Theorists Information Page

Theorists Information Page Erik Erikson

ERIK ERIKSON’S Emotional DEVELOPMENT: 8 Specific Stages of Man

Stages of Development:

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

A delicate balance is required from the parent ....they must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life.

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative. (http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html)

Age Stage of Development Developmental Task Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Attachment and Bonding 2-4 (Toddler) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Potty Training & Self-Maintenance 4-6 (Preschool) Initiative vs. Guilt Academic success, initiates motor activities, if told activities are senseless then guilt develops School Age Industry vs. Inferiority Social competence, friendship network Adolescence Identity vs. Role Confusion Loyalty & friendship Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Falling in love, maintaining relationship Maturity Generativity vs. Stagnation Having and Nurturing children Old Age Integrity vs. Despair Imparting Wisdom on others Jean Piaget

Jean PIAGET Cognitive DEVELOPMENT

Stages of Development:

A child's cognitive development is about a child developing or constructing a mental model of the world.

Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience, or to plan future actions.

Jean Piaget was interested both in how children learnt and in how they thought.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence, and carried out many of his own investigations using his three children. He used the following research methods:

Piaget made careful, detailed naturalistic observations of children. These were mainly his own children and the children of friends. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development. Development is therefore biologically based and changes as the child matures. Cognition therefore develops in all children in the same sequence of stages.

Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed out - although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages. Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage. (http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html#stages)

Age Operation Definition Birth – 2 (Infant) Sensorimotor Children learn through their senses and motor skills 2-7 (Toddler, Preoperational The child begins to form concepts and use symbols; thus, allowing him to Preschool) communicate 7-11 Concrete Operational The child learns to reason and use simple, deductive logic to arrive at conclusions 11+ Formal Operational This is the highest level when children can think abstractly as well as accurately draw conclusions. They can look at the future or recall the past.

Vygotsky 1. Zone of Proximal Development: describes the area between a child's level of independent performance and the child's level of assisted performance

2. Scaffolding: support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals Maslow

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:

Humanistic Development