Tourism in Asia: a Review

Draft 12 March 2008: published as 'Tourism in Asia: A Review of the Achievements and Challenges', Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, Vol. 23, 2008, pp. 104-136.

Tourism in Asia: a Review Article

Asian Tourism: Growth and Change, ed. Janet Cochrane, Oxford and Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd, 2008, xx, 396pp.

Victor T King University of Leeds

Since the appearance of our co-edited book Tourism in South-East Asia (Hitchcock, King and Parnwell 1993), now well over a decade ago, the study of tourism development in the region and more widely in Asia has come of age. Janet Cochrane’s ambitious edited volume Asian Tourism: Growth and Change (2008a), with its 31 chapters, three sub-section introductions and 40 contributors drawn from a variety of disciplines, marks a further significant step in the development of scholarship on Asian tourism. The country coverage is impressive; as well as cross- regional chapters there are contributions on Bhutan, India, Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Mongolia and Tibet. As a substantial Asia-wide volume with several contributions from both well-established scholars in tourism studies (Airey, Arlt, Butler, Cheung, Cochrane, Goodwin, Hitchcock, Sofield, Wall) as well as a significant number of early career researchers, many of them Asian, it deserves to be set in a wider research context. This present extended review article provides an opportunity to take stock of some general contributions to the study of Asian and more particularly Southeast Asian tourism, identify some of the important scholarly achievements, linking them where appropriate with Cochrane’s book, and to indicate areas of research still in urgent need of attention.

I should confess at this point that I contributed to the organisation of the conference from which about two-thirds of Cochrane’s book emerged. The conference originally entitled Tourism in Asia: New Trends, New Perspectives held at Leeds Metropolitan University in collaboration with the University of Leeds, on 10-12 June 2006 was designed in a wide-ranging way to address the character and effects of the increasing volume of intra-regional and domestic tourism, growing regional cooperation in tourism, the responses of the tourism industry to new and changing markets, and government policy and strategic developments, with some attention to ethnographic, comparative and specific case studies (Cochrane 2008b, p.xix). The conference was aimed not only at academic researchers, but also tourism professionals who wished to gain greater insights into the expanding Asian market, and development practitioners keen to understand how tourism can be used as a development tool. However, I have not contributed to the published volume nor did I fulfil any editorial responsibilities so that I think that I remain sufficiently impartial to be able to evaluate the book’s contribution to Asian tourism studies.

1 It is to Cochrane’s credit that she has managed to meld together a vast array of conference papers and specially commissioned pieces into a reasonably coherent and interconnected book. Having said this, given the broad coverage of the volume, some of the chapters might have been repositioned and connected to reflect rather more decisively some of the important themes which emerge from the book. Cochrane arranges the chapters into three sub-sections which are designed to reflect tourism policy, markets and industry concerns in a changing environment: (1) the politics and policies of Asian tourism; (2) market demand and supplier response; and (3) destinations, industry and the forces of change. However, three very significant themes cross-cut these categories: the tensions between wider processes of globalisation and international market forces and the policies and practices of national governments; the character, effects and underlying tourist motivations generated in intra-Asian tourism; and finally the development of new kinds of tourism experience alongside already established ones. Our long-standing preoccupations in tourism studies with host-guest interactions are given interesting new glosses and further opportunities for new lines of enquiry with Cochrane’s and her contributors’ examination of the encounters between Asians in the context of a rapidly changing and diversifying tourism industry. These transformations, as Geoff Wall observes in his keynote chapter, must be placed in a context in which tourism growth rates have been “uneven temporally and spatially” resulting in marked regional imbalances and unequal core-periphery relations (p. 27). Clearly one of the major recent developments in Asia has been the emergence of China as both a destination for increasing numbers of inbound tourists as well as an expanding source of outbound travellers. It is to be welcomed that several chapters in the book dwell on Chinese tourism and tourists. But increasing intra-Asian flows and domestic tourism do not necessarily mean that social and cultural understandings between hosts and guests are enhanced. Several contributors draw attention to differences in motivations, attitudes and behaviours between different kinds of tourists and those from different cultures and countries (Cochrane 2008c: 6; Rong Huang, pp. 157-69; Feng Yi Huang, pp. 171-81). Interestingly Michael Hitchcock and I Nyoman Darma Putra also examine local Balinese evaluations of different tourist habits and attitudes, specifically between what are termed the “old tourists” - Japanese, Australians, West Europeans - and the “new tourists” – Koreans, Taiwanese, Malaysians, and Chinese (pp. 209-20). Aside from Cochrane’s recent multidisciplinary compendium several region-wide volumes have been published since the appearance of our Tourism in South-East Asia, and a considerable amount of in-depth primary research has been undertaken by geographers, anthropologists, sociologists, economists, historians, political scientists, planners, and practitioners. In the early 1990s when we produced our book there had been very little coordinated, comparative regional attention to the history, development and effects of tourism. At that time several Asian countries were already experiencing a boom in both foreign and domestic tourism, particularly in the newly industrialising countries of Southeast Asia - Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines - and in more developed destinations in East and South Asia, including Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan, Sri Lanka and India. There were also signs of increasing interest in the economic developmental potential of tourism in such countries as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan. The reasons for this expanding tourist interest in Asia were obvious: rising levels of affluence and more leisure time in the visitor source countries and in the region; the increasing

2 availability of affordable international travel; the more efficient and effective organisation of tourism both domestically and internationally in infrastructure, coordination and marketing and the move towards regional promotional strategies by, for example, the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA); the positive support and national importance accorded by governments to tourism development; and the search by tour companies and tourists for alternative, more exciting and exotic destinations away from the overcrowded, overdeveloped resorts of the West (Teo and Chang 1998, p. 120).

However, some 15 years ago we argued that there was still an urgent need to understand the dynamics of tourism development in the region using inter- and multidisciplinary perspectives, expand the range of case-material and engage in more ambitious comparative studies (across countries, sub-regions, tourist sites, communities, ethnic groups, social classes, gender and agents). Several key emerging themes were popular in the early 1990s, including the conceptualisation and re- conceptualisation of culture, identity, tradition and authenticity, given the importance of cultural and ethnic tourism in Asia; the ways in which local communities and their “traditions” were represented or “imaged”; the consequences of tourism, both positive and negative, for Asian economies, societies and cultures; the sustainability or otherwise of tourism activities and the political, policy and practical dimensions of their development; the character of newly emerging “tourisms”; the origins, socio- economic backgrounds and motivations of tourists; the nature of the interactions between “hosts” and “guests” and the interconnections provided by social and cultural brokers; the interrelationships between tourism and other processes of change; and finally the implications of the increasing “touristification” and “commoditisation” of certain communities and cultures.

We should remember that key conceptual elements in the debates about the effects of tourism development on local communities in the 1980s and 1990s drew on wide- ranging theoretical contributions to the study of social, cultural and political processes including Benedict Anderson’s “imagined communities” (1991/1983), Eric Hobsbawm’s and Terence Ranger’s “invention of tradition” (1983), Edward Said’s “Orientalism” and “cultural imperialism” (1978, 1993) and James Clifford’s “writing culture” (1988, 1997; Clifford and Marcus, 1986). Many of us also gained inspiration from the pioneering social science perspectives on tourism of Nelson Graburn (1976, 1983, 1987, 1989, 1997), Dean MacCannell (1973, 1984, 1992, 1999/1976), Dennison Nash (1981, 1984, 1989/1977, 1996), Valene Smith and her contributors (1989a/1977, 1989b), and John Urry (1990, 1993, 1995). In specifically Asian contexts the incisive and imaginative studies of Kathleen Adams (1993, 1995, 1997a, 1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 2003, 2005, 2006), Erik Cohen (1982a, 1982b, 1984a, 1984b, 1985a, 1985b, 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, 2003, 2004), Heidi Dahles (2001; and Dahles and Bras, 1999), Michel Picard (1990a, 1990b, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2003), Linda Richter (1989, 1993, 1999, 2001), and Robert Wood (1980, 1984, 1993, 1997) helped distil and clarify a considerable amount of discussion and argument about tourism and socio-cultural and political change and encouraged the movement away from simplistic, normative explanations of tourism types, categories, and interactions.

New Directions? Policies, Planning and the Market

3 There have been several general contributions to the study of tourism in Asia since the 1990s which help place Cochrane’s book in a contemporary scholarly context and demonstrate how she and her colleagues have extended our thinking and understanding, and what, on the other hand has been neglected or at least not covered sufficiently. In this connection I hope that I have celebrated in this review what has been achieved; if it appears that I am criticising Cochrane and her contributors for not doing what they did not intend to do in the first place I should emphasise that my intention is rather to indicate certain areas of debate and discovery which might have been referred to and used with profit. Let me start with K.S. Chon’s edited book - Tourism in Southeast Asia: a New Direction (2000) which was eagerly awaited at the time. Its ambitious title suggested precisely that it was addressing new issues and materials and charting a way forward in tourism research. Unfortunately, in my view, it falls short of this expectation. New empirical material there is aplenty, but nothing that is new conceptually or that embarks on imaginative cross-disciplinary or comparative studies. It is primarily a book for tourism and hospitality industry planners. Most of the contributors are involved in lecturing and training in tourism marketing, management, administration, and recreational, leisure and transport studies. As the editor states, in his preface, the “new direction” is for tourism development, policy-making, marketing, management and organisation (p.xiii).

Some of these concerns also surface in Cochrane’s new book in that she also addresses issues to do with tourism policies, supply and demand, and the opportunities and constraints which the industry faces in a rapidly changing tourism world (2008a, pp.v-vii). A related focus is the need to understand and analyse the developmental potential and effects of tourism and the diversity of responses to “the power of the market” (2008c, p. 2). No one in Cochrane’s volume seems to be anti- tourism, though most are proposing that it should be better planned, managed and controlled and that overall it can help solve various economic problems, poverty and unemployment, regional imbalances and marginalisation. Even Katherine Brickell, in her sharply critical chapter on persisting gender inequalities in tourism-generated employment in Cambodia, ends by arguing for the inclusion of gender issues in the formulation of tourism-based initiatives rather than for the rejection of the role of tourism in Cambodian national development (pp. 299-309).

I admit that prior to Chon’s book there was much less attention to the specifically management and planning dimensions of tourism development in Asia (and see Bhopal and Hitchcock, 2002), and his contribution is welcome in this respect. But, in my view, it does not make any significant advance on our understanding of the character and momentum of tourism development in the region in all its complexities. Cochrane’s text, however, does begin to point us in some of the right directions and presents us with important issues which need to be addressed in evaluating the role of governments and other actors in the development of tourism in Asia. An important observation, though not one made by most of Cochrane’s contributors who examine issues of effective planning, judicious policy-making and technical competency in tourism development, is that these can only flourish in contexts of political stability, wisdom and will (see Sofield, p. 51).

Let me now move on to an area of discussion and debate in tourism studies which surfaces in Cochrane’s book but which, I believe, still needs to be addressed more

4 robustly and comprehensively in our future endeavours and which we need to know more about within and across countries and cases.

Tourism and Ethnicity: The Construction of Identity and Culture

In my view, a theoretically exciting edited collection, which has become a standard reference in the field, is Michel Picard’s and Robert Wood’s Tourism, Ethnicity and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies (1997a). The majority of the chapters address Southeast Asian materials. Picard and Wood concentrate on a set of interrelated themes which have been a major preoccupation in tourism studies during the past 15 years. These comprise the politics of identity construction and transformation, modes of cultural and ethnic representation, the role of the state and development policies in cultural and ethnic processes, and the responses of local communities to tourism and national level practices (and see Hitchcock 1999). At this point we should also note the recent increasing research interest in heritage tourism, the multivalent character of the concept of heritage, the development of “discourses of the past”, and the political uses and construction of heritage; these concerns overlap considerably with work on cultural invention, identity and authenticity (Hitchcock and King, 2003a; and see Harrison and Hitchcock, 2005).

In Cochrane’s book there is some reference to concerns about identity and cultural construction in the chapters by Daisuke Murakami (pp. 55-67) and Elizabeth Ann Bovair (pp. 335-43). Both demonstrate successfully some of the consequences of Chinese government involvement in Tibet and in processes of “ethnicising” and “Orientalising” Tibetan culture. It is argued that Chinese policies and attitudes and Chinese inbound tourism to the country contribute to the presentation of Tibet as “the lost nation of Shangri-la”. In my view this dimension of Tibetan tourism merits much more detailed attention, as do Chinese policies more generally towards their minorities. The latter are revealed only briefly in William Feighery’s interesting and important study of intangible heritage tourism in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province (pp. 323- 34). More general issues of cultural construction and touristification also surface in Ploysri Porananond’s and Mike Robinson’s account of changes in the songkran festival in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand (pp. 311-21). In addition, Agoes Indrianto (pp. 357-68) touches on some of the problems and issues engendered by the attempts to develop heritage tourism in Surabaya, Indonesia. It is worth dwelling for a moment on this general field of interest because of its overwhelming importance in Asian tourism studies and because, to my mind, some of the contributions in Asian Tourism, including those which examine host-guest interactions, motivations and attitudes, could have drawn much more directly and profitably on this literature on cultural construction and identity.

Picard and Wood begin their editorial preface with a brief quotation from Marie- Francoise Lanfant, the French doyenne of tourism studies, that “the theme of identity is omnipresent within discourse about tourism” (1995a: 30). Lanfant explains more fully that identity “figures in the discourse of the international organisations which have been preaching the development of tourism; in that of the marketing people who have fashioned the product; in that of the states which have orchestrated promotional campaigns on behalf of tourism in their own countries; and in that of regions which have aspired to assume their proper place in tourism development…[…]… It is a theme which is dear to the hearts of those who work in the planning of tourism; and it

5 is discovered equally in the writing of numerous sociologists and anthropologists… […]… Identity is on the lips even of the tourists themselves” (ibid pp.30-31).

Picard and Wood reaffirm the significance of the relationships between tourism and identity, and propose that “tourism provides a way of understanding what has happened to ethnicity” (1997b, p.viii). Their book is concerned generally with the commoditisation and objectification of identities, and more specifically with the ways in which state policies and resources, preoccupied with both the national or supra- local dimensions of representation as well as with national responses to the forces of globalisation, deploy, contest and challenge local-level identities. The salience of these issues is especially compelling in the plural societies of Asia, not least in Han Chinese relations with Tibet, because paradoxically the state whilst promoting cultural diversity and otherness for tourism purposes must also necessarily focus on securing national integration and control.

The two demands of diversity and unity, of difference and homogeneity, in ethnic and cultural politics pull in opposite directions, and it is the examination of this tension or contradiction, which is of considerable interest in tourism studies. Obviously state action can define, sanction, objectify, organise and marginalise constituent ethnicities. Governments and their agencies do this not merely to promote tourism but also to press forward the national project, and state actions feed into and influence intra- Asian encounters as well. Nevertheless, simultaneously, local responses to these forces may not only express themselves in forms of resistance but may also take advantage of opportunities presented in the state-generated promotion of their culture for tourism purposes. In other words, local communities often work within the spaces which state initiatives have failed to fill, as well as those generated by processes of globalisation, which the state tries to control but over which it may not have a firm hold. This discussion demonstrates just how fluid identities are and how significant such interventions as tourism can be in changing representations and images in an interconnected and interacting world.

In the introduction to Tourism, Ethnicity and the State Wood examines the implications or consequences of state action for identity formation and change, and the importance of these cultural processes for political decision-makers (1997, pp.1- 34). Picard too, in his work on tourism in Bali, has argued for the internalisation of tourism in Balinese culture through a process of what he calls “touristification” (1996). In support of this perspective Wood argues more generally for the increasing interpenetration of tourism and ethnicity and proposes that “tourism has to be seen as one element of the global phenomenon of ethnicity, not something appended to it” (1997, p.4). Therefore, both authors confront the growing phenomenon, of which Bali is the paradigm, of “touristic cultures” and the ways in which tourism becomes incorporated into local cultural definitions and expressions of identity.

Much discussion on identity is also bound up with the related concept of authenticity, and whether or not one’s identity and its cultural expression are “genuine” and can be demonstrated by recourse to tradition, history and the legitimisation of others. In addition, Wood points to the open-endedness and unpredictability of the interaction between, in Robertson’s words, “people and the state” (1984) in that “the state’s political interest in tourism is potentially fraught with contradictions and unintended consequences” (1997, p. 6). There are also obviously variations in the degree and kind

6 of involvement of political elites in issues of ethnicity so that in some cases “ethnic labels, ethnic cultural display, and tourist access are all tightly regulated by the state”, with an overt public definition and official sanctioning of specific ethnic categorisations, whilst in others “state intervention is fairly minimal and tends to be overshadowed by market dynamics” (ibid, p. 11).

Wood had earlier addressed the issue of the construction and reconstruction of tradition, and by implication ethnicity (1993, pp. 48-70). He returned to this theme in the later book, re-emphasising the point that “ethnic identity is not something fixed and bequeathed from the past, but rather is something constantly reinvented - or reimagined, if we adapt Benedict Anderson’s felicitous term - symbolically constructed, and often contested” (1997, p. 18; and see Picard 1995, pp. 44-47). This entails not only local, national and tourist preoccupations with cultural boundary definition and, on occasion, boundary crossing, but also with the cultural composition of ethnic identity and its objectification and “staging” in discourse, performance and display. This focus on cultural production also serves to generate, as Picard has argued in the case of the Balinese, an increasing local consciousness of the importance of culture as a resource. The acceptance of the fluidity and variability of culture and identity also entails an examination of the multiple discourses involved in identity construction and cultural change and the often competing and conflicting modes of representation involved. These interrelated concerns, so ably captured by Wood, surface regularly in other publications on Asian tourism. They are summarised very directly by Grant Evans, who, with reference to Balinese material, proposes that “what looks like the persistence of ‘tradition’ in the face of a massive tourist onslaught is in reality a transformed culture” (1993, p. 373; and see Hobart, Ramseyer and Leemann 2001, p. 216).

Another edited volume, which appeared at the same time as that of Picard and Wood, also addressed this theme of cultural production and ethnic identity. Shinji Yamashita’s, Kadir H. Din’s and J.S. Eades’s in Tourism and Cultural Development in Asia and Oceania (1997a) consider how “local cultures develop during the dynamic process of making use of tourism to re-define their own identities”. The examination of the relationships between tourism and culture, which the editors consider to be “an extremely challenging field of study within the anthropology of culture” (1997b, p.13), requires them to come to terms with processes of commoditisation, fragmentation, packaging, hybridisation, and invention. These processes are embraced by Lanfant’s notion of “global integration” in that “those people who previously remained behind their frontiers are now invited to consider themselves part of great multi-cultural units” (1995b, p. 4). These themes of representation, ‘touristification’ and the responses and interpretations of local Asian communities to state policies on tourism, ethnic identities and minorities were also taken up subsequently in another general volume entitled Tourism, Anthropology and China edited by Tan Chee-Beng, Sidney Cheung and Yang Hui (2001).

The themes of socio-cultural change and tourism and identity are also pursued in Shinji Yamashita’s comparative studies in Bali and Beyond, in which he explores not only Balinese tourism, but also tourism-related changes in Sulawesi, New Guinea and Japan (2003a). Yamashita studied the relationships between the Balinese and tourism between 1988 and 1996, and provides a thoughtful description and analysis of the development and character of Bali’s “touristic culture”. His findings complement the

7 work of Michel Picard, and others like Hitchcock and Norris on the representation of Bali as a “living” or “imaginary museum” (1995, p. 4). But Yamashita also lends a Japanese dimension to Balinese tourism, specifically in his consideration of the encounter of Japanese tourists with Bali and the experiences of young Japanese “brides heading for the Island of the Gods” (and see Mackie 1992). His central analytical ideas are drawn from the concepts of “invention of tradition” and the contested and constructed character of culture. In Bali what appears to be “traditional” and is claimed as such by the local people is in fact primarily a recent creation, focused increasingly on Hindu doctrine and practice and its standardisation. Balinese culture is being continuously created and re-created through artistic training in dance and performance and in cultural competitions in the context of Indonesian government policy directed to the construction of a national culture. The focus is on image creation and pastiche, the relations between image and reality, the “staging” of culture, and cultural manipulation, construction and consumption. The context of this process is that of globalisation in which cultures are trans-localised, hybridised and essentialised (and see Michaud and Picard, 2001). To capture this process of cultural production and transformation Yamashita coins the term “narratives of emergence” and he counters notions of cultural loss, the pollution, devaluation and undermining of pure or authentic traditional cultures, as well as perspectives which argue for cultural homogenisation. Instead he proposes that culture is dynamic and “emerging” and he places tourism at the heart of the study of culture and cultural change (and see Picard and Michaud 2001, pp. 5-13).

These observations on “the cultural”, though they might seem out of place in an evaluation of Cochrane’s focus on government policies, politics, markets and the more practical issues of tourism development do, I think, throw some light on the tensions between global market and other forces on the one hand and state discretion and control on the other (see below).

From the Specific to the General

No general, comparative review of the study of tourism in Asia would be complete without some reference to what might seem for some to be the rather parochial work of Erik Cohen on Thailand. Interestingly Cohen does not appear to any extent in Cochrane’s volume other than with reference to tourist typologies and his enlightening discussion of the concept of authenticity (see Rong, pp. 157-69; and Karen Thompson and Catherine Matheson, pp. 233-43). Cohen’s compilation of previously published papers on Thai tourism (2001a) deserves an appreciative comment. He provides us with an overview of his work firstly on hill tribe tourism in northern Thailand from the late 1970s, then beach resort tourism on the islands of southern Thailand, particularly Phuket and Koh Samui, from 1979, and finally on sex tourism and gender issues in Bangkok from the early 1980s. Although his sequential gaze is fixed firmly on Thailand, he makes some especially appropriate remarks of particular relevance for our understanding of the processes of tourism development in Asia more generally, with which Cochrane’s book is also intimately concerned.

More recently Cohen has identified four major stages in the development and transformation of Thai tourism, bearing in mind that Thailand is a mature tourist destination (2001b). In my view these provide a convenient and categorical means of comparing and contrasting the experiences of other Asian countries and they could

8 certainly be deployed in several of the country chapters in Cochrane’s volume to enable us to locate these studies in a transformational sequence. In this connection we might contemplate where we would place Bhutan, Tibet, Laos, Vietnam, Taiwan, Japan and so on in Cohen’s scheme. Cohen’s categories are “massification” or the rapid expansion of both international and domestic tourism and the accompanying infrastructure so that an initial personalised tourism becomes more depersonalised and commercialised; “expansion” with the move from a centralised tourist industry to a more dispersed one; “heterogeneisation” (sic) with an increase in the diversity of overseas tourists and a diversification of the facilities and amenities to cater for them; and “regionalisation” with increasing cross-border linkages and multilateral relationships. In Thailand’s case there has been a significant development of relations with the neighbouring countries of mainland Southeast Asia including southern China, discussed perceptively in Trevor Sofield’s chapter (in Cochrane’s book) on the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) (pp. 39-53).

Overall Cohen relates the growth of tourism and its developmental consequences to more general processes of economic development, which is very much a focus of Cochrane’s book. He argues that tourism in Thailand, as with tourism in the Asian region more generally, is “a highly diversified, complex, and changing phenomenon, the impact and consequences of which have to be gauged within the wider process of economic development and social change” (ibid, p. 28; and see Lanfant 1995b, p. 4; Smith 1989b, p. 1-17; Yamashita, Kadir Din and Eades 1997b, p. 15). Interestingly, Cohen presents a very ambivalent view of the social and cultural effects of tourism on local communities; in some cases, he considers them to be generative (or “emerging” in Yamashita’s terms), and in other cases negative and destructive. It would certainly have been especially informative had Cochrane’s and her contributors’ comparative gaze addressed some of these more general observations and categorisations and also tested Cohen’s Thai-centric scheme against other Asian experiences.

Interconnectedness, Globalisation and National Policies

An important theme in Cochrane’s book, which was raised by Cohen in his developmental sequence based on the Thailand case, is regionalisation, trans-national flows and cross-border connections within Asia. It is especially prominent in the first section of her volume in the chapters by Ravi Ravinder (pp. 13-25), Geoff Wall (pp. 26-3) and Trevor Sofield (pp.39-53). Ravinder focuses especially on PATA’s efforts to encourage cross-national cooperation and on the APEC Tourism Charter, whilst Wall and Sofield examine respectively the sub-regional arrangements between Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines in the East ASEAN Growth Area (BIMP- EAGA) and the Greater Mekong Subregion between China, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. In addition Maharaj Vijay Reddy looks at the bilateral agreement between the Indian Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Thai Governor of Phuket following the tsunami of 2004 (pp.93-104). The volume also contains a very interesting study of “gambling tourism” across the borderland between southern China and northern Vietnam (Chan Yuk Wah, pp. 145-55). Chan draws our attention more generally to the importance for certain kinds of tourism development of these transitional, liminal spaces “where state power is both at its most apparent and its most lax” (p. 146).

9 Pursuing this theme of the interrelations between the global, regional and the local there appears to be some indeterminacy in Cochrane’s volume between those who argue on the one hand that the wider forces of globalisation and the competitive free market exert considerable influence at the expense of national governments and those on the other who make a case for the continuing importance of the state and territoriality. It seems that in her introduction Cochrane tends towards the former because of what she identifies as “weak governance in many Asian countries” comprising “bureaucratic inertia”, “incompetence”, “private interests” and the “entrenched systems of patronage” (p.2-4). Although there are some signs of “philanthropy” and “enlightened leadership”, in for example the work of Mayor Edward Hagedorn of Puerto Princesa, Palawan in the development of festivals, events and ecotourism primarily for domestic Philippine tourists (Gray, pp. 369-78), Cochrane appears not to be too optimistic about national capacities and refers to the importance of alternative actors including NGOs, regional bodies, trans-national charitable organisations, international development agencies and financial institutions like the Asian Development Bank. However, she (with Xavier Font) later draws attention to the fact that “the role of government in the development of tourism markets can never be ignored” (p. 131).

Mike Parnwell too is exercised by the problems of controlling and directing the tourism “Juggernaut” and raises “the question as to whether state actors in Asia are still (if they ever were) influential in encouraging, steering, and controlling tourism development?” (p. 10). He appears to come down on the side of the weakness rather than the strength of the state, though even here he comments on “the state as behemoth” and suggests that the situation is far more complex than an either/or explanation can provide (pp. 9-11).

There is evidence to suggest that in certain areas national governments do exercise considerable influence, though as well as confronting and mediating global forces some also devolve to their provincial and local governments to varying degrees and these latter may also be able to act with some degree of independence in the tourism market. In the cases of the government of Vietnam with its visa controls in particular (Wantanee Suntikul, Richard Butler and David Airey, pp. 69-78), of Bhutan with its state-imposed tariff structure (Megan Ritchie, pp. 273-83) and of China’s domination of Tibet and its control of its own citizens and sites, as well as outbound and inbound tourists (Wolfgang Georg Arlt, pp. 135-44) one might conclude that there is ample evidence that certain states can and do act with a significant level of discretion and influence over tourism. What is more had issues of identity formation and cultural construction been addressed more substantially in Cochrane’s volume then I suspect that the contemplation of these matters would also have assigned a much greater role to the state. In the field of sub-regional collaboration Sofield also observes, from the benefit of his personal and in-depth experience, that, only when national objectives converge with regional ones or a commonality of national interests is identified, will cross-border collaborations work (p. 52). In my view, and with certain qualifications, states can still both facilitate and obstruct cross-national flows and exchanges.

The preoccupation with the national level and the role of the state is found in several chapters, including the call for stronger national development plans and controls for tourism (for example Robert Travers on Laos, pp. 105-16), the observation that the Vietnamese government exercises various levels of control over tourist access and

10 mobility through policies relating to visa regulations, transport infrastructure, and marketing (Wantanee Suntikul et al, pp. 69-78); and perhaps unsurprisingly the strong role of the French colonial state in the development of tourism in Vietnam (Erich De Wald, pp. 221-32). Unfortunately, however, the chapter by Howard Cambridge and John Whitelegg on the desirability of finding an alternative, more environmentally sustainable solution to continued aviation growth in Asia does not really consider how best this can be achieved in regional political and economic terms between competing countries and their nationally-based airlines (pp. 117-29). Therefore, it does not really address the issues arising from the tensions between the global/regional and the local/national, though it certainly raises crucial matters of sustainability and responsibility in tourism development

What do we conclude from this excursion into the complexities of globalisation and national discretion? Clearly the view which I take on the global versus the national depends on the particular country in question, the stage of its development, its size, economy, socio-cultural composition, political system and history; the spaces and communities under study; the policies or issues involved; the time period examined; and whether or not the country in question is participating in various forms of cross- regional, regional and sub-regional and bilateral collaboration. In other words, the enquiry in this area should be case- and context- specific.

In order to affirm that we are not operating in an Asian vacuum my brief discussion of the theme of the global and the local and its expression in Cochrane’s book most definitely builds on a growing body of literature on interconnectedness and globalisation. Perhaps the best volume to address this issue is that edited by Peggy Teo, T.C. Chang and K.C. Ho (2001a) which came out of a conference in 1999 organised by the National University of Singapore and the Singapore Tourism Board. It was one of the first collections to explore this recent research preoccupation in Asian tourism studies, specifically the linkages between tourism companies, between the state and the private sector and between the countries of ASEAN (2001b). It in turn relates to a research focus which has commanded more general attention during the past decade – the interconnected concepts and processes of globalisation and localisation (and see Hitchcock and Wiendu Nuryanti 2000). These concerns were also prefigured in another earlier Singapore-based publication, and perhaps they are especially urgent and relevant from a Singapore strategic perspective in relation to the internationalisation of tourism (Teo and Chang 1998, pp. 122-124).

To be more specific Teo and her co-editors propose that up to the turn of the millennium there had been little attention to “the interconnections between economies, societies, individuals, corporations, city-states, countries and even whole regions” in the era of globalisation and “post-Fordist tourism” (2001c, p. vii). An important, though by no means original conclusion, is that despite the powerful influence of globalising forces, the increasing relationships across borders, as well as regional and sub-regional co-operation, nation-states are still important players and territoriality a key organising principle in planning, generating, directing and locating economic activities and the operation of capital (and see Sofield 2001). In particular, the development of such innovations as growth triangles (including the Indonesia- Malaysia-Singapore triangle, with Singapore as a regional hub for tourism, business and capital) and the expansion of sub-regional cross-border tourism resources have resulted so far in interdependent rather than integrated “borderlands”. Tourism is a

11 significant embedded element in processes of globalisation and a force for both homogenisation and differentiation in which states and other actors both shape and are shaped by international tourism and leisure activities (Yamashita 2003b). There is nothing which would surprise the ardent student of globalisation and post-modernism in this conclusion, but it is a theme raised in Cochrane’s collection to which I will return in a moment.

In Teo’s, Chang’s and Ho’s volume Hall (2001, pp. 13-26) reminds us how closely tourism is implicated in nation-building enterprises or political “showcasing” (Singapore and Indonesia provide apt examples) and in human rights issues (Myanmar being a case in point), whilst Pearce gives us a more directly practical and policy view on the development of regionally networked tourism activities (2001, pp. 27-43). Importantly we are also shown the role which Singapore plays in generating tourism ideas and concepts and in exporting its tourism services to other countries in the region. Interconnected Worlds examines, in a very familiar fashion, the ways in which tourism resources are “imaged” and “themed”, and traditions invented or reinvented and appropriated for political purposes. There is also an interesting reflexive “potentials and problems” section on the challenges posed for Southeast Asia as a region by global interconnectedness and post-modern tourism development (and see Parnwell on globalisation and critical theory, 1998). Finally, Wall comes full circle and presents some thoughts on trends in tourism development in Southeast Asia and yet again the interaction between local and global processes and forces (2001, pp. 312-24). Wall also provides another wide-ranging chapter in Cochrane’s book and overall her volume certainly carries forward the research agenda on tourism and globalisation.

A Wider Asian Perspective

There are very few informative reference works on tourism more generally in Asia, though these have been increasing in number during the past decade and Cochrane’s Asia-wide text is a welcome addition to this reference material. C. Michael Hall’s Tourism in the Pacific Rim: Developments, Impacts and Markets (1997), Hall’s and Stephen J. Page’s Tourism in the Pacific: Issues and Cases (1997), and F. Go’s and C. Jenkins’s Tourism and Economic Development in Asia and Australasia (1997) are probably among the most well known. All of them to a greater or lesser extent examine cross-national flows and tourism collaboration. However, in my view, one of the most useful edited volumes on wider Asian tourism, which provides something of a base-line for Cochrane’s volume, is C. Michael Hall’s and Stephen J. Page’s edited Tourism in South and Southeast Asia (2000a). Up to the late 1990s it provided us with an extremely valuable overview of tourism development in Asia, including historical coverage, written by specialists in tourism studies, commerce, business and marketing, geography and area studies. The collection is directed primarily to an undergraduate student market, addressing general issues in tourism research as well as presenting country case-studies. These studies are not designed to be analytical and at the time of publication much of the statistical data were already rather out of date; the editors also note the relative paucity of “reliable, up-to-date and meaningful tourism data” (2000b, p. 287). It would also have made more sense for Hall and Page to have considered in detail the relationships between East and Southeast Asia, and particularly the increasing flows of Chinese, Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean tourists to the region, rather than focus on the connection with South Asia, although the

12 growing importance of tourist flows between the Indian sub-continent and Southeast Asia are obvious.

The introductory chapter by Hall and Page places tourism in South and Southeast Asia in a regional context, and is followed by a series of overview pieces on the historical dimensions of tourism, social and cultural issues, transport and infrastructure, politics and policy, environmental problems and policies, and planning and development. Given the background and interests of several of the contributors, there is considerable emphasis on marketing, promotion strategies and integrated planning, and, in this sense, there are important connections with the interests and approach of both Chon’s and Cochrane’s book.

The importance of studying domestic as against long-haul tourism is indicated, as are the issues of intra-regional business and leisure travel and regional cooperation in tourism development. Importantly Sofield warns against too much reliance on analyses “based on Western perceptions of Western tourists impacting upon Asian societies” (2000, p. 45); he points to the significance of the diversity of the category “tourists” and “hosts”, the variations in tourist experiences and encounters, and the interconnectedness between tourism-generated changes and other processes of change. The general chapters by the Douglases on the history of tourism development, Sofield’s on socio-cultural themes, and Page’s on the relationships between transport infrastructure and tourism development are particularly valuable contributions.

The remaining two sections of the book provide studies on Southeast and South Asia. Most of the countries of Southeast Asia are covered with the exception of Brunei and the Philippines: there are chapters on Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar; the chapters on South Asia comprise an overview chapter on India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, a specific piece on India, a combined chapter on Sri Lanka and the Maldives, then separate treatments of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, and a remaining chapter on Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. An isolated chapter is then tacked on dealing with China’s impact on Asian tourism and its potential influence on intra-Asian travel and tourism patterns. This is a theme which Cochrane’s book pursues with vigour.

What is especially valuable in the case studies is the attention to the immediate consequences of the Asian economic crisis of 1997 as well as the drawing out of similarities and contrasts between the experiences of various of the Asian countries in planning for tourism - from the deliberate “invention” of tourist assets and the vigorous promotion of niche markets in the modern city-state of Singapore, to Thailand’s “regional tourism hub” campaign and its mass tourism strategy, to the rather more subdued and commonplace promotional images of ethnic and cultural diversity in Malaysia, to the crisis-ridden uncertainty of Indonesian tourism development, to the more strictly government-controlled approaches of Vietnam and Myanmar. Cochrane’s book also demonstrates this diversity of policy and response to the opportunities offered by tourism development.

Cochrane’s Book and Future Enquiry

Asians in Asia

13 Aside from the important coverage of regional collaborations and global-local interactions, one of the major contributions made by Cochrane’s book is the attention to the character, processes and impacts of intra-Asian tourism flows. Cochrane notes, as does Winter (2007), that “the major markets in most Asian countries are other Asians” and not Western tourists (2008c: 1). We are given much more detailed information on encounters between Asian hosts and guests, the motivations of Asian tourists and the images which they construct and entertain of their neighbours. There are several examples of Chinese attitudes towards others, but it is important to note that up to now most Chinese tourists have either visited other parts of China, or the Special Administrative Regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau, and its vassal state Tibet. However, rather more recently there is increasing evidence of Chinese going further afield to places where there are significant numbers of resident overseas Chinese, in, for example, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand and even Indonesia (Fleur Fallon, pp. 345-56). Arlt in a most informative chapter argues that Chinese outbound tourists seek both “primitiveness” and “modernity” which seems a rather stark contrast (pp. 135-44), but their interactions with their hosts are also governed by the principle of the different degrees of “cultural distance” between Han and non-Han Chinese. Arlt argues that this has an important bearing on Chinese attitudes and approaches to “others” whether they be China’s ethnic minorities, capitalist Chinese in the SARs, overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia or Westerners in Australia, New Zealand, Europe and the USA. China is also a major source of “gambling tourists” (Chan, pp. 152-53) and student travellers (Rong, pp. 157-69).

Domestic tourism is a neglected area of research in Asia and it would have been helpful to have had more coverage in Cochrane’s book. However, there are some useful references to local tourism in the context of Indian pilgrimage, Javanese visits to Bali, central Thai tourism to northern Thailand festivals, local Mongolian attendance at the Ulaanbataar Naadam festival, urban Hong Kong patrons of local eco- or wetland tourism, Philippine ecotourists in Palawan, the rather problematical case of Chinese “domestic” tourists to Tibet, and Chinese visitors to minority areas in other parts of China. These contributions are welcome but domestic tourism is still an area deserving of much more urgent attention.

Other Tourisms

Another important contribution is the exploration of the character, progress and impacts of newly emerging “tourisms” which as the range of leisure activities increases and travellers combine these with other activities (business, study, sport, gambling, health, homestay and longer term residence) it returns us to the very knotty problem of defining “tourism” and “the tourist”. Helpfully Cochrane’s book begins to raise a set of new research agendas in emerging tourisms. As well as the now established kinds of tourism including ecotourism (Travers, pp. 105-16; Sidney Cheung, pp. 259-67; John Gray, pp. 369-78); heritage tourism (Agoes, pp. 357-68); backpacker tourism (Feng, pp. 171-82); and sex tourism, which is a catch-all category disguising a range of activities and relations, including ‘”romance” tourism (White, pp. 285-97), Cochrane’s book exposes us to religious or pilgrimage tourism involving sacred journeys (in India) (Kiran Shinde, pp. 245-57); events or festival tourism (in Mongolia and northern Thailand) (Thompson and Matheson, pp. 233-43; Porananond and Robinson, pp. 311-21); and popular culture or cultural pilgrimage tourism (to Japan) (Benjamin Wai-ming Ng, pp. 183-92); all of which in some respects overlap

14 with the rather broad area of cultural tourism; student travel/tourism which shares some similarities with backpacker tourism (Rong, pp. 157-69); border gambling tourism between China and northern Vietnam, and gambling tourism more widely across Asia (Chan, pp. 143-55); homestay tourism (of Japanese in Malaysia) again with relationships to backpacker tourism (Amran Hamzah, pp. 193-207); and health and wellness tourism including “spa and medical tourism” (Jennifer Laing and Betty Weiler, pp. 379-89). Tourism and Crises

Although there is rather less attention to disasters and crises than one might have expected in Cochrane’s book, given the problems in the last decade occasioned by the Asian economic collapse, terrorist bombings and kidnappings, Avian Flu and SARS, the tsunami, earthquakes, forest fires and the haze, and political instability and ethnic conflicts, some chapters do consider the evidence for some positive government responses to these predicaments, including marketing and communication strategies to reassure established markets and to develop new markets, regional collaboration and adjustments to policies relating to coordination of partners and sectors, infrastructural development, and foreign investment and training (see for example, Cochrane on Sri Lanka, pp. 79-91; Reddy on the ANI and Phuket, pp. 93-104). In my view this is going to be a major area of future research, but certainly regional collaboration and a re-orientation of plans and policies seem to be two major modes of response.

Final Remarks

Although much research has been done on issues relating to identity and cultural invention in tourism studies in Asia, much more needs to be done and perhaps more could have been expected on this theme in Cochrane’s collection. But Cochrane’s book helps us both widen our research horizons and fills in significant gaps in our knowledge. To my mind, it does not tread the path of new conceptual discoveries. What it does do is provide a wealth of new material, some on sparsely recorded tourist destinations and new tourisms, and shifts our attention and emphasis to important, still under-researched themes in Asian tourism. Very much more needs to be done in the fields of domestic tourism, intra-Asian tourism flows and their consequences, the effects on tourism of crises and disasters (see, for example, Hitchcock 2001; Hitchcock and I Nyoman Darma Putra, 2004), tourism policy-making in the context of globalisation and market forces, and cross-national integration and interconnections. Cochrane’s book wets our appetite but perhaps it is best to leave the last word with the editor. She re-emphasises the importance of tourism studies in Asia in that the materials she presents “show how deeply tourism has become embedded in social, cultural, political, and economic systems across the region and how developments here are not necessarily replicating the well-researched paradigms of Western tourism” (2008c, p. 7). Above all Cochrane’s book confirms that research on tourism in Asia has made a crucial contribution to our understanding of processes of change, but we must not rest on our laurels.

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