of the animals” (2.2.269-73). This projection of humans can be contrasted with the portrayal of human in the graveyard scene where human skulls are being thrown here and there by a grave digger.

Apparently, the play has been written in the Elizabethan fashion of revenge tragedy but the proper insight into the play reveals it to be written only in the framework of a revenge tragedy. Hamlet‟s thought and action on taking his personal revenge rather than the revenge itself seems to be the basic concern of the play and of its playwright. Although it has all the elements of a revenge tragedy, it appears to make its audience think of what does it mean to take vengeance? It has been earlier Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University pointed out that, though, Shakespeare has presented both views of Middle Ages and Renaissance in his plays, he seems to be in the favour of the former. This is not true to say that Shakespeare did not take side with any notion but he simply presents them. Usually, he put a notion before his audience and then presents its opposite. He elaborates their merits and demerits during the course of a play. But, it is not before the concluding part of a play that he places the better view before his audience. For example, in King Lear, gods are depicted as indifferent and cruel during the course of play but it is not before the concluding scenes that the playwright devises Edgar to put his view that “the gods are just, and of our pleasant vices / Make instruments to 137

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet plague us” (5.3.168-69). In Hamlet too, Shakespeare does not appear to favour the idea of taking personal revenge, though he has used the framework of revenge play because his audience were familiar with it. Supporting the idea that Shakespeare seems not to endorse the idea of taking personal revenge, Abdulla-Al-Dabbagh says in his book, Shakespeare, the Orient, and the Critics:

In writing the play this way, isn‟t Shakespeare telling us, in plain terms, that this is not merely a revenge play, and what he is doing is merely using the frame work of a revenge play, with which his audience is also quite familiar, to tell of what really is of most interest and concern to him?

Here may also be the place to address the issue of Hamlet‟s so-called indecisiveness, his incapacity, for all kinds of reasons, to act, and dispose of it once and for all. It is not Hamlet who is hesitant to act; it is Shakespeare who wants us to think more deeply about what it means to act. (Al-Dabbagh 70)

Although, the play has been framed in the form of a revenge tragedy, it does not follow its spirit. The protagonist seems to be more concerned with his moral conscience rather than with taking his personal revenge. It is true that his second and fourth soliloquies discuss revenge but little of it is found in his other soliloquies. Revenge becomes no longer a favourite tool on the part of Shakespeare to attract his audience. Likewise, they have no further interest in watching Hamlet trying to take revenge but they seem to be much eager to ascertain the reasons for his delay in avenging the murder of his father. As the play proceeds, Hamlet‟s moral conscience rather than his revenge becomes the focus of attention. Elaborating upon this nuance of the play, John Dover Wilson (1881-1969) says in the introduction of his edited book, HamletMaulana (1934): Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Hamlet's procrastination, which is considered his most mysterious feature, was certainly intended by Shakespeare. Indeed, the clearer the lines of the plot become, the more obvious it is that Shakespeare went out of his way to emphasise it. From time to time a critic will arise to maintain that there is no delay in Hamlet, or at least none that an audience need bother about. It is true that, apart from the second and fourth soliloquies, very little is said directly about the deferred revenge, and that when the fourth is omitted, as it was from the First Folio and as it commonly is upon our stage, the impression of delay is 138

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greatly weakened. Yet there the two soliloquies are—ninety lines of them— and I do not think that even the most hardened of' historical' critics has ventured to write them off as relics of the old play. Whatever else Shakespeare may have inherited in Hamlet, these are his own, and that he took the trouble to write them is proof to my mind that he attached considerable importance to the delay-motive and wished his audience to do so likewise. (Wilson, Intro. to Hamlet, lix-lx)

Hamlet is not able to overpower his moral dilemma before the episode of sea voyage to England. Before this incident, he is caught between the crossfire of two forces of good and evil. On one hand, he is instigated by his crude nature that he must proceed to take the revenge while on the other hand; he is prevented by his superior soul and moral conscience that he must not indulge in something which has been strictly prohibited by God. Due to this intense struggle and conflict in his inner self, sometimes, he wishes to put an end to his earthly life. But, he cannot do it too because this also is prohibited.

One observes a drastic change in his behaviour after the sea voyage episode. His firm belief in God dispels his moral problems. Now, he appears to be no longer in the clutch of the evil force which provokes him to avenge. When one reads this play carefully, he/she finds that the episode of the sea-voyage is a focal point of Hamlet‟s life. He is able to develop a strong faith in the divine dispensation. His staunch belief in God can be easily compared to Sufic stage of Tawakkul (complete trust in God). When a Sufi reaches this stage, he/she finds his/her troubles and pain mitigated due to his/her reliance on God.

After thisMaulana miraculous Azad episode, Library, one sees Aligarh Hamlet peaceful Muslim and University relaxed. His trust on God is so much increased that now he is not afraid of anything. He develops a firm belief in the divine dispensation. He completely understands, after this episode of the sea voyage, that nothing happens without the will of God. One can easily observe his strong and unshakable faith in God when he is challenged by Laertes to a duel. Although Hamlet is exhausted to accept Laertes‟s challenge, he becomes ready to fight this duel. When he is restrained by his bosom friend, Horatio, not to accept his challenge as he is out of practicing rapier since a long time while Laertes is well versed in that, showing his staunch faith in the functioning of God, he says “there is

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Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be, this not to come. If it be not to come, yet it will be now. If it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all, since no man of aught he leaves knows what is‟t to leave betimes” (5.2.197-201).

In the aforementioned lines from the play, it becomes quite clear that Hamlet is now a changed man. He says to Horatio that if even a sparrow dies, it does not die without the wish of God; everything in this world is controlled by Him. He further says to his friend that death is inevitable and nobody can escape from it; if he does not die today then he will die tomorrow as death is certain; every living being has to die one day. Therefore, one should not be afraid of death. Hamlet‟s renunciation of worldly things is apparent when he says that there is no difference between dying early and dying late because nobody can take away with him/her whatever wealth he/she has earned; when everybody will go to God with empty hands, then, there is no benefit to stay in this mortal world for a long time. When one acutely observes Hamlet‟s characterization, he/she finds a major transformation in him after this incident of the sea-voyage. It will not be wrong to claim that this kind of Sufic reliance on God (Tawakkul) and renunciation of this ephemeral world (Zuhd) was never seen in Hamlet before this incident.

It will be wrong to say that Hamlet has neglected the request of the ghost of his father to “Let not the royal bed of Denmark be / A couch for luxury and damned incest” (1.5.82-83). He has respected his promise made to the ghost, but after this event of the sea-voyage, probably, he has come to realize the universal truth that good can never be born out of evil. It is most likely that he has understood the futility of taking personal revenge. So, he abandons the idea of taking his revenge and submits himself to the will of God. Elaborating upon Hamlet‟s realization of the pointlessness Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University of taking revenge in his book, The Wheel of Fire, Interpretations of Shakespearean Tragedy (1930), G. Wilson Knight (1897-1985) says:

Hamlet does not neglect his father's final behest he obeys it, not wisely but only too well. Hamlet remembers not alone his father's ghost, but all the death of which it is a symbol. What would have been the use of killing Claudius? Would that have saved his mother's honour, have brought life, to his father's mouldering body, have enabled Hamlet himself, who had so long lived in death, to have found again childish joy in the kisses of Ophelia? Would that

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have altered the universal scheme? Hamlet, the universe smells of mortality; and his soul is sick to death. (Knight 30)

When one analyses the construction of the plot, he/she finds that before the miraculous events of the sea-voyage, the play is caught between two opposite opinions of Medieval and Renaissance times on one‟s taking of personal revenge. During this course of time, sometimes, Renaissance zeal for taking personal revenge is presented through the protagonist‟s determination to rush to avenge the murder of his father and sometimes, medieval exhortation of not taking personal revenge appears in his reluctance to fulfil his promise made to the ghost of his father. But, one sees that the play completely moves towards the medieval notions and its views on taking personal revenge after the event of the sea-voyage. It is worthwhile to note that the fifth Act of the play begins with depicting insignificance and nothingness of human beings that is a significant feature of the medieval literature. As soon as the play moves to its conclusion, it appears to cherish medieval ideas and ideals. Confusion and doubts in the mind of the protagonist give ways to a complete trust and satisfaction in the functioning of God.

When the character of Hamlet is compared and contrasted to the characters of Fortinbras and Laertes, it appears that these foil characters are not only more resolute in their thoughts and action but they have also been helped by the playwright in taking of their personal revenge because Shakespeare has not created any such events and circumstances which could hinder their progress to achieve their personal goals. But, it does not go the same with Hamlet. Whenever he determined to fulfil the promise made to the ghost of his father, he is restrained by a situation created by the playwright himself from achieving his aim. It seems that it is not Hamlet who is Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University hesitant and reluctant in avenging the murder of his father, but it is Shakespeare himself who is trying to make his audience think upon what it means to take personal revenge. Probably, this might be a substantial reason for Shakespeare to allot much more lines to the protagonist of this play than lines given to other protagonists of his other tragedies. It clearly appears that psychological examination of Hamlet and making the audience to ponder over the pros and cons of taking personal revenge are the primary objectives of the playwright. This intention of the dramatist becomes apparent when the foil characters are successful in showing their decisiveness and firmness while committing the act of their personal revenge. 141

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The beginning of the fifth Act suggests the playwright‟s inclination towards the medieval notions, though; the structure of the plot keeps his point of view ambiguous before it. Undoubtedly, Hamlet‟s assertion that human‟s action is regulated by the Divine Providence gives preference to the medieval notion of Predestination over the Renaissance idea of the human‟s Free Will. The text points out to the fact that until and unless Hamlet believes in human‟s Renaissance hubris which has been marvellously depicted in Christopher Marlowe‟s (1564-1593) play, Tamburlaine the Great (1587); he remains in the clutches of doubt and anxieties. It must be noted here that the medieval notion of Predestination never intends to undermine human confidence and its potentialities, but it tries to keep humans away from overconfidence which results in disbelief in the existence of God. When Hamlet becomes aware of human‟s finite faculties and of the Divine intervention in the worldly affairs, he develops a firm and resolute faith in the just functioning of God. From here, the play appears to be moving from Hamlet‟s glorification and condemnation of human condition to his realization of human‟s insignificance in the grave-digger scene in the beginning of the fifth Act of the play:

Alexander died, Alexander was buried, Alexander returneth to dust, the dust is earth, of earth we make loam, and why of that loam whereto he was converted might they not stop a beer-barrel?

Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay,

Might stop a hole to keep the wind away.

O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe,

MaulanaShould patch Azad a wall Library, t'expel the Aligarhwinter's flaw! Muslim (5.1.198 University-205)

With the realization of human insignificance, Hamlet‟s faith in God begins to be strengthened. Although he feels extremely disappointed and dejected when he comes to know that his beloved, Ophelia, has committed suicide by drowning herself, this intense grief does not cause him to be in despair and hopelessness. He seems to be much satisfied with the divine dispensation of God. His determination and firm faith in God can easily be comprehended as he willingly accepts Laertes‟ challenge for duel, though he is exhausted and was not in practice of wielding the rapiers since a long time. Hamlet is sure of one thing that everything is in the hands of God and He 142

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet rules over the world through His direct intervention. This is the reason that he does not entertain the sincere opinion of his well-wisher and bosom friend, Horatio that he must abstain from accepting this challenge.

Hamlet has become so much sure of God‟s providence in the working of this world that he can no longer believe in his impulses. Although his heart is not at ease while accepting Laertes‟ challenge, he neglects this feeling as a mere superstition. Apart from this event, he also refers to Nosceteipsum (A Latin phrase meaning, „Know thyself‟) in his conversation with Osric. When Osric says that Hamlet cannot be unaware of Laertes‟ excellence at wielding rapier, Hamlet gives his response to him in which a passing remark to Nosceteipsum can be easily seen. Hamlet says “I dare not confess that, lest I should compare with him in excellence. But to know a man well were to know himself” (5.2.122-24). It is worthy to note that after the episode of the sea-voyage, Hamlet transforms from a malcontent Renaissance prince to a medieval devout Christian.

But one question still remains unanswered and that is that if he is so much sure of God‟s providence, why does he again involve in seeking his personal revenge at the end of this play? In fact, the answer to this question lies in the definition of tragedy. The definition of tragedy is that it must end with some irreversible loss. And this loss can only happen when Hamlet indulges in taking his revenge personally which he has been pondering upon throughout the play. If he would have succeeded in his efforts of not taking his personal revenge, this might have not been a well- defined tragedy. The definition of tragedy lies in the term, hamartia, which means „error of judgment‟.

One findsMaulana Hamlet‟s Azad Hamrtia Library, when he Aligarhis swayed byMuslim his emotion University and his reason is curtailed during the duel. When his mother mistakenly takes the poisonous drink which has actually been prepared by the king for Hamlet, in case, if he is victorious in the duel, she dies. But before her death, she reveals that the drink she took was poisonous. Apart from this incident, during the bloody fight between Hamlet and Laertes, the latter, before his death, informs the former that the rapier through which he was fighting Hamlet has been envenomed by Claudius and the king is eager to kill him.

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After the discovery of the fact which is technically known as Anagrosis, Hamlet is once again dominated by his lesser self that is passion. This discovery of the fact incites him to take his revenge personally. Thus, the real tragedy happens when Hamlet hurts the king through the poisonous rapier. It is a real tragedy of the play that despite being a devout Christian and having unshakable faith in the divine dispensation, unfortunately, Hamlet is involved in the very thing of which he has been seriously thinking throughout the play. As he is swayed by his passion after the discovery, he forgets the commandment of God that „vengeance is mine, I will repay‟. This feeling of disobeying God‟s commandment seems to bother Hamlet even during the time of his death. Before his death, he appears to be eager to tell the silent audience many things which will make them surprised but he is not allowed to do so because death, God‟s sergeant, has firmly captured him. Ultimately, he makes a request to his friend, Horatio that he must tell people of his tragic story. He requests him to narrate the account of his experience and the reasons for his actions to those people who want to be informed about it. First, addressing the silent spectators, and then, his friend, he says:

You that look pale and tremble at this chance,

That are but mutes or audience to this act,

Had I but time (as this fell sergeant Death

Is strict in his arrest)—O, I could tell you—

But let it be. Horatio, I am dead.

Thou livest: report me and my cause aright Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University To the unsatisfied. (5.2.318-324)

To conclude, it can be said that like the Elizabethan revenge tragedy, Hamlet sticks to its form and framework but its meaning is completely different from the meaning of a revenge tragedy. The surface reading of the play presumes it to be a mere revenge tragedy but its close analysis points out to some deeper meaning which transcends the issue of revenge itself. The play begins with Hamlet whose worry is either to take his personal revenge or not but it ends with him putting his complete faith in the divine dispensation of God. During the course of the play, the protagonist is taught the Sufic 144

Exploration of Sufism in Hamlet teaching that everything is done through the direct intervention of God and what is required from a human is his/her complete surrender to His will. The circumstances which are often beyond Hamlet‟s control teach the Sufic lesson of Tawakkul (complete trust in God), that the working of this world is beyond one‟s power and a person must always be ready to endure His decisions. Thus, the play shows Hamlet‟s journey for the quest of truth where he transforms from a perplexed and „sick in soul‟ person to a peaceful and delighted devotee of God.

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Works Cited

Al-Dabbagh, Abdulla. Shakespeare, the Orient, and the Critics. Peter Lang

Publishing, 2010.

Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear,

Macbeth. Macmillan Education, 2006.

Knight, G. Wilson. The Wheel of Fire: Interpretation of Shakespeare's Tragedy.

Routledge Classics, 2001.

Lings, Martin. Shakespeare in the Light of sacred Art. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

1966.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Ann Thompson and Neil Taylor, The Arden

Shakespeare, 2013.

---. Hamlet. Edited by John Dover Wilson.Cambridge University Press, 1934.

---. King Lear. Edited by R. A. Foakes, The Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

Utter, Robert Palfrey Jr. “In Defense of Hamlet.” College English, vol. 12, no. 3,

National Council of Teachers of English, Dec., 1950, pp. 138-144, JSTOR.

Web. 06 March, 2019.

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Chapter 5

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets

Chapter 5

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets

After analysing Shakespeare‟s two greatest tragedies, King Lear and Hamlet in the third and the fourth chapters respectively, this chapter aims at closely examining his other select texts to find out Rumi‟s possible Sufic influence in forming and shaping the spiritual and moral thoughts of the “Bard of Avon”. This chapter tries to delve into his tragicomedy, The Tempest, his problem play, Measure for Measure, his romantic comedy, Twelfth Night, and a few selected sonnets of his. This chapter consists of different sections and each of the aforementioned plays has been dealt with in a separate section. All of these sections focus on tracing Sufic impact in the writing of these plays and sonnets. This chapter attempts at showing affinities between Shakespeare‟s thoughts and the oriental philosophy of Sufism. One thing that is easily noticeable in the selection of these select texts is that all of them have been written by Shakespeare in the early 17th century. In fact, the period from the beginning of the 17th century to his retirement to Stratford in 1613 or to the year of his death, 1616, is considered to be representing the poet‟s maturity of thoughts. Before this period, there are many thoughts and images in his various earlier written plays which anticipated his approaching maturity. This does not amount to any claim that the plays written by Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Shakespeare before 17th century were immature and unripe but it can be easily accepted that while comparing his later written plays to those of earlier, one does not find such perfection both in form and meaning in the former as one does in the latter.

One finds several Sufic echoes and symbols in various plays which Shakespeare wrote before the beginning of the 17th century but the playwright only began to properly elaborate them in the plays written after this period. The Merchant of Venice (1596-1599) is a testimony to it. In the beginning of this play, Antonio is sad and broody. His sorrowful mood is noticed by his friends and when they try to

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets find out the reason behind it, and they make many speculations to know it, he rules out all of their speculations about the real cause of his sadness and tells them that he himself does not know it as to why is he sorrowful and in a pensive mood. Then, Gratiano points out to a fashion in which people consciously present themselves to appear sombre and contemplative so that they could be considered as intelligent and wise. Although Gratiano mocks at this fashion and warns his friend not to follow it, it leads to this simple fact that the English people were aware of a fashion in which people tried to look serious and melancholic. Actually, this fashion of appearing solemn and serious cannot be referred only to the Renaissance fashion of the malcontent man but, here in this play, it also makes a contemptuous allusion to the Sufic way of leading a humble life. The Sufis often adopted a simple life in which they tried to detach themselves from the luxuries of the world. With the objective of engaging their mind in contemplating what is spiritual and purifying it from the material things of this world, they often appeared sombre and thoughtful to other people. But unlike the Christian ascetics, they never believed in the idea of seclusion from this ephemeral world. What they attempted to attain was their complete indifference towards material things. Despite being detached from the worldly concerns, they never followed the paths of misanthropy. Their slogan was „be in the world but not of the world‟. But, it seems that Elizabethan people perceived the Sufic indifference and renunciation as misanthropy and they wrongly interpreted this way of life in the light of the medieval misanthropy. They termed this type of people as human-haters.

One example of this kind is also found in the characterization of Apemantus in the play, Timon of Athens (1605-1606). He is presented as a churlish philosopher who lives in a forest.Maulana He is characterized Azad Library, as a detached Aligarh figure Muslimwho, unlike University other characters, does not wish to get the wealth of Timon. He is portrayed as cynical and rude in the beginning of the play. He is disliked by Timon for his strange and unpleasing behaviours. His virtues are not appreciated by Timon until he loses all his money and consequently he is left by all his friends. The character of Apemantus implicitly points out to the Sufic detachment and renunciation from the worldly things. Apart from these two plays, there are many plays of Shakespeare in which a line of similarities between his thoughts and the Sufic ideas is visible. Now, only his select texts are analysed in proper details so as to properly observe the Sufic influences on them.

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1.1: The Tempest The Tempest is believed to be the last complete play of Shakespeare. Like his other tragicomedy, The Winter’s Tale, it also has sin and redemption as one of its major themes. The play presents its central character, Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, as a spiritual character. In fact, he represents the spirit whose innocence and purity are further embodied by the character of Miranda, his daughter, while his treacherous brother, Antonio, who usurps his throne, signifies the beast. The character of Alonso, the King of Naples, symbolizes the lesser part of the human soul while his son, Ferdinand, symbolizes the scope for its ascent from the beast to the status of the human. From the very first Act, it is known that the spirit has been discarded and even exiled from the land while the body with its imperfection has been celebrated and admired upon. The exile of Prospero and his daughter to an uninhabited island strikes the idea of Adam‟s and Eve‟s banishment from Paradise due to their disobedience of eating the forbidden fruit. Here, Paradise, represented by Prospero and Miranda, itself is banished instead of the people being banished.

The first Act begins with a ship-wreck scene. This ship is not a common ship but it is a royal ship of the King of Naples having the King, Alonso himself, his son, Ferdinand, the usurping Duke of Milan, Antonio, the King‟s brother, Sebastian, and the old Counsellor, Gonzalo, on board. This ship is apparently devastated through the magic of Prospero in his deserted island. Watching Miranda‟s sorrow at the plight of the ship and the creatures in it, he informs her that she should not be worried because nobody has been hurt in this incident; it is actually an illusion created by his power of magic. Then, the story moves backward in the past as he begins to narrate it to Miranda. His narration goes that he was the rightful Duke of Milan and she was his Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University princess daughter but his brother, Antonio, on whom he put his complete trust in governing and administering the affairs of his state usurped it with the support of the King of Naples. Prospero gives the reason for assigning the affairs and issues of his state to his brother thus:

My brother, and thy uncle, call‟d Antonio,----

I pray thee, mark me, that a brother should

Be so perfidious!----he, whom next thyself

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Of all the world I lov‟d, and to him put

The manage of my state; as at that time

Through all the signories it was the first,

And Prospero the prime Duke, being so reputed

In dignity, and for the liberal Arts

Without a parallel; those being all my study,

The government I cast upon my brother,

And to my state grew stranger, being transported

And rapt in secret studies. (1.2.66-77)

In the above quoted extract from the play, Prospero says that he gave the responsibilities to manage the affairs of his state to his brother because he engrossed himself in the study of “the liberal Arts” for which he was much known among the people. He says that he devoted himself to some “secret studies”. Actually, this liberal Art or secret studies is nothing but the Art of magic which he wanted to learn. As the art of magic is apparent in the good deeds of the protagonist, and in the bad deeds of the witch Sycorax, Caliban‟s mother, the play makes a difference between white and black magic. Differentiating between holy and natural magic, Frank Kermode (1919- 2010) says in introduction to his edited book, The Tempest:

Caliban‟s mother, though associated with reports of devil-worship and witchcraft in the New World, belongs to the Old. She is a powerful witch, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University deliberately endowed with many of the qualities of classical witches, but also possessing a clearly defined place in the contemporary demonological scheme. She is practitioner of “natural” magic, a goetist who exploited the universal sympathies, but whose power is limited by the fact that she could command, as a rule, only devils and the lowest orders of spirits. Prospero, on the other hand, is a theurgist, whose Art is to achieve supremacy over the natural world by holy magic. The Neo-Platonic mage studies the harmonic relationship of the elementary, celestial, and intellectual worlds, and conceives

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no way irrational that it should be possible for us to ascend by the same degrees through each World to the same very original world itself, the Maker of all things, and First cause, from whence all things are, and proceed…

His object is to “walk to the skie”, as Vaughan put it, before death, by ascending through the created worlds to the condition of the angels. His Art is supernatural; the criterion of whose goodness is not the Christian one of adherence to, or defection from God, but immateriality or submersion in matter. He deals with spirits high in the scale of goodness, and if lesser spirits (“weak masters”) are required, the superior damon controls them on his behalf. He is “divinorum cultor & interpres, a studious observer and expounder of divine things”, and his Art is “the absolute perfection of Natural Philosophy”. Natural Philosophy includes the arts of astrology, alchemy, and ceremonial magic, to all of which Prospero alludes. (Kermode, Intro. to The Tempest, xl-xli)

In the quotation above, Kermode considers Prospero as a Neo-Platonic mage. It is worthwhile to point here that the concept of Christian mysticism and its Islamic counterpart, Sufism, have some tacit relationship with Neo-Platonic philosophy. As it has been earlier pointed out in the introduction that Plotinus is often considered to be one of probable influences in every sort of mysticism including Sufism, relating Prospero to Neo-Platonism itself implies that the liberal Arts and secret studies to which he dedicated himself might be nothing but the mystic knowledge. Hence, to consider Prospero as a saintly or Sufic figure in this play cannot be a far-fetched idea. While analysing this character from the Sufic perspective, one discovers multiple Sufic wisdom in his speeches. After administering the affairs of his state for a long Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University time, he comes in contact with some mystic learning. He starts to read about this mystic knowledge and becomes so fond of it that he begins to value the mystic books above his Dukedom. Having developed some Sufic wisdom, the ephemerality of his royal life is apparent to him. His library, full of mystic books and treatises, seems to him, a larger Dukedom.

Prospero also elaborates that how Antonio made an unholy alliance between him and Alonso to grab his Dukedom. Actually, the alliance between them is analogous to the alliance between body and the soul where the latter has been

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets corrupted by the appetite of the former. Narrating the malicious design of his brother to his daughter, he says:

To have no screen between this part he played

And him he played it for, he needs will be

Absolute Milan. Me, poor man, my library

Was Dukedom large enough: of temporal royalties

He thinks me now incapable; confederates,

So dry he was for sway, with the King of Naples

To give him annual tribute, do him homage,

Subject his coronet to his crown, and bend

The Dukedom, yet unbowed,--alas, poor Milan!—

To most ignoble stooping. (1.2.107-16)

Apart from the quotation above, Prospero‟s love for his books is also noticeable when he says to Miranda that he is very grateful to Gonzalo because he put his favourite books with him in his bark when he was being exiled from his kingdom to this far flung island. Gonzalo has been characterized as an old and honest Councillor. Although he is assigned by the usurping Duke of Milan, Antonio, to exile Prospero from his Dukedom, he shows his sympathies to him by arranging the necessities of life in a bark for him. Showing his gratitude to the gentle and kind-hearted Gonzalo, he says to his Maulanadaughter: Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

By Providence divine.

Some food we had, and some fresh water, that

A noble Neapolitan, Gonzalo,

Out of his charity, who being then appointed

Master of his design, did give us, with

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Rich garments, linens, stuffs and necessaries,

Which since have started steaded much; so, of his gentleness,

Knowing I loved my books, he furnished me

From mine own library with volumes that

I prize above my Dukedom. (1.2.159-68)

From the above quotation, it is crystal clear that Prospero loves his mystic books too much and he can never part away from them. His virtues and goodness cannot be tolerated by this immoral world which is embodied by Antonio and Alonso. So, the main action of the plot lies in an island which is beyond the influence of the corrupt human civilisation. Here, both Prospero and his daughter create a new world and civilisation that assures such innocence and virtues which reminds one of that human innocence and bliss which were lost due to the fall. This island which is a model for virtues and goodness also serves as a purgatory for other characters coming from the immoral world. The play opens with a holy ship-wreck scene. The storm has been devised by a supernatural spirit, Ariel, on the command of his master, Prospero, to devastate this ship. So, this deserted island serves to be the purgatory to purify the sinful souls and then to help them to get their salvation.

It is said that when Prospero came here in this island with his little daughter twelve years ago, it was ruled by a witch from Algiers, named Sycorax, who died just after giving birth to her bestial son, Caliban, who inherited this land from his mother. Caliban is brought up by Prospero. He tries to teach Caliban his language, manners and culture. Without explaining the apparent Postcolonial elements in this play which Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University is beyond the scope of this study, it considers the island‟s takeover by Prospero as a replacement of the evil by the good. Various sources have been claimed to be the basis for this play‟s narrative.

According to some scholars, the romance of a self-taught philosopher, which has been described by Ibne Sina, is considered to be one of its possible sources. This story has been retold by Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibne Tufail (d.1185-86) in a book titled „Hayye bin Yakzan‟. There are other rehashes of this story by other writers but the aforementioned book got much popularity among people. This story is about a

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets child who is left alone on an inhabited island. He is nurtured by a gazelle. This boy survives here for several years through using his intellect and observation of the nature around him. During this course of time, he discovers himself as well as many mystical values. In fact, the depiction of one‟s discovery of oneself and mystical values makes this mentioned book popular amongst people. Therefore, besides the event of ship-wreck in Bermuda Voyage which is believed to be a basis for the play‟s narrative, sometimes, „Hayye bin Yakzan‟ is also considered to be a possible source of it. Emphasizing upon this possibility, Masoodul Hasan (1928-2019) says in his book, Sufism and English Literature, Chaucer to Present Age: Echoes and Image (2007):

Shakespeare‟s use of the supernatural was influenced mainly by the contemporary belief in ghosts and spirits. But his treatment of the white magic and supernatural powers in The Tempest is a shade different. Prospero, the usurped Duke, leads a self-satisfied life devoted to his books and to the rearing of his beloved daughter, Miranda, on a secular island. Ariel, a spirit whom he had rescued from the captivity of Cycorax, executes his wishes and commands with electricity alacrity. Unlike Mephistopholes who was bound to Faustus for twenty years, but took command of his master on the expiry of the bond, Ariel is absolutely under Prospero‟s rule. Various sources of the plot and characters of the play have been suggested by scholars. Frank Kermode in his scholarly introduction to the Arden edition of the play discusses some likely Bulgarian, English, German, Italian and Spanish analogues and sources. Another likely Arabic source of Sufic antecedents, known to medieval Europe, may be added to them. The romance of a self-taught philosopher by Ibne Sina (d.1037) was redone in a modified form as Hayye bin Yakzan by Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibne Tufail Maulana(d. 1185/86). Azad Another Library, version wasAligarh also done Muslim by his Universitycontemporary and compatriot, the famous philosopher Ibn-eBajjah-under the title Tadbir-al Mutawahhid (The Hermit’s Regime), which proposed, in the words of Hayye‟s modern editor, “to demonstrate how man by the unaided improvement of his faculties may attain to union with the Active Intellect”. Ibne Tufail‟s Hayye bin Yakzan, according to one version, was a cast off baby princeling wafted by sea waves to a deserted island, where he grew up, nurtured by a gazelle, and through his own observation and reflection on nature discovered by himself the deepest mystical truths. Salman, the ruler of a neighbouring island, offered

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him his kingdom through another pious man, Absal; but Hayye declined the offer. A Hebrew translation of the Arabic work was bought out in Spain by Moses Narbonne in 1349, followed by a Latin version by one of the Renaissance Europe‟s influential writers, Pico della Mirandola in the fifteenth century. The Tempest is now invariably considered a philosophical romance. Frank Kermode calls Prospero a “holy adept”, implying his mystical attainments, as attested by his prescience of the voyages of Alonso and Antonio, and his own power to conjure a storm. An eastern touch is also provided by repeated references to the marriage of Alonso‟s daughter at Tunis (II, i). (Hasan 61-62)

It is likely that Shakespeare might have come to know about this tale through some sources and employed its narrative for his play, The Tempest. This text was quite popular among the Sufi masters to reflect upon the idea of discovering one‟s self. The same theme is apparent in the concerned play. In fact, the theme of self-discovery was a much popular topic among the Elizabethans. Probably, this was the reason that Shakespeare had used this theme of self-discovery in his several plays. While reading Rumi‟s poems and his other Sufic texts one finds the same theme of self-discovery as one of their dominant themes. From this perspective, remarkable affinities are discovered between his plays and many Sufic treatises.

One of other major themes of the play is sin and redemption. Alonso committed a sin by supporting Antonio in usurping the rightful Duke of Milan, Prospero; but he feels the severest pain of his life when he supposedly thinks that his only son, Ferdinand, has died in the ship-wreck. He appears to be weary of his life. His life is saved by Prospero against the wicked designs of Antonio and Sebestian as Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University the latter tries to kill Alonso and Gonzalo in their sleep; they are awakened by the invisible spirit, Ariel. The banquet scene is a perfect purgatory for Alonso who becomes ashamed of his past crimes. In this scene, he is reminded of his past misdeeds and Ariel makes him repent for them. Ultimately, he sincerely repents for his sins done in the past and seeks forgiveness from God. Through his confession and repentance, he is purified from his past sins. In fact, he represents Naf-s-Lauwamah, according to Sufic categorization of human beings. He succeeds in getting his salvation only after he is forgiven by Prospero. If Alonso gets his salvation after his repentance, Prospero attains the sanctification through forgiving his enemies. It is 155

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets worthwhile to note that when in the final Act Ariel says to him that his enemies are languishing so much under his spells that if he happens to be a human, his heart will also have melted after watching their sad plight, his reply to Ariel marvellously portrays him as a saintly figure. Addressing Ariel, Prospero says:

Hast thou, which art but air, a touch, a feeling

Of their afflictions, and shall not myself,

One of their kind, that relish all as sharply

Passion as they, be kindler moved than thou art?

Though with their high wrongs I am struck to the quick,

Yet with my nobler reason against my fury

Do I take part: the rarer action is

In virtue than in vengeance: they being penitent,

The sole drift of my purpose doth extend

Now a frown further. (5.1.21-30)

The above quoted lines are probably the central idea of this play. They clearly show that Shakespeare is concerned not only for salvation but also for sanctification of his characters. When this play is acutely watched or read from a Sufic perspective, the Sufic pattern of categorizing humans into three is visible in it. If Alonso represents Naf-e-Lauwamah, as pointed out above, Prospero and Antonio characterize Nafs-e- Mutmayinnah Maulanaand Nafs-e- AmmarahAzad Library, respectively. Aligarh In simple Muslim words, ProsperoUniversity embodies the angels who can never commit sins. Antonio epitomizes the beast as it has no scope for any improvement while Alonso exemplifies humans who are composed of both the elements of the angel and the beast having a scope for further improvement and a risk of degradation.

The play shows that Antonio has no room to grow from a beast to an angel as he plots with Sebastian to murder Alonso, so that he can be the king of Naples, even though; he is shipwrecked and wandering in this deserted island. He is always concerned with the worldly things. First, he plotted against his own brother and exiled 156

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets him from Milan with the help of Alonso, and now he makes a design to murder Alonso while he is asleep. Although he helps Antonio in usurping Prospero, he feels repentant for his bad deeds and seeks forgiveness from him in the fifth Act. The deserted island is a purgatory for him that purifies him of his sins through affliction and grief due to the supposed death of his only son.

Alonso is filled with remorse when he is reminded by Ariel of his misdeeds in past which he did to Prospero. His purgatory which begins with ship-wreck scene comes to an end when he is led by Prospero to see that his son is alive. He sees that his son and a beautiful young girl are playing at chess in Prospero‟s cottage. He becomes delighted to know that the young girl is the daughter of Prospero. Ultimately, he gets his salvation and he is reunited with his son who has been separated from him through the magic of Prospero. Prospero proves himself to be a true Sufic figure when he forgives his enemies as he seeks virtues rather than revenge in his action. This is the example of sanctification which Shakespeare wants his characters to reach. Actually, his concern not only for salvation but also for sanctification of his characters makes him distinct from other Elizabethan playwrights.

Apart from the themes of the play, Sufic wisdom emanates from Prospero‟s thoughts in its several places. The masque in the play, though some scholars believe that it is an interpolation and it has been inserted in the play by later scholars and critics, beautifully serves the playwright‟s purpose to bring home Sufic teachings to his audience. In the fourth Act when Prospero becomes sure of Ferdinand‟s sincere love for his daughter, he offers her to him as his wife. But Prospero warns him against indulging in any unholy relationship with her before their marriage. Then, to amuse Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University the young lovers, he conjures the spirits to perform a masque. This is a traditional masque which was well known among the Jacobean audience at that time. The Greek myth of Proserpine‟s abduction by Pluto and her mother, Ceres‟s, the goddess of agriculture and fertility, plea to Juno, the wife of great god Jupiter, to save her daughter from his clutch, is evoked. Juno and Ceres are asked to bestow their blessings upon this young couple.

During the performance of this masque, Prospero is reminded of Caliban‟s plot to kill him. Suddenly, he adjourns the performance and the spirits melt into the

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets thin air. He becomes highly agitated and angry when he is reminded of Caliban‟s conspiracy with his associates against him. Seeing them surprised and perplexed at the abrupt ending of the masque and his agitated passion, Prospero teaches them a Sufic lesson. He makes a comparison between the actors of the masque and humans in this mortal world as both are transient and short-lived in their nature. The sudden removal of the actors points out to the unexpected expiry of a human life. The comparison also suggests that life in this world is an illusion just like the actors of the masque. Emphasising upon the ephemeral nature of the human life, he says to Ferdinand:

You do look, my son, in a moved sort,

As if you were dismayed: be cheerful, sir.

Our revels now are ended. These our actors,

As I foretold you, were all spirits, and

Are melted into air, into thin air:

And like the baseless fabric of this vision,

The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,

The solemn temples, the great globe itself,

Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,

And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,

Leave Maulananot a rack behind. Azad We Library, are such stuffAligarh Muslim University

As dreams are made on; and our little life

Is rounded with a sleep. (4.1.146-158)

It is true that the masque in The Tempest gratifies the Jacobean audience and provides a suitable setting for a pastoral romance, the term which is sometimes applied to it, it also helps Shakespeare‟s plan to demonstrate the nothingness of this world before them. Probably, this is the reason that the treatment of masque that is sheep-shearing scene, in The Winter’s Tale, is different from that of The Tempest. The element of 158

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets pastoral romance in the sheep-shearing scene of The Winter’s Tale is glorified while here it seems to be devised primarily to give this Sufic lesson to the recipients of the play that the mortal life in this world is nothing but an illusion of eyes. It also serves the author‟s purpose to illustrate this fact that as one cannot see his/her physical world until he/she is in his/her sleep, likewise, the Reality can never be realized by one until he/she is dead and is awakened from this little sleep. Comparing the worldly life to a little sleep or a nap is common to Sufic writings and to Shakespeare‟s plays. The play which is considered to be Shakespeare‟s last complete play has some similarities between him and the character of Prospero. Prospero‟s abandonment of his art of magic and his retirement to Milan at the conclusion of the play imply Shakespeare‟s giving up his dramatic art, his retirement to his birth place, Stratford upon Avon, and his approaching death. Highlighting this point as well as the comparison made between human life and a little sleep in Shakespeare‟s plays, Martin Lings says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art:

The Celestial Paradise is not actually represented in The Tempest, as in The Winter’s Tale, but the whole play leans towards it, that is, towards the final marriage of the lovers.

It may also be said to lean towards it in another sense. Again and again in his plays Shakespeare has linked this life either to the part played by an actor on the stage, or to a shadow, or to a dream. Now to speak of a play or any kind of fiction necessarily means that as a term of comparison one has in mind something which may be called „real life‟; to be continually likening things to shadows suggests a longing for the substance; and to dismiss everything that we experience and possess as a mere dream betrays a nostalgia Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University for the state of being awake. But in order to reach that state of waking, that is, the Paradise of seeing „face to face‟ and not „as in a glass darkly‟, it is necessary to pass through that sleep which is the surrounding wall of the dream-world in which we live; and it is clearly in view of that sleep as a gate—for in itself it is not worth mediating on—that Shakespeare, about to give up his art and retire to Stratford, makes Prospero say, when about to give up his art and retire to Milan:

Every third thought shall be my grave. (Lings 114)

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In conclusion it can be said that The Tempest is a play of sin and redemption. Unlike Shakespeare‟s tragedies which propound the idea that the evil once done can never be undone, the play shows the significance of repentance (Tauba) and forgiveness in the human life. It proposes the Sufic teaching that one should always forgive other as it is a divine virtue and it is blessed for both, the receiver and the sender. Through it, if the former gets his/her salvation, the latter achieves his/her sanctification.

1.2: Measure for Measure The play, Measure for Measure, is considered to be a dark comedy or a problem play. The play‟s interpretation has been changing since its publication. These interpretations have been so contradictory with each other that it takes the reader with surprise. The romantic critics, particularly, S. T. Coleridge (1772-1834), judges it be the most painful and hateful play of Shakespeare in his Table Talks. One of other romantic critics, William Hazlitt (1778-1830), termed it to be full of genius and of wisdom but wanting passion. The Victorian critic Walter Raleigh (1861-1922) explained it as the gloomy and dark picture of Vienna and Isabella as a white, dazzling and saintly figure against its background. Wilson Knight discovered the spirit of the Gospel in the formation of the play. He interpreted it as the play of forgiveness and mercy. This interpretation was new at that time. Although before Wilson Knight, the German critic Albrecht and Walter Raleigh pointed out to the Christian spirit of this play in their respective works, he got recognition as being the first critic to read it in the light of the Gospel. The title of the play has been taken from Matthew as “Judge not, that ye be not judged. For with what judgement ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye meter, it shall be measured to you again” (Matthew, VII, i). Like The Tempest, this play also advocates the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University significance of mercy and forgiveness in humans‟ life.

The play shows Vincentio, the Duke of Vienna, as a saintly figure. He wishes to discover himself, so he abdicates his powers and appoints Angelo his deputy to rule over his kingdom for some time. For his abdication of power, he gives two reasons; firstly, his subject has become morally corrupt, and secondly, he seems unable to reform them as he is too kind to implement the strict laws upon them. He tells Angelo and Escalus that he wants to go to Poland for some important work, but actually, he disguises himself as a poor friar to secretly watch over the way of Angelo‟s

160

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets administrative functioning. Revealing his true objectives behind his renunciation of power and his disguise, he says to Friar Thomas:

We have strict statutes and most biting laws,

The needful bits and curbs to headstrong jades,

Which for this fourteen years we have let slip;

Even like an over-grown lion in cave

That goes not out to prey. Now, as fond fathers,

Having bound up the threatening twigs of birch,

Only to stick it in their children‟s sight

For terror, not to use, in time the rod

Becomes more mocked than feared: so our decrees,

Dead to infliction, to themselves are dead,

And Liberty plucks Justice by the nose,

The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart

Goes all decorum. (1.3.19-31)

From the above quoted speech, it becomes crystal clear that the Duke‟s intention in appointing Angelo as his deputy and disguising himself as a friar is nothing but to bring a moral reformation amongst his people. Prior to this, while telling Angelo and EscalusMaulana about his sudden Azad visit Library, abroad, Aligarhthe Duke exhibitsMuslim his Universitylove for seclusion and his abhorrence for those people who boast of worldly things. His love for secluded and simple life presents two important Sufic virtues, renunciation (Zuhd) and self-chosen poverty (Faqr). His disguise as a poor friar also reminds one of the way of many Sufi masters who hid their true identity from people through disguise. Describing himself before Angelo and Escalus, he says:

I‟ll privily away. I love the people,

But do not like to stage me to their eyes: 161

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets

Though it do well, I do not relish well

Their loud applause and Aves vehement;

Nor do I think the man of safe discretion

That does affect it. (1.1.67-72)

Hence, from outset of this play, Vincentio has been presented as a Sufic figure. Being an epitome of truth and virtue, he never wished to show off his wealth and vanities before people. Although he happened to be the Duke, he likes to keep himself in a low profile. He is in the search of his true self. The Sufic theme of „know thyself‟ is apparent in the character of the Duke. His saintly character is marvellously depicted by Escalus when he replies to the disguised Vicentio‟s question of the Duke‟s disposition. Escalus perfectly portrays him as a saintly figure. Escalus does not know that the poor friar who is asking him about the disposition of the Duke is nobody but the Duke himself who has disguised himself in this shape. Responding to the disguised Duke, he characterizes him:

Duke: I pray you, sir, of what disposition was the Duke?

Escalus: One that, above all other strifes, contended especially to know himself.

Duke: What pleasure was he given to?

Escalus: Rather rejoicing to see another merry, than merry at anything which professed to make him rejoice. A gentleman of all temperance. (3.2.224-231)

Apart from this,Maulana when Claudio Azad and Library, his fiancée, Aligarh Juliet, areMuslim severely University punished by the Puritan Angelo due to fornication, he, disguising himself as a friar Lodowick, meets her in her prison where she is lamenting for her sins. His exhortation to Juliet is noteworthy as he admonishes her to be sincere in her repentance (Tauba) because no verbal repentance is acceptable to God unless it is accompanied by an ashamed- stricken heart. He teaches her that a person should never repent on his/her sins due to the fear of worldly punishment and disgrace, but it must be done to seek the wish of God. Elaborating the main theme of this play as human‟s moral nature in relation to his crude idea of justice, Wilson Knight pictures the Duke as a mystical figure always

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets concerned with the salvation of other characters. Comparing Vincentio to Prospero of The Tempest in his virtues and spirituality, and pronouncing the Gospel to be the source of this concerned play, Wilson Knight say of him:

The Duke, lord of this play in the exact sense that Prospero is lord of The Tempest, is the prophet of an enlightened ethic. He controls the action from start to finish, he allots, as it were, praise and blame, he is lit at moments with divine suggestion comparable with his almost divine power of fore- knowledge, and control, and wisdom. There is an enigmatic, other-worldly, mystery suffusing his figure and the meaning of his acts : their results, however, in each case justify their initiation; wherein we see the allegorical nature of the play, since the plot is so arranged that each person receives his deserts in the light of the Duke's-- which is really the Gospel-- ethic. (Knight 74)

Although Wilson Knight convincingly explains the ethics of the play to be borrowed from the Gospel, Shakespeare‟s knowledge of the oriental philosophy of Sufism might be at work in the characterization of Vincentio. The Duke‟s Sufic teaching is easily noticeable when he admonishes Claudio to prepare for his death. The Duke tells him about the nothingness of this world. His speech explaining the ephemerality of this earthly life is pregnant with the Sufic wisdom. The main objective of his speech to Claudio is to make him confess his sins before his death. It is a Christian belief that if a person dies before confession of his/her sins, he/she will be damned forever. This notion is common to Islamic and Sufic belief that a person must seek forgiveness from God and feel repentance for his/her sins before his/her death so that he/she can be purified of his/her evil deeds committed during his/her stay in the world. The Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Duke‟s concern for the salvation of the soul can be noticed when he first tries to prepare Barnardine, a dissolute prisoner, to be ready for execution, so that his severed head can be presented by the Provost to Angelo to convince him that Claudio has been executed as per his order; but when he refused to make confession of his sins, the Duke stops asking the Provost to execute him because in this case, he will be damned forever.

Vincentio is such a Sufic person that he is worried about every human soul whether it is of a good or a bad person. He appears to be more concerned in his

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets speech to Claudio about the Afterlife rather than the worldly life. He tries to save and help every character as he contrives a plan to protect Claudio from his execution, Isabella from her dishonour, and to help Mariana to get her husband back. The Duke also wishes to save Angelo from his execution in the wake of his fornication and violation of his promise made to Isabella as he hopes that she may show mercy to him on the request of Mariana. At the same time, he also tries to prepare Claudio to be ready to face death, but before death, his confession of his sins and salvation seem to be his primary objective. Like a true Sufi, he struggles to achieve goodness for all (Sulh-e-Kul). Explaining to Claudius the true nature of this temporal life, the Duke says:

Thou hast nor youth, nor age,

But as it were an after-dinner‟s sleep

Dreaming on both; for all thy blessed youth

Becomes as aged, and doth beg the alms

Of palsied eld: and when thou art old and rich,

Thou hast neither heat, affection, limb, nor beauty

To make thy riches pleasant. What‟s yet in this

That bears the name of life? Yet in this life

Lie hid moe thousand deaths; yet death we fear

That makes these odds all even. (3.1.32-41) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Describing earthly life in the terms of dream is common in Shakespeare‟s writings. It is important to note here that dream is a famous tenor for the temporality of human life in the Sufic writings. Apart from it, the play on words and phrases like life in death or life after death in the Sufic writings is also echoed in Claudio‟s responding lines to the Duke‟s speech. Claudio says “To sue to live, I find I seek to die, / And seeking death, find life” (3.1.43-44).

The other noteworthy Sufic lesson can be drawn from the characterization of Angelo. At the outset of the play, he is portrayed by the Duke as a person who is 164

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets believed to have never committed any type of sin. He is appreciated by him as the most virtuous person. In fact, the Duke is right in evaluating his character but he should have kept this fact in his mind that the true virtue lies in stopping oneself from the temptation of the evil. Angelo is a Puritan who never faced the temptation of the evil. He is unaware of its enchantment upon humans‟ mind. His strictness in dealing with Claudio‟s crime suggests his unawareness of the intensity of the worldly temptations. Instead of understanding young human vulnerability to sexual temptations, he pronounces the death sentence upon Claudio who happened to indulge in sexual relationship with his fiancée without their legal marriage. Describing Angelo, Lucio says:

A man whose blood

Is very snow-broth; one who never feels

The wanton stings and motions of the sense;

But doth rebate and blunt his natural edge

With profits of the mind, study and fast. (1.4.57-61)

This description of Angelo can be contrasted to his condition when he is completely spell bound by the charms of Isabella. Angelo explicitly demands her body for one night to gratify his lust for acquitting her brother. His character can be properly examined when he is tempted by the female charm. He not only demands Isabella to satisfy his lust but also threatens her if she fails to do it. Actually, he punishes Claudio for the same crime which he himself is eager to indulge in. When she angrily responds to his demand and threatens that if he does not give reprieve to her brother, she will Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University tell the world about his real character, Angelo replies to her:

Who will believe thee, Isabel?

My unsoiled name, the austereness of my life,

My vouch against you, and my place in the state

Will so your accusation overweigh,

That you shall stifle in your own report,

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And smell of calumny. I have begun,

And now I will give my sensual race the rein:

Fit thy consent to my sharp appetite;

Lay by all nicety and prolixious blushes

That banish what they sue for. Redeem thy brother

By yielding up thy body to my will;

Or else he must not only die the death,

But thy unkindness shall his death draw out

To lingering sufferance. Answer me tomorrow,

Or, by the affection that now guides me most,

I‟ll prove a tyr nt to him. As for you,

Say what you can: my false overweigh your true. (2.4.153-169)

The intention behind quoting the above lines is not to portray Angelo as an evil character but to suggest that he is just like a normal human being. It justifies the fact that nobody can claim his/her invulnerability to the designs of the evil. Actually, Shakespeare wants to tell his audience that the abode of evil is within the human soul and nobody is protected from its influence. Hence, virtue lies in stopping oneself from being tempted by this evil which is within oneself. That is why abstinence (Taqwa) is required for being a true Sufi. The play teaches that nobody can be assured of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University immunity from his/her lesser self until he/she perfects his/her soul from its infirmities. It is seen in this play that Angelo is, undoubtedly, a good and virtuous person but he still needs to purify his soul from his lesser self. Besides this, the pride and arrogance which he developed in himself due to his supposed goodness and virtue require to be crushed through the emergence of his lesser self. Pointing out to this aspect of the play, Martin Lings says in his book, Shakespeare in the Light of Sacred Art:

In no play does Shakespeare represent more clearly than in Measure for Measure the dangers of the spiritual path. At the outset of the path, the

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perverted psychic elements are more or less dormant and remote from the centre of the consciousness. They must first of all be woken and then redeemed, for they cannot be purified in their sleep; and it is when they wake in the state of raging perversion that there is always the risk that they will overpower the whole soul. This is what happens with Angelo; but in his case it is necessary that he should be overcome for a while by his lower self in order that his pride may be broken; and in the end he is saved by his basic sincerity which calls down a Divine Grace personified by the Duke. (Lings 52)

To conclude it can be said that the play shows the conflict between law and mercy and reflects how mercy is significant in the human life. It teaches that without mercy nobody can get salvation. It criticizes the hypocrisy of human nature in demanding justice through strict implementation of laws wherever he/she is victim and in seeking mercy wherever he/she is culprit. The play gives a moral lesson that the measure which one takes in dealing with other persons will be the same for him/her and can be used on him/her too.

1.3: Twelfth Night The play, Twelfth Night, is a well-known romantic comedy written by William Shakespeare. It is often considered his farewell to mirth. Shakespeare wrote no pure comedy after this play. The play begins with description of the powerful effect of music on the human soul. Music has been described as a food for love. The play which shows many shades of love tries to define the idea of true and mature love. The Duke of Illyria, Orsino, is portrayed as love-sick. He is feeling love-in-idleness. He has fallen in love with a beautiful Countess named Olivia. But she does not respond to his advances.Maulana It seems Azad that Library, Orsino is suggestedAligarh by Muslim his courtiers University that he must listen to music as it will give a soothing effect to his love. But the very next moment, it becomes quite clear that his love is not true love because the music he liked so much in its beginning is no longer sweet after a few moments. What needs to be emphasized here is that music is considered to be supplement of love. Music has been much appreciated by most of Sufi masters for its role in elevating the human soul. The love for God is often supported by music and harmony.

Rumi was an ardent supporter of music, though it has been prohibited by mainstream Islam due to its unregulated effect on human mind and body. The role of 167

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets music is still very much prominent in organizing and conducting Rumi‟s Sima (popularly known as the Sufi whirling dance in USA and the European countries) in different countries of the world. Rumi liked music so much that he had dedicated the opening of his magnum opus, Masnavi Manavi, to the story of a reed flute which is a musical instrument. But this music must not be confused with today‟s modern music. While comparing it to modern music, it does not incite physical passion and feelings. The music which has been favoured by Sufis can be called a moderate music. Showing his profound love for music, Rumi says:

When you come visiting my grave,

My roofed tomb will appear to you dancing . . .

Do not come without tambourine to my tomb, brother!

For a grieved person does not fit in God's banquet! (qtd. in Schimmel 35)

Rumi‟s love for music is apparent from the above quoted lines. While reading his Masnavi Manavi, one can easily find several illustrations where music has been described as a central or important part of love. Undoubtedly, the love Rumi is talking about is nothing but the spiritual love for God. Rumi believes that music not only elevates the soul but it also reminds it of the period when it was united with Godhead. Hence, one always finds the mention of love with music in his verses. Actually, they are inseparable in his scheme. One of these examples from Masnavi is quoted below:

Oh, music is the meat of all, who love,

Music uplifts the soul to realms above. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The ashes glow, the latent fires increase:

We listen and are fed with joy and peace. (Masnavi: Volume IV)

More or less the same idea of love and music is echoed in Orsino‟s opening speech of the play. Although his love of Olivia is not true and mature, the tenors which have been employed by him to reflect his love for her seem to be derived from Sufi lexicon. Depicting his love, the Duke says in the opening of the play:

If music be the food of love, play on,

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Give me the excess of it, that surfeiting

The appetite may sicken and so die

That strain again, it had a dying fall.

O, it came over my ear like the sweet sound

That breathes upon a bank of violets,

Stealing and giving odour. (1.1.1-7)

Apart from music, this play tries to define the concept of true love in the Sufic fashion. As it has been previously mentioned that one of the major themes of this play is to define true love, after showing different shades of love, Shakespeare has shown Viola‟s true and mature love for Orsino. Olivia‟s love for the disguised Viola who has been assigned by the Duke to persuade the Countess for accepting his love may be called as the example of love at first sight. The love which is based on physical charms can never be a true love. Describing the false notion of love which occurs as a result of human fascination with physical appearance, Viola says:

How easy is it for the proper false

In women‟s waxen hearts to set their forms.

Alas, our frailty is the cause, not we,

For such as we are made of, such we be. (2.2.29-32)

The false or evil has been regarded as an attractive thing. It is important to note here that evilMaulana or falsehood Azad hasLibrary, always Aligarh been depicted Muslim attractive University and engaging in Shakespeare‟s plays. Almost all characters of this play except Viola are enchanted by physical charms. Orsino who is suffering from love-in-idleness is attracted to Olivia due to her physical beauty. Olivia is also fascinated by outward appearance of Cesario, the self-disguised Viola. Malvolio, an example of self-love, mistakenly believes that Olivia is in deep love with him. Sebestian‟s acceptance of Olivia‟s love, who considers him to be Cesario, is due to her physical grace and beauty. It is only Viola‟s love for the Duke which may be considered as mature and true love. The things which make her love distinct from other characters‟ love are her sacrifices and

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets patience. While other kinds of love demand possession, the true love seeks sacrifices. If the false notion of love is characterized by its impatience and possession, the true love is marked by its endurance and sacrifices. No love can be called true love unless it makes sacrifices.

It is notable here that in the last Act when the Duke is rebuked by Olivia for talking about his old love and she compares his talk of love to howling after music for her ears, he shows his strong will to kill her so that nobody can achieve the object of his love. But, he intends to torment her in a different way. When the Duke is aware of the fact that Olivia is in deep love with his lad, Cesario, he intends to harm him so that he can take his revenge from Olivia through this way. Undoubtedly, this is an example of jealous love which desperately tries to inflict pain on the object he/she could not achieve. But the response by the disguised Viola to her master, Orsino, clearly presents the philosophy of true love. It seems pertinent here to quote the relevant lines from the play to bring home the difference between true and false love. In a disappointed and revengeful mood, Orsino says to the disguised Viola:

Come, boy, with me. My thoughts are ripe in mischief.

I‟ll sacrifice the lamb that I do love

To spite a raven‟s heart within a dove.

(Following her master, Viola says)

And I most jocund, apt and willingly

To do you rest a thousand deaths would die. (5.1.125-29) Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Viola‟s readiness to follow her master‟s order reminds of the Prophet Ismayil‟s willingness to his father, the Prophet Abraham, that he should fulfil his dream through scarificing him. Viola‟s humbleness can also be compared to Christ‟s eagerness to be the sacrificial lamb of God for the redemption of humanity according to the Christian belief. It is worthwhile to note here that Viola truly loves Orsino and she also knows well that he is in love with Olivia, but still she tries to persuade her on his behalf. She does all things which are directed by her master to court Olivia. She hides her love because the Duke loves the Countess. She seeks her delight and satisfaction in his happiness. In the second Act, she implicitly declares the intensity of her immense love 170

Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets when she responds to Orsino‟s accusation of women that they can never love a man with such intensity he loves Olivia. She says that she knows a woman who loved a man with such intensity and narrates the story of a daughter of her father who is no one but Viola herself. Implicitly describing the pangs of her love, she narrates the story of that woman:

A blank, my lord. She never told her love,

But let concealment like a worm in the bud

Feed on her damask cheek. She pined in thought,

And with a green and yellow melancholy

She sat like Patience on a monument,

Smiling at grief. Was not this love indeed?

We men may say more, swear more, but indeed

Our shows are more than will, for still we prove

Much in our vows, but little in our love. (2.4.110-118)

From the above lines it is quite clear that Viola profoundly loves Orsino but her love is not selfish in its nature. In fact, her love is selfless love which is unadulterated by any motive or benefit on her part. This is the love which Shakespeare often presents in his romantic comedies as mature and true love. Shakespeare has always ridiculed young and immature love in his romantic comedies, more strikingly in Midsummer Night’s Dream where the frailty of young and immature love has been depicted on the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University stage through the theatrical device of love-juice. He always presents his idea of true love after mocking at false notion of love. The same happens in this play also as first, different shades of false love have been shown and then, the true love has been defined.

To conclude it can be said that Shakespeare‟s definition of true love is very near to the Sufic conception of divine and spiritual love. The Sufic love prefers sacrifices to possession. The Sufic conception of true love is that actually, it lies in the idea of forgetting the self. It can be further elaborated that when a person falls in true

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets love, he/she begins to forget himself/herself and becomes unable to identify a difference between him/her and the object he/she does love. A Sufic love can be explained as a love for love‟s sake where one feels incapable of recognizing any difference among the love, the lover and the beloved. Therefore, one can find rich affinities between Shakespeare‟s notion of true love and the Sufic conception of divine love.

1.4: Shakespeare’s Sonnets Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets during his lifetime. They have been composed in different time but got collectively published in a quarto in 1609. The theme of love and time can be called the major theme of these sonnets. These sonnets present the poet‟s view on love. Different types of love have been described in these sonnets, for example, married love, sensual love, spiritual love, love for a friend etc. Some of the great writers considered love between two friends superior to love between a man and a woman. Sexless love has been appreciated while sexual love has been criticized by almost all great writers. Praising the beauty of his male friend, Mr. W. H., an unknown personality often known by his initials, Shakespeare has followed this traditional view on love. Apart from it, the poet‟s concern is to immortalize his love and to protect it from the cruel hands of Time. As this study aims at exploring affinities and similarities between Shakespeare‟s concept of true love and the Sufic notion of spiritual love, for this objective, only two of his sonnets will be analysed in this study.

Sonnet No. 116 This sonnet talks about true love‟s constancy in this world of perpetual change. The main characteristicMaulana of true Azad love has Library, been mentioned Aligarh as Muslim its inalterability. University In the first quatrain, what true love is not has been discussed. The important thing to note here is that the sonnet asserts the fact that true love never demands reciprocity. In fact, it is a motiveless love which is unconditional in its nature. The love which alters due to changes in the object of love cannot be called a true love. This change in the object of love may occur due to various reasons, but true love is never influenced by them. Everything in this mortal world is subject to the power of Time and physical beauty and charms cannot escape from his rage. But true love has been described as an eternal thing which cannot be shaken up by any storm. Unlike other things, it is

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Exploration of Sufism in The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Twelfth Night, and Select Sonnets permanent and immortal. The other characteristic of true love has been mentioned as “it is the star to every wandering bark” (line 7). The quality of the true love is that it leads people to truth and virtue.

Three characteristics of true love have been discussed in this sonnet, namely, its inalterability, its guiding property and its permanence. These characteristics show remarkable similarities between Shakespeare‟s idea of true love and Sufic conception of spiritual love. Like Shakespeare‟s notion of true love, Sufic love is always unalterable and unconditional. The first Sufi woman in Islam, Rabia al-Adawiyya al- Qaysiyya (714-801), sought fire so that she could burn Paradise and asked for water so that she could diminish the fire of Hell for those people who love God and worship Him due to the hope of getting Paradise or due to the fear of punishment in Hell. She propagated the idea that love for God must be selfless and motiveless. In fact, Sufism itself is defined as selfless love for God. So, the unalterable and unconditional properties of true love are evident in Sufic love. As much as its guiding property is concerned, true love always leads a Sufi in his/her journey to make union with the Absolute. The chief aim of a Sufi is to make union with God and in this journey he/she is guided by his/her true love. The true love saves a Sufi from losing his/her right path and protects him/her from being attracted by the worldly things. Likewise, a Sufi‟s love for God is permanent and it does not come to an end with his/her death.

In fact, the idea of the courtly love has been derived from Sufism. There are many similarities between the concept of the courtly love and Sufism. The courtly love portrays the beloved as a goddess and the lover as its devotee. According to it, the true lover can never complain of the indifferences of his beloved. His love for her is presented as unconditional and permanent in its nature. Similarly, the concept of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University true love presented in Shakespeare‟s romantic comedies employs several Sufic vehicles and tenors to express mortal love. Although he has talked about romantic love in his plays and sonnets, he consciously or unconsciously has made use of many features of Sufic love to define his idea of true love. Therefore, a rich affinity is discovered between his concept of true love and the Sufic notion of the spiritual love.

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Sonnet No: 144 In this sonnet, the poet presents his situation through the medieval concept of psychomachia. On one hand he is charmed by the illegal and sexual love for the dark lady while on the other hand he is restrained by the spiritual love for his patron and friend, M.r. W. H. His heart becomes a battle ground for the forces of good and evil. It is similar to the description of good angel and bad angel in the medieval morality plays. In the first verse of the sonnet, the spiritual love is called as comfort while the name of despair has been given to the physical love. Similarly, both are again described as the true love is like “a man right fair” (line 3) whereas the sexual love, which is lust, is like “a woman coloured ill” (4). These two similes are significant to explore Shakespeare‟s idea of true and false love. Spiritual or true love has been depicted as simple but real. White is known as a basic and primary colour. It suggests simplicity and truthfulness. Sexual love is projected as an ill which has been coloured to attract the attention of the people. The false love or evil is often presented as something very attractive and charming in Shakespeare‟s works. In the next few verses, the distinctive qualities of true and false love are mentioned. The former is pure and humble while the latter is impure and arrogant. It is worthwhile to note here that Shakespeare believed that true love has no room for pride and arrogance whose abode are human lesser self (Nafs). This is the reason that true love is regarded as selfless love. Although, this sonnet has been written by Shakespeare to warn his patron Mr W. H. of any sexual inclination towards the dark lady, it contains various undertones defining the spiritual love which is nothing but the Sufic love for God. The poet has explained the spiritual love as simple and humble but at the same time pure and selfless also.

It will Maulananot be right Azadto claim Library, here that Shakespeare Aligarh Muslim had written University all these sonnets to define Sufic and spiritual love but he had primarily written them to appease his patron and friend and to show his love and respect for him. But for this purpose, it seems he employed several similes and metaphors which are filled with the Sufic ideas for love. It will not be wrong to argue that the Sufic notion of love seeps through the poet‟s language whenever he tries to explain the idea of true or mature love in his different plays and sonnets.

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To conclude it can be said that Sufism and its ideas were so much popular in the nearby Ottoman Empire at the time of Shakespeare that it seems unlikely that he could not be aware of them. The whole corpus of the Elizabethan literature clearly reflects England‟s awareness of the fashions and traditions of these powerful Turks who always appeared as an impending danger to the whole of Christendom. Due to their political and economic development, they appeared to them as the Big Brother in the whole region. Due to their religious as well as political differences with the Ottoman Empire which primarily followed the religion of Islam, the English poets and playwrights showed their prejudices and predispositions against them in their works. One can easily find a number of references to these Muslim Turks in the description of evil characters in a highly remarkable work of the Elizabethan time, Edmund Spenser‟s (1552-1599) The Faerie Queene (1590). It is very easy to understand that rivalry and enmity restrain people from acknowledging the virtues of their foes. This is why English literature of that period recorded only the criticism of their culture and tradition and one can hardly find any example of their glorification and acclamation in the writings of that period. But, their criticism points out to the fact that undoubtedly, they were informed about the religion, culture, society and fashions of Turks and that was why they could criticize them in their works. Then, it seems unlikely that the Elizabethan playwrights were unfamiliar with the Sufic notions and ideals which were there in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire. Their awareness of the culture and religion of Turks strongly supports the assumption that actually they were well informed about the Sufic ideas and thoughts in the nearby Ottoman Empire. Their inability to acknowledge the role of the Sufic ideas in their works can be understood in the human psyche. It is natural to human beings to depreciate culture and tradition of their enemies. It is not surprising to know the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University human psychology that the ideas and values of enemies are never consciously acknowledged by people. It seems highly probable that the English were impressed by this oriental philosophy but their political and religious differences restrain them from acknowledging its contribution to their works. It leads one to a conclusion that Shakespeare was aware of Sufic ideas and ideals which were prevalent in the Ottoman Empire during the Elizabethan period but, due to the association of this oriental philosophy of Sufism with the Turks, he could not openly acknowledge its contributions to his ideas and thoughts expressed in his various plays and sonnets.

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Works Cited

Hasan, Masoodul. Sufism and English Literature, Chaucer to Present Age: Echoes

and Image. Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2007.

Knight, G. Wilson. The Wheel of Fire: Interpretation of Shakespeare's Tragedy.

Routledge Classics, 2001.

Lings, Martin. Shakespeare in the Light of sacred Art. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,

1966.

Rumi, Jalaluddin. Mathnawi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson, Luzac and

Company, 1925.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. The University of Carolina

Press, 1975.

Shakespeare William. Measure for Measure. Edited by J. W. Lever, Arden

Shakespeare, 2013.

---. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Edited by Katherine Duncan-Jones, Arden Shakespeare, 2013.

---. The Tempest. Edited by Frank Kermode, Arden Shakespeare, 1994.

---. Twelfth Night. Edited by Keir Elam, Arden Shakespeare, 2013. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

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Chapter 6

Conclusion

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Conclusion Chapter 6 Conclusion

This study makes a humble attempt at closely examining Sufic influences on William Shakespeare‟s thoughts. It tries to show a line of similarities between Sufism and Shakespeare‟s views on love, ethics, spirituality, faith and religion. The thesis does not make any distinction between the terms, Sufism and Tasawwuf, as the former term is believed to be derogatorily and politically employed by Europe to make a difference between the radical and liberal Islam while the latter became quite a popular term for it amongst Muslims. This study concentrates on closely reading and exploring affinities between his elevated thoughts expressed in his various plays and several sonnets and Sufic ideas and ideals. Being a prominent figure in Sufism, Jalaluddin Rumi has been selected to observe a pattern of similarity between his ideas and those of Shakespeare. Besides this, it is a cross-cultural study which shows some remarkable affinities between the systems of thoughts in the east and the west. East is represented by Rumi while West is characterized by Shakespeare as both are the ambassadors of their cultures.

As this thesis is not a comparative study, no comparative theory has been applied to carry out this research. Shakespeare‟s plays, King Lear, Hamlet, The Tempest, Measure for Measure and Twelfth Night and his two sonnets 116 and 144 have been selected to test the hypothesis of this research. The thesis nowhere claims that Shakespeare was influenced by Rumi because there is not only cultural, religious, geographical and linguistic differences between them but there is also a gap of almost Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University three hundred years between them. The main focus of the thesis is that it convincingly tries to establish the argument that Shakespeare was consciously or unconsciously aware of the oriental philosophy of Sufism that was prevalent in the nearby Ottoman Empire. The argument is substantiated by the affinities which have been discovered between the thoughts presented in his texts and the concepts of Sufism.

During the analysis of Shakespeare‟s select plays, it has been observed that his primary concern is always to purify a character from its fallen nature. Unlike other playwrights of his age, he is not only concerned with human salvation but he also

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Conclusion depicts his characters moving from mere Renaissance scheme of salvation to some higher station of sanctification. The other important thing which this study could find is that Shakespeare appears to be a religious person in his plays. It is true that the gods depicted in his plays are always pagan gods but it should be kept in mind that when he was writing his plays in the second half of the 16th century, the English drama was free from the liturgical monopoly and it was secularized. Due to the domination of secular forces, the mention of the Christian God on the stage was strictly prohibited. In view of this compulsion, Shakespeare could not refer to the Christian God in his plays. But, when his treatment of pagan gods in his plays is critically analysed; it is discovered that his treatment is completely different from those of Homer, Sophocles and Euripides in their respective works. He talks of pagan gods but he means one real God. His gods are not cruel to humans and they function providently while Homer‟s and other Greco-Roman authors‟ gods are cruel and whimsical in their nature.

The other significant finding which could be found during this study is that Shakespeare is not a child of Renaissance as it is generally believed but the last man of the medieval times. After closely reading his plays and critically examining his characters and thoughts, it has been discovered that he seems to be more inclined to the medieval intellectual thoughts rather than to the common Renaissance reasoning. Although it is true that his plays contain both the medieval and Renaissance images of human as crawling worms on the earth and as an angel respectively, it is the former to which he appears to be more inclined. He transcended the secular forces of his time and tried to preserve the medieval ideas in his plays. There are a number of illustrations from the characterization of Edgar in the play, King Lear, which have been presented in this study to strengthen the hypothesis that he was still cherishing the medieval notionsMaulana during Azad the rise Library, of Renaissance Aligarh forces. Muslim University

There are remarkable resemblances between some of the medieval ideas and the oriental philosophy of Sufism. It has been argued in this thesis that the Western medievalism derived multiple thoughts and ideas from the oriental world. Although it could not be proved that Shakespeare directly read English translation of any of Sufic treatises as their English translations were done later on, this possibility cannot be ruled out that though, there was no English translation available during the life time of Shakespeare, he might be aware of the general phenomenon of Sufism which was at its peak at that time in the nearby Ottoman Empire. It can be easily said that he was 178

Conclusion well aware of the religion, culture and fashion of the Turks, as he has made several derogatory references to them in his various plays, then, how it was possible for the playwright to remain unaware of the philosophy of Sufism that must have been present in Ottoman Empire? Therefore, there should be no hesitation in accepting the argument that Shakespeare was either consciously or unconsciously aware of Sufism. The affinities between his thoughts and Sufism should not be considered as a mere coincidence but it seems highly probable that he was immensely impressed by this oriental philosophy of Sufism which he could not publicly acknowledge because of the religious and political differences his country had with the Ottoman Empire.

The hypothesis of this research is substantiated by a number of similarities in Shakespeare‟s thoughts and the notions of Sufism. Reading the character of Edgar carefully, one finds multiple similarities between him and a Sufic figure. As it has been pointed out in the introduction that Sufism has six different stations (Maqamaat), all of them are apparent in Shakespeare‟s characterization of Edgar. His journey to the truth very much resembles a Sufic journey to find out God. In fact, he happens to be a Sufic character in this play.

The first station in Sufism is repentance (Tauba). Edgar leads a joyful and happy life; he can neither know himself nor the truth until he is implicated by his vicious brother, Edmund, in his evil design. He is falsely presented before his father, Gloucester, by his bastard brother as a rebellious and wicked son who wants to kill his father so that he can become the master of his properties. Subsequently, his father angrily declares him to be an outlaw and consequently, he takes self-exile to save himself from the fury of his father. To escape from the persecution, he disguises himself as poor Tom Bedlam. During this harsh phase of his life, he realizes, for the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University first time, his sins and bad deeds committed by him in the past. Remembering his past, he says of himself:

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Conclusion

light of ear, bloody of hand; hog in sloth, fox in stealth, wolf in greediness, dog in madness, lion in prey. (3.4.83-92)

The first line he says is that he was a serving man. It means that he was a serving man for the devil; and abiding by his orders, he committed all evil things in his past life. It can also mean that he was self-serving man. Here, self has been used in a negative sense which is known as lesser self (Nafs) in Sufic terminology. Having suffered from difficult circumstances in his life, he comes to realization that actually he has been wasting his life following the devil‟s orders. He laments and repents his past deeds and preaches everybody to be away from seeking joyful and pleasant life. With his repentance (Tauba), he began to be conscious of his real Self. The consciousness of the real Self comes with repentance. This is considered to be the first station of a Sufic journey. Edgar starts his Sufic journey to seek out truth.

After being conscious of his real self, the first thing Edgar does is that he begins to develop abstinence (Taqwa). He is tempted several times by the devil to commit suicide and to put his suffering and pain to an end. Sometimes, he is tempted by the devil to commit suicide through burning himself in fire while sometimes he is tried to be convinced to end his miserable life through drowning himself in the sea. But Edgar never yields to the devil‟s temptations. His faith restrains him from committing this act. He is saved from eternal damnation through his abstinence. In spite of facing difficult circumstances, he never loses his hope in God.

Besides these two Sufic characteristics, he adopts a complete renunciation (Zuhd) from the physical world. Although his renunciation is with the objective to escape from the persecution, it immensely helps him in developing an unshakable faith in the functioningMaulana of AzadGod. He Library, disguises Aligarhhimself as Muslima poor Tom. University He smears dust on his face and appears just like a beast. During his disguise, he realizes, for the first time, the real status of a human that there is no difference between a human and a beast if he/she is away from God. He realizes during his journey to truth that it is divine purpose which makes human superior to other creatures in this world. Edgar says:

I heard myself proclaimed,

And by the happy hollow of a tree

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Escaped the hunt. No port is free, no place

That guard and most unusual vigilance

Does not attend my taking. While I may scape

I will preserve myself, and am bethought

To take the beast and most poorest shape

That every penury in contempt of man

Brought near to man. (2.2.172-180)

Rumi also believed the same that a human who is not conscious of the divine purpose for his/her creation is not superior to beasts. In this play, Shakespeare has presented the Elizabethan debate on the status of humans in this universe. Both Rumi and Shakespeare believe that it is the divine purpose which makes them superior to animals and other creations of this universe. Poverty, the fourth station of Sufic journey, is visible in Edgar‟s name as poor Tom during his disguise. He is poor and has no source of sustenance. He generally survives on public alms and begging. Although this poverty is not self-chosen by Edgar, and Sufic poverty is voluntarily chosen by a Sufi, it still helps in describing the Sufic characteristics in his characterization. The next station which comes after poverty in the Sufic scheme is called patience (Sabr). It naturally follows poverty. He is patient and endures all of his suffering and pains without making any complaint against God.

The next station which is found in a Sufic journey is that of trust in God (Tawakkul). This characteristic is visible in his characterization. Probably, he is the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University only character in this play who never loses his trust in God. When Cordelia-led French army is defeated by the English forces and it seems that there is no escape from being captured by the enemy forces, it is only Edgar who still does not lose his trust in God. Seeing his father indulging in hopelessness and dejection again, he exhorts his father to become resolute and ready for God‟s judgment. Preaching his blind father not to lose his hope in God, Edgar says “Men must endure / Their going hence even their coming hither. / Ripeness is all” (5.2.9-11).

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The meaning of the above quotation is that human beings must always prepare themselves to endure God‟s judgment whether He gives them happiness or pain. Edgar says to his father that as humans have been born without seeking their permission, they may be taken by Him without their approval; therefore, when life and death are beyond the human control, they must be always ready to willingly accept the orders of God. From the above quotation, both characteristics of Sufism patience and trust in God are apparent. Apart from it, he develops an unshakable faith in the divine functioning of God.

The divine dispensation is an issue of this play in which references to gods are much more than any other play of Shakespeare. When Edgar fights Edmund in a single combat, he routs him. As Edgar fights him in his disguise, Edmund, after being defeated, wishes to know this victorious person. Then, he reveals his true identity and justifies the ways of God to humans. He justifies God‟s dispensation to his father. He says that his father indulged in a sinful act of illegal sexual relation, and he lost his eyes as a punishment for his crime. He gives a common lesson to all that God is just and honest in His functioning; He is never whimsical, cruel or indifferent to humans but it is their pleasant vice which puts them in trouble. Showing his profound faith in the functioning of God and revealing himself to Edmund, he says in the following memorable lines:

I am no less in blood than thou art, Edmund;

If more, the more thou‟st wronged me.

My name is Edgar and thy father‟s son.

The godsMaulana are just and Azad of our Library, pleasant vices Aligarh Muslim University

Make instruments to plague us:

The dark and vicious place where thee he got

Cost him his eyes. (5.3.165-171)

The last station of the Sufic journey is called satisfaction (Tumaninah). According to it, the heart of a Sufi must be completely satisfied with the will of God. Satisfaction is amply discernible in Edgar‟s action and behaviour. He is the only character who

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Conclusion remains never dissatisfied with functioning of God. After critically analysing his character, it is discovered that Shakespeare has consciously or unconsciously depicted the character of Edgar like a Sufic figure. All of the seven stations of Sufism can be witnessed in his characterization. Commenting upon the character of Edgar, F. G. Butler says in his article titled “Who are King Lear's Philosophers? An answer, with some Help from Erasmus” in English Studies volume no. 67 (1986):

The play, King Lear, is a testimony to the fact that Shakespeare was influenced by Sufism. A number of examples from this text substantiate it. At the very outset, the play appears to be in a form of allegory where the struggle between body and soul has been depicted. The theme of appearance versus reality is one of its major themes. The human fascination with appearance and body is apparent in Lear‟s undue favour to Goneril and Regan. They are preferred to Cordelia because they can profoundly exhibit their love before Lear while Cordelia cannot express the same for the king. Similarly, in the sub-plot of the play, Gloucester favours his bastard son, Edmund, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University because he is good-looking and attractive. Lear and Gloucester represent Everyman in the main plot and sub-plot of the play respectively. Their attraction to physical and corporeal things reminds one of the human‟s first disobedience of eating the forbidden fruit. Lear considers flattery as true love. He makes it as a basis for acquiring his favours.

The play begins with the inversion of order. This inversion in the play has been indicated by multiple images. The first image alludes to the biblical description of Adam‟s and Eve‟s disobedience when they were tempted by the physical

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Conclusion appearance of the forbidden tree and after eating the apple, they changed immortal for mortal, soul for body, virtue for vices and everlasting happiness and delight for the perpetual pain and suffering. Another imagery which has been employed to point out this inversion is deduced from Kent‟s speech. When he is banished by Lear from his kingdom because he shows his objection to his decision of disinheriting Cordelia from his properties, he describes his court as “Freedom lives hence and banishment is here” (1.1.182).

Lear‟s universe is a place where virtues are punished while vices are rewarded. The evil characters, whether they are Goneril, Regan, and their husbands, or Edmund or Oswald, are entertained while the good characters, Cordelia, Edgar and Kent, are banished from entering his universe. His inverted universe can no longer tolerate the existence of good characters. Hence, Cordelia is exiled while Kent and Edgar are forced to disguise themselves to live in this evil world.

Apart from Edgar and Cordelia who have been presented as saintly figures, the theme of self-discovery is one of significant themes of this play. Nosce teipsum (A Latin phrase meaning „Know thyself‟) was one of the burning topic among the Elizabethans. Montaigne, whose ideas are reflected in Shakespeare‟s plays, wrote about self-examination in his essays. According to the theme of self-discovery, two things restrain humans from their self-knowledge, pride and seeking flattery. Lear happens to be associated with both. In the first scene of the play, he is portrayed as an arrogant and violent person. Besides pride, he is fond of flattery. He considers sycophancy as love. Actually, he is unaware of himself. This fact is pointed out in the discussion between Regan and Goneril about the strange decision of their father as he disinherits Cordelia from his properties. Surprised by the strange behaviour of their Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University father, they comment:

Goneril: You see how full of changes his age is. The observation we have made of it hath not been little. He always lov'd our sister most, and with what poor judgment he hath now cast her off appears too grossly.

Regan: 'Tis the infirmity of his age; yet he hath ever but slenderly known himself. (1.1.290-295)

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Conclusion

Lear himself accepts that he was unaware of himself when the doors of his two daughters are shut on him in the storm scene. He realizes his mistake and error of judgment. He dejectedly wanders under the open sky. Due to the severe and cruel behaviour of their daughters, he loses his sense and becomes mad. Walking in the open sky, he suddenly meets Gloucester who has been blinded. Mad Lear could not recognize him but his voice is recognized by the blind Gloucester who is confirmed that this is the voice of his master. Talking to him, Lear accepts his own mistakes and says that he was unaware of himself. He says to Gloucester:

They flattered me like a dog and told me I had the white hairs in my beard ere the black ones were there. To say „ay‟ and „no‟ to everything that I said „ay‟ and „no‟ to was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me once and the wind to make me chatter; when the thunder would not peace at my bidding, there I found „em, there I smelt „em out. Go to, they are not men o‟their words: they told me I was everything; „‟tis a lie, I am not ague-proof. (4.6.96- 104)

The only way through which Lear can get himself rid of self-love and pride is affliction. First, he will have to purge himself from arrogance and self-love and after that he can recognize his real self. This is his affliction and suffering which purify Lear from his baser instincts. Explaining this point in his book, Lear’s Self-Discovery (1967) Paul A. Jorgensen says:

If flattery and pride make self-knowledge especially difficult, it is to be expected- and the treatises grimly confirm this fact- that the surest guide to self-knowledge is affliction. John Davies of Hereford, we recall, had said: Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Then sith the Prowd doe never looke so low

That skill nere comes but with their overthrow.

Affliction, heads (I, 36) makes “us know our selves at the first sight/ And bring‟st us to our selves, our selves to see. (Jorgensen 18-19)

Through affliction and pain, Lear not only gets himself rid of self-love and pride, he begins to develop the understanding of others‟ problems. For the first time, he realizes his short-comings as he did not make any shelter for homeless people. After making

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Conclusion his self-discovery, he is more worried about the problems and difficulties of poor rather than his own troubles and pain. This is the irony of life that when he was in his good health and senses, he could not know of himself but when he is considered as insane, he is able to recognize his real self. Similarly, unless Gloucester has his physical eyes, he could not see and know that who was his obedient son but when he loses his sight, he is able to know that who is his good son and who is not.

Therefore, the pattern of three Sufic stages is visible in the characterization of Lear. First his self is awakened by the mistreatment of his two daughters. Then, his self is purified from his baser instincts through physical pain and affliction, and ultimately his illumination of self is suggested by Kent in his final tributes to the departing soul of his master. He says “Vex not his ghost; O, let him pass. He hates him / That would upon the rack of this tough world / Stretch him out longer (5.3.312- 314)

Apart from the play, King Lear, Shakespeare has employed the Sufic ideas in his other plays as well. His other tragedy, Hamlet, has been critically analysed in this study to know the probable influence of Sufism on Shakespeare. While closely reading the character of Hamlet, it is discovered that it is his spiritual consciousness which always prevents him from taking his personal revenge. His spirituality has been further marked by the two foil characters, Laertes and Fortinbras. Both of these characters face the same problem like that of Hamlet. The fathers of both are murdered and they are eager to avenge the murder of their fathers. Fortinbras marches with his army to reclaim the land which has been lost by his father to King Hamlet in a battle while Laertes is ready to cut Hamlet‟s throat even in the Church. Hamlet is a moral and spiritual person who is far superior to other people of his country. Although Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University he is a prince, he does not like drinking and merry-making. While talking to his friend Horatio, he shows his displeasure at this custom of his country.

His spiritual conscience always appears as a hurdle in the way of taking his personal revenge. Sometimes, he is taken away by his sentimentality and he makes up his mind to fulfil the promise made to the ghost of his father. When he becomes sure of the crime of his uncle, Claudius, in the mousetrap scene, he rushes to kill him but Hamlet finds him at prayer. He does not murder him because killing him at this time when he is at his prayer will send him directly to Paradise. He does not want to help

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Conclusion his enemy. Then, he determines that he will kill Claudius at a time when he will be indulging in some bad acts. Probably, this is the reason that he quickly proceeds to kill the person hidden behind the arras in the closet scene because he considers the hidden person to be the king. Here, Hamlet rushes to take his revenge when he thinks that Claudius was engaged in a bad act because the king happens to be in his mother‟s chamber and Hamlet considers the marriage between them as incest. But, unfortunately, the hidden person who is killed by Hamlet happens to be Polonius. It should be noted that whenever he tries to avenge, he is prevented by some circumstances while his foil characters are helped by some or the other circumstances to take their revenge. After reading the play carefully one comes to the conclusion that it is not Hamlet who is reluctant to take his personal revenge but it is Shakespeare who wants to make his audience and readers understand what it costs to take a personal revenge. Elaborating upon this point, Abdulla-Al-Dabbagh says in his book, Shakespeare, the Orient, and the Critics (2010):

Here may also be the place to address the issue of Hamlet‟s so-called indecisiveness, his incapacity, for all kinds of reasons, to act, and dispose of it once and for all. It is no Hamlet who is hesitant to act; it is Shakespeare who wants us to think more deeply about what it means to act. (Al-Dabbagh 70)

Hamlet‟s heart becomes a battle ground for both forces of good and evil. “To be, or not to Maulana be” (3.1.55) Azad soliloquy Library, reflects Aligarh his situation Muslim in which University he has been caught between two conflicting forces of good and evil. But after the sea voyage episode in the fourth Act, a drastic change can be seen in his behaviour. After this episode where he is miraculously saved from the captivity of the pirates as well as from his awaiting death in England, he develops an unshakable faith in the divine dispensation. At the beginning of the play, he appears to be „sick in soul‟. But his sickness disappears with the progress of trust in God. There are remarkable affinities between his staunch belief and the Sufic stage of Tawakkul (complete trust in God). When a Sufi reaches this station, his/her troubles and pain are mitigated due to his/her complete reliance on

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Conclusion

God. After this episode, no example of his confusion and irresolution can be presented in the play. Responding to his bosom friend, Horatio, when he tries to persuade him not to accept Laertes‟s challenge at the duel, Hamlet says “there is special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be, this not to come. If it be not to come, yet it will be now. If it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all, since no man of aught he leaves knows what is‟t to leave betimes” (5.2.197-201). From this quotation from the play, Hamlet‟s complete trust in God (Tawakul) is easily noticeable.

During the course of events, Hamlet is taught a Sufic lesson that everything is in the hands of God and humans are required to submit themselves to His will. So, the play narrates the story of Hamlet who transforms from a perplexed and confused man to an ardent devotee having a firm faith in God.

To strengthen the argument that Shakespeare was influenced by the concept of Sufism, illustrations from his tragicomedy, The Tempest, his problem play, Measure for Measure, his romantic comedy, Twelfth Night, and from his two sonnets, 116 and 144 have been given in the fifth chapter of this thesis. The Tempest depicts the protagonist, Prospero, as a Sufic figure. The play‟s narrative seems to be derived from a Sufic text, Ibne Tufail‟s Hayye bin Yakzan. Unlike his tragedies, Shakespeare in this play highlights the role of repentance and forgiveness in human‟s life. Forgiving his enemies, Prospero says “Yet with my nobler reason against my fury / Do I take part: the rarer action is / In virtue than in vengeance” (5.1.26-28). The play highlights the Sufic teaching that forgiveness is one of the divine attributes. It is blessed for both the receiver and the giver--the former achieves salvation through it; the latter attains sanctification from it. Through the help of masque, he tries to bring home the Sufic Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University teaching that human life is an illusion just like the actors of the masque who suddently disappeared during the performance. Prospero compares the human life to a dream as both are transient and unreal in their nature.

In Measure for Measure, the conflict between law and mercy has been shown. It shows the significance of mercy in human life. Again, the protagonist of the play, the Duke, Vincentio, has been presented as a Sufic figure wandering to know himself. Describing the Duke, Escalus says “One that, above all other strifes, contended especially to know himself” (3.2.226). Apart from the Sufic theme of discovering the

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Conclusion self, the play reflects the Sufic characteristics of the Duke as he takes renunciation (Zuhd) from the wordly things and voluntarily chooses poverty (Faqr) through disguising himself as a poor friar. They play harshly criticizes the hypocritical human nature because when they happen to be a victim, they demand strict implementation of law while where they are a culprit, they hope for mercy and forgiveness. The play ends with the lesson that the measure one adopts for others, will also be used on him/her.

The play, Twelfth Night and the two selected sonnets reflect upon Shakespeare‟s definition of true love. There is a rich affinity between his definition of true or mature love and the concept of Sufic love as both are permanent, sacrificing and unconditional in their nature. The play begins with the Duke, Orsino‟s speech, “If music be the food of love, play on, / Give me the excess of it” (1.1.1-2). It shows a close relationship between love and music. The same idea about music as the supplement of love is also found in Rumi. He says in his Masnavi Manavi “Oh, music is the meat of all, who love” (Masnavi: Volume IV). The play terms Viola‟s love for Orsino as true love because it is patient, sacrificing and motiveless.

Shakespeare‟s sonnets also define true love in the Sufic fashion. He describes the true love in his sonnet no. 116 as “it is the star to every wandering bark” (line 7). Sonnet no. 144 compares true love to “a man right fair” (line 3) whereas the false love is like “a woman coloured ill” (4). True love has been defined as simple, pure and natural while false love is characterized as artificial, immoral and courrupt in this sonnet. Shakespeare has discussed some characteristics of true love as inalterability, guiding property, permanence, simplicity, purity and selflessness. All of these can be found in the definition of the Sufic love for God. Therefore, there is a notable Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University similarity between Shakespeare‟s idea of true love and the Sufic notion of the divine love.

The Sufic journey of Edgar to find out truth of existence, Lear‟s self- discovery, Hamlet‟s transformation from an indecisive state to a staunch believer are some instances to show the impact of Sufism on Shakespearean thoughts. All these illustrations from his various plays and sonnets substantiate the hypothesis of this research that he was either consciously or unconsciously aware of the ideas and concepts of Sufism. However, it appears that, due to the political and religious rivalry

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Conclusion between Europe and the Ottoman Empire with which they associated the philosophy of Sufism, Shakespeare could not directly acknowledge the influence of Sufism in his works.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

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Conclusion

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