Accelerated Cooling Cooling a Plate with Water Immediately Following the Final Rolling

Accelerated Cooling Cooling a plate with water immediately following the final rolling operation. Generally the plate is water cooled from about 1400o F to approximately 1100o F

Accelerated corrosion test Method designed to approximate, in a short time, the deteriorating effect under normal long-term service conditions.

Acicular ferrite A highly sub-structure, non-equiaxed ferrite formed upon continuous cooling by a mixed diffusion and shear mode of transformation that begins at a temperature slightly higher than the transformation temperature range for upper bainite. It is distinguished from bainite in that it has a limited amount of carbon available thus, there is only a small amount of carbide present.

Acid A chemical substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Compare with base.

Acid-Brittleness Brittleness resulting from pickling steel in acid; hydrogen, formed by the interaction between iron and acid, is partially absorbed by the metal, causing acid brittleness.

Acid embrittlement A form of hydrogen embrittlement that may be induced in some metals by acid.

Acid-Process A process of making steel, either Bessemer, open-hearth or electric, in which the furnace is lined with a siliceous refractory and for which low phosphorus pig iron is required as this element is not removed.

Acid rain Atmospheric precipitation with a pH below 3.6 to 5.7. Burning of fossil fuels for heat and power is the major factor in the generation of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, which are converted into nitric and sulfuric acids washed down in the rain. See also atmospheric corrosion.

Acid Steel Steel melted in a furnace with an acid bottom and lining and under a slag containing an excess of an acid substance such as silica.

Acrylic Resin polymerized from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, eaters of these acids, or acrylonitrile.

Activation The changing of a passive surface of a metal to a chemically active state. Contrast with passivation.

Active A state in which a metal tends to corrode; referring to the negative direction of electrode potential (opposite of passive or noble).

Active Metal A metal ready to corrode, or being corroded

Active potential The potential of a corroding material.

Activity A measure of the chemical potential of a substance, where chemical potential is not equal to concentration, that allows mathematical relations equivalent to those for ideal systems to be used to correlate changes in an experimentally measured quantity with changes in chemical potential. Activity (ion) The ion concentration corrected for deviations from ideal behavior. Concentration multiplied by activity coefficient. activity coefficient. A characteristic of a quantity expressing the deviation of a solution from ideal thermodynamic behavior; often used in connection with electrolytes.

Actual throat thickness The perpendicular distance between two lines each parallel to a line joining the outer toes one being tangent at the weld face and the other being through the furthermost point of fusion penetration.

Addition agent A substance added to a solution for the purpose of altering or controlling a process. Examples include wetting agents in acid pickles, brighteners or antipitting agents in plating solutions, and inhibitors.

Additive A substance added in a small amount, usually to a fluid, for a special purpose, such as to reduce friction, corrosion, etc.

Adsorption The surface retention of solid, liquid, or gas molecules, atoms, or ions by a solid or liquid. Compare with absorption.

Aeration (1) Exposing to the action of air. (2) Causing air to bubble through. (3) Introducing air into a solution by spraying, stirring, or a similar method. (4) Supplying or infusing with air, as in sand or soil.

Aeration Cell An oxygen concentration cell; an electrolytic cell resulting from differences in dissolved oxygen at two points. Also see differential aeration cell..

Age Hardening The term as applied to soft or low carbon steels, relates to slow, gradual changes that take place in properties of steels after the final treatment. These changes, which bring about a condition of increased hardness, elastic limit, and tensile strength with a consequent loss in ductility, occur during the period in which the steel is at normal temperatures.

Agglomerating Processes Fine particles of limestone (flux) and iron ore are difficult to handle and transport because of dusting and decomposition, so the powdery material usually is processed into larger pieces. The raw material's properties determine the technique that is used by mills.

Sinter

Pellets

Briquettes

Aging Spontaneous change in the physical properties of some metals, which occurs on standing, at atmospheric temperatures after final cold working or after a final heat treatment. Frequently synonymous with the term “ Age-Hardening.”

Air-arc cutting Thermal cutting using an arc for melting the metal and a stream of air to remove the molten metal to enable a cut to be made. Air Cooling Cooling of the heated metal, intermediate in rapidity between slow furnace cooling and quenching, in which the metal is permitted to stand in the open air.

Air-Hardening Steel

AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) An association of North American companies that mine iron ore and produce steel products. There are 50 member companies and more than 100 associate members, which include customers that distribute, process, or consume steel. The AISI has reorganized into a North American steel trade association, representing the interests of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Common and alloy steels have been numbered in a system essentially the same as the SAE. The AISI system is more elaborate than the SAE in that all numbers are preceded by letters: A represents basic open-hearth alloy steel, B acid Bessemer carbon steel, C basic open-hearth carbon steel, CB either acid Bessemer Or basic open-hearth carbon steel, E electric furnace alloy steel.

Alclad Composite sheet produced by bonding either corrosion-resistant aluminum alloy or aluminium of high purity to base metal of structurally stronger aluminium alloy. The coatings are anodic to the core so they protect exposed areas of the core electrolytically during exposure to corrosive environment.

Alkali metal A metal in group lA of the periodic system - namely, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. They form strongly alkaline hydroxides, hence the name.

Alkaline (1) Having properties of an alkali. (2) Having a pH greater than 7.

Alkaline cleaner A material blended from alkali hydroxides and such alkaline salts as borates, carbonates, phosphates, or silicates. The cleaning action may be enhanced by the addition of surface-active agents and special solvents.

Alkyd Resin used in coatings. Reaction products of polyhydric alcohols and polybasic acids

Alkylation (1) A chemical process in which an alkyl radical is introduced into an organic compound by substitution or addition. (2) A refinery process for chemically combining isoparaffin with olefin hydrocarbons.

Alligatoring (1) Pronounced wide cracking over the entire surface of a coating having the appearance of alligator hide. (2) The longitudinal splitting of flat slabs in a plane parallel to the rolled surface. Also called fish- mouthing.

Allotropy (See Polymorphism)

Alloy Metal prepared by adding other metals or non-metals to a basic metal to secure desirable properties.

Alloying Element Any metallic element added during the making of steel for the purpose of increasing corrosion resistance, hardness, or strength. The metals used most commonly as alloying elements in stainless steel include chromium, nickel, and molybdenum. Alloy plating The codeposition of two or more metallic elements.

Alloy Steel

Alloy Surcharge The addition to the producer's selling price included in order to offset raw material cost increases caused by higher alloy prices.

Alpha Brass A copper-zinc alloy containing up to 38% of zinc. Used mainly for cold working.

Alpha Bronze A copper-tin alloy consisting of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Commercial forms contain 4 or 5% of tin. This alloy is used in coinage, springs, turbine, blades, etc.

Alpha Iron

Alternate-immersion test A corrosion test in which the specimens are intermittently exposed to a liquid medium at definite time intervals.

All-position A gas welding technique in which the flame rightward welding

Aluminizing Forming of an aluminum or aluminum alloy coating on a metal by hot dipping, hot spraying, or diffusion

Aluminum (Al) Chemical symbol Al, Element No. 13 of the periodic system; Atomic weight 26.97; silvery white metal of valence 3; melting point 1220 (degrees) F; boiling point approximately 4118 (degrees) F.; ductile and malleable; stable against normal atmospheric corrosion, but attacked by both acids and alkalis. Aluminium is used extensively in articles requiring lightness, corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, etc. Its principal functions as an alloy in steel making; (1) Deoxidises efficiently. (2) Restricts grain growth (by forming dispersed oxides or nitrides) (3) Alloying element in nitriding steel.

Aluminum Killed Steel

All-weld test piece A block of metal consisting of one or more beads or runs fused together for test purposes. It may or may not include portions of parent metal.

All-weld test specimen A test specimen that is composed wholly of weld metal over the portion to be tested.

Amalgam An alloy of mercury with one or more other metals

Ammeter An instrument for measuring the magnitude of electric current flow.

Amorphous solid A rigid material whose structure lacks crystalline periodicity; that is, the pattern of its constituent atoms or molecules does not repeat periodically in three dimensions. See also metallic glass.. Amorphous Non-crystalline.

Amphoteric A term applied to oxides and hydroxides which can act basic toward strong acids and acidic toward strong alkalis. Substances which can dissociate electrolytically to produce hydrogen or hydroxyl ions according to conditions.

Anaerobic In the absence of air or unreacted or free oxygen.

Anchorite A zinc-iron phosphate coating for iron and steel.

Anion An ion or radical which is attracted to the anode because of the negative charge. See also cation and ion

Annealing Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling at a suitable rate, for such purposes as reducing hardness, improving machinability, facilitating cold working, producing a desired microstructure, or obtaining desired mechanical, physical, or other properties. When applicable, the following more specific terms should be used: black annealing, blue annealing, box annealing, bright annealing, flame annealing, graphitizing, intermediate annealing, isothermal annealing, malleablizing, process annealing, quench annealing, re-crystallization annealing, and spherodizing. When applied to ferrous alloys, the term annealing, without qualification, implies full annealing. When applied to nonferrous alloys, the term annealing implies a heat treatment designed to soften an age-hardened alloy by causing a nearly complete precipitation of the second phase in relatively coarse form. Any process of annealing will usually reduce stresses, but if the treatment is applied for the sole purpose of such relief, it should be designated stress relieving.

 WHAT A heat or thermal treatment process by which a previously cold-rolled steel coil is made more suitable for forming and bending. The steel sheet is heated to a designated temperature for a sufficient amount of time and then cooled. The bonds between the grains of the metal are stretched when a coil is cold rolled, leaving the steel brittle and breakable. Annealing "recrystallizes" the grain structure of steel by allowing for new bonds to be formed at the high temperature. There are two ways to anneal cold-rolled steel coils: batch and continuous. Three to four coils are stacked on top of each other, and a cover is placed on top. For up to three days, the steel is heated in a non-oxygen atmosphere (so it will not rust) and slowly cooled.  WHY  HOW

(1) BATCH (BOX).

(2) CONTINUOUS.

Normally part of a coating line, the steel is uncoiled and run through a series of vertical loops within a heater: The temperature and cooling rates are controlled to obtain the desired mechanical properties for the steel.

Anode The electrode at which oxidation or corrosion of some component occurs (opposite of cathode). Electrons flow away from the anode in the external circuit.

Anode corrosion The dissolution of a metal acting as an anode. Anode corrosion efficiency Ratio of actual to theoretical corrosion based on the total current flow calculated by Faraday's law from the quantity of electricity that has passed.

Anode effect The effect produced by polarization of the anode in electrolysis. It is characterized by a sudden increase in voltage and a corresponding decrease in amperage due to the anode becoming virtually separated from the electrolyte by a gas film.

Anode efficiency Current efficiency of the anode.

Anode film

 (1) The portion of solution in immediate contact with the anode, especially if the concentration gradient is steep.

 (2) The outer layer of the anode itself.

Anodic cleaning Electrolytic cleaning in which the work is the anode. Also called reverse-current cleaning.

Anodic coating A film on a metal surface resulting from an electrolytic treatment at the anode.

Anodic inhibitor A chemical substance or combination of substances that prevent or reduce the rate of the anodic or oxidation reaction by a physical, physico-chemical or chemical action

Anodic polarization The change in the initial anode potential resulting from current flow effects at or near the anode surface. Potential becomes mode noble (more positive) because of anodic polarization.

Anodic potential An appreciable reduction in corrosion by making a metal an anode and maintaining this highly polarized condition with very little current flow.

Anodic protection A technique to reduce corrosion of a metal surface under some conditions by passing sufficient to it to cause its electrode potential to enter and remain in the passive region; imposing an external electrical potential to protect a metal from corrosive attack. (Applicable only to metals that show active-passive behavior.) Contrast with cathodic protection.

Anodic reaction Electrode reaction equivalent to a transfer of positive charge from the electronic to the ionic conductor. An anodic reaction is an oxidation process. An example common in corrosion is: Me ~ Me n+ + ne .

Anodizing (Aluminum Anodic Oxide Coating) A process of coating aluminum by anodic treatment resulting in a thin film of aluminum oxide of extreme hardness. A wide variety of dye colored coatings are possible by impregnation in process.

Anolyte The electrolyte adjacent to the anode in an electrolytic cell.

Anti-fouling Intended to prevent fouling of under-water structures, such as the bottoms of ships; refers to the prevention of marine organism's attachment or growth on a submerged metal surface, generally through chemical toxicity caused by the composition of the metal or coating layer. Antipitting agent An addition agent for electroplating solutions to prevent the formation of pits or large pores in the electrodeposit.

Aqueous Pertaining to water; an aqueous solution is made by using water as a solvent.

Arc blow A lengthening or deflection of a DC welding arc caused by the interaction of magnetic fields set up in the work and arc or cables.

Arc fan The fan-shaped flame associated with the atomic-hydrogen arc.

Arc voltage The voltage between electrodes or between an electrode and the work, measured at a point as near as practical to the work.

Arc Welding A group of welding processes wherein the metal or metals being joined are coalesced by heating with an arc, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.

Argon-Oxygen Decarburization (AOD)

 WHAT  WHY  HOW

Artificial Aging An aging treatment above room temperature. (See Precipitation Heat Treatment and compare with natural aging).

ASTM Abbreviation for American Society For Testing Material. An organization for issuing standard specifications on materials, including metals and alloys.

Atmospheric corrosion The gradual degradation or alteration of a material by contact with substances present in the atmosphere, such as oxygen. carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sulfur and chlorine compounds.

Atomic-hydrogen welding Arc welding in which molecular hydrogen, passing through an arc between two tungsten or other suitable electrodes, is changed to its atomic form and then re-combines to supply the heat for welding

Attrition

 WHAT  WHY

Austempering

Austenite Phase in certain steels, characterized as a solid solution, usually off carbon or iron carbide, in the gamma form of iron. Such steels are known as “austenitic”. Austenite is stable only above 1333°F. in a plain carbon steel, but the presence of certain alloying elements, such as nickel and manganese, stabilizes the austenitic form, even at normal temperatures. Austenitic The largest category of stainless steel, accounting for about 70% of all production. The austenitic class offers the most resistance to corrosion in the stainless group, owing to its substantial nickel content and higher levels of chromium. Austenitic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened through cold working (changing the structure and shape of steel by applying stress at low temperature) instead of by heat treatment. Ductility (ability to change shape without fracture) is exceptional for the austenitic stainless steels. Excellent weldability and superior performance in very low-temperature services are additional features of this class. Applications include cooking utensils, food processing equipment, exterior architecture, equipment for the chemical industry, truck trailers, and kitchen sinks. The two most common grades are type 304 (the most widely specified stainless steel, providing corrosion resistance in numerous standard services) and type 316 (similar to 304 with molybdenum added, to increase opposition to various forms of deterioration).

Austenitic Steel Steel which, because of the presence of alloying elements, such as manganese, nickel, chromium, etc., shows stability of Austenite at normal temperatures.

Austenitizing Forming austenite by heating a ferrous alloy into the transformation range (partial austenitizing) or above the transformation range (complete austenitizing). When used without qualification, the term implies complete austenitizing.

Auto Stamping Plant

Automatic Gauge Control

Autoradiograph A radiograph recorded photographically by radiation spontaneously emitted by radioisotopes that are produced in, or added to, the material. This technique identifies the locations of the radioisotopes.

Auxiliary anode In electroplating, a supplementary anode positioned so as to raise the current density on a certain area of the cathode and thus obtain better distribution of plating.

Auxiliary electrode An electrode commonly used in polarization studies to pass current to or from a test electrode, usually made of non- corroding material.

B Backer Coat Usually refers to the coating on the reverse side of a pre-painted sheet. The backer coating is generally not as narrowly specified with reference to its color, thickness and composition as is the topcoat.

Backfire Retrogression of the flame into the blowpipe neck or body with rapid self extinction.

Backing bar A piece of metal or other material placed at a root (Temporary backing) (These terms are applied only to the welding of pipes or tubes.)

Back-step sequence A welding sequence in which short lengths of run are (Back-step sequence)

Backing strip A piece of metal placed at a root and penetrated by (Permanent backing)

Bainite

Band Saw Steel (Wood) Banded Structure Appearance of a metal, under a microscope or viewed by the naked eye, on fractured or smoothed surfaces, with or without etching, showing parallel bands in the direction of rolling or working.

Bars Long steel products that are rolled from billets. Merchant bar and reinforcing bar (rebar) are two common categories of bars, where merchants include rounds, flats, angles, squares, and channels that are used by fabricators to manufacture a wide variety of products such as furniture, stair railings, and farm equipment. Rebar is used to strengthen concrete in highways, bridges and buildings.

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) A pear-shaped furnace, lined with refractory bricks, that refines molten iron from the blast furnace and scrap into steel. Up to 30% of the charge into the BOF can be scrap, with hot metal accounting for the rest. BOFs, which can refine a heat (batch) of steel in less than 45 minutes, replaced open-hearth furnaces in the 1950s; the latter required five to six hours to process the metal. The BOF's rapid operation, lower cost and ease of control give it a distinct advantage over previous methods. Scrap is dumped into the furnace vessel, followed by the hot metal from the blast furnace. A lance is lowered from above, through which blows a high-pressure stream of oxygen to cause chemical reactions that separate impurities as fumes or slag. Once refined, the liquid steel and slag are poured into separate containers.

Basic Open Hearth (See Open-Hearth Process)

Basic Oxygen Process A steel making process wherein oxygen of the highest purity is blown onto the surface of a bath of molten iron contained in a basic lined and ladle shaped vessel. The melting cycle duration is extremely short with quality comparable to Open Hearth Steel.

Basic Process A steel making process either Bessemer, open hearth or electric, in which the furnace is lined with a basic refractory. A slag, rich in lime, being formed and phosphorous removed.

Basic Steel Steel melted in a furnace with a basic bottom and lining and under a slag containing an excess of a basic substance such as magnesia or lime.

Bessemer Process A process for making steel by blowing air through molten pig iron contained in a refractory lined vessel so that the impurities are thus removed by oxidation.

Bath Annealing Immersion in a liquid bath (such as molten lead or fused salts) held at an assigned temperature. When a lead bath is used, the process is known as lead annealing.

Bauxite The only commercial ore of aluminum, corresponding essentially to the formula Al2O3xH2O.

Beading Raising a ridge on sheet metal. Bearing Load A compressive load supported by a member, usually a tube or collar, along a line where contact is made with a pin, rivet, axle, or shaft.

Bearing Strength The maximum bearing load at failure divided by the effective bearing area. In a pinned or riveted joint, the iffective area is calculated as the product of the diameter of the hole and the thickness of the bearing member

Belly Band The band (strapping) that goes around the outside diameter of a coil.

Bend Radius The inside radius of a bent section,

Bend Text Various tests used to determine the toughness and ductility of flat rolled metal sheet, strip or plate, in which the material is bent around its axis or around an outside radius. A complete test might specify such a bend to be both with and against the direction of grain. For testing, samples should be edge filed to remove burrs and any edgewise cracks resulting from slitting or shearing. If a vice is to be used then line the jaws with some soft metal or brass, so as to permit a free flow of the metal in the sample being tested.

Beryllium Copper An alloy of copper and 2-3% beryllium with optionally fractional percentages of nickel or cobalt. Alloys of this series show remarkable age-hardening properties and an ultimate hardness of about 400 Brinell (Rockwell C43). Because of such hardness and good electrical conductivity, beryllium-copper is used in electrical switches, springs, etc.

Bevelling Refers to pipe; the end preparation for field welding of the joint.

Billet A semi-finished steel form that is used for "long" products: bars, channels or other structural shapes. A billet is different from a slab because of its outer dimensions; billets are normally two to seven inches square, while slabs are 30-80 inches wide and 2-10 inches thick. Both shapes are generally continually cast, but they may differ greatly in their chemistry.

Binary Alloy An alloy containing two elements, apart from minor impurities, as brass containing the two elements copper and zinc.

Black Annealing A process of box annealing or pot annealing ferrous alloy sheet, strip or wire after hot working and pickling. (See Box Annealing)

Black Oil Tempered Spring Steel Strip (Scale less Blue) A flat cold rolled usually .70/.80 medium high carbon steel strip, blue-black in color, which has been quenched in oil and drawn to desired hardness. While it looks and acts much like blue tempered spring steel and carries a Rockwell hardness of C44/47, it has not been polished and is lower in carbon content. Used for less exacting requirements than clock spring steel, such as snaps, lock springs, hold down springs, trap springs, etc. It will take a more severe bend before fracture than will clock spring, but it does not have the same degree of spring-back.

Black Plate

Blanking Blast Box (See Tin Plate Base Box)

Blast Furnace

Blister A defect in metal produced by gas bubbles either on the surface or formed beneath the surface while the metal is hot or plastic. Very fine blisters are called “pin-head” or “pepper” blisters.

Blister Steel High-carbon steel produced by carburizing wrought iron. The bar, originally smooth, is covered with small blisters when removed from the cementation (carburizing) furnace.

Block sequence A welding sequence in which short lengths of the (Block welding)

Blooming-Mill A mill used to reduce ingots to blooms, billets, slabs, sheet-bar etc. (See Semi-Finished Steel)

Blowpipe A device for mixing and burning gases to produce a flame for welding, brazing, bronze welding, cutting, heating and similar operations.

Blowhole A cavity produced during the solidification of metal by evolved gas, which in failing to escape is held in pockets.

Blue Annealing A process of softening ferrous alloys in the form of hot rolled sheet, by heating in the open furnace to a temperature within the transformation range and then cooling in air. The formation of bluish oxide on the surface is incidental.

Blue Brittleness Brittleness exhibited by some steels after being heated to some temperature within the range of 300 (degrees) to 650 (degrees) F, and more especially if the steel is worked at the elevated temperature. Killed steels are virtually free of this kind of brittleness.

Blue Tempered Spring Steel Strips (See Tempered Spring Steel Strip)

Bluing

 (1) Sheets - A method of coating sheets with a thin, even film of bluish-black oxide, obtained by exposure to an atmosphere of dry steam or air, at a temperature of about 1000 0øF., generally this is done during box-annealing.

 (2) Bluing of tempered spring steel strip; an oxide film blue in color produced by low temperature heating.

Body-Centered (Concerning space lattices.) Having the equivalent lattice points at the corners of the unit cell, and at its center; sometimes called centered or space-centered.

Boiler The boiler consists of a steel shell, which includes the boiler barrel, the outer firebox wrapper plate, the inner firebox, boiler back plate, smokebox tubeplate and throat plate Bonderizing The coating of steel with a film composed largely of zinc phosphate in order to develop a better bonding surface for paint or lacquer.

Boron (B) (Chemical Symbol B)- Element No. 5 of the periodic system. Atomic weight 10.82. It is gray in color, ignites at about 1112°F. and burns with a brilliant green flame, but its melting point in a non-oxidizing atmosphere is about 4000°F. Boron is used in steel in minute quantities for one purpose only - to increase the hardenability as in case hardening and to increase strength and hardness penetration.

Bottle Top Mold Ingot mold, with the top constricted; used in the manufacture of capped steel, the metal in the constriction being covered with a cap fitting into the bottle-neck, which stops rimming action by trapping escaping gases.

Bow (See Camber)

Box Annealing A process of annealing a ferrous alloy in a suitable closed metal container, with or without packing materials, in order to minimize oxidation. The charge is usually heated slowly to a temperature below the transformation range, but sometimes above or within it, and is then cooled slowly. This process is also called “close annealing” or “pot annealing.” (See Black Annealing)

Brake A piece of equipment used for bending sheet: also called a “bar folder.” If operated manually, it is called a “hand brake”; if power driven, it is called a “press brake.”

Brale A diamond penetrator, conical in shape, used with a Rockwell hardness tester for hard metals.

Brass (Cartridge) Strip. 70% copper 30% zinc. This is one of the most widely used of the copper-zinc alloys; it is malleable and ductile; has excellent cold-working; poor hot working and poor machining properties; develops high tensile strength with cold-working. Temper is impaired by cold rolling and classified in hardness by the number of B & S Gages of rolling (reduction in thickness) from the previous annealing gage. Rated excellent for soft-soldering; good for silver alloy brazing or oxyacetylene welding and fair for resistance of carbon arc welding. Used for drawn cartridges, tubes, eyelet machine items, snap fasteners, etc.

Brass Shim (See Shim)

Brass (Yellow) Strip. 65% copper and 35% zinc. Known as “High Brass” or “Two to One Brass.” A copper-zinc alloy yellow in color. Formerly widely used but now largely supplanted by Cartridge Brass.

Brasses Copper base alloys in which zinc is the principal added element. Brass is harder and stronger than either of its alloying elements copper or zinc; it is malleable and ductile; develops high tensile with cold-working and not heat treatable for purposes of hardness development.

Braze Welding A family of welding procedures where metals are joined by filler metal that has a melting temperature below the solidus of the parent metal, but above 840 (450 C).

Brazing Joining metals by fusion of nonferrous alloys that have melting points above 800°F. but lower than those of the metals being joined. This may be accomplished by means of a torch (torch brazing), in a furnace (furnace brazing) or by dipping in a molten flux bath (dip or flux brazing). The filler metal is ordinarily in rod form in torch brazing; whereas in furnace and dip brazing the work material is first assembled and the filler metal may then be applied as wire, washers, clips, bands, or may be integrally bonded, as in brazing sheet.

Break Test (for tempered steel) A method of testing hardened and tempered high carbon spring steel strip wherein the specimen is held and bent across the grain in a vice-like calibrated testing machine. Pressure is applied until the metal fractures at which point a reading is taken and compared with a standard chart of brake limitations for various thickness ranges.

Breakout

Bridling The cold working of dead soft annealed strip metal immediately prior to a forming, bending, or drawing operation. A process designed to prevent the formulation of Luder’s lines. Caution: Bridled metal should be used promptly and not permitted to (of itself) return to its pre-bridled condition.

Bright Annealed Wire Steel wire bright drawn and annealed in controlled non-oxidizing atmosphere so that surface oxidation is reduced to a minimum and the surface remains relatively bright.

Bright Annealing A process of annealing usually carried out in a controlled furnace atmosphere so that surface oxidation is reduced to a minimum and the surface remains relatively bright.

Bright Basic Wire Bright steel wire, slightly softer than Bright Bessemer Wire. Used for round head wood screws, bolts and rivets, electric welded chain, etc.

Bright Bessemer Wire Stiff bright steel wire of hard drawn temper. Normally drawn to size without annealing. Used for nails, flat head wood screws, cheap springs, etc.

Bright Commercial Finish (See Finish)

Bright Dip An acid solution into which articles are dipped to obtain a clean, bright surface.

Brinell Hardness (Test) A common standard method of measuring the hardness of certain metals. The smooth surface of the metal is subjected to indentation by a hardened steel ball under pressure or load. The diameter of the resultant indentation, in the metal surface, is measured by a special microscope and the Brinell hardness value read from a chart or calculated formula.

Brinell Hardness Number (HB) A measure of hardness determined by the Brinell Hardness test, in which a hard steel ball under a specific load is forced into the surface of the test material. The number is derived by dividing the applied load by the surface area of the resulting impression.

Brittleness A tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation.

Broaching Multiple shaving, accomplished by pushing a tool with stepped cutting edges along the work, particularly through holes.

Bronze Primarily an alloy of copper and tin but the name is now applied to other alloys not containing tin; e.g., aluminum, bronze, manganese bronze, and beryllium bronze. For varieties and uses of tin bronze see (Alpha Bronze and Phosphor Bronze).

Brown & Sharpe Gages (B & S) A standard series of sizes arbitrarily indicated, as by numbers, to which the diameter of wire or thickness of sheet metal is usually made and which is used in the manufacture of brass, bronze, copper, copper-base alloys and aluminum. These gage numbers have a definite relationship to each other. By this system the decimal thickness is reduced by 50% every six gage numbers -while temper is expressed by the number of B S gage numbers as cold reduced in thickness from previous annealing. For each B & S gage number in thickness reduction, there is assigned a hardness value of ¼ hard. To illustrate: One number hard = ¼ hard, two numbers hard = ½ hard, etc.

Bruise A raised area in the steel caused by an object going between the work rolls and bruising them.

Buckle Alternate bulges or hollows recurring along the length of the product with the edges remaining relatively flat.

Burn back Fusing of the electrode wire to the current contact tube by sudden lengthening of the arc in any form of automatic or semi-automatic metal-arc welding using a bare electrode.

Burning Heating a metal beyond the temperature limits allowable for the desired heat treatment, or beyond the point where serious oxidation or other detrimental action begins.

Burn off rate The linear rate of consumption of a consumable electrode.

Burnishing Smoothing surfaces through friction between the material and material such as hardened metal media.

Burnt A term applied to a metal permanently damaged by overheating.

Burn through A localized collapse of the molten pool due to (Melt through)

Busheling

Butcher Saw Steel A hardened, tempered, and bright polished high carbon spring steel strip (carbon content a bit higher than in wood band saw quality) with a Rockwell value of approximately C47/49.

Butt Welding Joining two edges or ends by placing one against the other and welding them.

Butt-Weld Pipe

C Chemical symbol for Carbon. Ca Chemical symbol for Calcium.

Cake A copper ingot rectangular in cross section intended for rolling.

Calcium (Ca) In the form of calcium silicate acts as a deoxidizer and degasifier when added to steel. Recent developments have found that carbon and alloy steels modified with small amounts of calcium show improved machinability and longer tool life. Transverse ductility and toughness are also enhanced.

Call Option A contract that gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy metal futures at a set price (the strike price) on a given date.

Camber Edgewise curvature. A lateral departure of a side edge of sheet or strip metal from a straight line.

Camera Shutter Steel Hardened, tempered and bright polished extra flat and extra precision rolled. Carbon content 1.25 - Chromium .15.

Canning A dished distortion in a flat or nearly flat surface, sometimes referred to as oil canning.

Capacity Normal ability to produce steel in a given time period. This rating should include maintenance requirements, but because such service is scheduled to match the needs of the machinery (not those of the calendar), a mill might run at more than 100% of capacity one month and then fall well below rated capacity as maintenance is performed.

 ENGINEERED CAPACITY The theoretical volume of a mill, given its constraints of raw material supply and normal working speed.

 "TRUE" CAPACITY Volume at full utilization, allowing for the maintenance of equipment and reflecting current material constraints. (Bottlenecks of supply and distribution can change over time, capacity will expand or reduce.)

Capped Steel Semiskilled steel cast in a bottle-top mold and covered with a cap fitting into the neck of the mold. The cap causes to top metal to solidify. Pressure is built up in the sealed-in molten metal and results in a surface condition much like that of rimmed steel.

Carbide A compound of carbon with one or more metallic elements.

Carbon ( C ) (Chemical symbol C) - Element No. 6 of the periodic system; atomic weight 12.01; has three allotropic modifications, all non-metallic. Carbon is preset in practically all ferrous alloys, and has tremendous effect on the properties of the resultant metal. Carbon is also an essential compound of the cemented carbides. Its metallurgical use, in the form of coke, for reduction of oxides, is very extensive.

Carbon-arc welding Arc welding using a carbon electrode or electrodes.

Carbon Free Metals and alloys which are practically free from carbon.

Carbon Range In steel specifications, the carbon range is the difference between the minimum and maximum amount of carbon acceptable.

Carbon Steel A steel containing only residual quantities of elements other than carbon, except those added for deoxidization or to counter the deleterious effects of residual sulfur. Silicon is usually limited to about 0.60% and manganese to about 1,65%. Also termed plain carbon steel, ordinary steel, straight carbon steel.

Carbo-Nitriding A case-hardening process in which steel components are heated in an atmosphere containing both carbon and nitrogen.

Carburizing (Cementation) Adding carbon to the surface of iron-base alloys by absorption through heating the metal at a temperature below its melting point in contact with carbonaceous solids, liquids or gasses. The oldest method of case hardening.

Case Hardening A generic term covering several processes applicable to steel that change the chemical composition of the surface layer by absorption of carbon or nitrogen, or a mixture of the two, and, by diffusion, create a concentration gradient, so that the outer portion, or case, is made substantially harder than the inner portion, or core. Typical processes used for case hardening are carburizing, cyaniding, Carbo-nitriding, nitriding, induction hardening, and flame hardening.

Cash Price The current price in the market for cash/spot contracts. LME cash contracts are for delivery two days forward from the trading day.

Cash Today An LME trade that is carried out after the normal period for a 'cash' trade (i.e. for delivery two business days later) A cash today trade between brokers can only be done prior to the commencement of the official rings at 12.30 and is for delivery on the next business day. Customers' cash today trades must be completed by 12.20 on the trading day before the delivery day. Also referred to as '"tom next"'.

Casing Casing is the structural retainer for the walls of oil and gas wells, and accounts for 75% (by weight) of OCTG shipments. Casing is used to prevent contamination of both the surrounding water table and the well itself. Casing lasts the life of a well and is not usually removed when a well is closed.

Cast (1) A term indicating in the annealed state as Cast Spring Steel Wire. (2) In reference to Bright or Polished Strip Steel or Wire, the word cast implies discoloration as a shadow. (3) A term implying a lack of straightness as in a coil set.

Cast Iron Iron containing more carbon than the solubility limit in austenite (about 2%).

Cast Steel Steel in the form of castings, usually containing less than 2% carbon.

Casting (1) An object at or near finished shape obtained by solidification of a substance in a mold. (2) Pouring molten metal into a mold to produce an object of desired shape.

Cathodic Corrosion Corrosion caused by a reaction of an amphoteric metal with the alkaline products of electrolysis. Cathodic Inhibitor A chemical substance that prevents or slows a cathodic or reduction reaction.

Cathodic Protection Reducing the corrosion of a metal by making the particular surface a cathode of an electrochemical cell.

Cavitation The rapid formation and depletion of air bubbles that can damage the material at the solid/liquid interface under conditions of severe turbulent flow.

Cb Chemical symbol for Columbium

Ce Chemical symbol for Cerium.

Cementite A compound of iron and carbon, known chemically as iron carbide and having the approximate chemical formula Fe3C. It is characterized by an orthorhombic crystal structure. When it occurs as a phase in steel, the chemical composition will be altered by the presence of manganese and other carbide-forming elements.

Cermet A powder metallurgy product consisting of ceramic particles bonded with a metal.

Chain intermittent weld An intermittent weld on each side of a joint (usually fillet welds in T and lap joints) arranged so that the welds lie opposite to one another along the joint.

Charcoal Tin Plate Tin Plate with a relatively heavy coating of tin (higher than the “Coke Tin Plate” grades).

Charge The act of loading material into a vessel. For example, iron ore, coke and limestone are charged into a Blast Furnace; a Basic Oxygen Furnace is charged with scrap and hot metal.

Charpy Test A pendulum-type single-blow impact test in which the specimen usually notched, is supported at both ends as a simple beam and broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed, as determined by the subsequent rise of the pendulum, is a measure of impact strength or notch toughness.

Charpy Test A test to measure the impact properties of steel. A prepared test piece, usually notched, is broken by a swinging pendulum. The energy consumed in breaking the test piece is measured in Joules. The more brittle the steel the lower the impact strength. Izod is a similar and more widely used impact test in this country. Both are quoted in the current edition of BS 970.

Chatter Marks (Defect) - Parallel indentations or marks appearing at right angles to edge of strip forming a pattern at close and regular intervals, caused by roll vibrations.

Chemical Treatment An aqueous solution of corrosion-inhibiting chemicals, typically chromates or chromate/phosphate.

Chipping A method for removing seams and surface defects with chisel or gouge so that such defects will not be working into the finished product. Chipping is often employed to remove metal that is excessive but not defective. Removal of defects by gas cutting is known as “deseaming” or “scarfing.” Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking Cracking due to the combination of tensile stress and corrosion in the presence of water and chlorides.

Chromium (Cr) An alloying element that is the essential stainless steel raw material for conferring corrosion resistance. A film that naturally forms on the surface of stainless steel self-repairs in the presence of oxygen if the steel is damaged mechanically or chemically, and thus prevents corrosion from occurring.

Chromium-Nickel Steel Steel usually made by the electric furnace process in which chromium and nickel participate as alloying elements. The stainless steel of 18% chromium and 8% nickel are the better known of the chromium-nickel types.

Cigarette Knife Steel Hardened, tempered and bright polished, 1.25 Carbon content- Chromium .15. Accurate flatness necessary and a high hardness with Rockwell C 51 to 53. Usual sizes are 4 3/4 wide and 6 wide x .004 to .010.

Circored®

 WHAT A gas-based process developed by Lurgi Metallurgie in Germany to produce DRI or HBI (see Direct Reduced Iron and Hot Briquetted Iron).

 HOW The two-stage method yields fines with a 93% iron content. Iron ore fines pass first through a circulating fluidized-bed reactor, and subsequently through a bubbling fluidized-bed reactor.

Cladding

 WHAT Method of applying a stainless steel coating to carbon steel or lower-alloy steel (i.e., steel with alloying element content below 5%).

 WHY To increase corrosion resistance at lower initial cost than exclusive use of stainless steel.

 HOW By (1) welding stainless steel onto carbon steel, (2) pouring melted stainless steel around a solid carbon steel slab in a mold, or (3) placing a slab of carbon steel between two plates of stainless steel and bonding them by rolling at high temperature on a plate mill.

Clad Metal A composite metal containing two or three layers that have been bonded together. The bonding may have been accomplished by co-rolling, welding, heavy chemical deposition or heavy electroplating.

Cleavage Fracture of a crystal by crack propagation across a crystallographic plane of low index.

Cleavage Fracture Fracture of a grain, or most of the grains, in a polycrystalline metal by cleavage, resulting in bright reflecting facets.

Cleavage Plane A characteristic crystallographic plane or set of planes in a crystal on which cleavage fracture occurs easily.

Cluster Mill A rolling mill where each of the two working rolls of small diameter is supported by two or more backup rolls.

Co Chemical symbol for Cobalt.

CO2 flux welding Metal-arc welding in which a flux-coated or flux containing electrode is deposited under a shield of carbon dioxide.

CO2 welding Metal-arc welding in which a bare wire electrode is used the arc and molten pool being shielded with carbon dioxide

Cobalt (Co) (Chemical symbol Co.) Element No. 27 of the periodic system; atomic weight 58.94. A gray magnetic metal of medium hardness; it resists corrosion like nickel, which it resembles closely; melting point 2696°F.; boiling point about 5250°F.; specific gravity 8.9. It is used as the matrix metal in most cemented carbides and is occasionally electroplated instead of nickel, the sulfate being used as electrolyte. Its principal function as an alloy in tool steel; it contributes to red hardness by hardening ferrite.

Coefficient of Expansion The ratio of change in length, area, or volume per degree to the corresponding value at a standard temperature.

Cogging An intermediate rolling process when a hot ingot is reduced to a bloom or slab in a cogging mill.

Coil or Longitudinal Curl A lengthwise curve or set found in coiled strip metals following its coil pattern. A departure from longitudinal flatness. It can be removed by roller or stretcher leveling from metals in the softer temper ranges.

Coil Breaks Creases or Ridges appearing in sheets as parallel lines transverse to the direction of rolling and generally extending across the width of the sheet.

Coil Weld A joint between two lengths of metal within a coil - which is not always visible in the cold reduced product.

Coils Steel sheet that has been wound. A slab, once rolled in a hot-strip mill, is more than one-quarter mile long; coils are the most efficient way to store and transport sheet steel.

Coining A process of impressing images or characters of the die and punch onto a plane metal surface.

Coke (Tin) Plate (Hot Dipped Tin Plate) Standard tin plate, with the lightest commercial tin coat, used for food containers, oil canning, etc. A higher grade is the best cokes, with special cokes representing the best of the coke tin variety. For high qualities and heavier coatings, see (Charcoal Tin Plate).

 WHAT The basic fuel consumed in blast furnaces in the smelting of iron. Coke is a processed form of coal. About 1,000 pounds of coke are needed to process a ton of pig iron, an amount which represents more than 50% of an integrated steel mill's total energy use.

 WHY Metallurgical coal burns sporadically and reduces into a sticky mass. Processed coke, however, burns steadily inside and out, and is not crushed by the weight of the iron ore in the blast furnace.

 HOW Inside the narrow confines of the coke oven, coal is heated without oxygen for 18 hours to drive off gases and impurities.

Coke Oven Battery A set of ovens that process coal into coke. Coke ovens are constructed in batteries of 10‹100 ovens that are 20 feet tall, 40 feet long, and less than two feet wide. Coke batteries, because of the exhaust fumes emitted when coke is pushed from the ovens, often are the dirtiest area of a steel mill complex.

Cold Cracking Develops in a weldment after solidification. It forms within hours or days after welding, depending on steel grade, residual stresses and hydrogen content. Proper processing will prevent this problem

Cold Drawing The process of reducing the cross sectional area of wire, bar or tube by drawing the material through a die without any pre-heating. Cold drawing is used for the production of bright steel bar in round square, hexagonal and flat section. The process changes the mechanical properties of the steel and the finished product is accurate to size, free from scale with a bright surface finish.

Cold-Finished Steel bars Hot-rolled carbon steel bars with a higher surface quality and strength produced from secondary cold- reduction.

Cold Reduced Strip Metal strip, made from hot-rolled strip, by rolling on cold-reduction mills.

Cold Reduction

 WHAT Finishing mills roll cold coils of pickled hot-rolled sheet to make the steel thinner, smoother, and stronger, by applying pressure, rather heat.

 HOW Stands of rolls in a cold-reduction mill are set very close together and press a sheet of steel from one-quarter inch thick into less than an eighth of an inch, while more than doubling its length.

Cold Rolled Finish Finish obtained by cold rolling plain pickled sheet or strip with a lubricant resulting in a relatively smooth appearance.

Cold Rolled Products Flat rolled products for which the required final thickness has been obtained by rolling at room temperature.

Cold-Rolled Strip (Sheet) Sheet steel that has been pickled and run through a cold-reduction mill. Strip has a final product width of approximately 12 inches, while sheet may be more than 80 inches wide. Cold-rolled sheet is considerably thinner and stronger than hot-rolled sheet, so it will sell for a premium (see Sheet Steel ).

Cold Rolling Rolling metal at a temperature below the softening point of the metal to create strain hardening (work- hardening). Same as cold reduction, except that the working method is limited to rolling. Cold rolling changes the mechanical properties of strip and produces certain useful combinations of hardness, strength, stiffness, ductility and other characteristics known as tempers.

Cold Short The characteristics of metals that are brittle at ordinary or low temperatures.

Cold Shut A defect produced during casting, causing an area in the metal where two portions of the metal in either a molten or plastic condition have come together but have failed to unite, fuse, or, blend into a solid mass. (See Lamination)

Cold treatment Exposing steel to suitable subzero temperatures (-85 °C, or -120 °F) for the purpose of obtaining desired conditions or properties such as dimensional or microstructural stability. When the treatment involves the transformation of retained austenite, it is usually followed by tempering.

Cold Working (Rolling)

 WHAT Changes in the structure and shape of steel achieved through rolling, hammering, or stretching the steel at a low temperature (often room temperature).

 WHY To create a permanent increase in the hardness and strength of the steel.

 HOW The application of forces to the steel causes changes in the composition that enhance certain properties. In order for these improvements to be sustained, the temperature must be below a certain range, because the structural changes are eliminated by higher temperatures.

Color Standard A painted sheet panel with a prescribed color of paint representing the precise color it is intended to produce in the pre-painted sheet. The color standard will preferably also be expressed in terms of physical attributes of hue, lightness and saturation called tristimulus values or derivatives of these values. A complete color standard definition will usually include painted panels representative of the limits of acceptable deviation from the precise standard color as well.

Columbium (Chemical Symbol Cb) - Element No. 41 of the periodic system. Atomic weight 92.91. It is steel gray in color and brilliant luster. Specific gravity 8.57. Melting point at about 4379°F. It is used mainly in the production of stabilized austenitic chromium-nickel steels, also to reduce the air-hardening characteristics in plain chromium steels of the corrosion resistant type.

Commercial Bronze A copper-zinc alloy (brass) containing 90% copper and 10% zinc; used for screws, wire, hardware, etc. Although termed “commercial-bronze” it contains no tin. It is somewhat stronger than copper and has equal or better ductility.

Commercial Finish (See Finishes)

Commercial Quality Steel Sheet Normally to a ladle analysis of carbon limited at 0.15 max. A Standard Quality Carbon Steel Sheet.

Commercial Steel (CS) Sheet of this quality is for simple bending or moderate forming. Commercial Steel sheet can be bent flat upon itself in any direction at room temperature

Composite material A combination of two or more materials (reinforcing elements, fillers, and composite matrix binder), differing in form or composition on a macro scale. The constituents retain their identities, that is, they do not dissolve or merge completely into one another although they act in concert. Normally, the components can be physically identified and exhibit an interface between one another. Examples are cermets and metal-matrix composites.

Concave fillet weld A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave (curved inwards).

Cone The more luminous part of a flame, which is adjacent to the nozzle orifice.

Constitutional Diagram A graphical representation of the temperature and composition limits of phase fields in an alloy system as they actually exist under specific conditions of heating and cooling (synonymous with phase diagram). A constitutional diagram may be, or may approximate, and equilibrium diagram, or may represent metastable conditions or phases. Compare equilibrium diagram.

Contact Corrosion When two dissimilar metals are in contact without a protective barrier between them and they are in the presence of liquid, an electrolytic cell is created. The degree of corrosion is dependent on the area in contact and the electro-potential voltage of the metals concerned. The less noble of the metals is liable to be attacked, i.e. zinc will act as a protector of steel in sea water whereas copper or brass will attack the steel in the same environment.

Contango Market situation when a nearby price is lower than a further forward price.

Continuous Casting The most popular technique for solidifying steel. Involves pouring steel into an intermediate tundish before entering a water-cooled copper mold. A solidifying steel strand is drawn through a machine where it continues to cool before exiting the machine.

Continuous weld A weld extending along the entire length of a joint.

Consumption Measures the physical use of steel by end users. Steel consumption estimates, unlike steel demand figures, account for changes in inventories.

Apparent Supply Derived demand for steel using AISI reported steel mill shipments plus Census Bureau reported imports, less Census Bureau reported exports. Domestic market share percentages are based on this figure, which does not take into account any changes in inventory.

Continuous Casting

 WHAT A method of pouring steel directly from the furnace into a billet, bloom, or slab directly from its molten form.

 WHY Continuous casting avoids the need for large, expensive mills for rolling ingots into slabs. Continuous cast slabs also solidify in a few minutes versus several hours for an ingot. Because of this, the chemical composition and mechanical properties are more uniform.

 HOW Steel from the BOF or electric furnace is poured into a tundish (a shallow vessel that looks like a bathtub) atop the continuous caster. As steel carefully flows from the tundish down into the water-cooled copper mold of the caster, it solidifies into a ribbon of red-hot steel. At the bottom of the caster, torches cut the continuously flowing steel to form slabs or blooms.

Continuous Furnace Furnace, in which the material being heated moves steadily through the furnace.

Continuous Picking Passing sheet or strip metal continuously through a series of pickling and washing tanks.

Continuous Strip Mill A series of synchronized rolling mill stands in which coiled flat rolled metal entering the first pass (or stand) moves in a straight line and is continuously reduced in thickness (not width) at each subsequent pass. The finished strip is recoiled upon leaving the final or finishing pass.

Controlled Atmosphere A gas or mixture of gases in which steel is heated to produce or maintain a specific surface condition. Controlled atmosphere furnaces are widely used in the heat treatment of steel as scaling and decarburization of components is minimized by this process.

Controlled Atmosphere Furnaces A furnace used for bright annealing into which specially prepared gases are introduced for the purposes of maintaining a neutral atmosphere so that no oxidizing reaction between metal and atmosphere takes place.

Controlled Cooling A process by which steel is cooled from an elevated temperature in a predetermined manner to avoid hardening, cracking or internal damage, or to produce desired microstructure or mechanical properties.

Controlled Rolling A hot rolling process in which the temperature of the steel is closely controlled, particularly during the final rolling passes, to produce a fine-grain microstructure.

Conversion Coating The chemical treatment film applied to the steel or metallic coated sheet prior to painting.

Conversion Cost Resources spent to process material in a single stage, from one type to another. The costs of converting iron ore to hot metal or pickling hot-rolled coil can be isolated for analysis.

Converter A furnace in which air is blown through the molten bath of crude metal or matte for the purpose of oxidizing impurities.

Converter/Processor Demand from steel customers such as re-rollers and tube makers, which process steel into a more finished state, such as pipe, tubing and cold-rolled strip, before selling it to end users. Such steel generally is not sold on contract, making the converter segment of the mills' revenues more price sensitive than their supply contracts to the auto manufacturers.

Convex fillet weld A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex (bulbous).

Cooling Stresses Stresses develop by uneven contraction or external constraint of metal during cooling; also those stresses resulting from localized plastic deformation during cooling and retained.

Copper (Cu) (Chemical symbol Cu) - Element No. 29 of the periodic system, atomic weight 63.57. A characteristically reddish metal of bright luster, highly malleable and ductile and having high electrical and heat conductivity; melting point 1981°F.; boiling point 4237°F.; specific gravity 8.94. Universally used in the pure state as sheet, tube, rod and wire and also as alloyed by other elements (See Brass and Bronze), as an alloy with other metals.

Core In the case of steel this refers to a component that has been case-hardened where the centre is softer than the hard surface layer or case. It can also be applied to the central part of a rolled rimming steel.

Core Wound Flat Wire (See Oscillated Wound Coils)

 WHAT Corex is a coal-based smelting process that yields hot metal or pig iron. Integrated mills or EAF mills can use the output.

 HOW The process gasifies non-coking coal in a smelting reactor, which also produces liquid iron. The gasified coal is fed into a shaft furnace, where it removes oxygen from iron ore lumps, pellets or sinter; the reduced iron is then fed to the smelting reactor.

Coring A variation of composition between the center and surface of a unit of structure (such as a dendrite, a grain or a carbide particle) resulting from non-equilibrium growth over a range of temperature.

Corrosion The gradual degradation or alteration of steel caused by atmosphere, moisture, or other agents.

If mild steel is exposed to an aerated neutral aqueous solution, for example a dilute solution of sodium chloride in water, then corrosive attack will begin at defects in the oxide film on the steel. These defects may be present as a result of mechanical damage such as scratches, or may be due to natural discontinuities in the film, i.e. inclusions, grain boundaries or dislocation networks at the surface of the steel. At each defect the steel is exposed to the solution (electrolyte) and an anodic reaction occurs, resulting in the formation of iron ions and free electrons. These electrons are then conducted through the oxide film to take part in a cathodic reaction at the surface of the film. This reaction requires the presence of dissolved oxygen in the electrolyte and results in the formation of hydroxyl ions.

The hydroxyl ions react with the ferrous ions produced by the anodic reaction to form ferrous hydroxide, which is then converted into a hydrated oxide called, ?rust'. Gradually a scab of rust may form over the top of the pit, but this is too porous to completely block the anodic area. This allows the corrosion process to continue, resulting in deeper attack and widening of the anodic area as the surface oxide film breaks away.

If the pH of the solution in contact with the steel is low, for example a dilute acid, then the surface oxide film will be removed and the cathodic reaction will be different. Hydrogen gas will be liberated as gradual dissolution of the steel occurs. With oxidizing acids, a number of alternate cathodic reactions may take place. In all cases of corrosion the anodic reaction cannot proceed in isolation from the cathodic reaction and if either reaction can be limited or stopped then less or no corrosion will occur.

Corrosion Embrittlement The embrittlement caused in certain alloys by exposure to a corrosive environment. Such material is usually susceptible to the intergranular type of corrosion attack.

Corrosion Fatigue Fatigue that arises when alternating or repeated stress combines with corrosion. The severity of the action depends on the range and frequency of the stress, the nature of the corroding condition and the time under stress.

Corrugated As a defect. Alternate ridges and furrows. A series of deep short waves.

Coupon plate A test piece made by adding plates to the end of a joint to give an extension of the weld for test purposes. (Note: this term is usually used in the shipbuilding industry.)

Covered Electrode A filler-metal electrode, used in arc welding, consisting of a metal core vire with a relatively thick covering which provides protection for the molten metal form the atmosphere, improves the properties of the weld metal and stabilizes the arc. The covering is usually mineral or metal powders mixed with cellulose or other binder.

Cr Chemical symbol for Chromium.

Crack A longitudinal discontinuity produced by fracture. Cracks may be longitudinal, transverse, edge, crater, centre line, fusion zone underhead, weld metal or parent metal

Crater pipe A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a run where the source of heat was removed.

Creep The flow or plastic deformation of metals held for long periods of time at stresses lower than the normal yield strength. The effect is particularly important if the temperature of stressing is above the re-crystallization temperature of the metal.

Creep Limit (1) The maximum stress that will cause less than a specified quantity of creep in a given time. (2) The maximum nominal stress under which the creep strain rate decreases continuously with time under constant load and at constant temperature. Sometimes used synonymously with creep strength.

Creep Strength (1) The constant nominal stress that will cause a specified quantity of creep in a given time at constant temperature. (2) The constant nominal stress that will cause a specified creep react at constant temperature.

Crevice Corrosion Corrosion of a metal surface that is fully shielded from the environment but corrodes because it is so close to the surface of another metal.

Critical Cooling Rate The minimum rate of continuous cooling just sufficient to prevent undesired transformations. For steel, the slowest rate at which it can be cooled form above the upper critical temperature to prevent the decomposition of austenite at any temperature above the Ms.

Critical Point (1) The temperature or pressure at which a change in crystal structure, phase or physical properties occurs; same as transformation temperature. (2) In an equilibrium diagram, that specific combination of composition, temperature and pressure at which the phases of an inhomogeneous system are in equilibrium.

Critical Range A temperature range in which an internal change takes place within a metal. Also termed Transformation Range.

Critical Temperature The temperature at which some phase change occurs in a metal during heating or cooling, i.e. the temperature at which an arrest or critical point is shown on heating or cooling curves.

Critical Surface Intended for material applied to critical exposed/painted applications where cosmetic surface imperfections are objectionable. The prime side surface will be free of repetitive type imperfections, gouges, scratches, scale and slivers. This surface can only be furnished as a pickled product.

Crop The defective ends of a rolled or forged product which are cut off and discarded.

Cropped Head/Tail Squaring of the strip by use of mechanical shear.

Cropping Cutting off ends of billets ingots or slabs containing pipe or other defects.

Crossbow Deviation from flat across the strip width

Cross Break (See Luders Lines) This term also applies to transverse ribs or ripples.

Cross Direction (In rolled or drawn metal) The direction parallel to the axis of the rolls during rolling. The direction at, right angles to the direction of rolling or drawing.

Cross Rolling Rolling at an angle to the long dimension of the metal; usually done to increase width.

Crown or Heavy Center Increased thickness in the center of metal sheet or strip as compared with thickness at the edge.

Crucible A ceramic pot or receptacle made of graphite and clay, or other refractory materials, and used in the melting of metal. The term is sometimes applied to pots made of cast iron, cast steel or wrought steel.

Crucible Steel High-carbon steel produced by melting blister steel in a covered crucible. Crucible steel was developed by Benjamin Huntsman in about 1750 and remained in use until the late 1940's.

Cruciform test piece A flat plate to which two other flat plates or two bars are welded at right angles and on the same axis.

Crude steel Steel in the first solid state after melting, suitable for further processing or for sale. Synonymous to raw steel.

Cryogenic applications Sub-zero temperature applications

Crystal (1) A physically homogeneous solid, in which the atoms , ions, or molecules are arranged in a three- dimensional repetitive pattern. (2) A coherent piece of matter, all parts of which have the same anisotropic arrangement of atoms; in metals, usually synonymous with “grain” and “crystallite.” Crystalline Composed of crystals.

Crystalline Fracture A type of fracture that appears bright and glittering, it having formed along the cleavage planes of the individual crystals. Normally an indication that brittle fracture has occurred.

Crystallization The formation of crystals by the atoms assuming definite positions in a crystal lattice. This is what happens when a liquid metal solidifies. (Fatigue, the failure of metals under repeated stresses, is sometimes falsely attributed to crystallization.)

Cu Chemical symbol for Copper.

Cube-Centered Metallography - (Concerning space lattices) - Body-centered cubic. Refers to crystal structure.

Cup Fracture A type of fracture in a tensile test specimen which looks like a cup having the exterior portion extended with the interior slightly depressed.

Cupping The fracture of severely worked rods or wire where one end has the appearance of a cup and the other that of a cone.

Cut Edge Removal of the as-rolled hot mill edge. Coil ends are cropped back to gauge when cut edge is ordered.

Cup Test (See Olsen Ductility Test)

Culvert Pipe Heavy gauge, galvanized steel that is spiral-formed or riveted into corrugated pipe, which is used for highway drainage applications.

Custom Smelter A smelter that processes concentrates for customers rather than a feed from its own mining operation. For this service treatment charges or tolling charges are received.

Cut Wire Shot is a product used for Shot Peening and Blasting. Provided in range from Dia 0.40mm to 2.00mm. Used by Manufacturers of Leaf Spring, etc. Available in materials like Steel, SS, Aluminium etc.,

Cut-to-Length Process to uncoil sections of flat-rolled steel and cut them into a desired length. Product that is cut to length is normally shipped flat-stacked.

Cutting electrode An electrode with a covering that aids the production of such an arc that molten metal is blown away to produce a groove or cut in the work.

Cutting oxygen Oxygen used at a pressure suitable for cutting.

Cutting Speed The linear or peripheral speed of relative motion between the tool and work piece in the principal direction of cutting. Cyanide Hardening A process of introducing carbon and nitrogen into the surface of steel by heating it to a suitable temperature in a molten bath of sodium cyanide, or a mixture of sodium and potassium cyanide, diluted with sodium carbonate and quenching in oil or water. This process is used where a thin case and high hardness are required.

Cyaniding Surface hardening of an iron-base alloy article or portion of it by heating at a suitable temperature in contact with a cyanide salt, followed by quenching.

DC (Direct Chill) Casting A continuous method of making ingots or billets for sheet or extrusion by pouring the metal into a short mold. The base of the mold is a platform that is gradually lowered while the metal solidifies, the frozen shell of metal acting as a retainer for the liquid metal below the wall of the mold. The ingot is usually cooled by the impingement of water directly on the mold or on the walls of the solid metal as it is lowered. The length of the ingot is limited by the depth to which the platform can be lowered; therefore, it is often called semi-continuous casting.

Dead Flat Perfectly flat. As pertaining to sheet, strip or plate. (See Stretcher Leveling)

Dead Soft Annealing Heating metal to above the critical range and appropriately cooling to develop the greatest possible commercial softness or ductility.

Dead Soft Steel Steel, normally made in the basic open-hearth furnace or by the basic oxygen process with carbon less than 0.10% and manganese in the 0.20-0.50% range, completely annealed.

Dead Soft Temper (No. 5 TEMPER) - Condition of maximum softness commercially attainable in wire, strip, or sheet metal in the annealed state.

Deburring A method whereby the raw slit edge of metal is removed by rolling or filing.

Decarburization Removal of carbon from the outer surface of iron or steel, usually by heating in an oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. Water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide are strong decarburizes. Reheating with adhering scale is also strongly decarburizing in action.

Deep Drawing The process of cold working or drawing sheet or strip metal blanks by means of dies on a press into shames which are usually more or less cup-like in character involving considerable plastic deformation of the metal. Deep-drawing quality sheet or strip steel, ordered or sold on the basis of suitability for deep-drawing.

Deep Drawing Steel (DDS) Sheet of this designation should be used when Drawing Steel will not provide a sufficient degree of ductility for fabrication of parts having stringent drawing requirements, or applications that require the sheet be free from aging. This quality is made by special steelmaking and finishing practices.

Degassing Process (In steel making) - Removing gases from the molten metal by means of a vacuum process in combination with mechanical action. Delta Iron Allotropic modification of iron, stable above 2552°F. to melting point. It is of body-centered cubic crystal structure.

Dent Resistant - BH Series Sheet of this designation is produced from partially stabilized steel and offers a unique combination of as-received formability and final properties after fabrication. Sheet of this designation combines strength and high formability. Although this steel is non-aging at room temperature, it gains strength from work-hardening during fabrication and from carbon-aging during paint-baking. (Sometimes referred to as "bake hardenable.")

De-seaming The removal of the surface defects from ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means of a manual thermal cutting.

Deoxidizing Removal of oxygen. In steel sheet, strip, and wire technology, the term refers to heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere, to lessen the amount of scale. (See Controlled Atmosphere Furnaces)

Deoxidation A process used during melting and refining of steel to remove and / or chemically combine oxygen from the molten steel to prevent porosity in the steel when it is solidified.

Die Casting The principal processes for casting near net shapes of non-ferrous metals such as zinc, aluminium, and zinc-aluminium alloy.

Die-Lines Lines of markings caused on drawn or extruded products by minor imperfections in the surface of the die.

Die Sinking Forming or machining a depressed pattern in a die.

Dip transfer A method of metal-arc welding in which fused particles of the electrode wire in contact with the molten pool are detached from the electrode in rapid succession by the short circuit current, which develops every time the wire touches the molten pool

Dish A concave surface departing from a straight line edge to edge. Indicates transverse or across the width.

See Dished Heads Glossary for more information.

Desulphurization Operation that injects a chemical mixture into a ladle full of hot metal to remove sulfur prior to its charging into the Basic Oxygen Furnace.

 WHAT  WHY Sulfur enters the steel from the coke in the blast furnace smelting operation, and there is little the steelmaker can do to reduce its presence. Because excess sulfur in the steel impedes its welding and forming characteristics, the mill must add this step to the steelmaking process.

Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) Processed iron ore that is iron-rich enough to be used as a scrap substitute in electric furnace steelmaking.

 WHAT  WHY As mini-mills expand their product abilities to sheet steel, they require much higher grades of scrap to approach integrated mill quality. Enabling the mini-mills to use iron ore without the blast furnace, DRI can serve as a low residual raw material and alleviate the mini-mills' dependence on cleaner, higher-priced scrap.

 HOW The impurities in the crushed iron ore are driven off through the use of massive amounts of natural gas. While the result is 97% pure iron (compared with blast furnace hot metal, which, because it is saturated with carbon, is only 93% iron), DRI is only economically feasible in regions where natural gas is attractively priced.

Doctor Blade Steel Strip A hardened and tempered spring steel strip, usually blued, produced from approximately .85 carbon cold rolled spring steel strip specially selected for straightness and good edges. Sometimes hand straightened or straightened by grinding and cut to desired lengths. This product is used in the printing trade as a blade to uniformly remove excess ink (“dope”) from the rolls; hence its name.

Drag The projected distance between the two ends of a drag line

Drag lines Serrations left on the face of a cut made by thermal cutting.

Drawing (See Tempering)

Drawing Steel (DS) Sheet of this quality has a greater degree of ductility and is more consistent in performance than Commercial Steel because of higher standards in production, selection and melting of the steel

Drawing Back Reheated after hardening to a temperature below the critical for the purpose of changing the hardness of the steel. (See Tempering)

Drawn-Over-Mandrel A procedure for producing specialty tubing using a draw bench to pull tubing through a die and over a mandrel, giving excellent control over the inside diameter and wall thickness. Advantages of this technique are its inside and outside surface quality and gauge tolerance. Major markets include automotive applications and hydraulic cylinders.

Dressing of coil Eliminating any damage or defects from the outer or inner diameter of the coil in preparation for shipping.

Drill Pipe Pipe used in the drilling of an oil or gas well. Drill pipe is the conduit between the wellhead motor and the drill bit. Drilling mud is pumped down the center of the pipe during drilling, to lubricate the drill bit and transmit the drilled core to the surface. Because of the high stress, torque and temperature associated with well drilling, drill pipe is a seamless product.

Drill Rod A term given to an annealed and polished high carbon tool steel rod usually round and center less ground. The sizes range in round stock from .013 to 1 ½” diameter. Commercial qualities embrace water and oil hardening grades. A less popular but nevertheless standard grade is a non-deforming quality. Drill Rods are used principally by machinists and tool and die makers for punches, drills, taps, dowel pins, screw machine parts, small tools, etc.

Dry Film Thickness (DFT) The thickness of the dry paint film.

Dry Rolled Finish Finish obtained by cold rolling on polished rolls without the use of any coolant or metal lubricant, material previously plain pickled, giving a burnished appearance.

DS Type B Steel Product intended for applications that require particularly severe drawing and forming.

Ductility Ability of steel to undergo permanent changes in shape without fracture at room temperature.

Dumping Dumping occurs when imported merchandise is sold in, or for export to, the domestic market at less than the normal value of the merchandise, i.e., a price which is less than the price at which identical or similar merchandise is sold in the comparison market, the home market (market of exporting country) or third-country market (market used as proxy for home market in cases where home market cannot be used). The normal value of the merchandise cannot be below the cost of production.

Dumping Margin The amount by which the normal value exceeds the export price or constructed export price of the subject merchandise.

Duplex A category of stainless steel with high amounts of chromium and moderate nickel content. The duplex class is so named because it is a mixture of austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) and ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) structures. This combination was originated to offer more strength than either of those stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels provide high resistance to stress corrosion cracking (formation of cracks caused by a combination of corrosion and stress) and are suitable for heat exchangers, desalination plants, and marine applications.

Duralumin The trade name applied to the first aluminum-copper-magnesium type of age-hardenable alloy (17S), which contains nominally 4% Cu, ½ % Mg. The term is sometimes used to include the class of wrought aluminum-copper-magnesium alloys that harden during aging at room temperature.

Earing Wavy projections formed at the opera end of a cup or shell in the course of deep drawing because of differences in directional properties. Also termed scallop. (See Non-Scalloping Quality Strip Steel)

Eddy-Current Testing Nondestructive testing method in which eddy-curent flow is induced in the test object. Changes in the flow caused by variations in the object are reflected into a nearby coil or coils for subsequent analysis by suitable instrumentation and techniques.

Edges Many types of edges can be produced in the manufacture of flat rolled metal products. Over the years the following types of edges have become recognized as standard in their respective fields.Slit, Slit and Edge Rolled, Sheared, Sawed, Machined or Drawn Mill Edge, Slit Edge or Sheared Edge. No.1 Edge - A smooth, uniform, round or square edge, either slit or filed or slit and edge rolled as specified, width tolerance +/-.005”.

No.2 Edge - A natural round mill edge carried through from the hot rolled band. Has not been slit, filed, or edge rolled. Tolerances not closer than hot-rolled strip limits.

No.3 Edge - Square, produced by slitting only. Not filed. Width tolerance close. No.4 Edge - A round edge produced by edge rolling either from a natural mill edge or from slit edge strip. Not as perfect as No. 1 edge. Width tolerances liberal.

No.5 Edge - An approximately square edge produced by slitting and filing or slitting and rolling to remove burr.

No.6 Edge - A square edge produced by square edge rolling, generally from square edge hot-rolled occasionally from slit strip. Width tolerances and finish not as exacting as No. 1 edge.

o Copper Base Alloys: o Sheet Steels or Aluminium Sheet: o Strip Steels and Stainless Strip

Edge Filing A method whereby the raw or slit edges of strip metal are passed or drawn one or more times against a series of files, mounted at various angles. This method may be used for deburring only or filing to a specific contour including a completely rounded edge.

Edge Rolling (Edge Conditioning) Rolling a strip of steel to smooth the edges. By removing the burr off the coil, it is safer for customers to manipulate.

Edge Strain or Edge Breaks Creases extending in from the edge of the temper rolled sheet.

Edgewise Curvature (See Camber)

Edging The dressing of metal strip edges by rolling, filing or drawing.

Egg-Shaped Coils Coil that is sagging at the center.

Elastic Limit Maximum stress that a material will stand before permanent deformation occurs.

Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Steelmaking furnace where scrap is generally 100% of the charge. Heat is supplied from electricity that arcs from the graphite electrodes to the metal bath. Furnaces may be either an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). DC units consume less energy and fewer electrodes, but they are more expensive.

Electric Furnace Steel Steel made in any furnace where heat is generated electrically, almost always by arc. Because of relatively high cost, only tool steels and other high-value steels are made by the electric furnace process.

Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) Pipe Pipe made from strips of hot-rolled steel which are passed through forming rolls and welded. While seamless pipe is traditionally stronger and more expensive than comparable ERW pipe, ERW technology is improving and the technique now accounts for approximately 48% of OCTG shipments by tonnage.

Electrical Steel (See Silicon Electrical Steel) Electro cleaning (Electrolytic Brightening) - An anodic treatment. A cleaning, polishing, or oxidizing treatment in which the specimen or work is made the anode in a suitable electrolyte; an inert metal is used as cathode and a potential is applied.

Electro-Galvanizing Galvanizing by electrodeposition of zinc on steel.

Electrolytic Polishing (See Electro cleaning)

Electrolytic Tin Plate Black Plate that has been tin plated on both sides with commercially pure tin by electrodeposition. (See Tin Plating)

Electron-beam cutting Thermal cutting in vacuum by melting and vaporizing a narrow section of the metal by the impact of a focused beam of electrons.

Electroplating The production of a thin coating of one metal on another by electrodeposition. It is very extensively used in industry and is continuing to enlarge its useful functions. Various plated metals and combinations thereof are being used for different purpose to illustrate:

1. Decoration and protection against corrosion….copper, nickel & chromium 2. Protection against corrosion…………………...…………...cadmium or zinc 3. Protection against wear……………………...... …………………..chromium 4. Build-up of a part or parts undersize……………..……...chromium or nickel 5. Plate for rubber adhesion……………………………………...... …brass 6. Protection against carburization & for brazing operations...... copper & nickel

Elongation Increase in length which occurs before a metal is fractured, when subjected to stress. This is usually expressed as a percentage of the original length and is a measure of the ductility of the metal.

Elongation After Fracture In tensile testing, the increase in the gauge length measured after fracture of the specimen within the gauge length and usually expressed as a percentage of the original gauge length.

Embossed sheet An embossed sheet is one having a prominent, impressed texture or pattern on its surface(s). If the defined texture is applied to essentially on surface only, it is most properly termed a coined surface. If the texture or pattern carries through the entire body of the sheet and appears on both surfaces it is a true embossed surface.

Embossing Raising or indenting a design in relief on a sheet or strip of metal by passing between rolls of desired pattern. (See Patterned or Embossed Sheet)

End-quench hardenability test (jominy test) A method for determining the hardenability of steel by water-quenching one end of an austenitized cylindrical test specimen and measuring the resulting hardness at specified distances from the quench end.

Endurance Limit Maximum alternating stress, which a given material will withstand for an indefinite number of times, without causing fatigue failure. Environmental Cracking The cracking and corroding of a normally ductile material due to environmental conditions.

Erichsen Test Similar to the Olsen Test. Readings are in millimeters.

Erosion The continuous depletion of a material due to mechanical interaction with a liquid, a multi-component fluid, or solid particles carried with the fluid.

Erosion-Corrosion An accelerated loss of material concerning corrosion and erosion that results from corrosive material interacting with the material.

Etching In metallography, the process of revealing structural details by the preferential attack of reagents on a metal surface.

Eutectoid Steel Steel representing the eutectoid composition of the iron carbon system, with about 0.80% to 0.83% carbon, the eutectoid temperature being about 1333°F. Such steel in the annealed condition consists exclusively of pearlite. Steels with less than this quota of carbon are known as hypo-eutectoid and contain free ferrite in addition to the pearlite. When more carbon is present, the steel is known as hyper-eutectoid and contains free cementite. The presence of certain elements, such as nickel or chromium, lowers the eutectoid carbon content.

Excess penetration bead Excessive metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only.

Exfoliation A type of corrosion that progresses approximately parallel to the outer surface of the metal, causing layers of the metal to be elevated by the formation of corrosion product.

Extensometer An apparatus for indicating the deformation of metal while it is subjected to stress.

Extensometer Test The measurement of deformation during stressing in the elastic range, permitting determination of elastic properties such as proportional limit, proof stress, yield strength by the offset method and so forth. Requires the use of special testing equipment and testing procedures such as the use of an extensometer or the plotting of a stress-strain diagram.

Extra Deep Drawing Steel Sheet of this designation has superior formability and excellent uniformity. It is produced from steel having a very low carbon content with stabilizing elements added to make it interstitial free. It is a non-aging steel sheet with high resistance to thinning during drawing and is suitable for critical forming applications.

Extra Hard Temper In brass mill terminology, Extra Hard is six B & S numbers hard or 50.15% reduction from the previous annealing or soft stage.

Extra Spring Temper In brass mill terminology, Extra Spring is ten numbers hard or 68.55% reduction in thickness from the previous annealing or soft stage.

Extra Smooth Galvanized An Extra-Smooth finish is imparted to hot-dip metallic-coated steel sheet by temper rolling after coating to decrease the surface relief that occurs when the molten coating solidifies. The spangle pattern (grain pattern) is made distinctly less visible by the matte finish imparted by the rolling operation. Most Extra-Smooth sheet is intended for either pre-painted or post painted applications.

Extrusion Shaping metal into a chosen continuous form by forcing it through a die of appropriate shape.

Eye of Coil The center of the coil as wound.

Fabricator A producer of intermediate products that does not also produce primary metal. For example, a rebar (see Reinforcing Bar) fabricator purchases rebar and processes the material to the specifications of a particular construction project.

Face bend test A bend test in which a specified side of the weld Normal bend test. (The side opposite that containing the root or )

Fastmet A process to directly reduce iron ore to metallic iron pellets that can be fed into an electric arc furnace with an equal amount of scrap. This process is designed to bypass the coke oven-blast furnace route to produce hot metal from iron ore. It is also one of several methods that mini-mills might use to reduce their dependence on high-quality scrap inputs (see Direct Reduced Iron and Hot Briquetted Iron).

Fatigue A condition leading to the eventual fracture of a material due to constant or repeated stresses that exert less pressure than the tensile strength of the material.

Feather The carbon-rich zone, visible in a flame, extending around and beyond the cone when there is an excess of carbonaceous gas.

Ferrite The room temperature form of alpha iron, one of the two major constituents of steel (cementite) in which it acts as the solvent to form solid solutions with such elements as manganese, nickel, silicon and, to a small degree, carbon

Ferritic The second-largest class of stainless steel, constituting approximately 25% of stainless production.

Ferritic stainless steels are plain chromium steels with no significant nickel content; the lack of nickel results in lower corrosion resistance than the austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless steels). Ferritics are best suited for general and high-temperature corrosion applications rather than services requiring high strength. They are used in automotive trim and exhaust systems, interior architectural trim, and hot water tanks. Two of the most common grades are type 430 (general-purpose grade for many applications, including decorative ones) and type 409 (low-cost grade well suited to withstanding high temperatures).

Ferroalloy A metal product commonly used as a raw material feed in steelmaking, usually containing iron and other metals, to aid various stages of the steelmaking process such as deoxidation, desulphurization, and adding strength. Examples: ferrochrome, ferromanganese, and ferrosilicon. Ferrochrome An alloy of iron and chromium with up to 72% chromium. Ferrochrome is commonly used as a raw material in the making of stainless steel.

Ferro-Manganese An alloy of iron and manganese (80% manganese) used in making additions of manganese to steel or cast-iron. Ferroalloy, An alloy of iron with a sufficient amount of some element or elements such as manganese, chromium, or vanadium for use as a means in adding these elements into molten steel.

Ferrous Metals that consist primarily of iron.

Filed Edges Finished edges, the final contours of which are produced by drawing the strip over a series of small steel files. This is the usual and accepted method of dressing the edges of annealed spring steel strip after slitting in cases where edgewise slitting cracks are objectionable or slitting burr is to be removed.

Filler Metal A third material that is melted concurrently with the parent metal during fusion or braze welding. It is usually, but not necessarily, of different composition from the parent metals.

Fillet weld A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is approximately triangular in transverse cross-section.

Finish The surface appearance of steel after final treatment.

Finish Coat The topcoat or exposed prime side paint film.

Finished Steel Steel that is ready for the market without further work or treatment. Blooms, billets, slabs, sheet bars, and wire rods are termed semi-finished produced by the in-the-line thermal treatment following electrodeposition.

Finishing Facilities The portion of the steelmaking complex that processes semi-finished steel (slabs or billets) into forms that can be used by others. Finishing operations can include rolling mills, pickle lines, tandem mills, annealing facilities, and temper mills.

Finishing Temperature The temperature at which hot working is completed.

Finmet The process reduces iron ore fines with gas in a descending series of fluidized bed reactors. The reduced iron is hot briquetted.

Firecrack Raised area on the strip caused by a thermal crack on the work roll surface.

Fish eyes Areas on a fractured steel surface having a characteristic white crystalline appearance.

Fish Tail The condition on the tail end of the strip from the Hot Strip Mill. Flakes Short discontinuous internal fissures in ferrous metals attributed to stresses produced by localized transformation and decreased solubility of hydrogen during cooling after hot working. In a fractured surface, flakes appear as bright silvery areas; on an etched surface they appear as short discontinuous cracks. Also called shatter cracks and snowflakes.

Flame Annealing A process of softening a metal by the application of heat from a high-temperature flame.

Flame cutting Oxygen cutting in which the appropriate part of the material to be cut is raised to ignition temperature by an oxy-fuel gas flame.

Flame snap-out Retrogression of the flame beyond the blowpipe body into the hose, with possible subsequent explosion.

Flame washing A method of surface shaping and dressing of metal by flame cutting using a nozzle designed to produce a suitably shaped cutting oxygen stream.

Flame Hardening A hardening process in which the surface is heated by direct flame impingement and then quenched

Flare Test A test applied to tubing, involving a tapered expansion over a cone. Similar to pin expansion test.

Flash (1) In forging, the excess metal forced between the upper and lower dies. (2) In resistance butt welding, a fin formed perpendicular to the direction of applied pressure.

Flashback arrestor A safety device fitted in the oxygen and fuel gas system to prevent any flashback reaching the gas supplies.

Flash Welding A resistance butt welding process in which the weld is produced over the entire abutting surface by pressure and heat, the heat being produced by electric arcs between the members being welded.

Flat-Rolled Steel Category of steel that includes Sheet, Strip, and Tin Plate, among others.

Flatness Flatness is a measure of a cut length sheet's ability to conform to a flat horizontal surface. Maximum deviation from that surface is the degree to which the sheet is out of flat. Flatness is often expressed quantitatively in either Steepness or I-Units

Flow Lines (1) Texture showing the direction of metal flow during hot or cold working. Flow lines often can be revealed by etching the surface or a section of a metal part. (2) In mechanical metallurgy, paths followed by volume elements of metal during deformation.

Flexibility The degree to which a paint film can withstand deformation without significant change in color and appearance

Floating head A blowpipe holder on a flame cutting machine which, through a suitable linkage, is designed to follow the contour of the surface of the plate, thereby enabling the correct nozzle-to-work piece distance to be maintained.

Fluting Kinking or breakage due to curving of metal strip on a radius so small, with relation to thickness, as to stretch the outer surface above its elastic limit. Not to be confused with the specific product, Fluted Tubes.

Flux An iron-cleaning agent. Limestone and lime react with impurities within the metallic pool to form a slag that floats to the top of the relatively heavier (and now more pure) liquid iron.

Forge Welding Welding hot metal by applying pressure or blows.

Fouling An accumulation of marine organism deposits on a submerged metal surface. Fouling also refers to the accumulation of normally inorganic deposits on heat exchanger tubing.

Fracture Test Nicking and breaking a bar by means of sudden impact, to enable macroscopic study of the fracture.

Fragmentation The subdivision of a grain into small discrete crystallites outlined by a heavily deformed network of intersecting slip bands as a result of cold working. These small crystals or fragments differ from one another in orientation and tend to rotate to a stable orientation determined by the slip systems.

Free bend test A bend test made without using a former.

Free Machining Pertains to the machining characteristics of an alloy to which one or more ingredients have been introduced to produce small broken chips, low power consumption, better surface finish or longer tool life.

Freight on Board Pricing Phrase that explains whether the transportation costs of the steel are included. "FOB Mill" is the price of steel at the mill, not including shipping.

Freight Equalization A common industry practice when a mill sells steel outside its geographic area; it will assume any extra shipping costs (relative to the competition) to quote the customer an equivalent price to get the business.

Fretting Action that results in surface damage, especially in a corrosive environment, when there is relative motion between solid surfaces in contact under pressure.

Fretting Corrosion Deterioration at the interface of two contacting surfaces under load which is accelerated by their relative motion.

Full Annealing Heating the metal to about 100 (degrees) F. above the critical temperature range, followed by soaking at this point and slow cooling below the critical temperature.

Full Hard Cold reduced sheet that has not been annealed. Fusion penetration In fusion welding. The depth to which the parent metal has been fused.

Fusion Welding Any welding process in which fusion is employed to complete the weld.

Fusion zone The part of the parent metal which is melted into the weld metal.

Futures Contract An agreement to buy or sell a fixed amount of metal for delivery on a fixed future date at a price agreed today.

Galvalume®

Galvanized Steel Steel coated with a thin layer of zinc to provide corrosion resistance in underbody auto parts, garbage cans, storage tanks, or fencing wire. Sheet steel normally must be cold-rolled prior to the galvanizing stage.

Hot-Dipped

Electro galvanized

Galling

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanizing

Galvanneal Furnace A furnace which is placed over the strip as it exits the zinc bath for the purpose of producing a fully alloyed iron-zinc coating. The furnace can be gas fired or induction.

Gamma Iron The form of iron stable between 1670 (degrees) F., and 2550 (degrees) F., and characterized by a face- centered cubic crystal structure.

Gas economizer An auxiliary device designed for temporarily cutting off the supply of gas to the welding equipment except the supply to a pilot jet where fitted

Gas envelope The gas surrounding the inner cone of an oxy-gas flame.

Gas pore A cavity generally under 1.6 mm in diameter, formed by entrapped gas during solidification of molten metal.

Gas regulator A device for attachment to a gas cylinder or pipeline for reducing and regulating the gas pressure to the working pressure required. Gauge

GFM - Gyratory Forging Machine A machine designed to hot forge a cylindrical bar shape while it is turning at speed.

Gloss The property of a surface related to its ability to reflect light. The most common type of gloss of interest to appearance attributes is specular gloss. The parameters which must be specified for the determination of this property are the angles of incidence of the light source, the angle of viewing of the gloss and the angular dispersions of the measuring beams.

Grain A solid polyhedral (or many sided crystal) consisting of groups of atoms bound together in a regular geometric pattern. In mill practice grains are usually studied only as they appear in one plane. (1) (Direction of) Refers to grain fiber following the direction of rolling and parallel to edges of strip or sheets. (2) To bend across the grain is to bend at right angles to the direction of rolling. (3) To bend with the grain is to bend parallel to the direction of rolling. In steel, the ductility in the direction of rolling is almost twice that at right angles to the direction of rolling.

Grain Boundary Bounding surface between crystals. When alloys yield new phases (as in cooling), grain boundaries are the preferred location for the appearance of the new phase. Certain deterioration, such as season cracking and caustic embrittlement, occur almost exclusively at grain boundaries.

Grain Coarsening A heat treatment that produces excessively large austenitic grains.

Grain Flow Fiber like lines appearing on polished and etched sections of forgings, caused by orientation of the constituents of the metal in the direction of working during forging.

Grain Growth An increase in the average size of the grains in polycrystalline metal or alloy, usually a result of heating at elevated temperature.

Grain Size Average diameter of grains in the metal under consideration, or alternatively, the number of grains per unit area. Since increase in grain size is paralleled by lower ductility and impact resistance, the question of general grain size is of great significance. The addition of certain metals affects grain size, for example vanadium and aluminum ten to give steel a fine grain. The ASTM has set up a grain size standard for steels, and the McQuaid-Ehn Test has been developed as a method of measurement.

Grain Size number An arbitrary number calculated from the average number of individual crystals, or grains, that appear on the etched surface of a specimen

Granular Fracture A type of irregular surface produced when metal fractures, characterized by a rough, grain like appearance as differentiated from a smooth silky, or fibrous, type. It can be sub classified into transgranular and inter-granular forms.. This type of fracture is frequently called crystalline fracture, but the implication that the metal has crystallized is completely misleading.

Granulation The formation of grains immediately upon solidification.

Graphite The polymorph of carbon with a hexagonal crystal structure. Gray Cast Iron A cast iron that gives a gray fracture due to the presence of flake graphite. Often called gray iron.

Greenfield Steel Mill

Grinding Removing material from from a work piece with a grinding wheel or abrasive belt.

Grinding Cracks Shallow cracks formed in the surface of relatively hard materials because of excessive grinding heat or the high sensitivity of the material.

Ground Flat Stock Annealed and pre-ground (to close tolerances) tool steel flats in standard sizes ready for tool room use. These are three common grades; water hardening, oil hardening, and air hardening quality.

Guide Device for holding the metal in the proper position, during rolling, or slitting.

Guided bend test A bend test made by bending the specimen round a specified former.

Guide Scratch Scratches or marks appearing parallel to edges of cold rolled strip caused by scale or other particles which have become imbedded in or have adhered to the rolling mill guide. Also applies to similar scratches appearing as a result of slitting.

Gun Drill A drill, usually with one or more flutes and with coolant passages through the drill body, used for deep hole drilling.

Half Hard Temper (A) No. 2 Temper. In low carbon cold-rolled strip steel, produced by cold rolling to a hardness next to but somewhat softer than full hard temper. (B) In brass Stainless Steel Strip, tempers are based on minimum tensile or yield strength. For Chromium-Nickel grades Half-Hard Temper 150,000 TS., 110,000 YS. Min.

Hammer Forging Forging in which the work is deformed by repeated blows. Compare with press forging.

Hard Drawing Drawing metal wire through a die to reduce cross section and increase tensile strength.

Hard Drawn Wire or tubing drawn to high tensile strength by a high degree of cold work.

Hard Drawn Spring Steel Wire A medium high carbon cold drawn spring steel wire. Used principally for cold springs.

Hardenability The ability of a metal, usually steel, to harden in depth as distinguished from the terms “hardness.”

Hardened & Tempered Spring Steel Strip A medium or high carbon quality steel strip which has been subjected to the sequence of heating, quenching and tempering. Hardness Degree to which a metal will resist cutting, abrasion, penetration, bending and stretching. The indicated hardness of metals will differ somewhat with the specific apparatus measuring hardness. (See Brinell Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Scleroscope Hardness) Tensile Strength also is an indication of hardness.

See Heads (Dished) for more information.

Hard Temper (A) For Steel see Full Hard Temper. (B) In brass mill terminology. Hard Temper is four B & S numbers hard or 37.1 % reduction.

Hardening Process that increases the hardness of steel, i.e., the degree to which steel will resist cutting, abrasion, penetration, bending, and stretching.

The increased endurance provided by hardening makes steel suitable for additional applications.

Hardening can be achieved through various methods, including (1) heat treatment, where the properties of steel are altered by subjecting the steel to a series of temperature changes; and (2) cold working, in which changes in the structure and shape of steel are achieved through rolling, hammering, or stretching the steel at a relatively low temperature.

Heat (of steel)

Heat Number The identification that describes the origin of the slab (heat).

Heat Tinting

Heat Treatment

Heat affected zone (HAZ)

Heavy Structural Shapes

Hematite The oxide of iron of highest valency which has a composition close to the stoichiometric composition Fe2O3.

High Brass 65% - A copper-zinc alloy containing 35% zinc. Possesses high tensile strength and is used for springs, screws, rivets, etc.

High-Carbon Steel

High Strength Product intended for applications where greater strength is critical. High Strength typically begins at 35 ksi minimum yield strength.

High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) A specific group of steels in which the strength levels are achieved by the addition of moderate amounts of alloying elements. The most common are columbium, vanadium or titanium.

High Temperature Hydrogen Attack A loss of strength and malleability of steel due to high temperature reactions of absorbed hydrogen with carbides in the steel, resulting in decarburisation and internal fissuring.

Hollow Structural Sections A high-strength, cold-formed steel tubing used in used for structural purposes in a broad range of applications. Its biggest advantage is the high strength-to-weight ratio it possesses.

Homogenizing Holding at high temperature to eliminate or decrease chemical segregation by diffusion.

Homogenizing Annealing An annealing treatment carried out at a high temperature, approaching the solidus temperature, for a sufficiently long time that inhomogeneous distributions of alloying elements are reduced by diffusional processes.

Hooke’s Law Stress is proportional to strain in the elastic range. The value of the stress at which a material ceases to obey Hooke’s law is known as the elastic limit.

Hose protector A small non-return valve fitted to the blow-pipe end of a hose to resist the retrogressive force of a flashback.

Hot Band (Hot-Rolled Steel) A coil of steel rolled on a hot-strip mill (hot-rolled steel). It can be sold in this form to customers or further processed into other finished products.

Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI)

Hot Dip In steel mill practice, a process whereby ferrous alloy base metals are dipped into molten metal, usually zinc, tin or terne, for the purpose of fixing a rust resistant coating.

Hot End

Hot Metal

Hot Rolled Sheet Steel sheet that is processed to its final thickness by rolling at high temperatures on a specially designed hot-rolling facility. Also commonly known as hot rolled unprocessed.

Hot Rolled Sheet Non-Temper Rolled A U. S. Steel definition for product supplied as a coil directly off the Hot Strip Mill with no additional processing.

Hot Rolled Sheet Pickled A U. S. Steel definition for a mill edge coil that is pickled, oiled and temper rolled with coil ends cropped back to meet gauge tolerances.

Hot Rolled Sheet Pickled Non-Temper Rolled A U. S. Steel definition for a mill edge coil that is pickled and oiled with coil ends cropped back to meet gauge tolerances.

Hot Rolled Sheet Products Flat steel products that are brought to final thickness by rolling through a Hot Strip Mill at high temperatures.

Hot Short Brittleness in hot metal.

Hot-Strip Mill

Hot Top (See Sinkhead)

Hot Working Plastic deformation of metal at a temperature sufficiently high not to create strain hardening. The lower limit of temperature for this process is the re-crystallization temperature.

Hydroforming

Hydrogen Embrittlement (1) Brittleness of metal, resulting from the occlusion of hydrogen (usually as a by-product of pickling or by co-deposition in electroplating). (2) A condition of low ductility resulting from hydrogen absorption and internal pressure developed subsequently. Electrolytic copper exhibits similar results when exposed to reducing atmosphere at elevated temperature.

Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Stepwise internal cracks that connect adjacent hydrogen blisters on different planes in the metal, or to the metal surface.

Hydrogen Stress Cracking Cracking of a metal resulting from the combination of hydrogen and tensile stress.

Hypereutectoid Steel A steel having more than the eutectoid percentage of carbon. (See Eutectoid Steel)

Hupoeutectoid Steel Steel with less than eutectoid percentage of carbon. (See Eutectoid Steel)

HYL I, HYL III

I-Beams Structural sections on which the flanges are tapered and are typically not as long as the flanges on wide-flange beams. The flanges are thicker at the cross sections and thinner at the toes of the flanges.

ID Inside Diameter (of coil or pipe).

Immersed Scanning In ultrasonic, a planned, systematic movement of the beam relative to the object being inspected, the search unit being coupled to this object through a column of liquid. In most cases the object and the search unit are submerged in water.

Impact Energy (Impact Value) The amount of energy required to fracture a material, usually measured by means of an Izod or Charpy test. The type of specimen and testing conditions affect the values and therefore should be specified. Impact Test Test designed to determine the resistance of metal to breakage by impact, usually by concentrating the applied stress to a notched specimen.

Impurities Elements or compounds whose presence in a material is undesired.

Included angle The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded.

Inclusion A nonmetallic material in a solid metallic martial Slag or other foreign matter entrapped during welding. The defect is usually more irregular in shape than a gas pore.

Inclusion Shape Control The use of rare earth metals or calcium alloys to control the morphology of inclusions, in order to provide improved mechanical properties for select applications.

Incomplete root penetration Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint.

Incompletely filled groove A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld.

Indentation Hardness The resistance of a material to indentation. This is the usual type of hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a surface under a substantially static load.

Induction Hardening A process of hardening a ferrous alloy by heating it above the transformation range by means of electrical induction, and then cooling as required. Quench hardening in which the heat is generated by electrical induction.

Induction Heating A process of heating by electrical induction.

Inert-Gas Shielded-Arc Welding Arc welding in an inert gas such as argon or helium.

Intercoat Adhesion The adherence which is observed between the primer and topcoat of a paint system.

Intercrystalline Between crystals, or between grains. Same as intergranular.

Intermittent weld A series of welds at intervals along a joint.

Internal Oxidation Formation of oxides beneath the surface of a metal.

Interrupted Aging The aging of an alloy at two or more temperatures by steps, and cooling to room temperature after each step.

Ingot A form of semi-finished steel. Liquid steel is teemed (poured) into molds, where it slowly solidifies. Once the steel is solid, the mold is stripped, and the 25- to 30-ton ingots are then ready for subsequent rolling or forging.

Ingot casting A technique for solidifying molten steel by pouring it into cast iron ingot molds.

Ingot Iron Commercially pure open-hearth iron.

Inhibitor A substance which retards some specific chemical reaction. Pickling inhibitors retard the sis solution of metal without hindering the removal of scale from steel.

Inmetco

 WHAT Inmetco is a coal-based process similar to FASTMET that uses iron oxide fines and pulverized coal to produce a scrap substitute. Mill scale and flue dust, inexpensive byproducts of steelmaking, can be mixed with the iron oxide fines. Inmetco, unlike other direct reduction products, is intended to be hot charged into an EAF, with attendant energy savings.

 HOW The process includes three steps. First, iron oxide fines, pulverized coal and a binder are formed into pellets. Second, the pellets, two to three layers deep, are heated in a gas-fired rotary hearth furnace for 15-20 minutes to produce sponge iron. Subsequently, the iron must be de-sulphurized. The coal in the pellets provides much of the energy required in the second phase.

Integrated Mills These facilities make steel by processing iron ore and other raw materials in blast furnaces. Technically, only the hot end differentiates integrated mills from mini-mills. However, the differing technological approaches to molten steel imply different scale efficiencies and, therefore, separate management styles, labor relations and product markets. Nearly all domestic integrated mills specialize in flat-rolled steel or plate.

Integrated Producer A producer who also owns the smelting and semi-fabricating facilities.

Interleaving The placing of a sheet of paper between two adjacent layers of metal to facilitate handling and shearing of rectangular sheets, or to prevent sticking or scratching.

Intermediate Annealing An annealing treatment given to wrought metals following cold work hardening for the purpose of softness prior to further cold working. (See Process Annealing)

Interrupted Aging The aging of an alloy at two or more temperatures by steps, and cooling to room temperatures after each step. Compare with Progressive Aging.

Interstitial Free Steel A recently developed sheet steel product with very low carbon levels that is used primarily in automotive deep-drawing applications. Interstitial Free Steel's improved ductility (drawing ability) is made possible by vacuum degassing.

Investment Casting (1) Casting metal into a mold produced by surrounding (investing) an expendable pattern with a refractory slurry that sets at room temperature after which the wax, plastic, or frozen mercury pattern is removed through the use of heat. Also called precision casting, or lost-wax process. (2) A casting made by the process.

Iron (Chemical symbol Fe.) Element No. 26 of the periodic system; Atomic weight 55.85. A magnetic silver white metal of high tensile strength, ductile and malleable. Melting point of pure iron about 2795 (degrees) F. Chemically iron is chiefly base forming. The principal forms of commercial iron are steel, cast iron and wrought iron.

Iron Carbide One of several substitutes for high-quality, low-residual scrap for use in electric furnace steelmaking. Iron carbide producers use natural gas to reduce iron ore to iron carbide.

Iron Ore Mineral containing enough iron to be a commercially viable source of the element for use in steelmaking. Except for fragments of meteorites found on Earth, iron is not a free element; instead, it is trapped in the earth's crust in its oxidized form.

Ironing Thinning the walls of deep drawn articles by reducing the clearance between punch and die.

Isothermal Annealing A process on which a ferrous alloy is heated to produce a structure partly or wholly austenitic, and is then cooled to and held at a temperature that causes transformation of the austenite to a relatively soft ferrite-carbide aggregate

Isothermal Transformation A change in phase at any constant temperature.

Isothermal Transformation (IT) Diagram A diagram that shows the isothermal time required for transformation of austenite to commence and to finish as a function of temperature. Same as time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram or S- curve.

Izod Test A pendulum type of single-blow impact test in which the specimen, usually notched, is fixed at one end and broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed, as measured by the subsequent rise of the pendulum, is a measure of impact strength or notch toughness.

Jig Saw Steel Hardened, tempered and bright polished with round edges. Carbon content .85. Ranges of sizes .039 to 393 in width and .016 to .039 in thickness.

Lack of fusion Lack of union in a weld (Between weld metal and parent metal, parent metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal.)

LCH The London Clearing House.

Ladle Analysis A term applied to the chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel as reported by the producer. It is determined by analyzing a test ingot sample obtained during the pouring of the steel from a ladle.

Ladle Metallurgy Furnace (LMF) An intermediate steel processing unit that further refines the chemistry and temperature of molten steel while it is still in the ladle. The ladle metallurgy step comes after the steel is melted and refined in the electric arc or basic oxygen furnace, but before the steel is sent to the continuous caster.

Lamellar Tear A system of cracks or discontinuities aligned generally parallel to the worked surface of a plate. Usually associated with a fusion weld in thick plate.

Lamination An abnormal structure resulting in a separation or weakness aligned generally parallel to the worked surface of the metal.

Lap A surface defect, appearing as a seam, caused by fording over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners and then rolling or forging them into the surface, but not welding them.

Lapped Welds A defect in the butt weld where the strip overlays.

Lap-Weld A term applied to a weld formed by lapping two pieces of metal and then pressing or hammering, and applied particularly to the longitudinal joint produced by a welding process for tubes or pipe, in which the edges of the skelp are beveled or scarfed so that when they are overlapped they can be welded together.

Lath Martensite Martensite formed, partly in steel containing less than about 1.0% C and solely in steels containing less than about 0.5% C, as parallel arrays or packets of lath-shape units about 0.1 to 0.3 m thick, and having a habit plane that is close to {111}.

Lattice Space lattice. Lattice lines and lattice planes are lines and planes chosen so as to pass through collinear lattice points, and non-collinear lattice points, respectively.

Lead Annealing (See Bath Annealing)

Leftward welding A gas welding technique in which the flame is (Forward welding)

Leg The width of a fusion face in a fillet weld.

Leveling A mechanical process in which the strip is stretched beyond its yield point by bending over small diameter rolls. The purpose is to improve the flatness of characteristics of the strip. Flattening rolled metal sheet or strip. (See Roller and Stretcher Leveling) Leveling Line A process to flatten any shape deficiencies (wavy edges and buckles) in the sheet, prior to final shipment. Most cold-rolled sheet initially has a crowned cross-section that, if such a shape is undesirable to the customer, must be flattened in the leveling line.

Life Cycle Costing An accounting method of costing where expenses are allocated over the life of the product. Life cycle costs are often lower for stainless steel than for alternatives despite a higher initial outlay, because stainless products generally last longer and require little maintenance.

Light Metals Metal and alloys that have a low specific gravity, such as beryllium, magnesium and aluminum.

Light-Gauge Steel Very thin steel sheet that has been temper-rolled or passed through a cold-reduction mill. Light gauge steel normally is plated with tin or chrome for use in food containers.

Limestone Used by the steel industry to remove impurities from the iron made in blast furnaces. Magnesium- containing limestone, called dolomite, is also sometimes used in the purifying process.

Line Pipe Pipe used in the surface transmission of oil, natural gas and other fluids.

Liquation Partial melting of an alloy.

Liquidus In a constitutional diagram, the locus of points representing the temperatures at which various components commence freezing on cooling or finish melting on heating.

Lithographic Sheet Aluminum Sheet having a superior surface on one side with respect to freedom from surface imperfections and supplied with a maximum degree of flatness, for use as a plate in offset printing.

Long An open position for the purchase of metal.

Long Products Classification of steel products that includes bar, rod and structural products, that are "long", rather than "flat".

Long Terne A term applying to steel sheets that have been terne coated (Lead and Tin) by immersion in a bath of Terne Metal.

Longitudinal Direction The principal direction of flow in a worked metal.

Looper An accumulator where extra strip is stored momentarily to keep the center section of the line running continuously.

Low Brass 80% cu. A copper-Zinc alloy containing 20% zinc. Is a light golden color, very ductile, suitable for cupping, drawing, forming, etc. Because of its good strength and corrosion resistance it is used for flexible metal gose, metal bellows, etc. Low-Carbon Steel Contain from 0.10 to 0.30% carbon and less than 0.60% manganese. (The product of Basic Oxygen, Bessemer, Open Hearth or Electric Processes.) Steel with less than 0.005% carbon is more ductile (malleable): It is capable of being drawn out or rolled thin for use in automotive body applications. Carbon is removed from the steel bath through vacuum degassing.

Low-Hydrogen Electrode A covered arc-welding electrode that provides an atmosphere around the arc and molten weld metal which is low in hydrogen.

Luders Lines or Bands Long vein-like marks appearing on the surface of certain metals, in the direction of the maximum shear stress, when the metal is subjected to deformation beyond the field point. Elongated surface markings or depressions caused by localized plastic deformation that results form discontinuous (inhomogeneous) yielding.

Luster Finish

M B Grade A term applied to Open-Hearth steel wire in the .45/.75 carbon range either hard drawn or oil tempered. Oil tempered wire of M B and W M B types are the most widely used of all spring wires. Oil tempered wire is more suitable to precision forming and casting operations than hard drawn wire, because of close control of tensile strength and superior straightness. . NOTE M B, H B and extra H B designate Basic Open Hearth steels, while W M B, W H B and extra W H B designate Acid Open Hearth Steels. The chemical composition and the mechanical properties are the same for both basic and acid steel.

M sections (Bantam Beams TM , Junior Beams TM) Light footweight beams primarily used in the construction of pre-engineered housing. These beams are produced in lighter footweights, usually six to 10 pounds per foot, than traditional structural products.

Machinability The relative ease of machining a metal.

Machinability Index A relative measure of the machinability of an engineering material under specified standard conditions.

Macroetch Test Consists of immersing a carefully prepared section of the steel in hot acid and of examining the etched surface to evaluate the soundness and homogeneity of the product being tested.

Macrograph A photographic reproduction of any object that has not been magnified more than ten times.

Macroscopic Visible either with the naked eye or under low magnification (as great as about ten diameters).

Macrostructure The structure of metal as revealed by macroscopic examination.

Magnetic-Particle Inspection A nondestructive method of inspection for determining the existence and extent of possible defects in ferromagnetic materials. Finely divided magnetic particles, applied to the magnetized part, are attracted to and outline the pattern of any magnetic-leakage fields created by discontinuities.

Magnetite The oxide or iron of intermediate valence, which has a composition close to the stoichiometric composition Fe3O4.

Malleability The property that determines the ease of deforming a metal when the metal is subjected to rolling or hammering. The more malleable metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheet more easily than others.

Malleabilizing A process of annealing white cast iron in such a way that the combined carbon is wholly or partly transformed to graphitic or free carbon or, in some instances, part of the carbon is removed completely.

Manganese (Chemical symbol Mn.) Element No. 25 of the periodic system; atomic weight 54.93. Lustrous, reddish- white metal of hard brittle and, therefore, non-malleable character. The metal is used in large quantities in the form of Spiegel and Ferromanganese for steel manufacture as well as in manganese and many copper-base alloys. Its principal function is as an alloy in steel making: (1) It is ferrite-strengthening and carbide forming element. It increases hardenability inexpensively, with a tendency toward embrittlement when too high carbon and too high manganese accompany each other. (2) It counteracts brittleness from sulfur.

Magnesium (Chemical symbol Mg.) - Element No. 12 of the periodic system; atomic weight 24.305. Specific gravity 1.77 with a melting point of approximately 1160°F. A silver-white light malleable, ductile metallic element that occurs abundantly in nature. The metal is used in metallurgical and chemical processes; in photography, in signaling, and in the manufacture of pyrotechnics because of the intense white light it produces on burning.

Man-Hours Per Ton This is a measure of labor efficiency the ratio of total hours worked by steel employees to the tons shipped for a given period of time. Changes in the inventory level and work that is contracted out will affect the reported measurement.

Manual Welding Welding where in the entire welding operation is performed and controlled by hand.

Martempering (1) A hardening procedure in which an austenitized ferrous material is quenched into an appropriate medium at a temperature just above the Martensite temperature of the material, held in the medium until the temperature is uniform through-out -but not long enough for bainite to form - and then cooled in air. The treatment is frequently followed by tempering. (2) When the process is applied to carburized material, the controlling Ms temperature is that of the case. This variation of the process is frequently called marquenching.

Martensite A metalstable transition phase with a body-centered-tetragonal crystal structure formed by diffusionless transformation of austenite generally during cooling between the Ms and Mf temperatures. A distinctive needle like structure as a transition stage in the transformation of austenite. It is the hardest constituent of steel of eutectoid composition. It is produced by rapid cooling from quenching temperature and is the chief constituent of hardened carbon tool steels. Martensite is magnetic.

Martensite Range The interval between the Ms and Mf temperatures. Martensitic Small category of stainless steel characterized by the use of heat treatment for hardening and strengthening. Martensitic stainless steels are plain chromium steels with no significant nickel content. They are utilized in equipment for the chemical and oil industries and in surgical instruments. The most popular martensitic stainless steel is type 410 (a grade appropriate for non-severe corrosion environments requiring high strength).

Martensitic Stainless Steel Has a body centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. These alloys are chromium stainless steels with medium to high carbon levels. They work harden slowly in the annealed (soft) condition but can be heat-treated to very high tensile strengths.

MASP Monthly average settlement price. The average of the daily official settlement prices for the month.

Metalloid (a) Element intermediate in luster and conductivity between the true metals and non-metals. Arsenic, antimony, boron, tellurium, and selenium, etc., are generally considered metalloids; frequently one allotropic modification of an element will be non-metallic, another metalloid in character. Obviously, no hard and fast line can be drawn. (b) In steel metallurgy, metalloid has a specialized, even if erroneous, meaning; it covers elements commonly present in simple steel; carbon, manganese, phosphorus, silicon and sulfur.

Matrix The principal phase or aggregate in which another constituent is embedded.

Matt or Matte Finish (Steel) Not as smooth as normal mill finish. Produce by etched or mechanically roughened finishing rolls.

Mechanical Polishing A method of producing a specularly reflecting surface by use of abrasives.

Mechanical Properties Those properties of a material that reveal the elastic and inelastic reaction when force is applied, or that involve the relationship between stress and strain; for example, the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and fatigue limit. These properties have often been designated as physical properties, but the term mechanical properties is much to be preferred. The mechanical properties of steel are dependent on its microstructure.

Mechanical Spring Any spring produced by cold forming from any material with or without subsequent heat treatment.

Mechanical tubing Welded or seamless tubing produced in a large number of shapes to closer tolerances than other pipe.

Mechanical Twin A twin formed in a metal during plastic deformation by simple shear of the structure.

Mechanical Working Plastic deformation or other physical change to which metal is subjected, by rolling, hammering, drawing., etc. to change its shape, properties or structure.

Medium-Carbon Steel Contains from 0.30% to 0.60% carbon and less than 1.00% manganese. May be made by any of the standard processes.

Matalloid  Element intermediate in luster and conductivity between the true metals and non-metals. Arsenic, antimony, boron, tellurium, and selenium, etc., are generally considered metalloids; frequently one allotropic modification of an element will be non-metallic, another metalloid in character. Obviously, no hard and fast line can be drawn.

 In steel metallurgy, metalloid in has a specialized, even of erroneous, meaning; is covers elements commonly present in simple steel; carbon, manganese, phosphorus, silicon and sulfur.

Melting Point The temperature at which a pure metal, compound or eutectic changes form solid to liquid; the temperature at which the liquid and the solid are in equilibrium.

Melting Range The range of temperature in which an alloy melt; that is the range between solids and liquids temperatures.

Merchant Bar A group of commodity steel shapes that consist of rounds, squares, flats, strips, angles, and channels, which fabricators, steel service centers and manufacturers cut, bend and shape into products. Merchant products require more specialized processing than reinforcing bar.

Metal An opaque, lustrous, elemental substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good reflector or light. Most metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, denser than other substances.

Metal-arc cutting Thermal cutting by melting using the heat of an arc between a metal electrode and the metal to be cut.

Metal-arc welding Arc welding using a consumable electrode.

Metal Spraying A process for applying a coating of metal to an object. The metal, usually in the form of wire, is melted by an oxyhydrogen or oxyacetylene blast or by an electric arc and is projected at high speed by gas pressure against the object being coated.

Metallography The science concerning the constituents and structure of metals and alloys as revealed by the microscope.

Metallograph An optical instrument designed for both visual observation and photomicrography of prepared surfaces of opaque materials at magnifications ranging from about 25 to about 1500 diameters.

Metal transfer The transfer of metal across the arc from a consumable electrode to the molten pool.

Metastable Possessing a state of pseudo-equilibrium that has a free energy higher than that of the true equilibrium state but from which a system does not change spontaneously.

Mf Temperature The temperature at which martensitic transformation is essentially complete during cooling after austenitization.

Mil A term used to indicate the thickness of the paint film. A dry film thickness of 0.001", i.e., the standard dry film thickness after curing for several common paints, is one (1) mil. Microbands (deformation) Thin sheet like volumes of constant thickness in which cooperative slip occurs on a fone scale. They are an instability which carry exclusively the deformation at medium strains when normal homogeneous slip is precluded. The sheets are aligned at +/- 55(degrees) to the compression direction and are confined to individual grains, which usually contain two sets of bands. Compare shear bands.

Microcrack A crack of microscopic size.

Micrograph A graphic reproduction of the prepared surface of a specimen at a magnification greater than ten diameters. When photographed, the reproduction is known as a photomicrograph (not a microphotograph).

Microstructure The structure of a prepared surface of a metal as revealed by a microscope at a magnification greater than ten diameters.

MIG - welding Inert-gas welding using a consumable electrode (inert-gas metal-arc welding)

Mild Steel Carbon steel containing a maximum of about 0.25% C.

Mill Edge The edge of strip, sheet or plate in the as rolled state. Unsheared.

Mill Finish A surface finish produced on sheet and plate. Characteristic of the ground finish used on the rolls in fabrication.

Mini-Mills Normally defined as steel mills that melt scrap metal to produce commodity products. Although the mini-mills are subject to the same steel processing requirements after the caster as the integrated steel companies, they differ greatly in regard to their minimum efficient size, labor relations, product markets, and management style.

Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus) A measure of the rigidity of metal. Ratio of stress, within proportional limit, to corresponding strain. Specifically, the modulus obtained in tension or compression is Young's modulus, stretch modulus or modulus of extensibility; the modulus obtained in torsion or shear is modulus of rigidity, shear modulus or modulus of torsion; the modulus covering the ratio of the mean normal stress to the change in volume per unit volume is the bulk modulus. The tangent modulus and secant modulus are not restricted within the proportional limit; the former is the slope of the stress-strain curve at a specified point; the latter is the slope of a line from the origin to a specified point on the stress-strain curve. Also called elastic modulus and coefficient of elasticity.

Modulus of Elasticity (tension) Force which would be required to stretch a substance to double its normal length, on the assumption that it would remain perfectly elastic, i.e., obey Hooke's Law throughout the twist. The ratio of stress to strain within the perfectly elastic range.

Modulus of Rigidity Of a material suffering shear, the ratio of the intensity of the shear stress across the section to the shear strain, i.e., to the angle of distortion in radians; expressed on pounds or tons per square inch.

Mold A form of cavity into which molten metal is poured to produce a desired shape.

Molybdenum (Mo) (Chemical symbol Mo) Element No. 42 of the periodic system; atomic weight 95.95. Hard, tough metal of grayish-white color, becoming very ductile and malleable when properly treated at high temperatures; melting point 4748 (degrees) F.; boiling point about 6600 (degrees) F.; specific gravity 10.2 . Pure molybdenum can best be obtained as a black powder, by reduction of molybdenum trioxide or ammonium molybdate with hydrogen. From this powder, ductile sheet and wire are made by powder metallurgy techniques; these are used in radio and related work. Its principal functions as an alloy in steel making: (1) Raises grain-coarsening temperature of austenite. (2) Deepens hardening. (3) Counteracts tendency toward temper brittleness. (4) Raises hot and creep strength, red hardness. (5) Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steel. (6) Forms abrasion-resisting particles.

Ms Temperature The temperature at which a martensitic transformation starts during cooling after austenitization.

Multi-stage regulator A gas regulator in which the gas pressure is reduced to the working pressure in more than one stage.

Muntz Metal (A refractory Alloy) Alpha-beta brass, 60% copper and 40% zinc. Stronger than alpha-brass and used for castings and hot- worked (rolled, stamped, or extruded) products. High strength brasses are developed from this by adding other elements.

Music Wire A polished high tensile strength cold drawn wire with higher tensile strength and higher torsional strength than any other material available. The high toughness characteristic of this material is obtained by the patenting. Such wire is purchased according to tensile strength, not hardness.

Natural Aging Spontaneous aging of a supersaturated solid solution at room temperature.

NDT Non-destructive testing.

Necking Local reduction of the cross-sectional area of metal by stretching.

Needle Cutter Steel Usually supplied quarter hard rolled, extra precision rolled with sheared edges. Carbon content 1.25 - Chromium .15. Usually supplied in a 2 width from .002 to .035. Used for cutting the eyes of needle and milling the latch in a latch needle.

Network Structure A structure in which the crystals of one constituent are surrounded by envelopes of another constituent which gives a network appearance to an etched test specimen.

Nick-break test

Nickel (Ni)

Nickel Silver Copper base alloys that contain 10-45% Zn. and 5-30% Ni.

Nickel Steel Steel containing nickel as an alloying element. Varying amounts are added to increase the strength in the normalized condition to enable hardening to be performed in oil or air instead of water. Niobium (Nb) (Chemical symbol Nb) Element No. 41 of the periodic system.

Nitriding Introducing nitrogen into a solid ferrous alloy by holding at a suitable temperature (below Ac1 for ferritic steels) in contact with a nitrogenous material, usually ammonia of molten cyanide of appropriate composition. Quenching is not required to produce a hard case. Process of surface hardening certain types of steel by heating in ammonia gas at about 935-1000 (degrees) F., the increase in hardness being the result of surface nitride formation. Certain alloying constituents, principal among them being aluminum, greatly facilitate the hardening reaction. In general, the depth of the case is less than with carburizing.

Nitriding Steel Steel which is particularly suited for the nitriding process, that is, it will form a very hard and adherent surface upon proper nitriding (heating in a partially dissociated atmosphere of ammonia gas). Composition usually .20-.40 carbon, .90-1.50 chromium, .15-1.00 molybdenum, and .85-1.20% aluminum.

Nodular Pearlite Pearlite that has grown as a colony with an approximately spherical morphology.

No. 1 Heavy Melt Obsolete steel scrap grade, at least one-quarter inch in thickness and in sections no larger than five feet by two feet. Much of the metal comes from demolished buildings, truck frames and heavy duty springs. Mini-mills are primary consumers of No. 1 heavy scrap.

Non-Ferrous Metals Metals or alloys that are free of iron or comparatively

Non-Metallic Inclusions Impurities (commonly oxides), sulphides, silicates or similar substances held in metals mechanically during solidification or formed by reactions in the solid state.

Non-Refractory Alloy A term opposed to refractory alloy. A non-refractory alloy has malleability, that is, ease of flattening when subjected to rolling or hammering.

Non-Scalloping Quality Strip Steel Strip steel ordered or sold on the basis of absence of unevenness, or ears, on the edges of the steel, when subjected to deep drawing.

Normalizing A heat treatment applied to steel, Involves heating above the critical range followed by cooling in still air. Is performed to refine the crystal structure and eliminate internal stress.

Notch Brittleness A measure of the susceptibility of a material to brittle fracture at locations of stress concentration. For example, in a notch tensile test a material is said to be notch brittle if its notch strength is less than its tensile strength; otherwise, it is said to be notch ductile.

Notch (Impact) toughness An indication of a steel's capacity to absorb energy when a stress concentrator or notch is present. examples are Charpy V-Notch, dynamic tear, drop-weight and drop-weight tear tests.

Number as Pertaining to Edge (See Edges)

Number as Pertaining to Hardness In copper base alloys industry; temper is referred to as so many numbers hard, i.e.; Yellow Brass Half Hard is termed 2 numbers hard. This term is derived from terminology used on the mill floor whereby temper or hardness is imparted by cold working and classified as to hardness by the number of Brown & Sharpe gages away from the soft or as-annealed state.

Number as Pertaining to Temper

OCTG (Oil Country Tubular Goods)

OD Outside Diameter (of coil or pipe)

Oil Hardening A process of hardening a ferrous alloy of suitable composition by heating within or above the transformation range and quenching in oil.

Oil-Hardening Steel Steel adaptable to hardening by heat treatment and quenching in oil.

Oiled Sheet Sheet product that is processed with the final step being the application of oil to the surface. Usually, the oil is intended to provide protection from rusting during shipment and storage. These oils are called rust-preventative oils. The oil may also serve to assist in the subsequent fabrication process, but this is not usually the main purpose. Oils used to enhance formability are often called pre- lubricants or "prelubes".

Oil Stain Aluminum Stain produced by the incomplete burning of the lubricants on the surface of the sheet. Rolling subsequent to staining will change color from darker browns to lighter browns down to white.

Olsen (DUCTILITY) Test A method of measuring the ductility and drawing properties of strip or sheet metal which involves determination of the width and depth of impression. The test simulating a deep drawing operation is made by a standard steel ball under pressure, continuing until the cup formed from the metal sample fractures. Readings are in thousandths of an inch. This test is sometimes used to detect stretcher straining and indicates the surface finish after drawing, similar to the Erichsen ductility test.

Open arc welding Arc welding in which the arc is visible.

Open circuit voltage In a welding plant ready for welding, the voltage between two output terminals which are carrying no current

Open Hearth Furnace A broad, shallow hearth to refine pig iron and scrap into steel. Heat is supplied from a large, luminous flame over the surface, and the refining takes seven to nine hours. Open Hearths, at one time the most abundant steelmaking furnaces among integrated companies, have been replaced by the basic oxygen furnace.

Open-Hearth Process Process of making steel by heating the metal in the hearth of a regenerative furnace. In the basic open- hearth steel process, the lining of the hearth is basic, usually magnetite; whereas in the acid open- hearth steel process, an acid material, silica, is used as the furnace lining and pig iron, extremely low in phosphorous (less than 0.04%), is the raw material charged in. Open Surface Rough surface on black plate, sheet or strip, resulting from imperfection in the original steel bars from which the plate was rolled.

Open Welds A weld that shows an area that is not fused.

Orange Peel (Effect) - A surface roughening (defect) encountered in forming products from metal stock that has a coarse grain size. It is due to uneven flow or to the appearance of the overly large grains usually the result of annealing at too high a temperature. Also referred to as “pebbles” and “alligator skin.”

Ore A mineral from which metal is (or may be) extracted.

Orientation (Crystal) - Arrangement of certain crystal axes or crystal planes in a polycrystalline aggregate with respect to a given direction or plane. If there is any tendency for one arrangement to predominate, it is known as the preferred orientation. In the absence of any such preference, random orientation exists.

Oscillated Wound or Scroll Wound A method of even winding metal strip or wire on to a reel or mandrel wherein the strands are uniformly overlapped. Sometimes termed “stagger wound” or “vibrated wound.” The opposite of ribbon wound.

Oscillating A method of winding narrow strip steel over a much wider roll. Customers want to have as much steel on a coil as will fit in their machines, so they can spend less time moving the material and more time using it. By coiling the strip like fishing line (or thread) over a spool, a much longer strip can fit onto a coil of proper diameter. Oscillate-wound coils allow the customer to enjoy longer processing runs.

Overaging Aging under conditions of time and temperature greater than those required to obtain maximum change in a certain property, so that the property is altered in the direction of the initial value.

Overheating Heating a metal or alloy to such a high temperature that its properties are impaired. When the original properties cannot be restored by further heat treating, by mechanical working, or by combination of working and heat treating, the overheating is known as burning.

Overlap An imperfection at a toe or a root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing it.

Oxidation The addition of oxygen to a compound. Exposure to atmosphere sometimes results in oxidation of the exposed surface, hence a staining or discoloration. This effect is increased with temperature increase.

 A reaction in which there is an increase in valence resulting from a loss of electrons.

 Chemical combination with oxygen to form an oxide.

Oxide Compound of oxygen with another element.

Oxygen-arc cutting Thermal cutting in which the ignition temperature is produced by an electric arc, and cutting oxygen is conveyed through the centre of an electrode, which is consumed in the process. Oxygen Lance A length of pipe used to convey oxygen onto a bath of molten metal. A steel tube, consumed during cutting, through which cutting oxygen passes, for the cutting or boring of holes.

Oxygen lancing Thermal cutting in which an oxygen lance is used.

Pack Rolling Rolling two or more pieces of thin sheet at the same time, a method usually practiced in rolling sheet into thin foil.

Packed lance An oxygen lance with steel rods or wires.

Pass A term indicating the process of passing metal through a rolling mill.

Passivation The changing of the chemically active surface of a metal to a much less reactive state.

Patent Leveling (See Stretcher Leveling)

Patenting A heat treatment applied to medium and high-carbon steel prior to cold drawing to wire. The treatment involves austenitization followed by isothermal transformation at a temperature that produces a microstructure of very fine pearlite. The metal is gradually heated to about 1830 (degrees) F., with subsequent cooling, usually in air, in a bath of molten lead, or in a fused salt mixture held between 800 (degrees) F. and 1050 (degrees) F.

Pattern Welding A process in which strips or other small sections of iron or steel are twisted together and then forge welded. Homogeneity and toughness are thereby improved. A regular decorative pattern can be developed in the final product. Commonly used for making swords as early as the 3rd century A.D.

Patterned or Embossed Sheet A sheet product on which a raised or indented pattern has been impressed on either on or both surfaces by the use of rolls.

Peak Earnings The ultimate earnings level of a company at the top of the business cycle. This is the expected profit during the time of the highest commodity demand and the strongest product pricing.

Pearlite A eutectoid transformation product of ferrite and cementite that ideally has a lamellar structure but that is always degenerate to some extent. Lamellar structure resembling mother of pearl. A compound of iron and carbon occurring in steel as a result of the transformation of austenite into aggregations of ferrite and iron carbide.

Peening Mechanical working of metal by hammer blows or shot impingement. Pellets

Pencil Hardness A physical measurement of the hardness of a paint film which is based on the resistance of the film to cut-through by pencil leads of specified hardness. Pencil hardness values range between 2B and 5H.

Penetrant Inspection A method of non-destructive testing for determining the existence and extent of discontinuities that are open to the surface in the part being inspected. The indications ore made visible through the use of a dye or fluorescent chemical in the liquid employed as the inspection medium.

Penetration bead Weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only.

Peritectic An isothermal reversible reaction in which a liquid phase reacts with a solid phase to produce another solid phase.

Permalloy Nickel alloys containing about 20 to 60% Fe, used for their high magnetic permeability and electrical resistivity.

Permanent Set Non-elastic or plastic, deformation of metal under stress, after passing the elastic limit.

Phase Diagram Synonymous with constitutional diagram.

Phosphor Bronze Copper base alloys, with 3.5 to 10% of tin, to which has been added in the molten state phosphorous in varying amounts of less than 1% for deoxidizing and strengthening purposes. Because of excellent toughness, strength, fine grain, resistance to fatigue and wear, and chemical resistance, these alloys find general use as springs and in making fittings. It has corrosion resisting properties comparable to copper.

Phosphor Bronze Strip A copper-based alloy containing up to 10% tin, which has been deoxidized with phosphorous in varying amounts of less than 1 % (see Phosphor Bronze). Temper is imparted by cold rolling, resulting in greater tensile strength and hardness than in most copper-base alloys or either of its alloying elements copper or tin. The various tempers from “One Number Hard” to “Ten Numbers Hard” are classified in hardness by the number of B & S Gages reduction in dimension from the previous soft or as annealed state (See Brown & Sharpe Gages). Phosphor Bronze is not heat treatable for purposes of hardness development. It does not withstand elevated temperatures very well and should not be used in service above 225°F. even after stress relieving treatment at 325 to 350°F. It has excellent electrical properties, corrosion resistant comparable to copper; great toughness and resistance to fatigue. Rated good for soft soldering, silver alloy brazing, oxyacetylene, carbon arc and resistance welding.

Phosphorus (Chemical symbol P) - Element No. 15 of the periodic system; atomic weight 30.98. Non-metallic element occurring in at least three allotropic forms; melting point 111°F.; boiling point 536°F.; specific gravity 1.82. In steels it is usually undesirable with limits set in most specifications. However, it is specified as an alloy in steel to prevent the sticking of light-gage sheets; to a degree it strengthens low carbon steel; increases resistance to corrosion, and improves machinability in free-cutting steels. In the manufacture of Phosphor Bronze it is used as a deoxidizing agent.

Photomicrograph A photographic reproduction of any object magnified more than ten diameters. The term micrograph may be used.

Physical Properties Those properties familiarly discussed in physics, exclusive of those described under mechanical properties; for example, density, electrical conductivity, co-efficient of thermal expansion. This term often has been used to describe mechanical properties, but this usage is not recommended.

PicklingProcess that cleans a steel coil of its rust, dirt and oil so that further work can be done to the metal. When hot-rolled coils cool, rust forms on the unprotected metal; often coils are stored or transported while exposed to outside air and water.

Through a continuous process, the steel is uncoiled and sent through a series of hydrochloric acid baths that remove the oxides (rust). The steel sheet is then rinsed and dried.

Pickling Patch A defect in tin plate, galvanized or terne plated steel due to faulty pickling, leaving areas from which the oxide has not been completely removed.

Pig Iron

Piling (Sheet Piling)

Pin Expansion Test A test for determining the ability of tubes to be expanded or for revealing the presence of cracks or other longitudinal weaknesses, made by forcing a tapered pin into the open end of a tube.

Pinch Pass Temper (See Soft Skin Rolled Temper and/or Temper Rolling)

Pinchers Long fern like creases usually diagonal to the direction of rolling.

Pinholes Microscopic imperfection of the coatings, that is, microscopic bare spots, also microscopic holes penetrating through a layer or thickness of light gage metal.

Pit A sharp depression in the surface of the metal.

Pitting Forming small sharp cavities in a metal surface by non-uniform electro-deposition or by corrosion.

Pitting factor The ratio of the depth of the deepest pit resulting from corrosion divided by the average penetration as calculated from mass loss.

Planimetric Method A method of measuring grain size, in which the grains within a definite area are counted.

Planishing Producing a smooth surface finish on metal by rapid succession of blows delivered by highly polished dies or by a hammer designed for the purpose, or by rolling in a planishing mill.

Plastic Deformation Deformation that remains, or will remain, permanent after release of the stress that caused it. Plasticity The ability of a metal to be deformed extensively without rupture.

Plate Sheet steel with a width of more than eight inches, with a thickness ranging from one quarter of an inch to more than one foot (see Sheet Steel).

Plate Martensite Martensite formed, partly in steels containing more than about 0.5% C and solely in steels containing more than about 1.0% C, as lenticular-shape plates on irrational habit planes that are near (225)A, or {259}A in very-high-carbon steels

Plating A thin coating of metal laid on another metal.

Plug weld A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a work piece so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the hole.

PM 2.5 The moniker for the Environmental Protection Agency's new Particulate Matter standards. The EPA is revising current PM standards and establishing a new PM 2.5 standard regarding the release of particulate matter down to 2.5 micrometers in diameter (less than one-third the width of a human hair).

Polished Surface The finish obtained by buffing with rouge or similar fine abrasive, resulting in a high gloss or polish.

Polishing Producing a specularly reflecting surface.

Polycrystalline Comprising an aggregate of more than one crystal, and usually a large number of crystals.

Polymorphism The ability of a material to exist in more than one crystallographic structure. Numerous metals change in crystallographic structure at transformation temperatures during heating or cooling. If the change is reversible, it is allotropy. The allotropy of iron, particularly the changes between the alpha body- centered and the gamma face centered form, is of fundamental importance in the hardening of steel.

Porosity A group of gas pores.

Postheating Heating weldments immediately after welding, for tempering, for stress relieving, or for providing a controlled rate of cooling to prevent formation of a hard or brittle structure.

Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) Also referred to as stress relieving, this process is used to soften the heat affected zones and relieve residual stresses created during welding.

Pot A vessel for holding molten metal. Also used to refer to the electrolytic reduction cell employed in winning certain metals, such as aluminum, from a fused electrolyte.

Pot Annealing Is the same as Box Annealing.

Pouring The transfer of molten metal from the ladle into ingot molds or other types of molds; for example, in castings.

Powder cutting Oxygen cutting in which powder is injected into the cutting oxygen stream to assist the cutting action.

Powder lance An oxygen lance in which powder is mixed with the oxygen stream.

Powder Metallurgy The art of producing metal powders and of utilizing metal powders for the production of massive materials and shaped objects.

Powder Metals

Precipitation Hardening (PH) Hardening caused by the precipitation of a constituent form a supersaturated solid solution. A small group of stainless steels with high chromium and nickel content, with the most common types having characteristics close to those of martensitic (plain chromium stainless class with exceptional strength) steels. Heat treatment provides this class with its very high strength and hardness. Applications for PH stainless steels include shafts for pumps and valves as well as aircraft parts.

Precipitation Heat Treatment Any of the various aging treatments conducted at elevated temperatures to improve certain of the mechanical properties through precipitation from solid solution.

Preheating

Heating before some further thermal or mechanical treatment. For tool steel, heating to an intermediate temperature immediately before austenitizing. For some nonferrous alloys, heating to a high temperature for a long time, in order to homogenize the structure before working.  (1) A general term used to describe heating applied as a preliminary to some further thermal or mechanical treatment.

 (2) A term applied specifically to tool steel to describe a process in which the steel is heated slowly and uniformly to a temperature below the hardening temperature and is then transferred to a furnace in which the temperature is substantially above the preheating temperature.

 (3) Nonfer. met.-Heating a metal to a relatively high temperature for a relatively long time in order to change the structure before working. Ingots are homogenized by preheating.

Preheating oxygen Oxygen used at a suitable pressure in conjunction with fuel gas for raising to ignition temperature the metal to be cut

Pressure Vessel Steel (PVS) Product intended for pressure vessels and similar end use applications

Pre-lubricant An oil coating that is applied to steel sheet to enhance formability (deep drawing). This lubricant is usually applied when the customer wishes to avoid the application of a forming lubricant in his plant.

Primes Metal products, such as sheet and plate, of the highest quality and free from visible surface defects.

Primer Coat The base coat of paint in a typical two-coat system. Primer coats are usually applied to produce a dry film thickness of approximately 0.2 mil. Process Annealing In the sheet and wire industries, a process by which a ferrous alloy is heated to a temperature close to, but below, the lower limit of the transformation range and is subsequently cooled. This process is applied in order to soften the alloy for further cold working.

Proeutectoid (phase) Particles of a phase that precipitate during cooling after austenitizing but before the eutectoid transformation takes place.

Progressive Aging An aging process in which the temperature of the alloy is continually increased during the aging cycle. The temperature may be increased in steps or by any other progressive method.

Proportional Limit The greatest stress that the material is capable of sustaining without a deviation from the law of proportionality of stress to strain. (Hooke’s Law)

Puddling Process A process for making wrought iron in which cast ore is melted in a hearth furnace and rabbled with slag and oxide until a pasty mass is obtained. This process was developed by Henry Cort about 1784 and remained in use until 1957, although on a very small scale during the present century.

Pulse-Echo Method A nondestructive test in which pulses of energy are directed onto a part, and the time for the echo to return from one or more reflecting surfaces is measured.

Pulverized Coal Injection System (PCI) A blast furnace enhancement to reduce an integrated mill's reliance on coke (because of environmental problems with its production). Up to 30% of the coke charged into the blast furnace can be replaced by this talcum-like coal powder, which is injected through nozzles at the bottom of the furnace.

Punch The movable part that forces the metal into the die in equipment for sheet drawing, blanking, coining, embossing and the like.

Punching Shearing holes in sheet metal with punch and die.

Pyrometer An instrument of various types used for measuring temperatures.

Qualification Trials

Quality A term used to denote the degree of perfection of the steel sheet. Often, for sheet products, relative quality refers to the degree of perfection of the surface, i.e., the lack of scratches, absence of slivers, etc. Quality can also refer to other attributes such as internal soundness, dimensional control, etc.

Quarter Hard (No. 3 Temper)

R Radiant Tube Annealing Box A box which is heated, inside, by means of tubes on which gas is burned; the hot tubes radiate their heat to the covered pile of metal, standing on the base of the box. Usually a protective atmosphere is maintained in the box to protect the metal from oxidation. - (See Annealing) (A) In low carbon cold-rolled strip steel, a medium soft temper produced by a limited amount of cold rolling after annealing. (B) In brass mill terminology. Quarter hard is one B and S number hard or 10.95% reduction. (C) In stainless steel terminology tempers are based on minimum tensile, or yield strength. For Chromium-Nickel grades Quarter Hard Temper is 125,000 T. S., 75,000 Y.S. min.

Quench Aging Aging that occurs after quenching following solution heat treatment.

Quench Hardening Hardening a ferrous alloy by austenitizing and then cooling rapidly enough so that some or all of the austenite transforms to martensite. The austenitizing temperature for hypoeutectoid steels is usually above Ac3 and for hypereutectoid steels usually between Ac1 and Ac (cm).

Quench Hardening (Steel) A process of hardening a ferrous alloy of suitable composition by heating within or above the transformation range and cooling at a rate sufficient to increase the hardness substantially. The process usually involves the formation of martensite.

Quenching In the heat treating of metals, the step of cooling metals rapidly in order to obtain desired properties; most commonly accomplished by immersing the metal in oil or water. In the case of most copper base alloys, quenching has no effect other than to hasten cooling.

Radiography A nondestructive method of internal examination in which metal objects are exposed to a beam of X- ray or gamma radiation. Differences in thickness, density or absorption, caused by internal defects or inclusions, are apparent in the shadow image either on a fluorescent screen or on photographic film placed behind the object.

Ragged Edges Edges of Sheet or Strip which are torn, split, cracked, ragged or burred or otherwise disfigured.

Recarburizing (1) Increasing the carbon content of molten cast iron or steel by adding carbonaceous material, high- carbon pig iron or a high-carbon alloy. (2) Carburizing a metal part to return surface carbon lost in processing.

Reciprocal Lattice (for a crystal) A group of points arranged about a center in such a way that the line joining each point of the center is perpendicular to a family of planes in the crystal, and the length of this line is inversely proportional to their interplanar distance.

Recovery (1) The removal of residual stresses by localized plastic flow as the result of low-temperature annealing operations; performed on cold worked metals without altering the grain structure or strength properties substantially.

Re-crystallization (1) The change from one crystal structure to another, as occurs on heating or cooling through a critical temperature. (2) The formation of a new, strain-free grain structure from that existing in cold worked metal, usually accomplished by heating.

Recrystallization Temperature The approximate minimum temperature at which complete re-crystallization of a cold worked metal occurs within a specified time.

Re-crystallization Annealing Annealing cold worked metal to produce a new grain structure without a phase change.

Red Brass 85% Copper -- A copper-zinc alloy containing approximately 15% zinc, used for plumbing pipe, hardware, condenser tubes. Because of its color, is used or vanity cases, coins, plaques, badges, etc. It is somewhat stronger than commercial bronze and is hardened more rapidly by cold working.

Red Shortness Brittleness in steel when it is red hot.

Reducing Agent Either natural gas or coal can be used to remove the oxygen from iron ore in order to produce a scrap substitute. In gas-based processes, the iron ore is heated in a vessel as reformed natural gas passes through. In coal-based processes, iron ore is combined with gasified or ground coal and heated. The oxygen in the ore combines with carbon and hydrogen in the gas or coal, producing reduced, or metallic, iron.

Reduction of Area

 Commonly, the difference, expressed as a percentage of original area, between the original cross-sectional area of a tensile test specimen and the minimum cross-sectional area measured after complete separation.

 The difference, expressed as a percentage of original area, between original cross-sectional area and that after straining the specimen.

Refinery A processing plant usually associated with a smelter that produces high purity metal.

Refining Temperature A temperature, usually just higher than the transformation range, employed in the heat treatment of steel to refine the structure -- in particular, the grain size.

Reflector Sheet An alclad product containing on one side a surface layer of high-purity aluminum superimposed on a core or base alloy of commercial-purity aluminum or an aluminum-manganese alloy. The high-purity coating imparts good polishing characteristics and the core gives adequate strength and formability.

Reflectivity (Reflectance) A term to indicate the percentage of reflected light from a painted surface. Considered a function of color rather than specular gloss. Reflectance percentages usually range from 80% to 90% for white colors to 5% to 15% for dark colors. Reflectivity standards vary for each industry and specific application.

Refractory A heat-resistant material, usually nonmetallic, which is used for furnace linings and such.

Refractory Alloy A term applied to those alloys which due to hardness or abrasiveness present relative difficulty in maintaining close dimensional tolerances.

Refractory Brick Heat-resistant brick. Because its melting point is well above the operating temperatures of the process, refractory bricks line most steelmaking vessels that come in contact with molten metal, like the walls of the blast furnace, sides of the ladles, and inside of the BOF. Registry Printing Printing successive colors or figures in a precise pattern and with exact superposition.

Reinforcing Bar (Rebar) A commodity-grade steel used to strengthen concrete in highway and building construction.

Reline The process of replacing the refractory lining of a liquid steel vessel. Once it wears out, the brick lining of a furnace must be cooled, stripped and replaced. This maintenance can be significant because a blast furnace reline may require up to three months to complete.

Rephosphorizing (Steel) A Ladle-chemical treatment consisting of the addition of phosphorus as a work hardening agent when temper rolling black plate or sheet steel resulting in greater hardness and stiffness and with a corresponding loss in ductility. . NOTE: Black Plate in tempers T5 and T6 (R/B range 68/84) are temper rolled from Rephosphorized steel.

Residual Elements Small quantities of elements unintentionally present in an alloy.

Residual Stress Macroscopic stresses that are set up within a metal as the result of non-uniform plastic deformation. This deformation may be caused by cold working or by drastic gradients of temperature from quenching or welding. Stress remaining in a metal part or structure as a result of welding.

Residuals The impurities in mini-mill steel as the result of the mix of metals entering the process dissolved in obsolete scrap. Residuals are key concerns regarding the mini-mills' recent entry into the flat-rolled market, where high residuals can leave sheet steel too brittle for customer use.

Resilience The tendency of a material to return to its original shape after the removal of a stress that has produced elastic strain.

Resistance Welding A type of welding process in which the work pieces are heated by the passage of an electric current through the contact. Such processes include spot welding, seam or line welding and percussion welding. Flash and butt-welding are sometimes considered as resistance welding processes.

Resolution The capacity of an optical or radiation system to separate closely spaced forms or entities; also, the degree to which such forms or entities can be discriminated.

Re-sulfurized Steel Steel to which sulfur has been added in controlled amounts after refining. The sulfur is added to improve machinability.

Reverse bend test A bend test in which the other than that specified for a face bend test is in tension.

Reversing Mill The stand of rolls used to reduce steel sheet or plate by passing the steel back and forth between the rolls; the gap between the rolls is reduced after each pass.

Ribbon Wound A term applied to a common method of winding strip steel layer upon layer around an arbor or mandrel. Riffles Waviness at the edge of sheet or strip.

Rightward welding A gas welding technique in which the flame is (Backward welding)

Rimmed Steel Low-carbon steel containing sufficient iron oxide to produce continuous evolution of carbon monoxide during ingot solidification, resulting in a case or rim of metal virtually free of voids.The rim is of somewhat purer composition than the original metal poured. If the rimming action is stopped shortly after pouring of the ingot is completed, the metal is known as capped steel. Most steels below 0.15% carbon are rimmed steels. For the same carbon and manganese content rimmed steel is softer than killed steel.

Ring The circle of seats on the LME floor which brokers occupy when trading. More commonly the term is used to describe the periods of trading which are broken down in to 5 minute sessions for each metal.>/p> Ripple (Defect) - A slight transverse wave or shadow mark appearing at intervals along the piece.

Rockwell Hardness (Test) A standard method for measuring the hardness of metals. The hardness is expressed as a number related to the depth of residual penetration of a steel ball or diamond cone (brale) after a minor load of 10 kilograms has been applied to hold the penetrator in position. This residual penetration is automatically registered on a dial when the major load is removed from the penetrator. Various dial readings combined with different major loads, five scales designated by letters varying from A to H; the B and C scales are most commonly in use.

Rod Round, thin semi-finished steel length that is rolled from a billet and coiled for further processing. Rod is commonly drawn into wire products or used to make bolts and nails. Rod trains (rolling facilities) can run as fast as 20,000 feet per minute, more than 200 miles an hour.

Roentgen Rays (See X-rays)

Roll Force Systems Mill stands place considerable pressure on slabs, blooms and coils to further process the material. There are two general ways of applying the force to the steel, screw and hydraulic systems.

Root (of weld) The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder.

Root face The portion of a fusion face at the root which is not beveled or grooved.

Screw (Incline Plane) This older method used the basic principle of the screw to adjust the space between the mill rolls. Because metal touches metal, these configurations will wear down over time and can cause quality problems.

Hydraulic (Pancake Cylinder) This modern system uses fluid pressure to rapidly adjust the roll spacing several times per second. These minute, instantaneous adjustments allow for superior gauge tracking and higher-quality products.

Roll Forming An operation used in forming sheet. Strips of sheet are passed between rolls of definite settings that bend the sheet progressively into structural members of various contours, sometimes called molded sections.

Rolled Edges Finished edges, the final contours of which are produced by side or edging rolls. The edge contours most commonly used are square corners, rounded corners and rounded edge.

Rolled In Scale A surface defect consisting of scale partially rolled into the surface of the sheet.

Roller Leveling Leveling by passing flat stock through a machine having a series of small-diameter staggered rolls.

Rolling Reducing the cross-sectional area of metal stock, or otherwise shaping metal products, through the use of rotating rolls.

Rolling Direction (In rolled metal) - The direction, in the plane of the sheet, perpendicular to the axes of the rolls during rolling.

Rolling Mills Equipment used for rolling down metal to a smaller size or to a given shape employing sets of rolls tie contours of which determine or fashion the product into numerous intermediate and final shapes, e.g., blooms, slabs, rails, bars, rods, sections, plates, sheets and strip.

Rotary Shear (Slitting Machine) A cutting machine with sharpened circular blades or disc-like cutters used for trimming edges and slitting sheet and foil. NOTE: cutter discs are also employed in producing circles from flat sheets but with differently designed machines.

Rule Die Steel A hardened and tempered medium high carbon spring steel strip sufficiently low in hardness to take moderately sharp bends without fracture, intended for manufacture into rule dies for the purpose of cutting or stamping fabrics, paper, cardboard, plastics, and metal foil into desired shape.

Run-off-plate(s) A piece, or pieces, of metal so placed as to enable the full section of weld to be obtained at the end of the joint.

SAE Abbreviation for Society of Automotive Engineers. This organization has specified common and alloy steels and copper base alloys in accordance with a numerical index system allowing approximation of the composition of the metal. The last two digits always indicate the carbon content, usually within 0.05%.

Salt Spray Test An accelerated corrosion test in which the metal specimens are exposed to a fine mist of salt water solution either continuously or intermittently.

Scab (Scabby) A blemish caused on a casting by eruption of gas from the mold face or by uneven mold surface or occurring where the skin from a blowhole has partly burned away and is not welded.

Scale The oxide of iron that forms on the surface of steel after heating. Scaleless Blue (See Black Oil Tempered Spring Steel)

Scallop (See Earing)

Scalping Machining the surface layers from ingots, billets and slabs before fabrication.

Scarf Joint A butt joint in which the plane of the joint is inclined with respect to the main axes of the members.

Scarfing Cutting surface areas of metal objects, ordinarily by using a gas torch. The operation permits surface defects to be cut from ingots, billets, or the edges of plate that is to be beveled for butt welding.

Scleroscope Hardness (Test) A method for measuring the hardness of metals; a diamond-pointed hammer drops from a fixed distance through a tube onto the smoothed metal surface and the rebound measured. The scleroscope hardness value is empirically taken from the rebound distance, with specified high-carbon steel as 100.

Scrap (Ferrous) Ferrous (iron-containing) material that generally is re-melted and recast into new steel. Integrated steel mills use scrap for up to 25% of their basic oxygen furnace charge; 100% of the mini-mills' raw material for their electric furnaces generally is scrap.

Home Scrap Waste steel that is generated from within the steel mill, through edge trimming and rejects. It normally is sent directly back to the furnace.

Prompt Industrial Scrap Excess steel that is trimmed by the auto and appliance stampers and auctioned to scrap buyers as factory bundles. This is a high-quality scrap as the result of its low-residual content and consistent chemistry.

Obsolete Scrap Iron-bearing trash. Automobile hulks, worn-out refrigerators and useless storage tanks, for example, can be recovered from the junkyard and re-melted. The residual impurity of such scrap normally relegates obsolete scrap to the mini-mills ( No. 1 Heavy Melt).

Scrap Substitute Raw material that can be charged in place of scrap in electric arc furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces. Scrap substitutes include, among others, DRI, HBI, iron carbide, and pig iron.

Scratch Brushed Finish Finish obtained by mechanically brushing the surface with wire bristle brushes, by buffing with greaseless compound or by cold rolling with wire bristled rolls on scratch etched finish.

Seal weld A weld, not being a strength weld, used to make a (sealing weld)

Sealing run The final run deposited on the root side of a fusion (backing run)

Seam (defect) On the surface of metal a crack that has been closed but not welded; usually produced by some defect either in casting or in working, such as blowholes that have become oxidized or folds and laps that have been formed during working. Similar to cold shut and laminations. Seam Annealing The process of heating the seam weld at a Pipe Mill to improve strength.

Seam Welding An electric-resistance type of welding process, in which the lapped sheet is passed between electrodes of the roller type while a series of overlapping spot welds is made by the intermittent application of electric current.

Seamless Pipe Pipe made from a solid billet, which is heated, then rotated under extreme pressure. This rotational pressure creates an opening in the center of the billet, which is then shaped by a mandrel to form pipe.

Secondary Hardening Tempering certain alloy steels at certain temperatures so that the resulting hardness is greater than that obtained by tempering the same steel at some lower temperature for the same time.

Secondary Metal Scrap metal that has been recycled.

Secondary Steel Steel that does not meet the original customer's specifications because of a defect in its chemistry, gauge or surface quality. Mills must search to find another customer (that can accept the lower quality) to take the off-spec steel at a discount. While secondary will not affect the reported yield, margins will suffer.

Seconds The designation given to sheet or strip that has imperfections in moderate degree or extent, which may be classified in two general groups -- imperfections in the base material, or other manufacturing defects. This term not used in connection with non-ferrous alloys.

Segment Steel Used for laminated piston rings. Carbon content about .60%. Hardened and blue tempered with round edges. Hardness usually Rockwell 30 N 68 to 71, widths vary from .058 to .163 and thicknesses are . 020, .024 and .030.

Segregation Non-uniform distribution of alloying elements, impurities or phases. In an alloy, concentration of alloying elements at specific regions, usually as a result of the primary crystallization of one phase with the subsequent concentration of other elements in the remaining liquid.

Segregation Banding In homogeneous distribution of alloying elements aligned on filaments or plates parallel to the direction of working.

Self Diffusion The spontaneous movement of an atom to a new site in a crystal of its own species.

Self-Hardening Steel A steel containing sufficient carbon or alloying element, or both, of form martensite either through air hardening or, as in welding and induction hardening, through rapid removal of heat from a locally heated portion by conduction into the surrounding cold metal.

Semi-finished Steel Steel shapes—for example, blooms, billets or slabs—that later are rolled into finished products such as beams, bars or sheet.

Semis Semi-fabricated products. Sendzimir Mill

 WHAT A mill having two work rolls of 1 to 2 1/2-in diameter. each, backed up by two rolls twice that diameter and each of these backed up by bearings on a shaft mounted eccentrically so that rotating it increases the pressure between bearings and backup rolls.

 WHY To control the thickness of steel better at lower capital cost, and to roll thinner sheets and strips.

 HOW Stainless steel sheet or strip passes between a matching pair of small work rolls with extremely smooth surfaces, heavily reinforced by clusters of back-up rolls. The rolls reduce the steel to the desired thickness. Service Center A catchall name for an operation that buys steel, often processes it in some way and then sells it in a slightly different form. A service center is distinguished from an end-user by the fact that, unlike an end-user, a service center sells steel, not a fabricated product. Service centers are manufacturers to the extent that they add labor to steel by providing a service.

Semikilled Steel Steel that is incompletely deoxidized and contains sufficient dissolved oxygen to react with the carbon to form carbon monoxide and thus offset solidification shrinkage.

Semi-Steel Cast iron (not steel) of high quality, obtained by using a large percentage of steel scrap with the pig iron.

Settlement Price The official cash sellers price (offer) announced each day by the LME, which the London Clearing House uses to settle contracts.

Shape Correcting Rolling, heating and quenching steel sheets often affect the dimensions of the steel. Levelers, temper mills and edge trimmers rework the processed steel to match customer specifications.

Shear Bands (deformation) Bands in which deformation has been concentrated in homogeneously in sheets that extend across regional groups of grains. Usually only one system is present in each regional group of grains, different systems being present in adjoining groups. The bands are non-crystallographic and form on planes of maximum shear stress (55(degrees) to the compression direction). They carry most of the deformation at large strains. Compare microbands.

Shear A type of cutting operation in which the metal object is cut by means of a moving blade and fixed edge or by a pair of moving blades that may be either flat or curved.

Shear Crack A diagonal, transgranular crack caused by shear stresses.

Shear Steel Steel produced by forge welding together several bars of blister steel, providing a more homogeneous product.

Shear Strength The stress required to produce fracture in the plane of cross section, the conditions of loading being such that the directions of force and of resistance are parallel and opposite although their paths are offset a specified minimum amount. Shearing If the edges of sheet and strip are not controlled during reduction, they must be trimmed parallel by shears. This process may be performed by either the steel mill or steel processor to match customer needs.

Sheet Steel Thin, flat-rolled steel. Coiled sheet steel accounts for nearly one-half of all steel shipped domestically and is created in a hot-strip mill by rolling a cast slab flat while maintaining the side dimensions. The malleable steel lengthens to several hundred feet as it is squeezed by the rolling mill. The most common differences among steel bars, strip, plate, and sheet are merely their physical dimensions of width and gauge (thickness).

Product Classification by Size

Source: Smith Barney Inc./Salomon Brothers Inc.

Shell Molding Forming a mold from thermosetting resin-bonded sand mixtures brought in contact with preheated (300 to 500 (degrees) F) metal patterns, resulting in a firm shell with a cavity corresponding to the outline of the pattern. Also called Croning process.

Shielded-Arc Welding Arc welding in which the arc and the weld metal are protected by a gaseous atmosphere, the products of decomposition of the electrode covering, or a blanket of fusible flux.

Shim A thin flat hard metal strip produced to close tolerances; used primarily for tool, die and machine alignment purposes. In steel there are four general types: (1) Low Carbon Rockwell B 80/100; (2) Hard Rolled High Carbon Rockwell C 28/33. (3) Hardened and Tempered Spring Steel Rockwell C 44/51; (4) Austenitic Stainless Steel Rockwell C 35/45. Brass shim of commercial quality is also used and most generally specified is 2 Nos. Hard but may be 4 Nos. Hard.

Shore Hardness (Test) (See Scleroscope Hardness)

Short An open position for the sale of metal.

Short Brittle.

Short Terne A term applying to terne coated (Lead and Tin) sheets with reference to Base Box sizes (14 x 20) Refer to terne plate.

Shortness A form of brittleness in metal. It is designated as cold, hot, and red, to indicate the temperature range in which the brittleness occurs.

Shot Blasting Cleaning surface of metal by air blast, using metal as a result of solidification shrinkage and the progressive freezing of metal towards the center.

Shot peening Stressing the surface layer of a material by bombarding it with a selected medium (usually round steel shot) under controlled conditions.

Shredded Scrap Fist-sized, homogenous pieces of old automobile hulks. After cars are sent through a shredder, the recyclable steel is separated by magnets. Mini-mills consume shredded scrap in their electric arc furnace operations.

Shrinkage Cavity A void left in cast metals as a result of solidification shrinkage and the progressive freezing of metal towards the center.

Shrinkage groove A shallow groove caused by contraction of the metal along each side of a penetration bead.

Side bend test A bend test in which the face of a transverse section of the weld is in tension

Side Trimming This is when the sides of the strip are continually being sheared off while the strip is being pulled into two vertical overlapping knives.

Sigma Phase An extremely brittle Fe-Cr phase that can form at elevated temperatures in Fe-Cr-Ni and Ni-Cr-Fe alloys.

Silicon (Si) (Chemical symbol Si) Element No. 14 of the periodic system; atomic weight 28.06. Extremely common element, the major component of all rocks and sands; its chemical reactions, however, are those of a metalloid. Used in metallurgy as a deoxidizing scavenger. Silicon is present, to some extent, in all steels, and is deliberately added to the extent of approximately 4% for electric sheets, extensively used in alternating current magnetic circuits. Silicon cannot be electrodeposited.

Silicon Electrical Steel A type of specialty steel created by introducing silicon during the steelmaking process. Electrical steel exhibits certain magnetic properties, which make it optimum for use in transformers, power generators and electric motors.

 Grain-Oriented The metal's grain runs parallel within the steel, permitting easy magnetization along the length of the steel. Although grain-oriented steel may be twice as expensive to produce, its magnetic directional characteristics enable power transformers, made from this metal, to absorb less energy during operation.  Non-Grain-Oriented Because there is no preferential direction for magnetization, non-grain-oriented steel is best used in rotating apparatus such as electric motors.

Siliconizing Diffusing silicon into solid metal, usually steel, at an elevated temperature.

Silky Fracture A steel fracture that has a very smooth fine grain or silky appearance.

Silver Solders Alloys of silver, copper, zinc and other metals, melting between 650 and 875 (degrees) C. used for making strong yet moderately ductile joints that resist corrosion.

Single-Action Press A forming press that operates with a single function, such as moving a punch into a die with no simultaneous action for holding down the bland or ejecting the formed work.

Sinker Steel Used for making sinkers in hosiery making machinery. Supplied both hardened and tempered and cold rolled and annealed. Usually extra precision rolled and extra flat. Carbon content about 1.25.

Sinkhead A reservoir insulated to retain heat and to hold excess molten metal on top of an ingot mold, in order to feed the shrinkage of the ingot. Also called shrink head or feeder head. (See Hot Top)

Sintered Carbide Composite, containing carbides of extremely refractory metals, such as tungsten, tantalum, titanium, etc., cemented together by a relatively low-melting metal, such as cobalt acing as a matrix.

Sintering Converting powder into a continuous mass by heating to a temperature considerably below fusion, usually after preliminary compacting by pressure. It is a process that combines iron-bearing particles, once recovered from environmental control filters, into small pellets. Previously, these materials were too fine to withstand the air currents of the smelting process and were thrown away. The iron is now conserved because the chunks can be charged into the blast furnace (see Agglomerating Processes).

Skelp Steel that is the entry material to a pipe mill. It resembles hot-rolled strip, but its properties allow for the severe forming and welding operations required for pipe production.

Skin A thin surface layer that is different from the main mass of a metal object, in composition, structure or other characteristics.

Skin Pass Rolling A light cold rolling operation that is employed to improve flatness, produce the final surface finish or texture, develop mechanical properties, and/or reduce the tendency of stretcher strain or fluting during forming.

Skip sequence A welding sequence in which short lengths of run are (skip welding )

Skull A layer of solidified metal or dross on the wall of a pouring vessel often when metal has been poured.

Slab The most common type of semi-finished steel. Traditional slabs measure 10 inches thick and 30-85 inches wide (and average about 20 feet long), while the output of the recently developed "thin slab" casters is approximately two inches thick. Subsequent to casting, slabs are sent to the hot-strip mill to be rolled into coiled sheet and plate products.

Slack Quenching The process of hardening steel by quenching from the austenitizing temperature at a rate slower than the critical cooling rate for the particular steel, resulting in incomplete hardening and the formation of one or more transformation products in addition to or instead of martensite.

Slag The impurities in a molten pool of iron. Flux such as limestone may be added to foster the congregation of undesired elements into a slag. Because slag is lighter than iron, it will float on top of the pool, where it can be skimmed.

Slag-trap A configuration in a joint or joint preparation which may lead to the entrapment of slag.

Slip Plastic deformation by irreversible shear displacement of one part of a crystal relative to another in a definite crystallographic direction and on a definite crystallographic plane. Slip Direction The crystallographic direction in which translation of slip takes place.

Slip Line Trace of a slip plane on a viewing surface.

Slip Plane The crystallographic plane on which slip occurs in a crystal.

Slit When two or more widths are obtained from the hot rolled substrate width. The slitting operation results in a cut edge.

Slit Edges The edges of sheet or strip metal resulting from cutting to width by rotary slitters.

Slitter A processing unit that is used for side trimming or slitting into multiples.

Slitting Cutting a sheet of steel into narrower strips to match customer needs. Because steel mills have limited flexibility as to the widths of the sheet that they produce, service centers normally will cut the sheet for the customer.

Sliver (defect) Loose metal piece rolled down onto the surface of the metal during the rolling operations.

Slot lap joint A joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the other component exposed through the hole.

Smelter A processor of mine feed or scrap material (secondary smelter) which produces crude metal.

Soaking Prolonged heating of a metal at selected temperature.

Soft Skin Rolled Temper (No. 4 Temper) In low carbon-rolled strip steel, soft and ductile. Produced by subjecting annealed strip to a pinch pass or skin rolling (a very light rolling).

Solder Embrittlement Reduction in ductility of a metal or alloy, associated with local penetration by molten solder along grain boundaries.

Soldering Joining metals by fusion of alloys that have relatively low melting points -- most commonly, lead-base or tin-base alloys, which are the soft solders. Hard solders are alloys that have silver, copper, or nickel bases and use of these alloys with melting points higher than 800 (degrees) F. is generally termed brazing.

Solid Solution A solid crystalline phase containing two or more chemical species in concentrations that may vary between limits imposed by phase equilibrium.

Solidus In a constitutional diagram, the locus of points representing the temperatures at which various components finish freezing on cooling or begin to melt on heating. Solute The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to the lesser or minor extent; the component that is dissolved in the solvent.

Solution Heat Treatment A heat treatment in which an alloy is heated to a suitable temperature, held at that temperature long enough to cause one or more constituents to enter into solid solution, and then cooled rapidly enough to hold these constituents in solution.

Solution Heat Treatment Heating an alloy to a suitable temperature, holding at that temperature long enough to allow one or more constituents to enter into solid solution, and then cooling rapidly enough to hold the constituents in solution. The alloy is left in a supersaturated, unstable state, and may subsequently exhibit quench aging.

Solvent The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to the greater or major extent; the component that dissolves the solute.

Solvus In a phase or equilibrium diagram, the locus of points representing the temperature at which solid phases with various compositions coexist with other solid phases; that is, the limits of solid solubility.

Sorbite Structure of steel, resulting from the tempering of martensite. In a truly sorbitic structure, the cementite is completely dispersed in the matrix. The trend is to call this structure tempered martensite. It is a fine mixture of ferrite and cementite produced either by regulating the rate of cooling of steel or tempering steel after hardening. The first type is very fine pearlite difficult to resolve under the microscope; the second type is tempered martensite.

Sorbitic Pearlite Structure of steel resulting, on cooling under the proper conditions, from the decomposition of austenite; has a fine, lamellar appearance.

Space Lattice (crystal) A system of equivalent points formed by the intersections of three sets of planes parallel to pairs of principal axes; the space lattice may be thought of as formed by the corners of the unit cells.

Space-Centered (concerning space lattices) Body-centered.

Spalling The cracking and flaking of particles out of a surface.

Spangle The spangle of a hot-dip coated sheet surface is the visual manifestation of the grains that form within the coating when it solidifies as the sheet emerges from the pot of molten coating metal. The spangle or grain varies in size, brightness and surface relief, depending upon a number of factors, most of which are related to the composition of the coating and cooling practices.

Special Bar Quality (SBQ) SBQ represents a wide variety of higher-quality carbon and alloy bars that are used in the forging, machining and cold-drawing industries for the production of automotive parts, hand tools, electric motor shafts and valves. SBQ generally contains more alloys than merchant quality and commodity grades of steel bars, and is produced with more precise dimensions and chemistry. Specialty Steel Category of steel that includes electrical (see Silicon Electrical Steel), alloy (see Alloy Steel), stainless (see Stainless Steel) and tool (see Tool Steels) steels.

Specialty Tube Refers to a wide variety of high-quality custom-made tubular products requiring critical tolerances, precise dimensional control and special metallurgical properties. Specialty tubing is used in the manufacture of automotive, construction and agricultural equipment, and in industrial applications such as hydraulic cylinders, machine parts and printing rollers. Because of the range of industrial applications, the market typically follows general economic conditions.

Specific Gravity A numerical value representing the weight of a given substance as compared with the weight of an equal volume of water, for which the specific gravity is taken as 1.0000.

Spectograph An optical instrument for determining the presence or concentration of minor metallic constituents in a material by indicating the presence and intensity of specific wave lengths of radiation when the material is thermally or electrically excited.

Spelter (Prime Western Spelter) A low-grade of Virgin Zinc containing approximately 98% Zinc used in Galvanizing processes.

Spherodizing Heating and cooling to produce a spherical or globular form of carbide in steel. Spherodizing methods frequently used are: 1. Prolonged holding at a temperature just below Ae1. . 2. Heating and cooling alternately between temperatures that are just below Ae1. . 3. Heating to temperature above Ae1 or Ae3 and then cooling very slowly in the furnace or holding at a temperature just below Ae1. . 4. Cooling at a suitable rate from the minimum temperature at which all carbide is dissolved, to prevent the reformation of a carbide network, and then re-heating in accordance with methods 1 or 2 above. (Applicable to hypereutectoid steel containing a carbide network.

Spherodizing Annealing A subcritical annealing treatment intended to produce spherodization of cementite or other carbide phases.

Spherodized Structure A microstructure consisting of a matrix containing spheroidal particles of another constituent.

Spiegel High-manganese pig iron, containing 15-30% manganese, approximately 5% carbon, and less than 1% silicon used in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer, or basic open-hearth process.

Spinning The procedure of making sheet metal discs into hollow shapes by pressing the metal against a rotating form (spinning chuck) by a tool.

Spot Market Sales for delivery in less than three months.

Spot Welding Welding of lapped parts in which fusion is confined to a relatively small circular area. It is generally resistance welding, but may also be gas-shielded tungsten-arc, gas-shielded metal-arc, or submerged- arc welding. It is an electric-resistance welding process in which the fusion is limited to a small area. The pieces being welded are pressed together between a pair of water-cooled electrodes through which an electrical current is passed during a very short interval so that fusion occurs over a small area at the interface between the pieces. Spray transfer Metal transfer which takes place as globules of diameter substantially larger than that of the consumable electrode from which they are transferred.

Spread b A term referring to the difference in two prices. The contango or backwardation between two prompt dates or the difference between the bid and offer price.

Spring Steel Steel, normally of the high-carbon or alloy type, used in the manufacture of springs, lending itself to appropriate heat treatment; usually made is the open hearth or electric furnace.

Spring Steel Strip Any of a number of strip steels produced for use in the manufacture of steel springs or where high tensile properties are required marketed in the annealed state, hard rolled or as hardened and tempered strip.

Spring Temper In brass mill terminology, Spring Temper is eight numbers hard or 60.50% reduction.

Spring-Back An indicator of elastic stresses, frequently measured as the increase in diameter of a curved strip after removing it from the mandrel about which it was held. The measurement is employed as an indicator of the extent of recovery or relief of residual stresses that has been achieved by the transformation of elastic strain to plastic strain during heating or stress relieving.

Stabilizing Annealing A treatment applied to austenitic stainless steels that contain titanium or columbium. This treatment consists of heating to a temperature below that of a full anneal in order to precipitate the maximum amount of carbon at titanium carbide or columbium carbide. This eliminates precipitation at lower temperatures, which might reduce the resistance of the steel to corrosion.

Stabilizing Treatment Any treatment intended to stabilize the structure of an alloy of the dimensions of a part. (1) Heating austenitic stainless steels that contain titanium, columbium, or tantalum to a suitable temperature below that of a full anneal in order to inactivate the maximum amount of carbon by precipitation as a carbide of titanium, columbium, or tantalum. (2) Transforming retained austenite in parts made from tool steel. (3) Precipitating a constituent from a nonferrous solid solution to improve the workability, to decrease the tendency of certain alloys to age harden at room temperature, or to obtain dimensional stability.

Stack cutting The thermal cutting of a stack of plates usually clamped together.

Staggered intermittent weld An intermittent weld on each side of a joint (usually fillet welds in T and lap joints) arranged so that the welds on one side lie opposite the spaces on the another side along the joint.

Stain Finish (See Scratch Brushed Finish)

Stainless Steel The term for grades of steel that contain more than 10% chromium, with or without other alloying elements. Stainless steel resists corrosion, maintains its strength at high temperatures, and is easily maintained. For these reasons, it is used widely in items such as automotive and food processing products, as well as medical and health equipment. The most common grades of stainless steel are:  TYPE 304 The most commonly specified austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel, accounting for more than half of the stainless steel produced in the world. This grade withstands ordinary corrosion in architecture, is durable in typical food processing environments, and resists most chemicals. Type 304 is available in virtually all product forms and finishes.

 TYPE 316 Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel containing 2%-3% molybdenum (whereas 304 has none). The inclusion of molybdenum gives 316 greater resistance to various forms of deterioration.

 TYPE 409 Ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel suitable for high temperatures. This grade has the lowest chromium content of all stainless steels and thus is the least expensive.

 TYPE 410 The most widely used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class with exceptional strength) stainless steel, featuring the high level of strength conferred by the martensitic. It is a low-cost, heat-treatable grade suitable for non-severe corrosion applications.

 TYPE 430 The most widely used ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel, offering general-purpose corrosion resistance, often in decorative applications.

Stamping A term used to refer to various press forming operations in coining, embossing, blanking, and pressing.

Statistical Process Control (SPC) A technique used to predict when a steelmaking function's quality may deteriorate. By tightly monitoring the product's variance from specifications, the operator can determine when to apply preventative maintenance to a machine before any low-quality (secondary) steel is produced.

Steam Blued (See Bluing)

Steckel Mill A reversing steel sheet reduction mill with heated coil boxes at each end. Steel sheet or plate is sent through the rolls of the reversing mill and coiled at the end of the mill, reheated in the coil box, and sent back through the Steckel stands and recoiled. By reheating the steel prior to each pass, the rolls can squeeze the steel thinner per pass and impart a better surface finish.

Steel An iron-base alloy, malleable in some temperature range as initially cast, containing manganese, usually carbon, and often-other alloying elements. In carbon steel and low-alloy steel, the maximum carbon is about 2.0%; in high-alloy steel, about 2.5%. The dividing line between low-alloy and high- alloy steels is generally regarded as being at about 5% metallic alloying elements. Steel is to be differentiated from two general classes of irons: the cast irons, on the high-carbon side, and the relatively pure irons such as ingot iron, carbonyl iron, and electrolytic iron, on the low-carbon side. In some steels containing extremely low carbon, the manganese content is the principal differentiating factor, steel usually containing at least 0.25%; ingot iron contains considerably less.

Steel Intensity The amount of steel used per unit of gross domestic product. Intensity reflects the secular demand for steel, as opposed to cyclical demand. The amount of steel used in vehicles and the popularity of alternative materials affect the intensity, or how much steel is needed per unit produced. The state of the economy, however, determines the number of units. Steel Strapping Banding and packaging material that is used to close and reinforce shipping units, such as bales, boxes, cartons, coils, crates, and skids.

Steel-Intensive Products Consumer products such as automobiles and appliances that, because so much of their weight is from steel, exhibit a high demand correlation with steel.

Sterling Silver A silver alloy containing at least 95.2% Ag, the remainder being unspecified but usually copper.

Sticker Steel sheets or strip adhering. Usually by fusion spots caused by overheating during box annealing.

Stockist A distributor of semi-fabricated products who holds stock for sale to consumers.

Straight-Chrome An iron alloy. A term indicating a group of stainless steels the principal alloying element of which is chromium in varying amounts from 4.00 to 27.00%.

Strain A measure of the change in the size or shape of a body, referred to its original size or shape. Linear strain is the change per unit length of a linear dimension. True strain (or natural strain) is the natural logarithm of the ratio of the length at the moment of observation to the original gauge length. Conventional strain is the linear strain referred to the original gauge length. Shearing strain (or shear strain) is the change in angle (expressed in radians) between two lines originally at right angles. When the term strain is used alone it usually refers to the linear strain in the direction of the applied stress.

Strain Aging Aging induced by cold work.

Strain Hardening An increase in hardness and strength caused by plastic deformation at temperatures below the re- crystallization range.

Strength Properties related to the ability of steel to oppose applied forces. Forms of strength include withstanding imposed loads without a permanent change in shape or structure and resistance to stretching.

Stress Deforming force to which a body is subjected or the resistance which the body offers to deformation by the force.

Stress-Cracking Occurs during the thermal cutting of high carbon and alloy steels at the cut edges. proper processing, which may include preheating, will prevent this problem

Stress-Corrosion Cracking Failure by cracking under the combined action of corrosion and stress, either external (applied) or internal (residual). Cracking may be either intergranular or transgranular, depending on the metal and the corrosive medium.

Stress Relief Low temperature annealing for removing internal stresses, such as those resulting on a metal from work hardening or quenching.

Stress Relieving Heating to a suitable temperature, holding long enough to reduce residual stresses and then cooling slowly enough to minimize the development of new residual stresses.

Stress-Rupture Test A tension test performed at constant temperature, the load being held at such a level as to cause rupture. Also known as creep-rupture test.

Stretch Forming A process of forming panels and cowls of large curvature by stretching sheet over a form of the desired shape. This method is more rapid than hammering and beating.

Stretcher Leveling Leveling where a piece of metal is gripped at each end and subjected to a stress higher than its yield strength to remove warp and distortion. Sometimes called patent leveling. It is a method of making metal sheet or strip dead flat by stretching.

Stretcher Straightening A process for straightening rod, tubing, and shapes by the application of tension at the ends of the stock. The products are elongated a definite amount to remove warpage.

Stretcher Straining Steel pulled beyond its yield point leaving a distorted surface; also called coil breaks.

Stretcher Strains Elongated markings that appear on the surface of some materials when deformed just past the yield point. These markings lie approximately parallel to the direction of maximum shear stress and are the result of localized yielding Same as Luders lines.

Striking voltage The minimum voltage at which any specified arc may be initiated.

Strip Thin, flat steel that resembles hot-rolled sheet, but it is normally narrower (up to 12 inches wide) and produced to more closely controlled thicknesses. Strip also may be cut from steel sheet by a slitting machine (see Sheet Steel ).

Strip Steel (cold rolled) A flat cold rolled steel product (Other than Flat Wire) 23 15/16 and narrower; under .250 in thickness, which has been cold reduced to desired decimal thickness and temper on single stand, single stand reversing, or tandem cold mills in coil form from coiled hot rolled pickled strip steel.

Structurals Steel product group that includes I-beams, H-beams, wide-flange beams and sheet piling. These products are used in the construction of multi-story buildings, industrial buildings, bridge trusses, vertical highway supports, and riverbank reinforcement.

Structural Steel Sheet When this term is applied to steel sheet, it refers to the designation that is used for steel sheet that is produced to meet a specific level of strength and formability. The formability is expressed as percent elongation in a tensile test. Structural Steel is typically used for applications where the strength of the sheet is an important design criterion, i.e., load-bearing applications.

Structure The arrangement of parts; in crystals, especially, the shape and dimension of the until cell, and the number, kinds and positions of the atoms within it.

Sub-boundary Structure (subgrain structure) A network of low-angle boundaries (usually with misorientations or less than one degree) within the main grains of a microstructure. Subcritical Annealing An annealing treatment in which a steel is heated to a temperature below the A1 temperature and then cooled slowly to room temperature.

Subgrain A portion of a crystal or grain slightly different in orientation from neighboring portions of the same crystal. Generally, neighboring subgrains are separated by low-angle boundaries.

Submerged-arc welding Metal-arc welding in which a bare wire electrode or electrodes are used; the arc or arcs are enveloped in a flux, some of which fuses to form a removable covering of slag on the weld.

Substitutional Solid Solution A solid solution in which the solvent and solute atoms are located randomly at the atom sites in the crystal structure of the solution.

Substrate The layer of metal underlying a coating, regardless of whether the layer is base metal. Raw material used as an input for steel processing: For example, hot-rolled steel is the substrate for cold-rolling operations.

Sulfidation The reaction of a metal or alloy with a sulphur-containing species to produce a sulphur compound that forms on or beneath the surface of the metal or alloy.

Sulfide Stress Cracking Cracking of a metal under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the presence of water and hydrogen sulphide (a form of hydrogen stress cracking.)

Sulfur (S) (Chemical symbol S) Element No. 16 of the periodic system; atomic weight 32.06. Non-metal occurring in a number of allotropic modifications, the most common being a pale-yellow brittle solid. In steel most commonly encountered as an undesired contaminant. However, it is frequently deliberately added to cutting stock to increase machinability.

Superalloy An alloy developed for very high temperature service where relatively high stresses (tensile, thermal, vibratory, and shock) are encountered and where oxidation resistance is frequently required.

Supercooling Cooling to a temperature below that of an equilibrium phase transformation without the transformation taking place.

Superficial Rockwell Hardness Test Form of Rockwell hardness test using relatively light loads which produce minimum penetration. Used for determining surface hardness or hardness of thin sections or small parts, or where large hardness impression might be harmful.

Surface-fusion welding Gas welding in which a carburizing flame is used to melt the surface of the parent metal which then unites with the metal from a suitable filler rod.

Sustained backfire Retrogression of the flame into the blowpipe neck or body the flame remaining alight. Note: This manifests itself either as "popping" or "squealing" with a small pointed flame issuing from the nozzle orifice or as a rapid series of minor explosions inside.

T T/Cs a treatment charge made by galvanisers and refiners for their services.

T-Bend 0-,1-,2-, etc. A mechanical operation wherein a sheet sample is bent back upon itself with the inside bend radius specified in terms of the sheet thicknesses. Thus a 2-T Bend is a bend with an inside radius equivalent to two times the thickness of the metal sheet being tested.

Tack Welds Small scattered welds made to hold parts of a weld in proper alignment while the final welds are being made.

Taconite

 WHAT Natural mineral containing less than 30% iron. It is the primary ore used in blast furnaces.

 WHY Domestic supplies of iron-rich ores (greater than 50% iron) were largely depleted in the 1940s, so integrated steel companies now process the lower-grade taconite to make it useful.

Tailored Blanks A section of sheet or strip that is cut-to-length and trimmed to match specifications for the manufacturer's stamping design for a particular part. Because excess steel is cut away (to save shipping costs), all that remains for the stamper is to impart the three-dimensional shape with a die press (see Blanking).

Tandem Coating Line A continuous coil coating line having two or more coating machines and curing or baking ovens in the line so it is capable of applying and curing two coats of paint in one pass through the line

Tandem Mill A type of cold-rolling mill, the tandem mill imparts greater strength, a uniform and smoother surface, and reduced thickness to the steel sheet. Unlike the original single-stand mills, a tandem mill rolls steel through a series of rolls (generally three to five in a row) to achieve a desired thickness and surface quality.

Tantalum (Ta) A by-product of tin processing, this refractory metal is used as a barrier to corrosion of chemical processing and carbide cutting tools, and still-growing use as electronic capacitors and filaments. Melts at 2415 degrees Fahrenheit.

Taper Section A section made at an acute angle to a surface of interest, thereby achieving a geometrical magnification of depth. A sectioning angle 5(degrees) 43 achieves a depth magnification of 10: 1.

Tapping Transferring molten metal from melting furnace to ladle.

Tarnish Surface discoloration on a metal, usually from a thin film of oxide or sulfide.

Teeming Pouring molten metal from a ladle into ingot molds. The term applies particularly to the specific operation of pouring either iron or steel into ingot molds.

Temper  (1) In heat treatment, re-heating hardened steel or hardened steel or hardened cast iron to some temperature below the eutectoid temperature for the purpose of decreasing the hardness and increasing the toughness. The process also is sometimes applied to normalized steel.

 (2) In tool steels, temper is sometimes used, but unadvisedly, to denote the carbon content.

 (3) In nonferrous alloys and in some ferrous alloys (steels that cannot be hardened by heat treatment), the hardness and strength produced by mechanical or thermal treatment, or both, and characterized by a certain structure, mechanical properties, or reduction in area during cold working.

It is the state of or condition of a metal as to its hardness or toughness produced by either thermal treatment or heat treatment and quench or cold working or a combination of same in order to bring the metal to its specified consistency. Each branch of the metal producing industry has developed its own system of temper designates. In flat rolled products including sheet and strip steel, tin mill products, stainless strip, aluminum sheet and copper base alloy strip; they are shown as follows:

 COPPER BASED ALLOYS (Cold Rolled) - B S Gage Numbers.

NOTE - Hardness is indicated condition, Hardness varies with alloy changes.

Temper Hardness

Annealed ...... Commercially Soft

Quarter Hard ...... One Number Hard

Half Hard ...... Two Numbers Hard

Hard Temper ...... Four Numbers Hard

Extra Hard ...... Six Numbers Hard

Spring Temper ...... Eight Numbers Hard

Extra Spring Temper ...... Ten Numbers Hard

 SHEET STEEL (Low Carbon Cold Rolled) - Temper Classifications.

Temper Hardness

Full Hard ...... 069 and thinner B 90 min.

...... 070 and thinner B 84 min.

Half Hard ...... Approx. R/B 70/85

Quarter Hard ...... Approx. R/B 60/75

Soft Commercial Quality ...... Approx. R/B 66 max.

Drawing Quality ...... Approx. R/B 55 max.

 STAINLESS STRIP STEEL (Cold Rolled Temper Classification) - Type 301.

NOTE - The various stainless strip tempers are based on specified minimum values for tensile strength or yield strength or both. However, because of custom, both distributors and customers alike rely on approximate Rockwell readings for temper classification. To illustrate: Temper (Type 301) Rockwell Tensile Psi

Soft ...... Approx. B 75/85 ...... 110,000 Min.

Quarter Hard ...... Approx. C 25/30 ...... 125,000 Min.

Half Hard ...... Approx. C 30/35 ...... 150,000 Min.

Three Quarters Hard ...... Approx. C 35/40 ...... 175,000 Min.

Full Hard ...... Approx. C 40/45 ...... 185,000 Min.

Extra Hard (Type 301) ...... Approx. C 45 min ...... 200,000 Min.

Type 430 Soft ...... Approx. B 75/85 ...... 75/85,000

 STRIP STEEL (Low Carbon Cold Rolled) - Temper Classifications.

Temper Rockwell Tensile

No. 1 Full Hard ...... 069 and thinner B 90 min...... 80,000

...... 070 and thicker B 84 min...... 80,000

No.2 Half hard ...... B 70/85 ...... 64,000

No.3 Quarter Hard ...... B 60/75 ...... 54,000

No.4 Skin Rolled ...... B 65 max...... 48,000

No. 5 Dead Soft ...... B 55 max.

 TEMPERED SPRING STEELS (Strip) - Temper indication is to Rockwell Hardness only.

TIN MILL PRODUCTS (Steel) Temper Classifications - NOT STANDARDIZED. FOR INFORMATION ONLY. (Not to be confused with the Cold Rolled Strip Steel Temper Numbering System wherein No. 1 Temper indicates Full Hard, while in the TIN MILL Product Numbering System No. 1 Temper indicates a soft condition.) The following Rockwell ranges are approx. only.

Temper-Number Rockwell - 30 T Scale. Rockwell B Scale

No. 1 Temper ...... Aim at 46/52 ...... Aim at 45/53

No. 21/2 Temper ...... Aim at 52/58 ...... Aim at 53/62

No.4 Temper ...... Aim at 58/64 ...... Aim at 62/71

*No. 5 Temper ...... Aim at 62/68 ...... Aim at 68/77

*No. 6 Temper ...... Aim at 62/73 ...... Aim at 75/84 *NOTE: Tempers 5 and 6 are temper rolled from re-phosphorized steel in order to develop desired hardness and stiffness. The above temper classifications are used principally by producing mills and can manufacture but are not in general use in the sheet and strip industry.

Tension Leveling A mechanical operation wherein steel sheet, in coil form, is processed on a unit that stretches the product beyond its yield point to impart permanent deformation. The stretching operation assists to flatten the sheet. Tension leveling is considered the optimum process to achieve superior flatness characteristics.

Telescoping Transverse slipping of successive layers of a coil so that the edge of the coil is conical rather than flat.

Temper Brittleness Brittleness that results when certain steels are held within, or are cooled slowly through, a certain range of temperature below the transformation range. The brittleness is revealed by notched-bar impact tests at or below room temperature.

Temper Embrittlement Brittleness that results when certain steels are held within, or are cooled slowly through, a specific range of temperatures below the transformation range. The brittleness is revealed by notched-bar impact tests at or below room temperature.

Temper Mill A type of cold-rolling mill, usually with only one or two stands, that finishes cold-rolled, annealed sheet steel by improving the finish or texture to develop the required final mechanical properties. By changing the rolls of the temper mill, steel can be shipped with a shiny, dull or grooved surface.

Temper Rolling Subjecting metal sheet or strip to a slight amount of cold rolling following annealing (usually 1/2 to 1 1/2%) The operation is performed to improve flatness, to minimize the formation of stretcher strains, and to obtain a specified hardness or temper. Also termed Pinch Pass or Skin Rolled.

Tempered and Polished Spring Steel Strip 90/1.03 carbon range (Also known as clock spring steel.) This product, while similar to general description under heading of Tempered Spring Steel Strip, is manufactured and processed with great and extreme care exercised in each step of its production. Manufactured from carbon range of .90/1.03 with Rockwell range C 48/51. Clock spring quality has been ground and polished with edges dressed. It is usually supplied hard blue in color and has a wide range of uses, such as coiled and flat mechanical springs, ignition vibrator springs, springs for timing devices, springs for the electric and electronic fields, steel tapes, rules, etc.

Tempered Spring Steel Strip Any medium or high carbon (excluding clock spring) strip steel of spring quality which has been hardened and tempered to meet specifications. Where specification calls for blue or straw color, same is accomplished by passing through heat prepared at proper temperature depending on color required. Blue is developed at approximately 600 (degrees) F.

Tempering A process of re-heating quench-hardened or normalized steel to a temperature below the transformation range and then cooling at any rate desired. The primary purpose of tempering is to impart a degree of plasticity or toughness to the steel to alleviate the brittleness of its martensite.

Tensile Strength (Test) (Also called Ultimate Strength) - Breaking strength of a material when subjected to a tensile (stretching) force. Usually measured by placing a standard test piece in the jaws of a tensile machine, gradually separating the jaws, and measuring the stretching force necessary to break the test piece. Tensile strength is commonly expressed as pounds (or tons) per square inch of original cross section. Tension test A test in which a machined or full-section specimen is subjected to a measured axial load sufficient to cause fracture. the usual information derived includes the elastic properties, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation and reduction area.

Ternary Alloy An alloy that contains three principal elements.

Terne Plate Sheet steel, coated with a lead-tin alloy. The percentage of tin is usually kept as low as possible because of its high cost; however, about 15% is normally necessary in order to obtain proper coating of the steel, since pure lead does not alloy with iron and some surface alloying is necessary for proper adhesion. Terne principally is used in the manufacture of gasoline tanks, although it also can be found in chemical containers, oil filters and television chassis.

Test piece Components welded together in accordance with a specified welding procedure, or a portion of a welded joint detached from a structure for test.

Test specimen A portion detached for a test piece and prepared as (Test coupon)

Thermal Analysis A method of studying transformations in metal by measuring the temperatures at which thermal arrests occur.

Thermal cutting The parting or shaping of materials by the application of heat with or without a stream of cutting oxygen.

Thermocouple A device for measuring temperatures by the use of two dissimilar metals in contact; the junction of these metals gives rise to a measurable electrical potential with changes in temperature.

Thermo-mechanical-controlled-processing (TMCP) A term referring to special rolling practices that use controlled-rolling and/or accelerated cooling.

Thermal Treatment Any operation involving the heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state to obtain the desired microstructure or mechanical properties.

Thickness Gage or Feeler Stock A hardened and tempered, edged, ground, and polished thin section, high carbon strip steel. Usually 1/2 in width and in thicknesses from .001 to .050 manufactured to extremely close tolerances. It is used primarily for determining measurement of openings by tool and die makers, machinists, and automobile technicians. It is prepared in handy pocket size knife-like holders containing an assembly of various thicknesses. Also prepared in standard 12 lengths with rounded ends and in 10 ' and 25' coils. Universally used in the metal industry.

Three-Quarter Hard Temper (A) In stainless steel strip tempers are based on a minimum tensile or yield strength. For Chromium- Nickel grades three-quarter hard temper is 175,000 T.S., 135,000 Y.S. min. (B) In Brass mill terminology, this temper is three B&S numbers hard or 29.4% thickness reduction.

TIG - welding Inert-gas welding using a non-consumable electrode (inert-gas tungsten-arc welding)

Tin (Sn) (Chemical symbol Sn) Element No. 50 of the periodic system; atomic weight 118.70. Soft silvery white metal of high malleability and ductility, but low tensile strength; melting point 449 (degrees) F., boiling point 4384 (degrees) F., yielding the longest molten-state range for any common metal; specific gravity 7.28. Principal use as a coating on steel in tin plate; also as a constituent in alloys.

Tin Mill Continuous tin-plating facility to produce tin mill steel sheet to be used in food and beverage cans and other containers.

Tin Plate Thin sheet steel with a very thin coating of metallic tin. Tin plate is used primarily in can making.

Tin Plate Base Box A Tin Plate Base Box is measured in terms of pounds per Base Box (112 sheets 14 x 20) a unit peculiar to the tin industry. This corresponds to it's area of sheet totaling to 31.360 square inches of any gage and is applied to tin plate weighing from 55 to 275 pounds per base box. To convert to decimal thickness multiply weight per base box by .00011.

Tin/Chrome Plating A plating process whereby the molecules from the positively charged tin or chromium anode attach to the negatively charged sheet steel. The thickness of the coating is readily controlled through regulation of the voltage and speed of the sheet through the plating area.

Tin-Free Steel Chromium-coated steel. Because it is used in food cans just like tin plate, it ironically is classified as a tin mill product. Tin-free steel is easier to recycle because tin will contaminate scrap steel in even small concentrations.

Tinning Coating with tin, commonly either by immersion into molten tin or by electro-deposition; also by spraying.

Titanium (Ti) Chemical symbol Ti. Element No. 22 of the periodic system; atomic weight 47.90; melting point about 3270 (degrees) F.; boiling point over 5430 (degrees) F.; specific gravity 4.5. Bright white metal, very malleable and ductile when exceedingly pure. Its principal functions as an alloy in the making of steel.

(1) Fixes carbon in inert particles

 (a) Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels.  (b) prevents formation of austenite in high-chromium steels.  (c) prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steel during long heating. Now finding application in its own right because of its high strength and good corrosion resistance.

Titanium-based Superalloys Lightweight, corrosive-resistant alloys suitable for high temperatures. These alloys are very practical for airplane parts. Titanium alloys can be blended with aluminium, iron, vanadium, silicon, cobalt, tantalum, zirconium, and manganese.

Toe The boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between weld faces.

Tolerances A customer's specifications can refer to dimensions or to the chemical properties of steel ordered. The tolerance measures the allowable difference in product specifications between what a customer orders and what the steel company delivers. There is no standard tolerance because each customer maintains its own variance objective. Tolerances are given as the specification, plus or minus an error factor; the smaller the range, the higher the cost. Tolerance Limit The permissible deviation from the desired value.

Toll Processing The act of processing steel for a fee ("toll"). Owners of the steel sheet may not possess the facilities to perform needed operations on the material (or may not have the open capacity). Therefore, another steel mill or service center will slit, roll, coat, anneal, or plate the metal for a fee.

Ton Unit of measure for steel scrap and iron ore.

 Gross Ton 2,240 pounds.  Long (Net) Ton 2,240 pounds.  Short (Net) Ton 2,000 pounds. Normal unit of statistical raw material input and steel output in the United States.  Metric Ton 1,000 kilograms. 2,204.6 pounds or 1.102 short tons.

Tong Hold The portion of a forging billet, usually on one end, that is gripped by the operator's tongs. It is removed from the part at the end of the forging operation. Common to drop-hammer and press-type forging.

Tongue-bend test specimen A potion so cut in two straight lengths of pipe joined by a butt weld as to produce a tongue containing a portion of the weld. The cuts are made so that the tongue is parallel to the axis of the pipes and the weld is tested by bending the tongue

Tool Steels Steel with a higher carbon and alloy content. Used to make tools for cutting, forming or otherwise shaping a material into a part or component for a definite use.

Torsion A twisting action resulting in shear stresses and strains.

Touch welding Metal-arc welding using a covered electrode, the covering of which is kept in contact with the parent metal during welding.

Toughness An indication of a steel's capacity to absorb energy, particularly in the presence of a notch or a crack.

Trace Extremely small quantity of an element, usually too small to determine quantitatively

Trade Case A type of lawsuit filed by United States companies against their foreign counterparts in response to imports at prices lower than those in the U.S. market. Sanctions can be imposed by the International Trade Commission and the Commerce Department on foreign producers involved in dumping and government subsidization, if domestic manufacturers can prove material damage to their results.

Transformation A constitutional change in a solid metal, e.g., the change from gamma to alpha iron, or the formation of pearlite from austenite.

Transformation Ranges (Transformation Temperature Ranges) Those ranges of temperature within which austenite forms during heating and transforms during cooling. The two ranges are distinct, sometimes overlapping but never coinciding. The limiting temperatures of the ranges depend on the composition of the alloy and on the rate of change of temperature, particularly during cooling. Transformation Temperature The temperature at which a change in phase occurs. The term is sometimes used to denote the limiting temperature of a transformation range. The following symbols are used for iron and steels: . Ac(cm) In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which the solution of cementite in austenite is completed during heating. . Ac1 The temperature at which austenite begins to form during heating. . Ac3 The temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed during heating. . Ac4 The temperature at which austenite transforms to delta ferrite during heating. . Ae(cm) Ae1 Ae3 Ae4 The temperatures of phase changes at equilibrium. . Ar(cm) In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which precipitation of cementite starts during cooling. . Ar1 The temperature at which transformation of austenite to ferrite or to ferrite plus cementite is completed during cooling. . Ar3 The temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite during cooling. . Ar4 The temperature at which delta ferrite transforms to austenite during cooling. . M(s) (or Ar) The temperature at which transformation of austenite to martensite starts during cooling. . M(f) The temperature at which martensite formation finishes during cooling. . NOTE: All these changes except the formation of martensite occur at lower temperatures during cooling than during heating, and depend on the rate of change of temperature.

Transition Temperature (1) An arbitrarily defined temperature within the temperature range in which metal fracture characteristics determined usually by notched tests are changing rapidly such as from primarily fibrous (shear) to primarily crystalline (cleavage) fracture. Commonly used definitions are transition temperature for 50% cleavage fracture, 10-ft-lb transition temperature, and transition temperature for half maximum energy. (2) Sometimes also used to denote the arbitrarily defined temperature in a range in which the ductility changes rapidly with temperature.

Transition Temperature (ductile-brittle transition temperature) An arbitrarily defined temperature that lies within the temperature range in which metal fracture characteristics (as usually determined by tests of notched specimens) change rapidly, such as from primarily fibrous (shear) to primarily cleavage.

Transverse Literally, 'across', usually signifying a direction or plane perpendicular to the direction of working.

Troosite A previously irresolvable rapidly etching fine aggregate of carbide and ferrite produced either by tempering martensite at low temperature or by quenching a steel at a rate slower than the critical cooling rate. Preferred terminology for the first product is tempered martensite; for the latter, fine pearlite.

Trowel Steel Hardened and tempered spring steel. .90 to 1.05 carbon content. Ordinary tolerances, but rolled extra flat -- Rockwell C 50. Used in the manufacture of plastering trowels.

Truss Spring Steel Supplied cold rolled and bright annealed. Carbon content about .70 -- Manganese .74. Must be formed very severely and must be as free as possible from decarburization.

Tubing When referring to OCTG, tubing is a separate pipe used within the casing to conduct the oil or gas to the surface. Depending on conditions and well life, tubing may have to be replaced during the operational life of a well.

Tukon Hardness (Test) A method for determining micro-hardness by using a Knoop diamond indenter or Vickers square-base pyramid indenter.

Tumbling Cleaning articles by rotating them in a cylinder with cleaning materials. Tundish The shallow refractory-lined basin on top of the continuous caster. It receives the liquid steel from the ladle, prior to the cast, allowing the operator to precisely regulate the flow of metal into the mold.

Tungsten (W) (Chemical symbol W) Element No. 74 of the periodic system; atomic weight 183.92. Gray metal of high tensile strength, ductile and malleable when specially handled. It is immune to atmospheric influences and most acids, but not to strong alkalis. The metal is used as filament and in thin sheet form in incandescent bulbs and radio tubes. (1) Forms hard abrasion -- resistant particles in tool steels. (2) Promotes hardness and strength at elevated temperatures.

Tungsten Carbide Compound of tungsten and carbon, of composition varying between WC and W2C; imbedded in matrix of soft metal, such as cobalt, extensively used for Sintered Carbide Tools.

Tungsten inclusion An inclusion of tungsten from the electrode in TIG-welding.

Tunnel Furnace Type of furnace whereby stock to be heated is placed upon cars which are then pushed or pulled slowly through the furnace.

Twist A winding departure from flatness.

Two-Coat System The combination of a prime coat and a finish coat into a specified paint film. A typical 1 mil, two-coat system will have about 0.2 mil of primer coat and about 0.8 mil of finish coat.

Two-stage regulator A gas regulator in which the gas pressure is reduced to the working pressure in two stages.

Ultimate Strength

Undercut An irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent metal, or in previously deposited weld metal, due to welding.

Universal Mill A rolling mill in which rolls with a vertical axis roll the edges of the metal stock between some of the passes through the horizontal rolls.

Upsetting (1) A metal working operation similar to forging. (2) The process of axial flow under axial compression of metal, as in forming heads on rivets by flattening the end of wire.

Utility Sheet Aluminum Mill finish coiled or flat sheet of unspecified composition and properties produced in specific standard sizes and suitable for general building trade usage. V

Vacuum Degassing Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD)

Vanadium (V) Chemical symbol V. Element No. 23 of the periodic system; atomic weight 50.95. Gray-white, hard metal, unaffected by atmospheric influences or alkalis but soluble in most strong acids; melting point 3119 (degrees) F.; boiling point about 6150 (degrees) F.; specific gravity 5.87. It cannot be electrodeposited. Its principal functions as an alloy in the making of tool steels. (1) Elevates coarsening temperature of austenite (promotes fine grain). (2) Increases hardenability (when dissolved) (3) Resists tempering and causes marked secondary hardening.

Virgin Metal Metal obtained directly from ore and not used before.

Vibrated Wound (See Oscillated Wound Coils)

Vibrator Reed Steel Hardened, temper and white polished extra precision rolled. Carbon content about 1.00%. Steel must withstand great fatigue stresses.

Vickers Hardness (Test) Standard method for measuring the hardness of metals, particularly those with extremely hard surfaces: the surface is subjected to a standard pressure for a standard length of time by means of a pyramid-shaped diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under a microscope and the Vickers Hardness value read from a conversion table.

Voluntary Restraint Agreements (VRAs) A compromise reached between the U.S. government and foreign steel-exporting nations. Instead of the United States imposing punitive duties on subsidized steel imports, the foreigners would "voluntarily" limit their steel exports to the United States.

Walking Beam Furnace A type of continuous reheat furnace in which the billet or slab moves through distinct heating zones within the furnace: By controlling the speed through the zones, steelmakers can achieve precise rolling temperatures and consume less fuel during operation.

Warrant A document of possession, issued by the warehouse company, for each lot of LME approved metal held within an LME approved facility. Warrants are used as the means of delivering metal under LME contracts.

Wash Coat A very thin paint film applied to the back side of a pre-painted sheet specified to have one finished side. The wash coat provides protection in coiling , storage, fabricating and handling.

Wasters Sheets that have prohibited defects, for example seams and buckled plates. Generally fit for re-melting purposes only. Watch Main Spring Steel Usually supplied cold rolled and annealed in large widths and cut and hardened by the spring manufacturers. Carbon content about 1.15% and Tungsten .17%, extra precision rolled.

Water Hardening Process of hardening high carbon steels by quenching in water or brine after heating.

Wavy Not flat. A slight wave following the direction of rolling and beyond the standard limitation for flatness.

Weathering Steel A steel using alloying elements such as copper, chromium, silicon and nickel to enhance resistance to atmospheric corrosion. (USS COR-TEN®)

Wedge A hardwood stick used as a forming tool in spinning.

Welding A process used to join metals by the application of heat. Fusion welding, which includes gas, arc, and resistance welding, requires that the parent metals be melted. This distinguishes fusion welding from brazing. In pressure welding joining is accomplished by the use of heat and pressure without melting. The parts that are being welded are pressed together and heated simultaneously, so that re- crystallization occurs across the interface.

Weld junction The boundary between the fusion zone and the heat affected zone.

Welding procedure A specified course of action followed in welding including the list of materials and, where necessary, tools to be used.

Welding sequence The order and direction in which joints, welds or runs are made.

Welding technique The manner is which the operator manipulates an electrode, a blowpipe or a similar appliance.

Wet Film Thickness The thickness of the paint film immediately after coating and prior to curing. The required wet film thickness is dependent on the proportion of solids and solvents in the liquid paint for producing the appropriate dry film thickness.

Wide-Flange Beam A structural steel section on which the flanges are not tapered, but have equal thickness from the tip to the web and are at right angles to the web. Wide-flange beams are differentiated by the width of the web, which can range from 3 inches to more than 40 inches, and by the weight of the beam, measured in pounds per foot.

Widmanstatten Structure A structure characterized by a geometrical pattern resulting from the formation of a new phase along certain crystallographic planes of the parent solid solution. The orientation of the lattice in the new phase is related crystallographically to the orientation of the lattice in the parent phase. The structure was originally observed in meteorites but is readily produced in many other alloys with certain heat treatment.

Widths The lateral dimension of rolled steel, as opposed to the length or the gauge (thickness). If width of the steel strip is not controlled during rolling, the edges must be trimmed. WMB, WHB and Extra WHB Grades Spring steel wires produced from acid open-hearth steels (see M B Grade).

Wootz A carbon steel containing 1 to 1.6% C produced by melting a bloomer iron or an inhomogeneous steel with charcoal in a crucible. The process originated in India as early as the 3rd century A.D.

Work Hardening Increase in resistant to deformation (i.e. in hardness) produced by cold working.

Workability The characteristic or group of characteristic that determines the ease of forming a metal into desired shapes.

Worm-hole An elongated or tubular cavity formed entrapped gas during the solidification of molten metal.

Wrought Iron Iron containing only a very small amount of other elements, but containing 1-3% by weight of slag in the form of particles elongated in one direction, giving the iron a characteristic grain. Is more rust- resistant than steel and welds more easily.

Yellow Brass 65% copper and 35% zinc. Also known as High Brass. A copper-zinc alloy, named for its yellow hue. Formerly a very popular alloy, but now largely replaced by Cartridge Brass.

Yield Point The load per unit of original cross section at which, in soft steel, a marked increase in deformation occurs without increase in load.

Yield Strength (YS) The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain. The deviation is expressed in terms of strain. Also known as proof stress.

Young's Modulus The coefficient of elasticity of stretching. For a stretched wire, Young's Modulus is the ratio of the stretching force per unit cross-sectional area to the elongation per unit length. The values of Young's Modulus for metals are of the order 10(12) dynes per square cm. Z

Zinc (Zn)

Zirconium (Zr) (Chemical Symbol Zr.) - Element No. 40 of the periodic system. Atomic weight 91.22. Specific gravity 6.5 and melting point at about 3200° +/- 1300°F. Because of its great affinity for oxygen and combines readily with nitrogen and sulfur, it is used as a deoxidizer and scavenger in steel making. It is used as an alloy with nickel for cutting tools and is used in copper alloys.