Chapter 7 Quick Quiz

1. Emotions found in newborns include all of the following EXCEPT a. disgust. c. distress. b. interest. d. anger.

2. Shiloh, who is about 7 months old, has suddenly started to cling to her mother and to shrink from new faces. Shiloh is probably experiencing a. stranger anxiety. c. separation anxiety. b. secure attachment. d. theory of mind.

3. As 14-month-old Timothy walked across his yard, a dog suddenly knocked him over. Timothy immediately looked to the adults sitting nearby to assess their reaction to this incident. Timothy is using ______to gain an understanding of this surprise encounter. a. social coding c. social referencing b. referential coping d. referential expressions

4. Researchers have employed a “rouge on the nose” test to determine at what age children have a sense of their own physical presence, some type of knowledge of themselves, or a. self-concept. c. self-conscious. b. self-awareness. d. theory of mind.

5. When Coco wants some more juice, she realizes that if she asks her father, he can provide her with more. This simple request is evidence that Coco knows something about thinking and about how others think and can influence behavior. This knowledge is known as a. self-concept. c. self-conscious. b. referential coping. d. theory of mind.

6. One of the most important connections that an infant can make is the positive emotional bond that develops between the infants and a particular individual. This is known as a. attachment. c. self-conscious. b. referential coping. d. theory of mind.

7. Harry Harlow conducted research with monkeys and a surrogate who was either a wire “mother” that provided food or a terry cloth “mother” that provided no nourishment. Harlow discovered that the monkeys spent the most time a. finding ways to get nourishment. c. cuddling with the terry cloth mother. b. searching for replacements. d. cuddling with the wire mother.

8. During the end of infancy, children are testing the boundaries and when encouraged to explore those boundaries they should successfully achieve which stage of Erikson’s theory? a. attached versus unattached c. trust versus distrust b. sociable versus unsocial d. autonomy versus shame and doubt

9. Temperament is reflected in several dimensions of behavior, including all of the following EXCEPT a. activity level. c. attention span and persistence. b. mood or irritability. d. development of language.

10. Adults view the behavior of infants through the lens of ______, which is through the lens of the sense of being male or female. a. gender c. sex roles b. sex d. age

130 Chapter 7 Quick Quiz Answers

11. Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 179 Type: Factual Rationale: Carroll Izard found that three emotions are expressed at birth. These emotions include interest, distress, and disgust.

12. Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 180 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Stranger anxiety, the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person, is commonly experienced around 6 months of age. Infants tend to be least anxious with other children and less with female adults. Stranger anxiety may be alleviated if the infant is frequently exposed to unfamiliar faces.

13. Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: c Page(s): 182 Type: Applied Rationale: Timothy is using social referencing, the intentional search for information about the feelings of others to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. Timothy will react to the experience with the dog according to the meaning he ascribes to the reactions of the adults.

14. Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 182 Type: Factual Rationale: Self-awareness is knowledge of oneself and a sense of one’s physical presence. In young children, a small amount of rouge is placed on the child’s nose and then the child is put in front of a mirror. If the child has some sense of his own physical self, he will touch his nose. This is evidence of the presence of self-awareness.

15. Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 183 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Theory of mind is knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it influences behavior. Theories of mind are the explanations that children use to explain how others think.

16. Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 185 Type: Factual Rationale: Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between an infant and a particular individual. The assessment of attachment patterns is measured using the Ainsworth Strange Situation. The attachment of an infant is associated with later adjustment as an adult.

17. Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: Harlow discovered that the monkeys spent most of their time cuddling with the terry cloth mother. This discovery suggests that attachment was not linked only to the satisfaction of physiological needs as earlier suggested by Freud and others.

18. Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development’s second stage is autonomy versus shame and doubt. The fact that the child is trying to gain some independence from the parent, and is willing to explore the environment, suggests that the period would be this second stage.

131 19. Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: d Page(s): 194, 195 Type: Factual Rationale: There are several dimensions of temperament, which represents the patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual. All of the choices except language development are examples of dimensions of temperament.

20. Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 196, 197 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Adults view the behavior of children through the lens of gender. Gender represents the sense of being male or female.

132 Chapter 7 Social and Personality Development in Infancy

Multiple Choice Questions

7.1 The nonverbal expressions of emotions, called ______, are fairly consistent throughout the lifespan. a. nonverbal encoding c. nonverbal decoding b. verbal encoding d. verbal decoding

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 178 Type: Factual Rationale: The nonverbal expression of emotion, called nonverbal encoding, is fairly consistent among people of all ages.

7.2 Basic facial expressions are ______across cultures. a. dissimilar c. similar b. different d. contradictory

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: c Page(s): 178 Type: Factual Rationale: The basic facial expressions are remarkably similar across the most diverse cultures.

7.3 The first emotions to emerge are a. fear and anger. c. pride and shame. b. embarrassment and guilt. d. interest and distress.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 179 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Research on infant emotion has found that interest, distress, and disgust are emotions that are present at birth.

7.4 Although infants display similar kinds of emotions, the degree of emotional expression varies between different infants and across different a. cultures. c. geographic regions. b. societies. d. cities.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 179 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Infants in different cultures show reliable differences in emotional expressiveness.

7.5 The ______developed by Carroll Izard enabled researchers to objectively study emotions. a. Minimalist Disfacial Movement Coding System b. Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement Coding System c. Minimum Distractions Body Movement Coding System d. Maximum Distractal Facial Mimic Coding System

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 179 Type: Factual Rationale: Carroll Izzard, a psychologist, developed the Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement Coding System (MAX) to objectively study emotions in infants.

133 2 The caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person is called a. separation anxiety. c. discriminative facial movement. b. stranger anxiety. d. discrimination body movement.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 180 Type: Factual Rationale: Stranger anxiety is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person. Such anxiety typically appears in the second half of the first year.

7.2 As infants and children grow older, their basic expressions of emotions a. remain the same. c. become more stable. b. become static. d. expand and become more differentiated.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 180 Type: Conceptual Rationale: As children grow older, they expand and modify the basic emotional expressions and become more adept at controlling their nonverbal behavioral experiences.

7.3 The distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs is called a. separation apprehension. c. separation nervousness. b. separation awareness. d. separation anxiety.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 180 Type: Factual Rationale: Separation anxiety is the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs.

7.4 Every time seven-month-old Erika sees a stranger, she clings to her mother and has a wary expression on her face. Erika is displaying a. stranger apprehension. c. stranger nervousness. b. stranger awareness. d. stranger anxiety.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 180 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Stranger anxiety is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person.

7.5 Ten-month-old Sue Ellen tends to be wary of people she does not know. Her mother is taking her to the airport to meet her grandmother for the first time. How might Sue Ellen react to this meeting? a. smile and hold out her arms to her grandmother b. cling to her mother and look suspiciously at her grandmother c. show indifference to her grandmother d. share a toy with her grandmother

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 180 Type: Applied Rationale: Since Sue Ellen is not familiar with her grandmother, she will probably react by displaying stranger anxiety. Stranger anxiety is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person.

7.6 Which child would most likely display the highest degree of stranger anxiety? a. a child that frequently goes on outings with her parents b. a child that spends most of her time with her family and close neighbors c. a child that spends most of time with just her mother d. a child that goes to daycare and visits with extended family

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: c Page(s): 180 Type: Applied

134 Rationale: Frequent exposure to unfamiliar people will help to alleviate strange anxiety. 3 Infants are MOST LIKELY to exhibit the least amount of stranger anxiety toward unfamiliar a. males. c. females. b. people in uniforms. d. children.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 180 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Children tend to exhibit the least amount of stranger anxiety toward unfamiliar children.

7.2 Eight-month-old Mika spends a lot of time in her parents’ family-run restaurant. Mika is often the center of attention with those who eat at the restaurant. How might you expect Mika to react to an unfamiliar relative as opposed to a child that sees only her immediate family? a. Mika will display less anxiety. b. Mika will display more anxiety. c. Mika will display the same amount of anxiety. d. Mika will be indifferent; the child who only sees her immediate family will show joy.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 180 Type: Applied Rationale: Children who are frequently exposed to unfamiliar people will display less stranger anxiety than children who are exposed to only their immediate family.

7.3 The expression of fear in older infants is usually reserved for a. siblings. c. fathers. b. strangers. d. children.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 180 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Stranger anxiety is most likely expressed to unfamiliar adults. Children, siblings, and fathers should not elicit this anxiety.

7.4 Social ______is the intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. a. smiling c. copying b. referencing d. helping

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 182 Type: Factual Rationale: Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events.

7.5 Knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior is called theory of a. thinking. c. brain. b. mind. d. cognition.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 183 Type: Factual Rationale: Theory of mind is the knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior.

7.6 An emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person is called a. empathy. c. trustworthiness. b. authenticity. d. niceness.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 184 Type: Factual Rationale: Empathy is an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person.

135 4 As Pete teeters about the room, he suddenly plops to the floor. Instantly, he looks to the adults in the room before emotionally responding. Pete is using ______to determine the feelings of the adults. a. social smiling c. social coping b. social referencing d. social helping

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 182 Type: Applied Rationale: Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events.

7.2 Babies begin to smile at the sight of stimuli that pleases them between ______weeks. a. 1 and 2 c. 3 and 12 b. 15 and 20 d. 12 and 15

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: c Page(s): 180 Type: Factual Rationale: By 6 to 9 weeks, babies begin to smile reliably at the sight of stimuli that please them, including toys, mobiles, and people.

7.3 By 18 months, babies’ social smiles are evoked most often by the sight of a. toys. c. children. b. strangers. d. mothers.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 181 Type: Conceptual Rationale: As babies get older, social smiles become directed toward particular individuals, specifically mothers and other caregivers.

7.4 In the first 6 to 8 weeks of life, the human face does not evoke an immediate social smile in infants because the a. infant has not learned to appreciate being around humans. b. infant’s visual system is not developed enough to study facial features. c. infant’s visual system is developed, but infants prefer more active stimuli. d. infant prefers physical comforts over the sight of human faces.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 180, 181 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Conjecture suggests that infants during the first 6 to 8 weeks of life will indiscriminately smile at anything that pleases them they become more selective as they get older. During this same time, the infant’s visual system also develops.

7.5 Infants’ ability to match a happy or sad facial expression with the appropriate tone of voice emerges a. at birth. c. by 3 months. b. between 6 and 8 weeks. d. by 7 months.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 181 Type: Factual Rationale: Infants seem to be able to discriminate vocal expressions of emotion at a slightly earlier age than they discriminate facial expressions. It appears that infants are able to discriminate happy and sad vocal expressions at the age of 5 months.

136 5 Twelve-month-old Zachary is learning to walk. Each time he topples over, he looks to see his mother’s reaction. If her expression is one of alarm, he cries, and if her expression is one of happiness, he smiles. Zachary’s search for information about his mother’s feeling is known as social a. orientation. c. referencing. b. checking. d. arbitration.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: c Page(s): 182 Type: Applied Rationale: Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events.

7.2 It is important for infants to learn social reference because it teaches a. them that others’ behavior has meaning with reference to specific circumstances. b. them to be kind to others. c. them to stay out of danger. d. perspective-taking skills.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 182 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Infants need social referencing to understand the significance of others’ behavior by using cues such as their facial expressions, but also to understand the meaning of those behaviors within the context of a specific situation.

7.3 Knowledge of oneself is called a. self-concept. c. self-control. b. self-esteem. d. self-awareness.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 182 Type: Factual Rationale: Self-awareness is knowledge of oneself.

7.4 As 2-year-old Brianna passes a mirror she notices that she has a milk moustache and quickly uses her sleeve to wipe it off. It is clear that Brianna knows that it is herself in the mirror. This knowledge of oneself is called a. self-concept. c. self-control. b. self-esteem. d. self-awareness.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 182 Type: Applied Rationale: Brianna’s awareness of her physical characteristics, through the recognition of her image in the mirror, is evidence of self-awareness.

7.5 The mirror-and-rouge task is used to determine if a child has knowledge of his/her physical characteristics. This knowledge is called a. self-concept. c. self-control. b. self-esteem. d. self-awareness.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: d Page(s): 182 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Knowledge of one’s physical characteristics is evidence of awareness of oneself, or self-awareness.

137 6 According to John Flavell, a theory of ______constitutes children’s knowledge and beliefs about their mental world. a. mind c. emotions b. knowledge d. values

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: a Page(s): 183 Type: Factual Rationale: John Flavell asserts that theory of mind is the knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it influences behavior. Theories of mind are the explanations that children use to explain how others think.

7.2 Infants learn to see others as ______, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and who have the capacity to respond to infants’ requests. a. social agents c. independent agents b. compliant agents d. powerful agents

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 183 Type: Factual Rationale: Infants learn to see other people as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and who have the capacity to respond to infants’ requests.

7.3 Eighteen-month-old Chris has come to realize that he can ask his father to play hide and seek with him. Chris’s capacity to understand that others operate independently while at the same time have the ability to meet his needs is known as a. social agents. c. independent. b. compliant agents. d. powerful agents.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 183 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Infants learn to see other people as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and who have the capacity to respond to infants’ requests.

7.4 Two-year-olds begin to demonstrate the rudiments of ______, an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person. a. sympathy c. understanding b. empathy d. compassion

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 184 Type: Factual Rationale: Empathy is an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person.

7.5 Two-year-old Nyssa sees Lara crying because her mother has just left her at daycare. Nyssa offers Lara her doll for comfort. Nyssa is exhibiting a. sympathy. c. understanding. b. empathy. d. compassion.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 184 Type: Factual Rationale: Empathy is an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person.

138 7 Two-year-old Chandler loves to play tricks on his mother. He will put his hands over his dinner plate and say, “I finished my dinner. It’s time for ice cream.” Chandler’s ability to use deception demonstrates that he is a. a naughty boy and needs to be taught to respect adults. b. aware that others hold beliefs about the world—beliefs that can be manipulated. c. unaware that he is being deceptive. d. aware that others view things differently than he does.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Answer: b Page(s): 183 Type: Applied Rationale: Chandler demonstrates his ability to pretend and to “deceive” others.

7.2 A sequence of staged episodes that are used to illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother is called a. ambivalent attachment pattern. c. avoidant attachment pattern. b. secure attachment pattern. d. the Ainsworth Strange Situation.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: d Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: The Ainsworth Strange Situation is a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother.

7.3 A style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present, and when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns is called a. ambivalent attachment pattern. c. avoidant attachment pattern. b. secure attachment pattern. d. the Ainsworth Strange Situation.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: b Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: A secure attachment pattern is a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns.

7.4 A style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother, and after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior is called a. ambivalent attachment pattern. c. avoidant attachment pattern. b. secure attachment pattern. d. the Ainsworth Strange Situation.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: The avoidant attachment pattern is a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior.

7.5 A style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers, show great distress when the mother leaves, and upon her return possibly simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her is called a. ambivalent attachment pattern. c. avoidant attachment pattern. b. secure attachment pattern. d. Ainsworth Strange Situation.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 187 Type: Factual Rationale: An ambivalent attachment pattern is a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her.

139 8 The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual is called a. positive regard. c. attachment. b. security. d. affection.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 185 Type: Factual Rationale: Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual.

7.2 Ryan loves to spend time with his mother whether sitting close together watching the stars at night or reading a bedtime story. When Ryan is upset, only his mother has the ability to quickly soothe him. Ryan’s positive emotional bond toward his mother is called a. positive regard. c. attachment. b. security. d. affection.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 185 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual. In this example, Ryan exhibits that positive emotional bond with his mother.

7.3 Behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed is called a. a sensitive period. c. bonding. b. attachment. d. imprinting.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: d Page(s): 185 Type: Factual Rationale: Imprinting is behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed.

7.4 Konrad Lorenz found that goslings whose eggs were raised in an incubator and who viewed him just after hatching would follow his every movement, as if he were their mother. This behavior is called a. a sensitive period. c. bonding. b. attachment. d. imprinting.

7.5 Jacob and Haley decided to raise geese for their 4-H project. Their parents got them an incubator and some gosling eggs. Jacob and Haley were present when the goslings hatched from their eggs. From that time on the goslings followed the children around as if they were their parents. The behavior of the goslings is called a. a sensitive period. c. bonding. b. attachment. d. imprinting.

140 9 According to Konrad Lorenz, who studied imprinting in geese, attachment is based on ______factors. a. biological c. social b. environmental d. psychological

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 185 Type: Factual Rationale: Ethologist Konrad Lorenz’s findings suggested that attachment was based on biologically determined factors.

7.2 Freud felt that attachment was based on a caregiver meeting the ______needs of the child. a. social c. environmental b. physiological d. psychological

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: b Page(s): 185 Type: Factual Rationale: Freud suggested that attachment grew out of a mother’s ability to satisfy a child’s oral need, a physiological need.

7.3 In an attachment study conducted by Harlow, monkeys in distress preferred the ______monkey even though the other monkey fed them. a. wire c. terry cloth b. plastic d. glass

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: In Harlow’s study, the monkeys showed preference for the warm, soft “monkey” made of terry cloth, over the wire “monkey” that provided food.

7.4 Harry Harlow’s study that demonstrated infant monkeys have a clear preference for the soft, terry cloth “monkey” that was warm but did not provide nourishment, over the wire “monkey” that provided nourishment illustrates that the a. inability to meet basic physiological needs is sufficient for attachment to occur. b. ability to meet basic physiological needs is sufficient for attachment to occur. c. inability to meet basic physiological needs is not sufficient for attachment to occur. d. ability to meet basic physiological needs is not sufficient for attachment to occur.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: d Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: Harlow wanted to investigate the assertion that attachment grew out of fulfillment of physiological needs. However, he discovered in this research that meeting basic physiological needs is not sufficient for attachment to occur.

7.5 In Bowlby’s view, attachment is based primarily on infants’ need for a. safety. c. comfort. b. nourishment. d. love.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 186 Type: Factual Rationale: Attachment, according to John Bowlby, is based primarily on infants’ needs for safety and security, their genetically determined motivation to avoid predators.

141 10 Twelve-month-old Madeline frequently crawls off in search of toys, only to return briefly to share her newfound toys with her mother. Madeline is using her mother as a a. safety net. c. toy holder. b. secure base. d. friend.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: b Page(s): 186 Type: Conceptual Rationale: In describing secure attachment, the mother is described as a secure base from which the infant feels comfortable exploring.

7.2 The model in which infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately is called a. caregiver rebound. c. mutual regulation model. b. reciprocal socialization. d. desocialization.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 191 Type: Factual Rationale: Mutual regulation model is a model in which infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately.

7.3 A process in which infants’ behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the infants, is called a. caregiver rebound. c. mutual regulation model. b. reciprocal socialization. d. desocialization.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: b Page(s): 191 Type: Factual Rationale: Reciprocal socialization is a process in which infants’ behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the infants.

7.4 Erikson’s theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others’— and their own—behavior is known as Erikson’s theory of a. psychosocial development. c. psychoeducational development. b. psychosexual development. d. psychopersonality development.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others’, and their own, behavior.

7.5 The second stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the period during which toddlers develop independence if they are allowed the freedom to explore. This stage is referred to as a. trust versus mistrust. c. autonomy versus shame and doubt. b. independence versus dependence. d. security versus insecurity.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: The autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage is the period during which toddlers develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected.

142 11 Often toddlers around the age of 2 are described as being in the “terrible twos.” This categorization is simply a result of the toddlers attempt to resolve the second stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, or a. trust versus mistrust. c. autonomy versus shame and doubt. b. independence versus dependence. d. security versus insecurity.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: c Page(s): 194 Type: Applied Rationale: The autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage is the period during which toddlers develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected.

7.2 Mothers of securely attached infants respond in all the following ways EXCEPT a. they feed on demand. b. they are responsive during face-to-face interactions. c. they are responsive and warm. d. they withhold comfort.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: d Page(s): 187 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Mothers of securely attached infants respond in all of these ways except to withhold comfort. They are sensitive to their infants’ needs and desires. This type of mother tends to be aware of her child’s feelings as they interact. She is responsive during face-to-face interaction, provides feeding “on demand,” and is warm and affectionate to her infant.

7.3 According to Bowlby, when 1-year-old Hannah becomes upset, she will prefer to be comforted by a. her mother. c. either parent. b. her father. d. her babysitter.

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Answer: a Page(s): 188 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Bowlby believed that Hannah would prefer to be comforted by her mother because he believed that mothers are uniquely equipped, biologically, to provide sustenance for the child, and he concluded that this capability led to the development of a special relationship between mothers and children.

7.4 The sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another is called a. personality. c. imprinting. b. temperament. d. attachment.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: Personality is the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another.

7.5 Patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual are called a. personality. c. imprinting. b. temperament. d. attachment.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: Temperament is the pattern of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual.

143 12 Babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations tend to withdraw when confronted with a new situation. They are called a. easy babies. c. slow-to-warm babies. b. difficult babies. d. goodness-of-fit babies.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 195 Type: Factual Rationale: Difficult babies are babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw.

7.2 Babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment, and whose moods are generally negative, tend to withdraw from new situations. They are called a. easy babies. c. slow-to-warm babies. b. difficult babies. d. goodness-of-fit babies.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 195 Type: Factual Rationale: Slow-to-warm babies are babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly.

7.3 Babies who have a positive disposition, whose body functions operate regularly, and who are adaptable are called a. easy babies. c. slow-to-warm babies. b. difficult babies. d. goodness-of-fit babies.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 195 Type: Factual Rationale: Easy babies are babies who have a positive disposition; their body functions operate regularly and they are adaptable.

7.4 The notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised is called a. easy babies. c. slow-to-warm babies. b. difficult babies. d. goodness-of-fit.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: d Page(s): 195 Type: Factual Rationale: Goodness-of-fit is the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised.

7.5 Research suggests that mothers and fathers play differently with their children. Mothers tend to play ______, whereas fathers tend to play ______. a. rough-and-tumble activities; traditional games with more verbal elements b. games with more verbal elements; rough-and-tumble activities c. games with more nonverbal elements; rough-and-tumble activities d. house; rough-and-tumble activities

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 196 Type: Factual Rationale: Parents play with babies differently. Mothers tend to play more traditional games that have more verbal elements, while fathers tend to play more rough-and-tumble activities with their children.

144 13 The origins of ______, the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, stem from infancy. a. emotion c. social b. temperament d. personality

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: d Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: Personality is the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another.

7.2 According to Erikson, when parents positively meet the needs of their infants in a timely and loving manner, the infant will develop a sense of a. hope. c. faith. b. trust. d. confidence.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers.

7.3 Six-month-old Trey never knows when his next bottle will appear or when his diaper will be changed. According to Erikson, Trey’s inconsistent care may result in him developing a sense of a. trust. c. mistrust. b. independence. d. autonomy.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 194 Type: Conceptual Rationale: The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers.

7.4 According to Erikson, toddlers who are allowed the freedom to explore within safe boundaries develop a feeling of a. shame and doubt. c. trust. b. trust. d. mistrust.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 194 Type: Factual Rationale: The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers.

7.5 Adam is a very active infant who seems never to be still. Linda is a placid baby. She takes long naps and is easily soothed on those relatively rare occasions when she becomes agitated. Adam and Linda reflect differences in a. behavior. c. temperament. b. socialization. d. self-awareness.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 194 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Temperament is the patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual.

145 14 Babies that are generally positive, showing curiosity about new situations, and whose emotions are moderate or low in intensity are considered to be ______babies. a. difficult c. temperamental b. slow-to-warm d. easy

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: d Page(s): 195 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Easy babies are babies who have a positive disposition, their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable.

7.2 Mark has a positive disposition. His body functions operate regularly and they are adaptable. He is generally positive, showing curiosity about new situations, and his emotions are moderate or low in intensity. Mark is a(n) ______baby. a. difficult c. easy b. slow-to-warm d. passive

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 195 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Easy babies are babies who have a positive disposition, their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable.

7.3 Babies who have negative moods, are slow to adapt to new situations, and tend to withdraw when confronted with new situations are called ______babies. a. difficult c. easy b. slow-to-warm d. passive

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 195 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Difficult babies are babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw.

7.4 Crystal has negative moods and is slow to adapt to new situations. When confronted with a new situation, she tends to withdraw. Crystal is a(n) ______baby. a. difficult c. slow-to-warm b. easy d. passive

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 195 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Difficult babies are babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw.

7.5 Babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; whose moods are generally negative; and who withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly, are called ______babies. a. difficult c. easy b. slow-to-warm d. passive

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 195 Type: Conceptual Rationale: Slow-to-warm babies are babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally negative; and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly.

146 15 The notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised is known as a. best fit. c. goodness-of-fit. b. sensitive caregiving. d. emotional reciprocity.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: c Page(s): 195 Type: Factual Rationale: Goodness-of-fit is the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised.

7.2 The sense of being male or female is known as a. gender. c. androgyny. b. sex. d. sexual orientation.

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: a Page(s): 197 Type: Factual Rationale: Gender is the sense of being male or female.

7.3 Sex typically refers to ______, while gender refers to ______. a. perceptions of maleness or femaleness; sexual anatomy and sexual behavior b. sexual anatomy and sexual behavior; cultural perceptions of maleness or femaleness c. sexual anatomy and sexual behavior; misconceptions of being male or female d. sexual anatomy and sexual behavior; perceptions of what constitutes androgyny

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Answer: b Page(s): 197 Type: Factual Rationale: Sex refers to the sexual anatomy and sexual behavior. Gender refers to one’s sense, or the cultural perceptions, of maleness or femaleness.

Essay Questions

7.4 What is the difference in emotional expressions between newborns and older infants?

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Page(s): 179, 180 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Emergence of emotional expressions (birth through 25 months) . Interest, distress, disgust . Social smile . Anger, surprise, sadness . Fear . Shame, shyness . Contempt, guilt  Brain development that accounts for the wider array of emotional expression . Cerebral cortex . Limbic system

147 16 What causes stranger anxiety and separation anxiety?

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Page(s): 180, 181 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Stranger anxiety is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person.  Separation anxiety is the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs.  Brain development and cognitive abilities . Development of memory . Attempts to anticipate and predict events  Social development . Children who are frequently in contact with unfamiliar people experience less stranger anxiety.

7.2 Explain how the mirror-and-rouge task demonstrates self-awareness.

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Page(s): 182, 183 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Very young infants do not have a sense of themselves as individuals; they lack self-awareness.  A bit of rouge is placed on the infant’s nose, and the infants are placed so that they look in a mirror. . If the child is aware of herself, she will touch her nose because she recognizes herself in the mirror. . If the child lacks self-awareness, she will not touch her nose because she does not recognize herself in the mirror.

7.3 Why is it important for children to learn how to utilize self-referencing?

Chapter Section: Forming the Roots of Sociability Page(s): 182 Type: Factual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others’ feelings.  Social referencing helps explain the meaning of uncertain circumstance and events.  Social referencing may assist a child in understanding facial expressions that express emotions.

7.4 What is attachment in infancy, and how does it affect a person’s future social competence?

Chapter Section: Forming Relationships Page(s): 185–187 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual.  Ainsworth Strange Situation is a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between child and (typically) his or her mother. . Assesses attachment as 1) secure attachment, 2) avoidant attachment, 3) ambivalent attachment, or 4) disorganized-disoriented attachment  Quality of attachment between infants and mothers has significant consequences for relationships at later stages of life . Securely attached infants show less psychological issues and are viewed more socially and emotionally competent than other attachment patterns. . Adult dating relationships are associated with the attachment pattern developed during infancy.

148 17 What is the father’s role in attachment?

Chapter Section: Forming Social Relationships Page(s): 188, 189 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  As society and research findings began to affirm that infants form attachments with fathers as well as mothers, more interest and attention was given to the role of fathers in attachment.  Fathers’ expressions of nurturance are important to children’s emotional and social well-being.  By 18 months, most infants form multiple attachment relationships.

7.2 Does attachment differ across cultures?

Chapter Section: Forming Social Relationships Page(s): 189, 190 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Research has demonstrated that attachments are not culturally universal.  Particular attachment patterns may be culturally specific.  Consideration should be given that the Ainsworth Strange Situation may not be the most appropriate method of assessing attachment patterns in non-Western cultures.  Attachment is susceptible to cultural norms and expectations.

7.3 As a new parent, what will you look for when selecting child care?

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Page(s): 199, 200 Type: Applied Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Parents should be seeking high-quality child care first and foremost.  Desirable ratio between staff and infants  Size of groups  Licensing of the center  Staff morale and behaviors  Safety and cleanliness  Training of providers  Happy and cheerful environment

7.4 Why is it that there is less stigma attached to girls who prefer to play with stereotypical male toys than it is for boys who prefer to play with stereotypical female toys?

Chapter Section: Differences Among Infants Page(s): 196–198 Type: Conceptual Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:  Children’s preferences for certain toys are reinforced by parents.  Parents of boys tend to be more concerned about their child’s choices than parents of girls.  Boys receive more reinforcement for playing with toys deemed appropriate by society than girls do, and this increases with age.  Societal expectations and constraints are more rigid for boys than girls and this includes those traits labeled as feminine and masculine.