Analysis of Written Language Over Time
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A2 ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Analysis of Written Language over Time
1 Early Influences 450- 1200
English is English because of three invasions. Firstly the invasions of the Anglo-Saxons in the fifth century brought us Anglisc, the basis of our language. Secondly the invasion and settlement of the Vikings in the ninth century, changed Anglisc from an inflection based grammar to a word order with preposition grammar. And thirdly the invasion of the Normans, lead to a huge influx of borrowed words, setting the trend for the future magpie-like activities of English.
Here is Eddie Izzard talking about the Anglo- Saxons. Make notes and feedback any that you think may be useful.
http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=g5XIA0oKHNM&feature=PlayList&p=61BD76ED474BCF15&index=12
Watch Melvyn Bragg talk about the effect of the Danish invasion in his seminal “The Adventure of English”.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaRSdjfC4IQ&feature=related
Make a list of borrowed Old Norse words here.
Watch Melvyn Bragg talk about the Norman invasion here.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_SyYiDzxRY&feature=related
The influence of French on English is massive. The greatest effect the Norman invasion had on the language was a lexical one. Over 10,000 words were borrowed between 1066 and 1500, 75% are in use today.
Only certain types of words were borrowed from French. See if you can make five groups of related words out of the list of words given below. Can you explain why the Normans influenced our language in these areas?
Condemn Crucifix Sculpture Crime Toast Beauty Appetite Attorney Salad Major Bailiff Charity Mercy Logic Mutton Cream Sentence Colour Court Treaty Council Image Salvation Tragedy Tripe Lemon Chancellor State Priory Piety Salmon Majesty Miracle Poet Judge
2 Extension work and Learning Skills
Download this booklet called the History of English booklet form the LG4 folder on the intranet. This will make it easier to follow the links.
For further study in Learning Skills watch and note Grammar Spice’s ten minute history of language: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_Y_Z5Ab6y4&feature=related
Throughout this booklet at the end of the extension and Learning Skills section, a “superstar” who has had a major influence on the language will be named. Your task is to research that character. Download a picture into the space provided and then write a brief biography, including how that person has influenced English.
The first is done for you:
Superstars of language: Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great became king of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex in 871. But after the Danish invasion, he was forced to hide in the Somerset marshes. Later Alfred defeated the Danes and divided the country into two. One half was to be ruled by the Danes, the other by the Anglo-Saxons. Alfred had a direct effect on English. He set up an education system and, because many of the monks who spoke Latin had been killed, these schools were taught in English. Alfred organised the translations of classical books to be taught in these schools, undertaking some of these translations himself.
3 Middle English 1200- 1500
It is unlikely that you will be asked to analyse a text from this period, but some of the happenings have a profound influence on English and could be referred to, showing conceptual understanding.
During this period, the use of French for court, political and legal documents, for all important transactions, gradually declined and English was re-established as the first language of the country.
The reasons for this change can be attributed to social, economic and cultural factors.
The French speaking Norman nobility began to lose their lands in France and saw themselves as more English than French.
Power struggles between England and France resulted in the hundred years’ war 1337- 1453.
Approximately a third of the population died of the plague. This meant labour was scarce and so the working classes who spoke English had more economic status. At this time the rise of the craftsmen and merchant class who ran the day to day affairs in the towns and cities merged into what we would call the middle class today. These powerful people were probably bilingual.
In 1362, parliament decreed that all lawsuits should be conducted in English, though recorded in Latin.
These socio- economic factors lead to a perceived need for a Standard English to cover all areas of communication. During this time the differences between dialects in the country were such that a person from one shire found it difficult to understand a person from another.
The dialects of the time can be roughly separated into five areas: southern, Kentish, West Midlands, East Midlands and Northern. The East Midlands dialect became the standard.
The spread of this particular dialect and its acceptance as the standard was in part due to William Caxton’s printing press, established at Westminster in 1475/6.
Standardisation is a gradual process; the printing press didn’t mean that suddenly everyone was writing the same way.
4 Even though you are unlikely to get a text from this time certain conceptual issues can still be referred to. The printing press enabled the process of standardisation.
Standard English was originally a dialect same as any other.
Exercises
Look at the excerpts of Middle English given below. Which do you think represents the East Midlands dialect?
1. My lorde and his ledez ar on lenþe faren, Oþer burnez in her bedde, and my burdez als, Þe dor drawen and dit with a derf haspe; And syþen I haue in þis hous hym þat al lykez, I schal ware my whyle wel, quyl hit lastez, with tale.
From Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
2. As a leek þat hedde I-leiȝen · longe In þe sonne, So loked he with lene chekes; · lourede he foule. His Bodi was Bolled · for wraþþe he bot his lippes, Wroþliche he wrong his fust · he þouȝte him a-wreke.
From Piers Plowman, William Langland
3. In th' olde dayes of the kyng arthour,
Of which that britons speken greet honour,
Al was this land fulfild of fayerye.
The elf-queene, with hir joly compaignye,
Daunced ful ofte in many a grene mede.
From the Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer
5 Caxton raised some interesting issues about language change in his preface to the Aeneid 1490.
The analysis of texts that you will undertake in January is similar to the analysis you undertook last January. You must show that you understand the text by providing an overview.
1. Summarise what Caxton is saying in this text. Include reference to over curious terms, the lord abbot of Westminster, the dominion of the moon and English in the shires.
2. Next analyse under the key constituents.
Lexis Are there any words here recently borrowed from French or Latin?
Semantics Do any meanings seem to have changed? Have any words dropped out?
6 Discourse Discourse is a new key constituent for the second year. It means looking at the overall structure of a text; the organisation above the sentence level. What can you say about how this text has been arranged? Has it been carefully planned?
Grammar Endings on words are called inflections. Are there any different from today’s English? Comment on the sentence length and how sentences are joined together.
Orthography Orthography is also a new key constituent. It covers spelling and punctuation. Can you summarise the spelling and punctuation differences?
Phonology The spelling of words by Middle English authors was probably was a lot closer to their pronunciation.
Pragmatics You should consider the attitudes of the author as expressed in the text. Attitudes split into two: attitude to language itself and social, economic and cultural attitudes. What socio cultural factors seem to be influencing him? What cultural beliefs seem to be apparent? Who is he writing for? What is Caxton’s attitude to language revealed in this text? Other contextual factors. Can you comment on register?
Rewrite this sentence in your own words, but include the term ideology.
It seems that a belief in the influence of the planets was widely held at this time.
7 Learning Skills and Extension
1. Consider these comments and write your thoughts next to them.
a) Standard English is the correct way of speaking.
b) You can express yourself better in Standard English.
c) Standard English is more logical than other dialects.
d) The language of school is Standard English, a child may be at a disadvantage if they come to school with a regional dialect.
e) A child who speaks SE at home has an unfair advantage.
f) A child should be taught to lose their regional accent so that they are not socially disadvantaged when they leave school.
g) A child needs to know how to write in SE, because it is socially and economically useful to do so.
2. Please write down a concise one sentence definition of dialect.
3. Do the same for Standard English.
Superstars of English Language
William Caxton Geoffrey Chaucer
8 The Renaissance 1500- 1650 The printing press spread of knowledge that led to the English Renaissance. Renaissance means re-birth and it refers to a revival of learning inspired by ancient Roman and Greek texts.
Over 20, 000 titles in English had been printed by 1640. Increasing numbers of people could read and write.
It was also a time of exploration and travel. Christopher Columbus sailed to the Americas in 1492, and the English couldn’t help but notice the galleons filled with gold and silver coming back from the New World. Vasco de Gama was the first European to sail directly to India following a route that took him all the way around the coast of Africa.
The English nobility had more leisure time on their hands, and the middle classes continued to rise.
Great English writers such as Shakespeare, Bacon and Johnson took risks with English, demonstrating its versatility and capacity for expression and thought. These writers were quite prepared to use new loan words in their literary explorations.
That Standard English had been accepted as the capable of dealing with all texts was shown in the English of the King James authorised Bible of 1611.
Perhaps the greatest influence on the language was again lexical; this time borrowings from the learned languages. The ancient books that were rediscovered having been kept in monasteries or in the libraries of Constantinople were translated into English during the Renaissance. English authors found that some of the concepts or issues discussed could be more efficiently expressed if the Latin or Greek word was retained. So a book where knowledge of all things is stored is called encyclopaedia in Greek; a system of government where the people decide is democracy.
At this time all educated Europeans spoke Latin. It was an international language and so readily adapted for the transmission of old and new knowledge.
Some authors like Sir Thomas Elyot saw it as their vocation to augment the English tongue. He wrote “I trade with both the living and the dead for the enrichment of our native tongue”. We have enough in English to supply out necessity, but if we have things of magnificence and splendour, we must get them by commerce.”
9 Sir Thomas Browne in his preface to the “Pseudoxia” believed that soon English people would have to learn Latin in order to speak English.
The Latin words did not come in their pure form. They were adapted to English. They were Englishized, a process called assimilation. Words like appendix and climax retain their Latin form. But some words had their inflection cut off exclusionem became exclusion, consultare became consult. Some Latin words ending in –us, changed to –ous conspicuus. Or ending in -tas ended in ty. This was to fit in with English forms. One Latin word discus gave us: disk, disc, dish, desk, dais, discus.
The borrowing of Latin terms didn’t always meet with widespread approval. A scholar who overdid the Latin terminology was called an “inkhorn”; the Renaissance term for geek.
Foreign borrowings were by no means confined to the learned languages. The English were travelling on the continent and read French books: bizarre, moustache, denim, soup, champagne, vogue all come from French at this time.
Italy was admired for its music and architecture- balcony, piazza, violin, grotto.
Many words come from the Spanish or Portuguese discoveries of the new world: anchovy, apricot, armada, armadillo, banana, barricade, cannibal, canoe, hurricane, mosquito.
There were changes in the grammar of the language as well. Perhaps most noticeable was the replacement in Standard English of thee, thou, ye with you. Thou was the singular form and ye was the plural. Then ye began to be used as a mark of respect, whereas thou was the familiar form; the form you would use to a child or a friend, much like the French vous and tu. Then by a process of simplification perhaps ye was used for all parts. You was a northern dialect word, and, in spoken language, can be quite close to ye. After they had co-existed for a while, you eventually replaced ye.
Other grammatical shifts saw the –eth inflection being replaced by the –s inflection in the third person present. He loveth became he loves. Here you might say loves was easier to say, though again this variant already existed in dialect. If you run words together, simplifying endings in particular, this is called elision. Guy Deutscher identifies this as a part of a process he calls “erosion” which he regards as an inevitable rather than regrettable aspect of any language: “Language is a tool that has been worn into shape by continual use.”
10 One sound change that was mainly completed by this time was the “Great Vowel Shift”. This affected long vowels. For instance name used to rhyme with father. (The inflection e was also pronounced.) Clean was pronounced how great is pronounced now, with a nuh sound on the end for good measure. If you pronounce clean as it was pronounced and then as it is pronounced now, you’ll notice how the sound seems to have lifted in the mouth. All the long vowels lifted.
Exercises
1. These words came from Latin or Greek via Latin during this time.
adapt alienate atmosphere autograph capsule agile external malignant exist harass disability skeleton
Identify which of the words above are nouns, adjectives or verbs.
2. Translate these sayings from the “inkhorn” to English
In the absence of the feline race, mice give themselves up to various pastimes.
Crytogamous concretion never grows on locomotive mineral fragments.
3. One of the ways in which Latin benefited the Renaissance was that it was easy to build new words with Latin prefixes and suffixes a process called affixation. How many words can you make out of these Latin bits?
Re Cept Ex Clus De struct In scritpt Con press
11 4. Below is an extract from the diary of Ralf Josselin’s a seventeenth century clergyman of comfortable means. Analyse the use of language in this text. In your answer you should include his use of the diary format, the concerns of the writer, and the contexts that have affected his writing.
12 5.The following is a letter from Elizabeth 1 to King James 1 of Scotland (later King James V1 of Scotland.) The Spanish armada had been routed by the English fleet in the channel, but Elizabeth was worried some of the survivors would seek refuge in Scotland.
13 Questions on Elizabeth’s letter.
1. What discourse conventions concerning the addresses, openings, and closings are similar or different to formal letters of today?
2. What spellings would a spellchecker underline? What conclusions do you draw about Elizabeth’s spelling system? Are her spelling “mistakes” consistent?
3. How does Elizabeth form plurals?
4. How does she form possessives?
5. What does Elizabeth use for the third person present inflection?
6. Comment on sentence length.
7. What words seem to be recently borrowed from French?
8. What words now seem to be obsolete?
9. How would you describe the meaning change of atcheue (l.4). pretended (l.4) treating (l.9), necessity (l.18), at large (l.21-22), skribling (l.18)?
10. Are there any clues as to Elizabeth’s pronunciation?
11. Consider the pragmatic aspects of this letter. What implications are made?
12. What historical contexts account for the differences in Renaissance English and Present Day English?
14 Summarise what you have discovered so far in texts from the Renaissance period.
Lexis
Semantics
Discourse
Grammar
Phonology
Orthography
Context
Concepts
Extension activities and learning skills
1. Learn to speak Elizabethan. You may need to ask to borrow headphones for this.
http://www.renfaire.com/Language/
2. Confirm your understanding of the Great Vowel Shift by looking at the power point in LG4 on the intranet.
15 3. This next text is from “Demonology” a book on witches written by King James 1.
Therfore by special commaundement this Agnis Sampson had all her haire shauen of, in each parte of her bodie, and her head thrawen with a rope according to the custome of that Countrye, beeing a paine most greeuous, which she continued almost an hower, during which time she would not confesse any thing vntill the Diuels marke was found vpon her priuities, then she immediatlye confessed whatsoeuer was demaunded of her, and iustifying those persons aforesaid to be notorious witches.
Touching this Agnis Tompson, she is the onlye woman, who by the Diuels perswasion should haue entended and put in execution the Kings Maiesties death in this manner.
She confessed that she tooke a blacke Toade, and did hang the same vp by the heeles, three daies, and collected and gathered the venome as it dropped and fell from it in an Oister shell, and kept the same venome close couered, vntill she should obtaine any parte or peece of foule linnen cloth, that had appertained to the Kings Maiestie, as shirt, handkercher, napkin or any other thing which she practised to obtaine by meanes of one Iohn Kers, who being attendant in his Maiesties Chamber, desired him for olde acquaintance betweene them, to helpe her to one or a peece of such a cloth as is aforesaide, which thing the said Iohn Kers denyed to helpe her too, saying he could not help her too it.
And the said Agnis Tompson by her depositions since her apprehension saith, that if she had obtained any one peece of linnen cloth which the King had worne and fouled, she had bewitched him to death, and put him to such extraordinary paines, as if he had beene lying vpon sharp thornes and endes of Needles.
What ideologies seem to be present here that would not be acceptable today? In what genre would you say this piece was written?
16 4. What cultural events have influenced this text?
A principal fruit of friendship, is the ease and discharge of the fulness and swellings of the heart, which passions of all kinds do cause and induce. We know diseases of stoppings, and suffocations, are the most dangerous in the body; and it is not much otherwise in the mind; you may take sarza to open the liver, steel to open the spleen, flowers of sulphur for the lungs, castoreum for the brain; but no receipt openeth the heart, but a true friend; to whom you may impart griefs, joys, fears, hopes, suspicions, counsels, and whatsoever lieth upon the heart to oppress it, in a kind of civil shrift or confession. From On Friendship. Francis Bacon (1561- 1626)
Superstars of Language Shakespeare
17 5. The following text is taken from a collection of pamphlets called “The Women’s Sharp Revenge”. In vivid prose the Women Pamphleteers put the male lechers and libertines firmly in their place.
This extract is from “Ester hath hang’d Haman” by Ester Sowerman, a reply to Joseph Swetnam’s “The Arraignment of Women”.
What is her argument? Identify examples of: semantic change; orthographic change; and grammatical change. What does this text tells us about the role of women in Elizabethan society?
but humorous men will sooner marre a thousand women, then out of an hundred make one good. And this shall apeare in the imputation which our aduersarie chargeth vpon our sexe, to be lasciuious, wanton and lustfull: He sayth, Women temp, Men are the Serpents alure, and prouoke men. How rare a thing it is for women to prostitute and offer themselues? how common a practise is it for men to seeke and solicite women to lewdnesse? what charge doe they spare? what trauell doe they bestow? what vowes, oathes and protestations doe they spend, to make them dishonest? They hyer Pandors, they write letters, they seale them with damnations, and execrations, to assure them of loue, when the end proues but lust: They know the flexible disposition of Women and the sooner to ouerreach them, some will pretend they are so plunged in loue that except they obtaine their desire they will seeme to drown'd, hang, stab, poyson,or banish themselues from friends and countrie: What motiues are these to tender dispositions? Some will pretend marriage, another offer continuall maintenance, but when they haue obtained their purpose, what shall a woman finde, iust that which is her euerlasting shame and griefe, shee hath made her selfe the vnhappie subiect to a lustfull bodie; and the shamefull stall of a lasciuious tongue. Men may with foule shame charge women with this sinne which they had neuer committed if shee had not trusted, nor had euer trusted if shee had not beene deceiued with vowes, oathes, and protestations. To bring a woman to offend in one sinne, how many damnable sinnes doe they commit? I appeale to their owne consciences. The lewd disposition of sundry men doth appeare in this; If a woman or maide will yeeld vnto lewdnesse, what shall they want? But if they would liue in honestie, what helpe shall they haue? How much will they make of the lewd? how base account of the honest? how many pounds will they spend in bawdie houses? but when will they bestowe a penny vpon an honest maide or woman, except it be to corrupt them? Our aduersary bringeth many examples of men Shew a womans offence, but that man was the beginner. which haue beene ouerthrowne by women. It is answered, before the fault is their owne.
18 The Age of Reason or The Enlightenment 1650-1800
After a century which included civil war, war against the Dutch, the Great Fire, the beheading of a king, the glorious revolution, etc, there was a desire for order.
This order would mean that everyone would know their place. Stability must triumph over disorder.
The word that best describes the social concerns of the age was “politeness”. Politeness meant “polished, refined, correct” behaviour to one another, making oneself agreeable, not rocking the boat.
The divisions between the classes were to be shown in housing, dress and speech.
English was felt to be “barbarous”. The English Language was seen as disordered, chaotic even anarchic according to Swift. It had to be refined, regulated and fixed.
England was developing a national pride; the Empire was at its height during this time. Throughout the Empire, many new words were borrowed to describe new experiences, and new Englishes began to emerge.
Wolfe’s victory in Canada in 1759 meant that English would be the primary language of North America.
The East India Company had been set up in 1600. India was pretty much in English hands by this time.
English had to be a language that represented the might of England. There had to be a “standard”.
Aristocracy was worshipped. Tradesmen were looked down on. The middle classes wanted to achieve positions of gentility. They wanted to be gentlemen.
Women and shopkeepers couldn’t vote. Women couldn’t be doctors or go to university.
The prescriptivists, sometimes called grammarians, of the day wanted to:reduce the language to rule and set up a standard of correct usage; refine the language- to remove any defects; fix it permanently in the desired form.
19 In 1712, Jonathan Swift called for an academy in his “Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue”. The model for this was the Academie Francaise founded by Cardinal Richelieu in 1635 and which had produced a dictionary in 1694.
Swift disliked clippings as in mob from mobile, he detested contracted words such as drudg’d, rebuk’d, lov’d, he disliked new and “conceited” words such as sham and bamboozle.
The academy never happened. But in a sense Samuel Johnson became a one man English academy when he finished compiling the dictionary in 1755. There had been other dictionaries before. Nathaniel Bailey’s Universal Etymological Dictionary defined more words, but none had met with such acclaim as Johnson’s. Although Johnson had shown some presciptivist leanings, his final approach was essentially descriptivist He showed how a word had been used with supportive quotations.
By the end of this time period, English prose, according to Carey McIntosh, is more self consciously “written” in style. Prose tends to be more carefully planned, to use more parallel syntax and antithesis, and to make common use of noun clauses rather than simple nouns and abstractions. The vocabulary of texts belonging to this period is often polysyllabic, latinate and full of nominalizations.
What is nominalization? It’s when you make a noun phrase out of a verb so: “His wanting to go was most apparent” is a normalization of “he wanted to go and it showed.”
Exercises
1. Which three subcontinents did these sets of words come from?
a) Caribou moose toboggan b) Chilli coyote tobacco c) Bandana bangle bungalow
2. What is “wrong” with these sentences? From grammarian Lindley Murray’s book of English grammar.
a) There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.
b) I hope it is not I he is displeased with.
c) My brother and him are tolerable grammarians.
d) If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 20 Explain how some of the features of this text demonstrates changes in language and style over time. You should take account of context in your answer. Madge Culls* 1781
THIS is one of the most abandoned and infamous characters that disgrace Society; as their passion counteracts the prospects of futurity, and deprives the most beautiful part of the Community of their rights.
THE name of the vice which is here intended, is better omitted than expressed; it is sufficient to say, that it is happy for this country that its growth is exotic, and that no culture will bring it into fashion, nor no name give it a sanction.
IT is said to have been imported into this country from Italy. If such are the refinements of foreign travel, it had been better that England had ever retained her native roughness, than to have imported those vices which CHURCHILL says are
“Sins, if such sins can be, which shut out grace, “Which for the guilty have no hope, no place “Ev’n in God’s mercy. Sins ‘gainst nature’s plan “Possess the land at large, and man for man “Burns in those fires which hell alone could raise, “To make him more than damn’d; which in the days “Of punishment, when guilt becomes her prey, “With all her tortures she can scarce repay.”
THESE wretches have many ways and means of conveying intelligence, and many signals by which they discover themselves to each other; they have likewise several houses of rendezvous, whither they resort: but their chief place of meeting is the Bird-cage Walk, in St. James’s Park, whither they resort about twilight.
THEY are easily discovered by their signals, which are pretty nearly as follow: If one of them sits on a bench, he pats the backs of his hands; if you follow them, they put a white handkerchief thro’ the skirts of their coat, and wave it to and fro; but if they are met by you, their thumbs are stuck in the arm-pits of their waistcoats, and they play their fingers upon their breasts.
BY means of these signals they retire to satisfy a passion too horrible for description, too detestable for language; a passion which deserves the punishment not of the law only, but an exclusion from Society on the most light glance of just suspicion of it. (‘Madge Cull’ is 18th Century derogatory slang for a homosexual. (Churchill was an important 18C politician (yes… related to Winston!).
21 22 What linguistic and contextual features would you expect to find in texts from the Enlightenment period?
Lexis
Semantics
Discourse
Grammar
Phonology
Orthography
Context
Concepts
23 1800-1950 The Industrial Age The Industrial Revolution had a profound effect on the socio economic and cultural traditions of England, affecting every facet of daily life. There was a huge migration of people from the countryside into the cities to work in factories as manufacture became mechanised.
This time period saw the English Empire at its height. Nelson’s defeat of the French at Trafalgar 1805 left England as the world’s single superpower.
At home, great reform measures were undertaken to make English more democratic. The Education Act 1870 divided the country into 2500 school districts.
The first cheap newspaper was published in 1816.
The first truly successful railway was the Liverpool to Manchester line in 1830.
Growth of medicine: penicillin clinic bronchitis enzymes
Science: dynamo electron calorie cyanide
Psychology: introvert, behaviourism, inferiority complex
Class was very much a concern: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=w0DUsGSMwZY
Language was used as a class marker. Received pronunciation, an accent associated with Standard English, was seen as the prestige variety. It was taught in public schools.
o It is the business of educated people to speak so that no-one may be able to tell in what county their childhood was passed. Burrell, Recitation. A Handbook for Teachers in Public Elementary School, 1891.
The influence of one variety of a language depends on the power of its speakers.
24 Although the English found in texts from this time is very recognisable, there could be nuances of meaning that we do not register.
The writing of this time was heavily influenced by the works of the prescriptivist grammarians of the century before.
Exercises Jane Austen’s “Emma” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s54mcz4Nt-c
Miss Bates, in her real anxiety for Jane, could hardly stay even to be grateful, before she stept forward and put an end to all farther singing. Here ceased the concert part of the evening, for Miss Woodhouse and Miss Fairfax were the only young lady performers; but soon (within five minutes) the proposal of dancing— originating nobody exactly knew where—was so effectually promoted by Mr. and Mrs. Cole, that every thing was rapidly clearing away, to give proper space. Mrs. Weston, capital in her country-dances, was seated, and beginning an irresistible waltz; and Frank Churchill, coming up with most becoming gallantry to Emma, had secured her hand, and led her up to the top.
While waiting till the other young people could pair themselves off, Emma found time, in spite of the compliments she was receiving on her voice and her taste, to look about, and see what became of Mr. Knightley. This would be a trial. He was no dancer in general. If he were to be very alert in engaging Jane Fairfax now, it might augur something. There was no immediate appearance. No; he was talking to Mrs. Cole— he was looking on unconcerned; Jane was asked by somebody else, and he was still talking
25 to Mrs. Cole.
Emma had no longer an alarm for Henry; his interest was yet safe; and she led off the dance with genuine spirit and enjoyment. Not more than five couple could be mustered; but the rarity and the suddenness of it made it very delightful, and she found herself well matched in a partner. They were a couple worth looking at.
Two dances, unfortunately, were all that could be allowed. It was growing late, and Miss Bates became anxious to get home, on her mother’s account. After some attempts, therefore, to be permitted to begin again, they were obliged to thank Mrs. Weston, look sorrowful, and have done.
“Perhaps it is as well,” said Frank Churchill, as he attended Emma to her carriage. “I must have asked Miss Fairfax, and her languid dancing would not have agreed with me, after your’s.”
26 27 Learning Skills and Extension
28 Superstars of Language Jane Austen George Orwell
1950 and now- Present Day English
Influences on present day English can be divided with some simplification into three area: informalisation; America; and technology. These three areas overlap.
Informalisation: This is the theory propounded by Sharon Goodman (1996) and others that English is becoming more informal. Although formal registers still exist, written material for the general public seems to have been much more influenced by the spoken mode than texts from the previous century have been. There is a desire to relate to the audience rather than talk down to them. Referring to Fairclough, Goodman says “Professional encounters are increasingly likely to contain informal forms of English”. Fairclough calls this conversationalisation. Sometimes positions of authority are adopted, but the very influential Plain English Campaign has suggested guidelines to make official documents more accessible.
American English is the most dominant influence on World English. Because English is the language of trade, other versions of English have emerged such as “Japlish”. Many English words are borrowed by other languages. English is the language of globalisation, and there is concern that other languages are “dying”. Some countries have reacted against this influence. Giles’ accommodation theory can be applied to the influence of English. We speak like those we admire (convergence). But when we dislike a speaker we emphasise the differences (divergence).
Technology. The telephone was invented by Alexander Bell in 1876. Think about what a huge influence this has had. Saying hello as a greeting in English is a result of the telephone. David Crystal has called the invention of the internet the fourth linguistic revolution. The first three are: the origin of speech; the origin of writing and the invention of the printing press. To place the internet on a par with these developments demonstrates just how significant its impact is. New technology hasn’t just meant new words. It has also lead to new channels of communication.
29 Exercises
1. Watch this exchange of slang terms between Hugh Laurie and Ellen. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wYmrg3owTRE&feature=related
What American slang terms do you know?
2. Make a list of American and English terms for the same object. See how many items you can come up with.
3. Divide this list into American and English spellings for the same words.
aging plow defence check center alright tyre all right defense cheque centre color plough ageing colour
4. The Plain English Campaign’s guidelines are as follows.
Keep your sentences short. Prefer active verbs. Use “you” and “we”. Choose words appropriate to the reader. Don’t be afraid to give instructions. Avoid nominalisations. Use positive language. Use lists where appropriate.
Describe these guidelines linguistically. How do they benefit a reader?
30 5. The following is from the Sunday Times. Try and remember your lessons on synchronic change. What processes are at work to form these new words? Choose five.
31 6. The following four texts are adverts for tobacco products. The first is from 1922. The next two are from 1952 and the fourth is from 1962. They all appeared in a magazine for servicemen overseas. Analyse the changes in language and style over time.
32 1952
33 1962
34 Analysis of Written Language Over Time 1.15 Wednesday 27th January a.m.
In this section you will be presented with more than one text. These texts will have something in common. Normally the genre of the texts will be the same. One of the texts will be from the past and this will enable you to talk about language change. However language change is not the only thing that you can say about the text. As an example of what they might set the board has produce this mock up of a paper.
35 36 37 As you will be answering this later, I don’t want to give too much away, but just to give you an idea…
Text A’s spelling and punctuation reveal it to be an older text, (and you would thoroughly analyze this). There are many words from the semantic field of religion. The author is very religious; she even thanks God for curing her toothache.
Text B is more gossipy than Text B. Although there is reference to religion, there seems to be quite a focus on the flirtatious behaviour of his social circle. There are some spelling which is different to today’s, but generally Pepys’s spelling is much closer to standard English of today. (Here you might discuss standardization.) There is frequent use of ellipsis, which is what we would expect if the diary genre today.
38 Text C. Religion is again mentioned, but sentences seem to be fuller. A greater care has been taken to use stylistic devices, such as triadic structures. It could be that this diary is intended for later publication.
Guidance from the exam board.
Section B Analysis of written language over time 30% (15%) Relevant Assessment Objectives: AO1 AO2 AO3 At A2 level, candidates are required to show deeper knowledge and understanding than at AS level of phonology and phonetics, lexis, morphology, grammar and discourse, and how some of these approaches can be applied as appropriate to the study of written language. Candidates will be presented with more than one text. Texts will be grouped, usually by genre. Texts will be chosen to show variation in language over time, and at least one text therefore will be from the past. It is unlikely that any text set would be earlier than the transitional period between late Middle English and Early Modern English. The focus will partly be on language change, but at least equally on language in different contexts. Candidates will be expected to analyse and evaluate how the context has influenced the language used, and how writers have made linguistic choices to convey their attitudes, values, opinions, prejudices, viewpoints, etc. The unit will provide opportunities for candidates to discuss and explore concepts and issues relating to written language in use. Candidates will be expected to have an overview of each text as a whole, and to discuss them as texts with meaning, and not just to mine them for examples of linguistic change. Candidates will be invited to make comparisons between the texts, which as well as being from the past or the present, may be literary or non-literary. Candidates will be expected to describe written linguistic features, drawing on their knowledge of the frameworks of language study, and using appropriate terminology. The relevant assessment objectives expect candidates to: • select and apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant knowledge using appropriate terminology and coherent, accurate written expression (AO1); • demonstrate understanding of a range of concepts and issues related to the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using knowledge of linguistic approaches (AO2); • analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key constituents of language (AO3).
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