Answers to Before You Go on Questions

Part 12 Personality

Answers to Before You Go On Questions

Module 67

1. In Freudian theory, how does a neurotic personality develop? If children fail to resolve conflicts of their unconscious mind, they may suffer in later stages from neuroses, Freud’s term for abnormal behaviour patterns characterized by anxiety, depression, and other symptoms. These abnormal behaviour patterns are caused by unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.

2. What is repression? Repression is the most basic defence mechanism proposed by Freud; it is the process of keeping unpleasant memories or thoughts buried deep within the unconscious mind, protecting us from the difficult and painful (anxious) process of facing them.

3. What are some common criticisms of psychoanalytic theory? Criticism of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is based largely on the fact that the key principles of psychoanalytic theory are based on observations that cannot be directly tested by scientific methods. While Freud’s case studies of his patients were effective at characterizing and classifying certain types of observed behaviour, psychologists must seek to predict as well as to describe and explain. Based only on the knowledge that a particular patient may have unresolved feelings of aggression toward his or her parents, could we predict whether or not he or she will be prone to hostile and violent relationships? Probably not. This lack of predictive power is a key weakness of psychoanalytic theory.

4. How did Jung’s idea of the unconscious differ from Freud’s? Carl Jung agreed with Freud’s views on the importance of the unconscious. However, he added a new dimension: the collective unconscious. In Jung’s system, the unconscious has two parts: (1) the personal unconscious, formed from individual experiences, is similar to the unconscious as seen by Freud, and (2) the collective unconscious, a non-private entity, which is a cumulative storehouse of inherited memories shared by all humankind. Jung called these shared memories archetypes, and according to Jung archetypes are reflected in symbols and images that appear in the art, literature, and religions of all cultures. The archetype of the hero, for example, can be found in stories from almost any cultural tradition in any time period.

Module 68

1. What is self-actualization? Self-actualization is part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is the highest need level, characterized by the need to fulfill a person’s full and special potential as a human being. Maslow described self-actualization as, “the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, [and] potentialities” (1970, p. 150). He suggested that psychologists had become overly focused on biological drives and needs, overlooking the role of high-level processes and the need for more complex forms of fulfillment.

2. According to Rogers, what happens if children fail to regularly receive unconditional positive regard? Because self-concept develops in part based on how we are perceived by others, as children we need unconditional positive regard—acceptance without terms or conditions—from

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition parents or other adults to develop healthy self-concepts. Rogers’s believed that, over the course of development, many children form conditions of worth, a perception that they must meet certain standards to gain the love of their parents or other important figures. These conditions of worth, often rigid or harsh in nature, can hold over into adulthood and act as a negative force that prevents a person from reaching his or her full potential.

3. What is a key criticism of humanistic theory? Many critics fault the humanistic theories for their overly positive focus, believing them to be overly simplistic and that they ignore the role of psychological dysfunction in society. In addition to this criticism, it has been difficult for researchers to conduct controlled studies on such abstract concepts as self-actualization and unconditional positive regard (Wilkins, 2000).

Module 69

1. Who are Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck, and what were their contributions to the trait perspective? Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck are two trait theorists who first proposed that central traits affect a broad range of behaviour. Among researchers, it is difficult to pinpoint a standard definition for central traits, though generally speaking, trait theorists make several assumptions: (1) people have innate tendencies to respond to situations in certain ways (traits); (2) these tendencies can be linked to form broad habits (central traits); and (3) such principles can be used to form the foundation of a scientifically testable theory. Allport emphasized the unity and uniqueness of the individual, and he believed that the present is more important than the past in understanding personality. His work on personality factors provided the starting point for many empirical studies. Eysenck was a strong proponent of using reliable statistical measures to test psychological principles. To Eysenck, it was vital to develop a theory that could be scientifically tested. Eysenck’s work has had an enormous influence on personality theory and research.

2. What is factor analysis, and how is it tied to trait theories? Eysenck strove to develop adequate measures of personality traits and, specifically, measures of their biological foundations. He hoped that eventually scientists would be able to identify clear correlations between traits and behaviours and underlying biological systems. Eysenck made particular use of factor analysis, which, as you may recall from Chapter 10, is a statistical method for analyzing correlations among variables or among individual items on a scale or measure. Factor analysis can reveal patterns or factors within the responses of people to the items or scales on a measure. The use of factor analysis marked a significant turning point in the scientific study of personality theory. Although factor analysis can be influenced by the decisions and interpretations of a given researcher, the method provides a much more objective way of identifying relationships between variables. Eysenck used factor analysis to identify traits that cluster together to form fundamental dimensions of personality, which he called superfactors (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism).

3. What are the Big Five personality factors? Five-factor theory analysis is an empirically derived trait theory that proposes five major trait categories: (1) agreeableness/disagreeableness, (2) extraversion/introversion, (3) neuroticism/stability, (4) conscientiousness/irresponsibility, and (5) openness to experience/unimaginativeness.

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition 4. How stable are traits over time and across situations? Studies indicate that personality traits are more stable over a short period of time than over a span of years (Srivastava et al., 2003). People who conscientiously show up on time for an appointment today are likely to be punctual for appointments next week and next month. But today’s punctuality is not as likely to predict punctuality a year or two from now. Similarly, traits often show inconsistency across a person’s lifespan, especially as individuals travel from childhood to adulthood (Fleeson, 2007, 2001). It is worth noting that once a person reaches adulthood, lifespan fluctuations seem to lessen, and traits become increasingly stable across the adult years (Roberts & Del Vecchio, 2000).

Module 70

1. What is the situationist view of personality, and what theorists played key roles in promoting it? The situationist view believes that behaviour is governed primarily by the variables in a given situation rather than by internal traits. Theorists who embraced this view acknowledged that personality factors come into play when people are making choices, reacting to events, or displaying other behaviours. Nevertheless, the theorists argued, situational “pushes” and “pulls” rule in most instances. The behaviourist B. F. Skinner could be said to have viewed personality from a situationist perspective. Skinner believed that we approach life in a certain way because some of our behaviours have been rewarding to us in the past while other behaviours have not. That is, we tend to favour, or repeat, responses that have previously helped us gain a desired outcome or avoid an undesired one.

2. What is the interactionist view of personality, and how does Bandura’s social-cognitive theory fit into this perspective? Interactionism is a view emphasizing the relationship between a person’s underlying personality traits and the reinforcing aspects of the situations in which they choose to put themselves. According to this model, the choices you make, such as being at your present college or university or enrolled in your present classes, are functions of underlying personality traits. Bandura’s social-cognitive theory introduced the concepts of modelling and self-efficacy to the study of human behaviour and personality. Modelling (also known as observational learning), is a process by which people, especially young children, learn to respond to particular situations by observing and imitating the behaviour of others. Self-efficacy refers to people’s personal beliefs about their ability to achieve the goals they pursue. The higher your self-efficacy, the more likely you are to pursue a goal and ultimately to be reinforced by the outcome of your efforts (Maddux & Volkmann, 2010).

Module 71

1. How do personality inventories differ from projective assessment techniques? A personality inventory test is a paper-and-pencil questionnaire designed to assess various aspects of personality, typically in a series of true-or-false or agree–disagree statements. These types of assessments are sometimes called self-report inventories because they depend on information that respondents supply about themselves. Projective tests (such as the Rorschach inkblot test) are quite different from personality inventories; these tests are commonly used by psychoanalytic clinicians and researchers and are intended to tap into a person’s unconscious mind to detect personality styles and conflicts that are hidden beneath the surface. It is widely agreed in the scientific community, however, that projective tests, such as the Rorschach, display low validity, or accuracy (Bornstein, 2007; Butcher, 2010; Wood et al., 2002).

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition 2. What is socially desirable responding and how is it addressed in the MMPI-2? Socially desirable responding is tailoring your answers on personality inventories to try to create a good impression. The problem of socially desirable responding was, in fact, anticipated by the creators of the MMPI. They built certain questions, called validity items, into the questionnaire to assess the likelihood that a respondent would purposely give an answer that was socially desirable rather than accurate.

3. What are some problems with projective assessment techniques? Scoring of projective tests depends heavily on interpretations by the test administrators—interpretations that may be affected by the assessor’s professional biases or level of expertise . In addition to problems with validity, many researchers have concerns about the reliability, or consistency, of projective tests. Studies have shown that individuals who take a Rorschach test today may offer responses that are different from those they offered when they took the test last week, leading to different personality assessments.

Module 72

1. What do we mean when we say that the Big Five dimension of openness has a heritability coefficient of .55? Some broad traits appear to have particularly strong genetic links. For example, in twin studies of personality the superfactor openness (in identical twins) has an estimated heritability factor (which ranges from 0 to 1.0) of .55 (Bouchard, 2004). This means that identical twins proved to be substantially more similar, not only in this but all psychological dimensions, than the fraternal twins even though the identical twins had been raised in separate homes and families. The results suggest that shared environments are less important than genetic factors to the development of temperament and many personality traits, although shared environments certainly do contribute (Zawadzki et al., 2001; Segal, 2012).

2. What is thought to be the role of the amygdala in the development of inhibited personalities? The amygdala, a structure in the limbic system, plays a key role in emotionality, motivation, and the processing of negative stimuli, especially stimuli that activate fear and avoidance responses (Haas et al., 2007; Adolphs, Russell, & Tranel, 1999). Brain imaging studies have shown that people with damage to the amygdala have difficulty becoming conditioned to fear stimuli (LeDoux, 1999). Such studies have spurred a number of psychologists to theorize that children who display an inhibited personality—characterized by shyness and fear of the unfamiliar—may have amygdalas that are too easily activated, causing the children to be aroused by unfamiliar situations too readily (Schwart, Snidman, & Kagan, 1999; Lahat et al., 2014).

3. What are the three categories of temperament proposed by Clark and Watson? Lee Ann Clark and David Watson grouped personality types into three broad categories of temperament, similar to the superfactors proposed by Eysenck and the Big Five theorists: (1) negative emotionality— individuals who are thought to experience more negative emotions and see the world as distressing, whereas those low on this dimension are relatively peaceful and have higher levels of satisfaction; (2) positive emotionality—high scorers are social individuals who lead active social lives and exhibit enthusiasm, while low scorers are shyer and have less energy and self- confidence; (3) disinhibition versus constraint—reflects how we regulate our various emotions. People high in disinhibition have difficulty controlling their emotional responses and tend to be

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition impulsive, living for the moment. People high in constraint live more careful and controlled lives.

4. Why is it necessary to be careful in interpreting research findings associating particular personality traits with particular biological substances or structures? Although research findings suggest links between brain functioning and personality, we must, as always, take care in interpreting these findings. The links just discussed are not usually straightforward, and personality traits are never the result of a single biological process. The activity of one neurotransmitter—say, serotonin—is, at most, partially responsible for the regulation of a trait or emotion. Clearly, the relationships between biology and personality that have been discovered represent only a small portion of the complex neurological system. In summary, we must be careful about the conclusions we draw from genetic and neurological personality research. We must always keep in mind that the brain operates as a system, and personality reflects activity in a number of regions, as well as the expression of multiple genes (Bouchard, 2004).

Module 73

1. What personality differences between men and women have researchers identified? Women, on average, tend to be more accurate than men at assessing emotion in other people (McClure, 2000). Psychologists Carol Gilligan and Karen Horney argued that women and men are most comfortable with different perspectives on the world, although they emphasized that one perspective is not superior to the other and men and women are capable of adopting the other’s perspective (Gilligan, 2011, 2004). Gilligan believes that women are more attuned to interpersonal (relational) concerns when making moral decisions, while men are more likely to base such decisions on laws or abstract principles. Building on this idea, she found that men, on average, score higher on testing of traits that reflect individuality and autonomy, while women score higher on ones that emphasize social connectedness and empathy (Gilligan, 1982). Similarly, some investigations have indicated that women tend to display more nurturing behaviours (Feingold, 1994). Levels of aggression—particularly physical aggression—were somewhat higher among males. In terms of motor performance and sexuality, men seem to have strikingly different attitudes.

2. How does social role theory explain these differences? A theory that explains these differences in sociocultural terms is social role theory—the theory that gender differences occur because girls and boys develop different behaviours and skills based largely on differences in gender role expectations (differences in what they are socially expected to do and to be interested in. After all, a person’s self-concept, life goals, and values all develop in a social context. In other words, males and females develop the personality attributes that are best suited for the roles that they typically occupy.

3. What are some of the primary differences between the values of collectivist and individualist cultures, and how do these differences affect personality? Most collectivist cultures consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of the individual. With this orientation comes heightened emphasis on the role of the individual within his or her family and on social relationships in general. In turn, the individual is more likely to strive to help maintain the social order and to exhibit humility in social interactions (Triandis, 2001). In contrast, individualist cultures value individual achievement, freedom, and success. The self is seen as independent,

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition and each individual is thought to possess a set of psychological qualities that are distinct from those of others. Unlike collectivist cultures, individualist cultures consider individual attainment more important than the needs and values of others. Indeed, competition between individuals is valued. One large multinational study found that people in collectivist cultures tend to score higher on measures of agreeableness, for example, while people from individualist cultures score higher on measures of extraversion and openness (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004).

4. How does the socio-economic environment affect personality? Chronically high-offending youth are more likely to live in impoverished and unstable circumstances, to engage in substance use, and to experience negative peer interactions, suggesting that disorganized environments interact with individual characteristics to increase risk (Yessine & Bonta, 2009). Investigators reason that poor neighbourhoods produce many more triggers for delinquent acts, whereas community structures in affluent neighbourhoods may offer limited opportunities for antisocial activities. In short, particular personality characteristics will result in particular behaviours only if certain situational triggers also are in place.

Module 74

1. What is a personality disorder? A personality disorder is an inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behaviour that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning. Such patterns are enduring and differ markedly from the experiences and behaviours usually expected of people (APA, 2013). Each of us has a distinct personality and specific personality traits. Yet, for most of us, this distinct personality is also flexible; we are affected by situational factors, and we learn from our experiences. As we interact with our environment, we try out various responses to see which are more effective. This flexibility is missing in people who have a personality disorder.

2. What do all personality disorders have in common? In the latest edition of its diagnostic manual (DSM-5), the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013) states that all personality disorders share four core features: (1) rigid, extreme and distorted thinking patterns (thoughts); (2) problematic emotional response patterns (feelings); (3) impulse control problems (behaviour); and (4) significant interpersonal problems (behaviour).

3. What are the 10 personality disorders recognized by DSM-5? The 10 personality disorders recognized by DSM-5 are (1) paranoid, (2) schizoid, (3) schizotypal, (4) antisocial, (5) borderline, (6) histrionic, (7) narcissistic, (8) avoidant, (9) dependent, (10) obsessive-compulsive.

Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition