The Discovery and Excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum

THE DISCOVERY AND EXCAVATION OF POMPEII & HERCULANEUM

16TH TO 19TH CENTURIES PERSON ACTIVITY AT SITE RESULT Workmen Digging a canal Accidental discovery of Pompeii Architect of project recorded the discovery of inscriptions Workmen Digging for limestone Led to accidental discovery of Herculaneum Rocco de Alcubierre Dug at site where Fontana found Thought he found site of Stabiae 1738-? inscriptions Spanish Was directing mining operations Found frescoes, statues, artefacts for King of Naples Filled in holes once they took everything – criticised by Cardinal Qurini Inscription found which read ‘res First identification of site of Pompeii; inscription publica Pompeianorum’ translated as ‘state of Pompeians’ Francois Mazois Record the site, find treasure Team of 1500 men excavated and made accurate records French architect (The Ruins of Pompeii) Treasure hunting Both sites looted Paintings cut from walls Mosaics lifted from floors Statues, columns, vases, coins removed and added to collections of kings, museums and private individuals ARCHAEOLOGIST METHODS OF EXCAVATION RESULTS & DISCOVERIES Karl Weber Decided to uncover site systematically. Discovered a tavern 1750-1764 Made sketches and drew plans and Villa of the Papyri- accidentally Swiss elevations of the ruins. Tomb of the Istacidi Kept detailed inventories of finds and Bronze statues found in the Villa of the Papyri located them on a site plan. Found 1,800 carbonized papyrus scrolls which many were Inventories and reports were sent to destroyed in the 18th century when they tried to open King and were guarded. them. Believed in the importance of publication. Tried to stop the practice of reburying excavated ruins to let visitors experience excavated remains. Francesco la Vega Structured and systematic: he excavated In Pompeii: Started in 1764. In 1765 each building completely making The temple of Isis director of excavations in detailed notes on all notable interiors The Odeon Pompeii (though he still and carried out a complete search for Gladiator barracks reported to Alcubierre. artefacts in the buildings he excavated. Villa of Diomedes In 1780 he was put in full Kept a detailed diary of the excavations In Herculaneum: House of the Surgeon and House of charge of excavations in Detailed designs of buildings and Sallust. Pompeii employed a notable draftsman to copy The discovery of the temple of the wall paintings of the temple of Isis Isis in 1764 (December) meant that Pompeii now received Detailed maps of excavations. worldwide attention, and as a consequence conservation Had a general plan of Herculaneum was now critical. drawn up. REF: The Lost World of Pompeii, by Colin Amery and After excavating he became concerned Brian Curran Jr, published by Frances Lincoln Ltd 2002. with conservation – all excess soil and rock excavated was removed off site, provision was made for structural repairs and maintenance of the buildings Giuseppe Fiorelli -Developed numbering and naming 1860-1875 system to divide and describe the site Italian -introduced more systematic approach to “It is hard to exaggerate his impact excavation on the history of Pompeii…Fiorelli -Used system of carefully excavating buildings from the top down remains the individual who had the -Made plaster casts of the victim greatest impact upon the way in which - systematically documents all work on Pompeii has been both excavated and the site -started a school of archaeology on the perceived” Cooley site Michele Ruggiero -Brought the city to life by restoring Directors at Pompeii – all Italian 1875-93 buildings and paintings - Excavation primarily focussed in northern most quarters – Central Baths, House of the Centenary, House of the Vettii uncovered

Guilio De Petra Investigated areas outside the city walls 1893-1901

Ettore Pais Excavated the remains of the Vesuvian 1901-05 Gate and the water tower

Antonio Sogliano Devoted himself to conservation 1905-10 August Mau Mau sorted paintings into four styles. This was very important because not only did it teach about the 1873-1909 aesthetics of Pompeii and decoration within houses, but it helped to date houses and is still being used German today. Studied art and architecture 1st Style: ‘Incrustation Style’ 150-90BC Imitates coloured marble blocks by moulding plaster and painting it to resemble the same Worked under the direction traits as marble. Influenced by blocks of marble used in temples. of Fiorelli, 1860’s Very simple. Examples are seen in the House of the Faun. His own work was influenced by Fiorelli’s 2nd Style: ‘Architectural Style’ 90-25BC systematic work Roman influence. Is an elaboration of the first style minus the moulded plaster work and plus an emphasis on architectural reality. Spent his summers Columns, doors and ledges were all painted as realistically as excavating and his winters possibly and were in proper perspective. Receding views were analysing created through the use of columns which depicted scenes with a mix of reality and illusion (like windows.)

Stayed for 25 years Examples can be found in the Villa of Mysteries.

3rd Style: ‘Ornate Style’ 25BC-AD40 Developed from the third style in the late Augustan period. Perspective is lost and the wall paintings become flat and the architectural detail becomes unrealistic. Mythological scenes are depicted and surrounded by flat columns and ornate panels, creating the sense of a ‘shrine’. Examples are in the House of Marcus Lucretius Fronto.

4th Style: ‘Intricate Style’ AD40 onwards A combination of the second and third styles. Architectural details are somewhere in the middle, being neither as solid in the second style or as un-realistic as in the third style. Scenes are framed by panels to create ‘windows’ and ornamental motifs and figures are more popular and can be found floating freely or perched upon columns and panels. Famous examples include those in the House of the Vetti.

20th CENTURY ARCHAEOLOGIST METHODS OF EXCAVATION RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES Vittorio Spinazzola Concentrated on the Commercial area in Discovered and excavated by Spinazzola: Italian the southern sections of the city - House of Obellius Firmo (1911) 1910-23 Began excavation of via dell’ - House of Aulus Trebius Valente (1915) “One of the greatest Abbondanza - House of Cryptoporticus (1916) problems facing Spinazzola Meticulous excavation revealed the main - Stephanus’s Laundry (1916) when excavating the commercial road and main routes of the Abundance Way was how to city consolidate the structural Reconstructed facades of houses and elements and the facades of shops the buildings. Since digging Problems of the structural elements of started from the upper layers the facades of buildings. along the street, the risk was Preserved the top of houses first, the that the facades might upper floors. Left the lower floors in collapse under the weight of place until the upper were complete. the mass of earth lying This was a great discovery as it revealed behind. Tremendous care what the streetscape looked. went into removing the Restoration work remains in situ He unearthed the whole of the via dell’Abbondanza in rooves of the buildings, Pompeii. trying to replace them on their original bearing structures, and into recomposing all the elevations, such as windows, shutters, doors and architectural cornices.”

Amedeo Maiuri Italian Intense period of excavation (interrupted “towering figure…endlessly energetic, learned and 1923-1961 by World War II) imaginative” Andrew Wallace-Hadrill Excavated over en insulae Maiuri was very methodical in his work. “his massive presence lies behind the excavation, He hand dug, with shovels, carefully publication and interpretation of the majority of houses” excavating the buildings, and moved the Wallace-Hadrill waste soil away by horse, to keep the He discovered: whole site intact and usable.  The Houses of: Maiuri found a way to transport and  Fabias Amandio dispose of the rubbish and dirt that was piling up around the city. Getting rid of  Priest Amandio this uncovered other areas that could be  Ephebe excavated to reveal more about the city.  Theatrical Pictures He also conducted close studies of stratigraphical samples of the layers of  Menander soil underneath Pomp and Herc.  Of the Lovers Interested in historical development of  Four Styles the site  The Large Gymnasium Concentrated on area around Via dell’Abbondanza excavating on either  The Villa of Mysteries side of road  The Imperial Villa Restored public buildings such as the  The complete town perimeter Basilica  The Necropolis of Porta Nocera (Nuverian Gate) Worked on House of Menander and House of the Surgeons – influenced by  Part of the strata below 79AD Fascist political line of unearthing Most productive period was during Fascist reign – 1920- glorious monuments to illustrate the WWII when site received state funding magnificence of Italy’s past Dug ditch around city wall to reveal Excavation ceased during WWII and 160 bombs dropped construction method on Pompeii in 1943; recommenced in 1947 Excavated older buildings, in and around main forum and Triangular Forum reveal Looked for evidence of economic and social change in Samnite and Greek building material – both towns – influence by Michael Rostovteff’s theories – led to conclusions about occupation believed in great upheaval in both towns after the sequence earthquake of AD62 – believed they were in decline. Much of his excavation between 1951-61 was rushed and little documentation was Re-opend the excavation of Herculaneum (1927) done. Wilhelmina Jashemski Her archaeological investigations As a result of her work we can now reconstruct a town full American (Polish focused on the evidence of gardens and of colour and life with ornamental gardens and vegetable background) horticulture in the ancient city plots within houses, market gardens and vineyards of 1961-1984 Jashemski's work at Pompeii, various sizes Boscoreale, and Oplontis began in 1961 Flowers such as lilies, violas, valerian, iris and roses were and continued until 1984. found – evidence of seeds and pollen. She also worked on the excavation of the gardens of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli. Some flower beds were uncovered complete with She has made extensive study of the elaborate watering system suggesting that this was a gardens, orchards, and vineyards within commercial flower garden. the city walls and has shown that Some pollen & wall paintings found shows evidence of: - although some gardens were grown fruits such as olive, walnut, almond, pear, apple, fig, purely for pleasure others were cherry and laurel trees. commercial ventures. Date palms, oleander, rosemary, acanthus and ivy were She used plaster casts of cavities that formed on the roots of trees and vines. also common. She also used analysis of pollen found in Vegetables such as cabbages, onions, garlic, lettuce, ash and wall paintings to provide ample asparagus, cucumbers, beans, leeks, radishes, turnips, evidence of the fruit and vegetables parsnips and artichokes grown in Pompeii. Her discovery of the first intact remains of a good-size Tried to identify systematically the vineyard from the era revised perceptions of how the location and character of all the gardens Romans planted and managed grapes, stored and used in Pompeii, supplementing her archaeological investigations, with wine, and worked the land. material drawn from the archives. Her work from archival records highlighted the rather She was able to remove the final surprising fact that grand houses might also contain large covering of lapilli revealing the soil produce gardens contours and the lapilli filled cavities One of her most notable achievements was the revelation that the large area known as the cattle market was in fact a large commercial vineyard Villas sometimes had a grape-press (torcularium)and vats (dolia)for the storage and fermentation of wine Fausto Zevi Joined fragments of inscriptions found He found a number of second-style wall decorations Italian in different locations preserved in villas 1977 – 1998 When he became superintendent, Superintendent of Pompeii photographic and computer assisted documentation became a high priority.

Pietro Giovanni Guzzo Only way to save Pompeii, he believes, Makes restoration and maintenance of endangered Italian is to stop all new excavations structures a priority 1995- “Archaeology is about solving historical Financial difficulty and tourism creates conservation Superintendent of Pompeii problems, not finding buried treasure” problems Also involved with the debate about the An important step in 1997 was the law passed that allowed Villa of the Papyri – to dig or not to dig Guzzo to retain all revenue from the gate receipts ARCHAEOLOGISTS METHODS OF EXCAVATION RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES Estelle Lazer Spent 7 seasons working on the skeletons Suggested 3 main causes of death: asphyxiation, thermal Australian in Pompeii shock and concussions from falling objects. 1986 - Was placed in a disused bath house were Challenged idea that those left behind were very old, very all the skeletons had been dumped and young, sick, women – bones indicate a good cross section had to sort out each bone. of society. Bones show people were well nourished, average height, many suffered arthritis, poor dental hygiene. Sara Bisel Studied bones in Herculanuem – Discovered average heights, excellent health of teeth, American sponsored by National Geographic. surgical procedures done, no sign of lead poisoning. Died in 1996 Looked at 139 skeletons. Was criticised for giving the skeletons names and ‘life stories’. John Dobbins A post- earthquake (after 62AD) plan to upgrade and American Focus on general urban layout and the change street layout 1994-2006 position of buildings in relation to each Shows ambition to rebuild in a grander scale and proof Works at University of other that the Pompeiian society was not in society was not in a Virginia as professor in Use of program AutoCAD program to economic downslide but an urban upgrade after the 62 Roman art and archaeology precisely electronically document the earthquake Director of the Pompeii layout Proposes that the earthquake in AD 62 was an opportunity Forum Project to recreate the forum Numerous publications that Surveyed and provided a reinterpretation of the building provide detail of buildings of Eumachia decoration and excavation in Pompeii

Andrew Wallace-Hadrill Slow down the rate of decay by major The site was drained of water for protection of remains. (British) and campaigns of emergency work and The rate of decay has been slowed. The Herculaneum maintenance activity Structures and mosaics have been repaired or replaced. Conservation Project They did a site-wide map of the extent Walkways have been constructed along the ancient shore- 2000- HCP is a collaborative and nature of decay followed by the line to provide temporary access to the Fornici , installing venture between the consolidation of collapsing structures, gates there to protect the archaeological remains. (e.g. Soprintendenza the stabilization of crumbling plaster skeletons) Archaeologica di Pompee, surfaces and disintegrating mosaics, Solutions for drainage problems have been developed. the Packard Humanities eradication of vegetation, re-instatement Pumps have been installed to resolve this issue however Institute and the British of functioning water collection and the electricity supply is not constant. School of Rome. The project disposal systems, roving repairs and Vegetation that may harm structures have been eradicated. was developed in 2000 by Dr. David W. Packard and substitution and pigeon control. These Other natural pests to the site such as pigeons are now also Professor Andrew Wallace- are the first steps taken by the HCP to under control and are no longer a severe threat to the Hadrill who agreed with ensure that the ancient remains survive. conservation of the city. Professor Pietro Giovanni Falconers are employed to keep away Through case studies and good information management, Guzzo that there should be pigeons and nets are also being installed a greater understanding of the city and how to conserve it an exploration of a major to deter them from the site. has been gained. collaborative project. In They developed a conservation strategy May 2001, HCP was set up as a collaborative venture to ensure the long-term survival of with the principal objectives Herculaneum and enhance its value to all of conserving and of its users. This is done in several ways: enhancing the ancient city Strategies of continuous care of Herculaneum. Commission of numerous studies to improve our understanding of the site Good information management to ensure that data is used. Commission of integrated pilot projects to experiment long term conservation interventions A single case study on the insula Orientalis I (an urban block) Numerous small experimental initiatives throughout the site.