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1 Global Racisms and Racism in Russia: an Introduction 2 Race And Notes 1 Global Racisms and Racism in Russia: An Introduction 1. All translations from Russian and German are by the author unless otherwise indicated. 2. Sik became a prisoner of war of the Russians during World War One. He chose to stay in Russia after being released, joined the Soviet Communist Party in 1920, and lived as an Hungarian émigré in the Soviet Union until 1945, when he returned to Hungary. He later served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Hungary from 1958 to 1961. 3. http://www.sova-center.ru/en/. 2 Race and Racism in the Russian Past 1. The film featured the following song by Pavel German: ‘Before all enemies are known / While at least one of them is still alive / Every honest and simple Soviet citizen / Has to be an NKVD officer (chekist). / Our fortresses are ever stronger / The chekists of today / Are all the 170 million / Of my Fatherland’s Patriots!’ 2. Stalin composed his Marksizm i natsional’nyi vopros [Marxism and the Nationalities Question] in opposition to Otto Bauer’s Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie. Bauer emphasized that ‘commonality of des- tiny’ defines national character (aus Schicksalsgemeinschaft erwachsende Charaktergemeinschaft), and he pointed to ‘commonality of origin’ and ‘natural heredity’ as the important factors in this regard. He nevertheless maintained that ‘cultural commonality’ is the factor which defines the repro- duction of national differences. Bauer’s position may be defined as cultural racism in the language used by some contemporary scholars of racism. 3 Race, Racialization and Racism: A New Theoretical Framework 1. Although only Kant’s Kritik der Urteilskraft is cited here, two different English translations are chosen to use, namely, Pluhar’s and the most recent Cambridge University Press edition. 4 Making Race in the Russian Academia 1. Valery Tishkov, former nationalities minister in Gaydar’s liberal govern- ment, is now the head of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Victor Shnirelman, the leading Russian specialist on racism, is employed at this Institute. 196 Notes 197 5 Rioting for Whiteness: Doing Race on the Squares of Moscow 1. Patriarch Kiril’s address is available at http://www.youtube.com/watch? feature=player_embeddedandv=Hss82_YfpVM. 2. Chairman of the Synodal Department for Church and Society Interaction of the Moscow Patriarchate. 6 Becoming Racial: Race as a New Form of Inequality 1. In the late Soviet period, this identified a category of temporary residents without permanent propiska (right to housing allocation) who worked in manual and low-skilled jobs. 7 Geopolitics of Racism and the Nation-Building Processes 1. Sergey Sergeev (2010, p. 250), one of the ideologists of Russian nationalism, justifies the necessity of using the work of ‘non-Russian’ thinkers by the need for ‘national pragmatism’. He states that ‘National pragmatism’, whether we want it or not, is not someone’s evil ‘intellectual subversion’, but rather the imperative of our times. That is why ‘blood’, ‘power’, and ‘money’ come to the fore. Who knows, perhaps one day we will return to Aleksei Khomiakov and Nikolai Losskiy, but now Carl Schmitt and Pierre Bourdieu are more important for us. Among our own authors, perhaps only Danilevsky and Leontiev in their most ruthless and anti-Romantic fragments are now important. One of the most famous sayings of Nikolay Danilevsky – ‘Neither true modesty, nor true pride can allow Russia to consider itself European’. – could serve as the epigraph for this book. The Slavophil Konstantin Aksakov wrote that ‘The Russian people is not a people; it is humanity; it is a people only because it is surrounded by peoples with exclusively national essences, and its humanity is therefore represented by nationality’ (as quoted in Riasanovsky 2005, p. 252). 2. Putin (2012a) writes that ‘[E]thnic Russians have never, not in any emigra- tion, formed stable national diasporas, despite having a significant quantita- tive and qualitative presence, because our identity has a different cultural code. Russian people are nation-forming – on the basis of Russia’s existence. The great mission of Russians is to unite and bind our civilization. Language, culture and “universal kind-heartedness,” according to Fyodor Dostoevsky, are what bring together Russian Armenians, Russian Azerbaijanis, Russians Germans, Russian Tatars… Bring them together to form a type of state- civilization that does not have “ethnic persons” and where differentiation between “us and them” is determined by a common culture and shared values. This civilizational identity is based on the preservation of a Russian 198 Notes cultural dominance, which flows not only from ethnic Russians, but all carri- ers of this identity regardless of nationality. This is the cultural code that has, in recent years, been subject to some serious trials, which people have tried and continue to try to break. And it has, nevertheless, prevailed. At the same time, it needs to be nourished, strengthened, and protected.’ References Abashin, S., D. Arapov and N. Bekmakhanova (eds) (2008) Tsentral’naya Aziya v sostave Rossiyskoy Imperii. Moscow: Novoe literaturmoe obozrenie. Aksyanova, Galina (ed.) (2003) Nauka o cheloveke i obshchestvo: itogi, problemy, perspektivy. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii. Aksyanova, Galina (2008) ‘Antropologiya v krivom zerkale rasovyh predras- sudkov.’ In Kritika rasizma v sovremennoy Rossii i nauchnyi vzglyad na problem etnokul’turnogo mnogoobraziya. Moscow: Academia, pp. 47–102. Alekseev, Valeriy (1972) V poiskakh predkov. Antropologiya i istoriya. Moscow: Izdalel’stvo ‘Sovetskaya Rossiya.’ Alekseeva, Tatiana and V. D. Dyachenko (2000) ‘Antropologicheskiy oblik.’ In N. Polishchuk and A. Ponomarev (eds) Ukraintsy. Moscow: Nauka, pp. 55–63. Alekseeva, Tatiana and Leonid Yablonsky (2002) Problema rasy v rossiyskoy fi zich- eskoy antropologii. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN. Alekseeva, Tatiana (2005) ‘Antropologicheskiy oblik russkogo naroda.’ In V. A. Aleksandrov et al. (eds) Russkie. Moscow: Nauka, pp. 57–75. Alexander, Jeffrey (2006) The Civil Sphere. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Alexander, J. C., R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. Smelser, and P. Sztompka (2004) Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press. Alexseev, Mikhail (2005) Immigration Phobia and the Security Dilemma: Russia, Europe, and the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ‘An Appeal from Russia’ (1996) Nationalities Papers 24(2): 353–6. Anderson, Benedict (2006) Imagined Communities: Refl ections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. Anthias, Floya, Nira Yuval-Davis, with Harriet Cain (1992) Racialized Boundaries: Race, Nation, Gender, Colour and Class and the Anti-Racist Struggle. London: Routledge. Arnason, Johann (1993) The Future that Failed: Origins and Destinies of the Soviet Model. London and New York: Routledge. Arnold, Richard (2009) ‘“Thugs with Guns”: Disaggregating “Ethnic Violence” in the Russian Federation.’ Nationalities Papers 37(5): 641–64. Arutyunyan, Yuriy (ed.) (2011) Russkie: etnosotsiologicheskie issledovaniya. Moscow: Nauka. Aspers, Patrik (2007) ‘Theory, Reality, and Performativity in Markets.’ American Journal of Economics and Sociology 66(2): 379–98. Avdeev, Vladimir (2005/2007 second edition) Rasologiya. Moscow: Belye Al’vy. Avdeev, Vladimir (2007a) ‘Belye vsekh stran, soedinyaites’!’ [Online, 23 July]. Available at http://www.dpni.org/articles/lenta_novo/3562/ [accessed 23 April, 2013]. Avdeev, Vladimir (2010) Istoriya angliyskoy rasologii. Moscow: Belye Al’vy. Avdeev, Vladimir and Alexander Sevastyanov (2007) Rasa i etnos. Moscow: Knizhnyi mir. Avrutin, Eugene (2007) ‘Racial Categories and the Politics of (Jewish) Difference in Late Imperial Russia.’ Kritika 8(1): 13–40. 199 200 References Bacon, Edwin, Bettina Renz, and Julian Cooper (2006) Securitising Russia: The Domestic Politics of Putin. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Bahry, Donna (2002) ‘Ethnicity and Equality in Post-communist Economic Transition: Evidence from Russia’s Republics.’ Europe-Asia Studies. 54(5): 673–99. Baiburin, Albert (2012) ‘“The Wrong Nationality”: Ascribed Identity in the 1930s.’ In Albert Baiburin, Catriona Kelly, and Nikolai Vakhtin (eds) Russian Cultural Anthropology After the Collapse of Communism. London: Routledge, pp. 59–77. Baldassarri, Delia (2009) ‘Collective Action.’ In Peter Hedström and Peter Bearman (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology. Oxford University Press, pp. 391–419. Baldwin, Kate (2002) Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Balibar, Etienne (2002) ‘Reflections on the Nation Form: History and Ideology.’ In Philomena Essed and David Goldberg (eds) Race Critical Theories: Text and Context. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 413–17. Balibar, Etienne and Immanuel Wallerstein (1991) Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. London: Verso. Banton, Michael (1970) ‘The Concept of Racism’. In S. Zubaida (ed.), Race and Racialism. London: Tavistock, pp. 17–33. Banton, Michael (1977) The Idea of Race. London: Tavistock. Banton, Michael (1983) Racial and Ethnic Competition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Banton, Michael (1998) Racial Theories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Banton, Michael (2010) ‘The Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions of the Word Race.’ Ethnicities 10(1): 127–40. Baraulina, Tatiana and Oksana Karpenko (eds) (2004) Migratsiya
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