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Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 1 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 2 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal Robert Hargraves Copyright 2012 by Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 3 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Robert Hargraves has written articles and made presentations about the liquid fluoride thorium reactor and energy cheaper than coal - the only realistic way to dissuade nations from burning fossil fuels. His presentation "Aim High" about the technology and social benefits of the liquid fluoride thorium reactor has been presented to audiences at Dartmouth ILEAD, Thayer School of Engineering, Brown University, Columbia Earth Institute, Williams College, Royal Institution, the Thorium Energy Alliance, the International Thorium Energy Association, Google, the American Nuclear Society, and the Presidents Blue Ribbon Commission of America's Nuclear Future. With coauthor Ralph Moir he has written articles for the American Physical Society Forum on Physics and Society: Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors (Jan 2011) and American Scientist: Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors (July 2010). Robert Hargraves is a study leader for energy policy at Dartmouth ILEAD. He was chief information officer at Boston Scientific Corporation and previously a senior consultant with Arthur D. Little. He founded a computer software firm, DTSS Incorporated while at Dartmouth College where he was assistant professor of mathematics and associate director of the computation center. Robert Hargraves graduated from Brown University (PhD Physics 1967) and Dartmouth College (AB Mathematics and Physics 1961). Copyright 2012 by Robert Hargraves, Hanover NH 03755 [email protected] Website: http://www.thoriumenengycheaperthancoal.com Cover design and graphic abstraction of the liquid fluoride thorium reactor by Suzanne Hobbs Baker of PopAtomic Studios http:// www.popatomic.org/ Paperback: 482 pages Publisher: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (July 25, 2012) Language: English ISBN-10: 1478161299 ISBN-13: 978-1478161295 Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 4 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Chapter Outlines 1 Introduction: an introduction to world crises related to energy and the environment, and the potential for good solutions. 2 Energy and civilization: the relationship between energy, life, and human civilization, easy energy science, life's dependence on energy flows, civilization's progress with the energy of the Industrial Revolution, and the 21st century crises of global warming and energy consumption. 3 An unsustainable world: global warming and its terrifying implications for water, agriculture, food, and civilization; depletion of economical petroleum reserves, deadly air pollution from burning coal, increased competition for natural resources from a growing population, and the solution of new energy technology, cheaper than coal. 4 Energy sources: the character and cost of current and principal emerging energy sources: coal, oil, natural gas, hydropower, solar, wind, biomass, and nuclear. 5 Liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR): the history and technology of liquid fuel nuclear reactors, the Oak Ridge demonstration molten salt reactors, thorium, LFTR, the denatured molten salt reactor (DMSR), builders, and possible contenders for energy cheaper than coal. 6 Safety: the safety of molten salt reactors, comparisons to alternative energy sources, radiation risks, waste, weapons, and fear. 7 A sustainable world: environmental benefits of thorium energy cheaper than coal: reduced C02 emissions, reduced petroleum consumption, synthetic fuels for vehicles, hydrogen power, water conservation, desalination. 8 Energy policy: current confused policies, failure to reduce C02 emissions, subsidies, recommendations, leadership. Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 5 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Table of Contents GLOSSARY FOREWORD 1 INTRODUCTION THE STORY OF FIRE ASTONISHING BENEFITS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT ISSUES ARE HARSH A MARKET-BASED ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTION 2 ENERGY AND CIVILIZATION ENERGY ELECTRICITY WORK AND HEAT LIFE HUMANS CIVILIZATION ENERGY AND CIVILIZATION SUMMARY 3 AN UNSUSTAINABLE WORLD GLOBAL WARMING NEW ENERGY TECHNOLOGY LIQUID FLUORIDE THORIUM REACTOR 4 ENERGY SOURCES ENERGY DEMAND GENERATION CAPACITY COAL NATURAL GAS WIND SOLAR INTERMITTENT WIND AND SOLAR POWER SOLID BIOFUELS LIQUID BIOFUELS ENERGY STORAGE HYDROELECTRIC POWER ENERGY CONSERVATION OTHER ELECTRICITY SOURCES Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 6 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal 5 LIQUID FLUORIDE THORIUM REACTOR PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS LIQUID-FUEL NUCLEAR REACTORS LFTR ADVANTAGES AND FLEXIBILITY DENATURED MOLTEN SALT REACTOR PEBBLE BED MOLTEN- SALT- COOLED REACTOR LFTR DEVELOPMENT ENGINEERING LFTR DEVELOPMENT TASKS DEVELOPERS UNITED STATES CHINA FRANCE OTHER EMERGING LFTR DEVELOPERS CONTENDERS NGNP WESTINGHOUSE AP 1000 SMALL MODULAR REACTORS LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTORS ACCELERATOR- DRIVEN SUBCRITICAL REACTOR LFTR ADVANTAGES 6 SAFETY ACCIDENTS IONIZING RADIATION WASTE WEAPONS PROLIFERATION 7 A SUSTAINABLE WORLD COAL POWER REPLACEMENT SHIPPING OIL SYNTHETIC LIQUID VEHICLE FUELS AMMONIA NUCLEAR CEMENT HYDROGEN WATER AND DESALINIZATION POPULATION STABILITY Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 7 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal 8 ENERGY POLICY ENERGY POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES APPENDIX A AMERICAN SCIENTIST JUNE/JULY 2010 LIQUID FLUORIDE THORIUM REACTOR APPENDIX B UNDERGROUND POWER PLANT BASED ON MOLTEN SALT TECHNOLOGY BIBLIOGRAPHY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 8 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal GLOSSARY actinide: an element of atomic number 89 (actinium) or higher BTU: British Thermal Unit; 3412 BTU = 1 kWh of energy BWR: boiling water reactor, LWR at 60 atmospheres pressure C: Celsius, temperature relative to water freezing CANDU: Canadian deuterium uranium reactor CCGT: combined cycle gas turbine DMSR: denatured molten salt reactor; contains U-238 DOE: US Department of Energy EIA: DOE Energy Information Agency Flibe: fluoride salts of lithium and beryllium FHR: fluoride high temperature reactor G: giga, prefix meaning 1,000,000,000 GDP: gross domestic product, annual value of goods and services Gt: gigatonne, 1,000,000,000 tonnes GW: gigawatt, 1,000,000,000 watts ha: hectare, area of a 100 x 100 meter square HEU: highly enriched uranium, over 20% U-23S or 12% U-233 INL: Idaho National LaboratoryJ: joule, a unit of energy = 1 watt-second K: Kelvin, unit of temperature, relative to absolute zero, °C + 273 k: kilo, prefix meaning 1,000 kW: kilowatt, 1,000 watts, = 3412 BTU Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 9 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal kWh: kilowatt-hour, the energy of 1 kW of power flowing one hour LEU: low enrichment uranium, under 20% U-23S or 12% U-233 LFTR: liquid fluoride thorium reactor LNT: linear no threshold, a model of radiation health risk LWR: light water reactor, nuclear reactor cooled by ordinary water M: mega, prefix meaning 1,000,000 Mt: megatonne MSR: molten salt reactor MW: megawatt, 1,000,000 watts MW(e): MW of electric power MW(t): MW of thermal power (heat flow rate) NGCT: natural gas combustion turbine OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ORNL: Oak Ridge National Laboratory PB-AHTR: pebble bed advanced high-temperature reactor PWR: pressurized water reactor, LWR, N 160 atmosphere pressure quad: 1 quadrillion BTUs RBMK: Russian high power channel type nuclear reactor rem: Roentgen equivalent man, 0.01 Sv Sv: Sievert, absorbed energy per kilogram of biomass T: tera, prefix meaning 1,000,000,000,000 Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 10 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal t: tonne 1000 kilograms, about 1.1 tons TCF: trillion cubic feet; 1 TCF natural gas contains 1 quad ton: 2000 pounds transuranic: an element of atomic number 92 (uranium) or higher W: watt, a unit of power, or energy flow rate W: work, a product of kinetic energy Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal ( 2012) page 11 of 430 Robert Hargraves Thorium : Energy Cheaper than Coal Foreword THORIUM is the name of a heavy metal element that can release abundant energy, but thorium is only part of the story. The key technology is the molten salt reactor, enabling a fluid fuel form, reducing costs and enabling energy cheaper than from coal. The subtitle, energy cheaper than coal presents the idea that economics and innovation are the means to displace coal burning for electric power. To check even more CO2 emissions, thorium energy must be cheaper than natural gas, as well. And for economically sustainable clean energy, thorium energy must be cheaper than wind, solar, or biofuel energy. I studied mathematics and physics as a college undergraduate and graduate student, then spent my working career in information technology. After retiring back to Hanover NH I became interested in the continuing world energy and climate crises. I determined that nuclear power was much underutilized as a solution to these difficult problems and began making presentations about advanced nuclear power, including the pebble bed reactor. With the
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