LUTTE CONTRE LES VEGETAUX FLOTTANTS DANS LES PA YS MEMBRES DE LA CEDEAO

CONTROL OF FLOATING WEEDS IN THE ECOWAS MEMBER COUNTRIES 1 1 Economie Community of African Development Bank/ 1 West African States (ECOWAS) African Development Fund 1 1 1 CONTROL OF FLOATING WEEDS 1 IN THE ECOW AS MEMBER COUNTRIES 1 1 1 1

1 Euroconsult, Arnhem, the Netherlands, in association with Royal Tropical lnstitute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands 1 ADB project ADF/BD/WP/92/93 1 Euroconsult project 436.6001.1 1

1 Draft FINAL REPORT Volume 1 1 MAIN REPORT 1 NOVEMBER 1995 1 1 1 1

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1 CONTENTS 1 1 1 - 5 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 INTRODUCTION 6-8

1 2 REGIONAL BACKGROUND 9 -35

1 2.1 Geographic setting 9 -10 2.2 Economie setting 2.3 Main aquatic weed species 11-17 1 2.3.1 Occurrence 11-15 2.3.2 Classification of problems 16-17 1 2.4 Status of floating weed control in the ECOW AS region 17-22 2.5 Socio-economic impact of floating weed infestations 22 2.5.1 Introduction 22-25 1 2.5.2 Fisheries 26-29 2.5.3 Transportation 29-30 1 2.5.4 Agriculture 31 2.5.5 Public health 32-33 1 2.5.6 Hydro-energy 33-34 2.5.7 Summary of losses by floating weeds 35 in the ECOWAS sub-region Il 2.6 Institutional setting 35-36

1 3 PROJECT RATIONALE 37-38

3.1 In relation to sectoral development strategy 37 1 3.2 In relation to overall national and regional development policy 37-38

1 4 SELECTION OF PROJECTS 39-43

1 4.1 Introduction 39-40 1 4.2 The selection process 41-42 1 1 1 1 1 -11- CONTENTS (CONTINUED) 1 4.3 Final selection of projects 42-43 1 5 THE PROJECTS 44-54 5 .1 Objectives 44-45 1 5.2 Description of selected projects 45-46 5.3 Detailed project features 46-49 5.3.1 The ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Control 47-48 1 5.3.2 The regional projects on integrated control of floating weeds 48-49 5.4 Recommendations on phasing 49 1 5.5 Contributors to the projects 49-50 5.6 Project cost estimates 50-54

1 6 EXECUTING AGENCIES 55-57

1 6 .1 Le gal and institutional framework 55 6. 2 Required organisation and management 55 6.3 Capacity assessment of the recommended executing agency: 56 1 staff, equipment and mandate 6.4 Identification of training needs; incentives 56-57 1 6.5 Agency and system for monitoring and evaluation 57 1 7 BENEFICIARIES, TARGET GROUPS AND MAIN ACTORS 57-58 1 8 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS 59-69 8.1 Financial and economic justification 59-63 1 8 .1.1 Approach 59 8.1.2 Cost/benefit analysis 60-63 8. 2 Impact on women 63-64 1 8. 3 Impact on the environment 65-67 8.4 The role of public awareness 68 1 8. 5 Project risks 69 1 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 70-71 72-74 1 10 REFERENCES 1 1 ;1 1 1 -Ill- ANNEXES 1 ANNEX I Map of the ECOWAS region 1 ANNEX II Contributors to the study ANNEX III Examples of the selection process of aquatic weed problems 1 ANNEX IV Questionnaire for country surveys 1

1 Volume 2 - PROJECT DOCUMENTS

A ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management 1 B Integrated Control of Floating Weeds in the Coastal Areas of Benin and Nigeria C Integrated Control of Floating Weeds in the Middle Niger River Basin 1 D Integrated Control of Floating Weeds in the Upper Niger River Basin E Integrated Control of Floating Weeds in the Tano River and Reservoirs in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana 1 F Integrated Control of Floating Weeds in the Lower Senegal River System 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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1 CONTENTS (continued)

1 LIST OF FIGURES 1 Figure 1 The main floating weed species in the ECOW AS region -iiiiii- 1 1 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Rainfall data in the ECOW AS member countries 9 -10 1 Table 2.2 Governrnental expenditure on current control programmes 23 Table 2.3 Estimation of people affected by floating weeds 25 Table 2.4 Relative importance of the fisheries sector in the sub-region 27 1 Table 2.5 Estimation of potential losses in the inland fisheries sector 29 Table 2.6 Potential losses in agriculture 31 1 Table 2.7 Potential additional costs in health sector 33 Table 2.8 Estimated losses in hydro-energy production 34 1 Table 2.9 Assessment of total losses 35 1 Table 4.1 Short-list of projects 43 Table 5.1 Surnrnary of cost estimates for the ECOW AS coordination unit and regional projects 51-54

Table 8.1 Classification of losses and benefits 61 Table 8.2 Percentages of reduction of losses due to integrated weed control 61 Table 8.3 Costs and benefits of regional projects 62 Table 8.4 Checklist to be used for Gender Impact Assessment (GIA) of aquatic weed control projects 64 Table 8.5 Checklist to be used for Environrnental Impact Assessment (EIA) of 1 aquatic weed control projects 66 1 1 1 1 1 ------1

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1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADB African Developrnent Bank 1 DIANR Departrnent of Industry, Agriculture and N atural Resources (ECOW AS) ECOWAS Economie Community of West African States 1 IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1 GTZ Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusarnrnenarbeit GrnbH (German Agency for Technical Cooperation) NASENI National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure 1 (Nigeria) NIHORT Nigerian Institute for Horticulture 1 UNDP United Nations Development Programme 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -iiiiii-

1 Figure 1 - The main aquatic weed species in the ECOWAS region 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l:1rhhornia crassipes 1 1 1 Pistia stratiotes 1 1 1 1 1 Salvinia molesta 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Floating aquatic weeds are increasingly becoming a nuisance in West African waterbodies. These weeds outcompete other plant species and form dense floating mats, 1 which may completely cover the water surface. Consequently, the often multifunctional use of infested canais, rivers, lakes and lagoons becomes seriously hampered, which strongly affects daily life of the local populations. In addition to direct harmful effects, 1 such as impeding transport of irrigation and drainage water, hindering navigation, interfering with hydroelectric schemes and fisheries, floating weeds also bring about indirect negative effects. These include increased water loss by means of evapo­ 1 transpiration (transpiration via the plants) and increased health hazards by the formation of habitats which are favourable for the development of mosquitoes and 1 snails, which are vectors of human diseases, such as malaria and schistosomiasis. The world's most troublesome aquatic weed, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 1 which originally occurred in South America, was first observecl in West Africa in the Republic of Benin in the late 1970s. lt was probably introduced as an ornamental. Subsequently, it became, a part from the coastal area in Eastern Benin, a serious pest 1 in coastal regions of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. Recently, water hyacinth also invaded the Upper and Middle Niger river systems in Mali, Niger and Nigeria. lt is expected that in the near future the Niger Inner Delta in Mali, which is one of the major 1 wetland areas in Africa, will be infested. Water fern (Salvinia molesta), which is also of South American origin, occurs in Côte d'Ivoire and in Ghana in the lagoon of the Tano river, bordering Côte d'Ivoire. Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), although it is endogenous 1 in the ECOWAS area, is also increasingly causing prohlems. This applies in particular to Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Senegal. In the latter country the construction of the Diama clam in the Lower Senegal River, which prevents the inflow of sait water, has 1 created conditions which are favourable for outbreaks of water lettuce. Recognizing the need for an integrated approach, ECOWAS (the Economie Community 1 of West African States) requested the African Development Bank (ADB) to finance the present study, which deals with the investigation of the degree of infestation of floating weeds in the mcmber countries, and the preparation of projects for their control. ln 1 1992 ADB provided ECOWAS with a grant to carry out this project. The study, called "Control of floating weeds in the ECOWAS member countries", lasted eighteen months, and was conducted by the consultancy firm Euroconsult in Arnhem, The Nethedands, 1 in association with the Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. According to the Terms of Reference the general objective was to establish projects capable of implementing biological, chemical and mechanical control of water hyacinth, 1 water fern and water lettuce in representative areas in the ECOW AS countries, and to transfer project achievements to other ECOWAS areas where these plants are causing problems. In addition the Terms of References indicated that the main emphasis should 1 be on biological control of these floating weeds, but that chemical and mechanical interventions had to be evaluated to define the most cost-efficient and environmentally safe way to re-establish artisanal fishing and to guarantee transport facilities for people 1 and goods. In this context it was emphasized that a(Juatic ecosystems should be preserved as muchas possible. The study started in .June 1994, and finished at the end 1 of 1995. lt was dividcd into three distinct periods: an Inception Phase, a Data Collection 1 1 1 1 2 1 Phase and a Project Preparation Phase. It appeared that apart from the excessive infestations in Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Nigeria, which during the survey were mapped as accurately as 1 possible, water hyacinth had also invaded some reservoirs in the near vicinity of the city of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso. Moreover, it was observed at a single site in The Gambia, near the city of Banjul. At present, control in the areas with a dense water 1 hyacinth vegetation is mainly manual, in general carried out at an ad-hoc basis. However, in Benin a biological control programme by means of insects was started in 1 1991. Recently, biological control agents have also been released in Nigeria and Ghana against water hyacinth, and in Benin and Senegal against water lettuce. The biological control programmes, however, are not coordinated on a regional basis, which is urgently 1 needed as it is evident that the spread of insects will not stop at national borders. In Ghana and Nigeria chemical control programmes were implemented on a relatively small scalei but the governments of these countries are not in favour of chemical means of 1 control. This is due to their negative effects on the environment and risks to human health. In this context water pollution by decaying weeds is also taken into consideration. Machines for removing floating aquatic weeds are used in Nigeria and 1 Ghana but, due to a lack of funds, not enough equipment is available for regular clearance. Moreover, maintenance of the machines is inadequate and spare tools are 1 difficult to obtain. It was the general impression that the local population is not aware of the risks of spreading water hyacinth and water fern as ornamentals. Even in the countries where 1 the problems are the most serious, public awareness campaigns have not or rarely been initiated. With the exception of Ghana there was no prohibition of selling these plants 1 as ornamentals. The losses and hazards caused by aquatic weeds in the ECOW AS region are especially felt at the rural community level. In several affected areas, rural households Jose time 1 and money to keep up their daily activities. They face problems in keeping water open for local transport, there are increased health problems and they often sec their incomes, in particular for traders in fishery products, reduced. Fishermen cannot fish 1 for prolonged periods, which results in diminished fish catch and fish consumption. Farmers who rely on irrigation water have to spend much time in cleaning their channels. It takes a day for one man to remove 100 m2 of a dense stand of water 1 hyacinths. As precise data are lacking it is difficult to make exact estimations of the losses caused by floating aquatic weeds in the regio. However, on the basis of the survey it was estimated that the yearly losses in the ECOW AS regio vary from 28 to 56 millions 1 of US$ for fisheries, from 4 to 6 millions of US$ for health, from 7 to 14 millions of dollars for hydro-energy, and from 36 to 72 millions of US$ for agriculture. 1 Consequently, the total yearly losses vary from 75 to 150 millions of US$. At the end of April 1995, after completing the Data Collection Phase, six follow-up projects have been identified, based on a special selection process. Four criteria were 1 identified, i.e. urgency of the problem, problem representativeness (recorded from a number of comparable circumstances), cross-border relevance and sustainability of 1 results (long-term control versus short-term control). The identified follow-up projects 1 1 , 1 ! 1 3 inclm!e: 1) An ECOW AS coordination unit for aquatic weed management; 2) Integrated 1 control of floating weeds in the coastal areas of Benin and Nigeria; 3) Integrated control of floating weeds in the Middle Niger River Basin in Niger, Benin and Nigeria; 4) Integrated control of floating weeds in the Upper Niger River Basin in Mali; 5) 1 Integrated control of floating weeds in the coastal areas of Côte d'Ivoire and in the Tano River Lagoon on the border of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; and 6) Integrated control of 1 floating weeds in the Lower Senegal River system in Senegal and Mauritania. In addition, in ail areas where floating aquatic weeds do not cause problems, but where 1 this may occur in future, preventive measures will be taken. The projects will mainly be concerned with the floating aquatic weeds water hyacinth, water lettuce and water fern. In ail regions where follow-up projects are planned, water 1 hyacinth is the most important aquatic weed, with the exception of the Lower Senegal River system, where water lettuce poses a major problem. Management of water hyacinth will mainly follow an integrated approach. This will imply a combination of 1 biological control by means of the insects Neochetina eichhorniae, N. bruchi and Sameodes albiguttalis, and physical control by means of handtools and machines. Control of water fern will mainly be carried out by means of the insect Cyrtobagous salviniae, 1 in combination with physical control. The emphasis on control of water lettuce will he laid on hiological control by means of the insect Neohydronomus affùzis and physical control. These modes of control demand active participation of the local population. 1 Therefore, public awareness activities should be included in the integrated control programmes.

1 The above mentioned insect species are absolutely host specific. This implies that they are only able to feed on the target weed. This bas been studied in detail in advanced laboratories in the United States and in Australia and at present these insects have been 1 released in many countries in different parts of the world. In these countries there have never been any reports that the above mentioned insect species have caused damage to plant species other than water hyacinth, water fern or water lettuce. Therefore, 1 specialists working on the control of these three floating aquatic weeds consider biological control by means of insects as a key component in control programmes. lt should be taken into consideration, however, that it is uncertain whether biological 1 control alone can solve the problem. ln this context it should be noted that development of insect populations is a relatively slow process, and that prospects for a successful biological control of water f ern and water lettuce seem to be better than for water 1 hyacinth. Therefore, in particular for water hyacinth, emphasis should be on an integrated approach. Additional control methods for water fern and water lettuce may not be needed un der ail circumstances. However. also for water lettuce and water f ern 1 integration with physical control methocls could he useful if in the same watcrbody also other aquatic weeds are troublesome. This is for example the case in the Lac de Guiers in Senegal, where apart from a dense vegetation of water lett11ce, also dense stands 1 occur of the submerged weed Ceratophyllum demersum and the emergent weed 1ypha.

1 The ECOWAS Coordination Unit will coordinate and monitor projects of regional significance with the aim to pass on experience to the member countries. It will support 1 the relevant national agencies in member countries in idcntifying and preparing projects, 1 1 1

1 4 11 and, where necessary, in attracting external finance. Project implementation would be left to the member countries themselves, with technical assistance where necessary. The unit will also assist in institutional development and data base management, including geographic information systems (GIS), and in recording the environmental and socio­ 1 economic impact created by floating weed infestations. In addition, the unit will establish a documentation centre containing data on the distribution of floating weeds, the methods of their control, their environmental and socio-economic impact, their 1 utilization and implementation of public awareness campaigns and training.

Practical uses of aquatic weeds is nota major topic in the framework of this project as 1 un der most conditions it is not economically f easible. Literature on this topic is ver y comprehensive but successful utilization of floating aquatic weeds bas only been achieved un der very specific circumstances. However, if mechanical harvesting is performed it 1 will be investigated whether at a certain location the collected floating weed material can be economically used. For example as a source of fertilizer, fodder or biogas.

1 Special attention will be paid to awareness programmes and training, in particular for preventing a further spread of water hyacinth and water fern. Communication strategies will be developed and elaborated. The awareness campaigns will be conducted in ail 1 ECOW AS countries affected or potentially affected by these floating weeds. Educational materials will be produced. The overall objective will be to make the people aware how 1 insidious these weeds are and what kind of problems they may cause. In addition, ways and means should be discussed to involve local communities in implementing control methods. Consequently, a major objective of these campaigns is that the local people will 1 be able to recognize these plants. Emphasis will also be laid upon the importance of eradicating new, small-scale infestations as soon as they are spotted. Furthermore, detailed attention must be paid to the methods available for controlling aquatic weeds. 1 Audiovisual and printed materials will be produced and issued to create public awareness. Furthermore, programmes will be made for educational and training 1 purposes, especially for the persons dircctly involved in executing control methods. The ECOWAS mandate, permitting harmonization and coordination of policies, programmes and regulations, enables the unit to make a contribution to the legislation 1 of using chemicals and biological control agents in various countries. The unit will render assistance to the Scientific and Technical Research Council (STRC) of the Organization of African Unities (ONU), which bas its headquarters in Lagos, and which 1 among other things is engaged in examining the phytosanitary aspects of food products as well as of chemicals, including biological control agents, used for medical, agricultural and industrial purposes. STRC has its Inter-African Phytosanitary Council 1 in Juanda, Nigeria, and deals with quarantine, standardization and legislation. The unit is in a position to avoid or solve potential regional conflicts caused by the use of certain products, which might be allowed in one country, but forbidden in another, by 1 examining complaints, assisting in settling disagreements, and by harmonizing legislation procedures in the countries concerned.

1 The direct objectives of the five regional projects are to establish, in concert with the governments of the countries involved, as well as with ECOW AS, include 1) a fully 1 equipped administrative and operational unit to implement the control programme; 2) 1 1 1 1 5 facilities for rearing biological control agents; 3) release of biological control agents and 1 monitoring them in the release areas (which will include a study of their development and the damage they inflict upon the weeds at selected sites, with the aid of local communities); 4) implementation of physical control methods which will include manual 1 control and the use of harvesters; 5) integration of biological and physical methods of control; 6) implementing public awareness campaigns and community participation; 7) 1 technical training in biological control and other techniques where appropriate. In addition to the five regional project proposais the coordination unit will also assist 1 in controlling new, isolated small-scale infestations and in handling emergency situations. These may require crash programmes, which could include chemical and physical control. Under those conditions biological control seems less relevant, especially in those 1 cases where small scale investigations may be totally eradicated. The direct benefits of the proposed regional integrated control projects have been 1 calculated by means of a hypothetical model for loss reduction. This model is constructed on the basis of experiences with floating weecl control elsewhere in the world. It is evident from this model that an integrated approach for controlling floating 1 aquatic weecls is the most efficient for reducing the losses. The integrated approach would leacl to a reduction of fosses of approximately 50 million US$ over a period of five years. The costs of the coordination unit are 2,320,868 US$. The total of the estimated 1 costs for the regional projects amount to 9,089,250 US$. The grand total, including 12% physical contingencies, amounts to 12,779,332 US$. The benefits of preventing a further spread of floating aquatic weeds in the ECOWAS region are difficult to estimate. 1 However, based on the present losses in infested areas it may be concluded that the financial benefits of prevention will be extremely high. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 6 1 1 INTRODUCTION West Africa comprises 16 independent countries. These are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape 1 Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. 1 The region stretches from Mauritania in the north-west to Nigeria in the east. Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger are land locked. Of the remaining countries, 12 have Atlantic coastlines, 1 while Cape Verde is an archipelago of 10 islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline of many countries is covered by mangrove, bordering rain forests, which give way to savannah 1 woodland, and then to savannah grassland. The savannah grassland stretches across most of West Africa from the north-east to north-west then to sahelian ecology northwards. In a few 1 countries like Mauritania, Mali and Niger, further north desert (Sahara) conditions prevail. There is a wide disparity in total human population figures and densities among the 16 1 countries. According to World Bank figures (1987) three countries: Cape Verde, The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau have less than one million inhabitants each. Pive others, Burki11a Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mali and Senegal have between 5 and 10 million each. Ghana has 1 slightly over 13 million and Nigeria has 85 million people.

1 The 16 countries established the Economie Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) in 1975, with a view to enhancing the region's economic performance through mutual cooperation. The organization aims primarily to promote cooperation and development in all 1 sectors of the economy, agriculture, natural resources, industry, transport, telecommunications, energy, tracte, as well as of customs and tariffs, social affairs, money 1 and payment matters. 1 The first reports on the invasion of floating weeds in the ECOW AS region appeared in the early 1980s. The weeds became rapidly a major problem. In 1987 the Council of Ministers of ECOWAS adopted a regional floating weeds programme, and in 1988 the Nigerian 1 Federal Ministry of Science and Technology organized, with assistance from ECOW AS, an 1 international workshop in Lagos on "Water hyacinth, menace and resource". Dense aquatic vegetation has now developed in many Western African rivers, lakes and lagoons, hampering their often multi-functional use, with negative effects on communities 1 dependent on water for transport, fishing, irrigation and other activities. In addition, excessive growth of aquatic weeds causes an increase of health hazards through the formation 1 of habitats favourable for the development of vectors of human diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis. They also lead to substantial water losses as the evapotranspiration from 1 water covered by aquatic weeds may be more than 2 times higher than the evaporation from 1 1 1 1 7 1 open water. Furthermore, the presence of aquatic weeds interferes with the operation of hydro-electric plants. The major problems arise from three floating weeds: water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), originally only occurring in South America, water lettuce (Pistia 1 stratiotes), considered as a native weed in many areas, and water fem (Salvinia molesta), also of South American origin. In the ECOW AS region, water hyacinth and water lettuce are 1 the major floating weeds; water fem is reported in Côte d'Ivoire as one of the major floating weeds.

1 At the moment, the problem is most pressing in Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. However, the interdependence of the water network facilita tes the spread of floating weeds 1 to other countries in the region. Countries where this weed problem is a relatively new phenomenon include Senegal, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger.

1 Recognizing the need for an integrated approach, ECOW AS (the Economie Community of West African States) requested the African Development Bank (ADB) to finance the present 1 study, which deals with the investigation of the degree of infestation of floating weeds in the member countries, and the preparation of projects for their control. In 1992 ADB provided ECOW AS with a grant to carry out this project. The tender invitation was officially 1 announced in May 1993. Eventually, the consultancy firm Euroconsult in Arnhem, The Netherlands, in association with the Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1 were selected to conduct the study, which was called "Control of floating weeds in the ECOWAS member countries", hereafter called the "Floating Weeds Study". 1 According to the Terms of Reference the general objective was to establish projects capable of implementing biological, chemical and mechanical control of water hyacinth, water fem 1 and water lettuce in representative areas in the ECOWAS countries, and to transfer project achievements to other ECOWAS areas where these plants are causing problems. In addition 1 the Terms of References indicated that the main emphasis should be on biological contrai of these floating weeds, but that chemical and mechanical interventions had to be evaluated to define the most cost-efficient and environmentally safe way to re-establish artisanal fishing 1 and to guarantee transport facilities for people and goods. In this context it was emphasized 1 that aquatic ecosystems should be preserved as much as possible. Based on the Terms of Reference the immediate objectives of the study were described as follows: 1 - identification of floating weed infestations in the study area and analysis of their socio­ economic impact; 1 - evaluation of research on aquatic weed problems in West Africa and recommendations for additional research; 1 - design of a set of projects to manage floating weeds in the ECOW AS region, each of them 1 1 1

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in an area that covers a situation representative for a number of other affected areas in the 1 ECOW AS member countries; - training of ECOWAS and national staff on the ecology of West African wetlands, and on 1 planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of aquatic weed control management programmes; - creation of public awareness on aquatic weed problems in the affected ECOW AS member 1 countries, directed towards prevention of problem increases; - identification of the need to establish a regional aquatic management unit, to support 1 member countries during implementation of projects and, if the establishment of such a unit is considered useful, detailed drafting of its set-up; 1 - environmental and gender assessments of proposed projects; - cost estimates of the proposed projects.

1 The study started in June 1994, and was divided into three distinct periods: an Inception Phase, a Data Collection Phase and a Project Preparation Phase. At the end of April 1995, 1 after completing the Data Collection Phase, an overall project and five regional projects were selected for detailed preparation out of a list of Il projects, which in turn was based on a long 1 list of identified aquatic weed problems in the ECOWAS countries. The conclusions from the Data Collection Phase are presented in a series of Country Status 1 Studies, one for each of the ECOWAS countries. The present, fina! report summarizes the main results and findings of the study. lt describes the main aquatic weed infestations, as elaborated in the Country Status Reports, and their global socio-economic impacts, as well 1 as prcsents the selected projects, which are detailed in six separate project documents, attached to this report in Volume 2. The projects include an overall project, entitled: 1 "ECOW AS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management" and 5 regional projects dealing with the integrated control of floating weeds in (l) the coastal areas of Benin and Nigeria, (2) the Middle Niger River Basin (Niger, Nigeria and Benin), (3) the Upper Niger 1 River Basin (Mali), (4) the Tano river in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, and (5) the Lower 1 Senegal River System (Senegal and Mauritania). In accordance with the Terms of Reference, this final report is structured as a project 1 preparation document. Chapter 2 presents the regional background, including an analysis of the present weed infestations and their possible impact; Chapter 3 describes the project rationale; Chapter 4 deals with the selection process and the location of the selected projects; 1 Chapter 5 describes the projects objectives, scope and features and provides cost estimates of the proposed projects; Chapter 6 presents the beneficiaries, target groups and main actors; 1 Chapter 7 presents the executing agencies; Chapter 8 gives an account of the economic and financial analysis; Chapter 9 contains the conclusions and recommendations; and in Chapter 1 10 the references are listed. 1 1 1 1 9 1 2 REGIONAL BACKGROUND 1 2.1 Geographic setting The ECOWAS region is situated from 16 eastern to 20 western longitude, and from 5 to 28 1 northern latitude. The temperatures range from 12 to 30-40 °C and higher, and the annual rainfall varies from 500 mm or less in the Sahel zone to 2,500 mm or more in coastal and 1 mountain areas. The rainfall data in the ECOWAS member countries are listed in Table 1. 1 Table 2.1 - Rainfall data in the ECOWAS member countries COUNTRY RAINFALL (YEARLY AVERAGES AND DISTRIBUTION)

1 Benin 800-1,300 mm; rainy seasons in the south from April to mid-July, and from mid-September to end of October, and in the north from 1 June to early October Burkina Faso 1,200 mm in the southem savannah zone, and 750-900 mm in the 1 northem zone, falling between May /June and September Cape Verde erratic rainfall, less than 500 mm, falling between late August and early October

1 Côte d'Ivoire 1,900-2,300 mm in the south, with rainy seasons from May to July and in October-November; about 1,200 mm in the north, falling 1 between May and early October The Gambia 750-1, 150 mm; rainy season on the coast from June/July to October, 1 in the interior from April to September Ghana over 2,000 mm in the western coastal zone, and 700-750 mm in the eastem coastal zone (Accra-Togo), with a principal rainy season from April to 1 June and a minor one in October; in the interior (forests) 1,500-1,700 mm; in the north 1,000-1, 100 mm, falling from May to September 1 Guinea 3,000-4,000 mm on the coast, falling between May and October, and half of it in July and August; in the mountainous region 1,500-2,000 mm, evenly distributed between May and October

1 Guinea-Bissau up to 3,000 mm on the coast, and about 1,500 mm inland

Liberia over 4,000 mm on the coast in the north-west, and some 2,500 mm on the 1 coast in the south-east, falling between May and October; inland 1,250-2,000 mm, falling from June to October 1 Mali 700-1,000 mm in the southem, Sudanian zone, falling from June to September/October; 200-400 mm in the Sahelian zone; little or no rain in the 1 Saharan zone 1 1 1 1 10

1 Mauritania 25 mm on the coast; 650 mm in the Chemana zone, falling from May to September; 450 mm in the Sahelian zone, falling from July to October; 25-125 1 mm in the Sahara zone, falling in June-July Niger over 500 mm in the south, falling from July to September; 250-500 mm in the Sahel zone; 50 mm or Jess in the north

1 Nigeria up to 3,000 mm on the coast in eastem Nigeria, virtually throughout the year; 1,500-2,000 mm on the coast in south-westem Nigeria, falling between April 1 and July, and in September-October; 1,000-1,500 mm in the middle belt; 250- 1,000 mm in the north, falling from late May to the end of September

Se ne gal 500-600 mm in the lower Senegal valley, falling from June to October; up to 1 1,800 mm in the Casamance, falling from May to December; around 1,000 mm in the eastem part, falling from May to October 1 Sierra Leone over 3,150 mm throughout the country, except in the highlands where the rainfall is 2,350 mm, falling from May to early Nove,nber 1 Togo 750-800 mm on the coast, falling from May to mid-July, and from mid- September to October; 1,000 mm in the interior, 1,500-1, 700 mm in and near the Togo mountains, and 1,000-1,300 mm in the north, falling from May to 1 October il Source: Encyclopedia of the Third World 1987 Most of the main rivers in the ECOW AS region originate in the highlands of Guinea, notably the Senegal river flowing inland from Guinea, through Mali, and along the border of 1 Mauritania and Senegal to the Atlantic Ocean, and the Niger river flowing from Guinea, through Mali and Niger to the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria. Other main rivers originating in 1 Guinea are: the Konkoure, finding its outlet to the Atlantic Ocean in the country itself: the Gambia river, flowing through Senegal and the country bearing its name; the Corubal and Geba rivers in Guinea Bissau; the Great and Little Scarcies, Rokel and Moa in Sierra Leone; 1 the Mona, along the border of Sierra Leone and Liberia; Saint Paul and Saint John in Liberia; the Cavalla along the border of Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. Main rivers originating 1 in the highlands of Burkina Faso and its borders with Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Togo are: the Comoé river, branching into the Atlantic Ocean in Côte d'Ivoire; the Bandama and the Sassandra rivers flowing through Côte d'Ivoire; the Tano river along the border of Côte 1 d'Ivoire and Ghana; the Volta and Odaw rivers flowing through Ghana. In the upper north of Togo the Oti is the main river, which is a tributary of Lake Volta, situated in Ghana, 1 while in central and south Togo the main river is the Mono, with its major affluents the Ogou and the Anié, which forms the border with Benin. The main water body in Benin is the Ouémé-Sô river system. In Nigeria, apart from the Niger river with its major tributary 1 the Benue river, main rivers include Benin, Escravos and Forcados. No permanent rivers are found on the islands of Cape Verde. Along the coastal borders of the various countries there 1 are numerous creeks and lagoons. See for a map of the region Annex I. 1 1 1 1 11 1 2.2 Economie setting

All the 16 countries of West Africa are predominantly agricultural. Cocoa, coffee, rubber, 1 groundnuts, meat, and fish are exported. Another major sector is mining, such as petroleum in Nigeria, Benin and Côte d'Ivoire, iron ore in Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria and Sierra 1 Leone, diamond in Ghana, Sierra Leone and Guinea, bauxite (aluminium) in Ghana, Guinea and Sierra Leone; phosphate rock in Senegal and Togo; tin in Niger and Nigeria; uranium in Niger and liquified natural gas (LNG) in Nigeria. Except LNG, most of the other 1 minerais are destined for the export market outside the region. The other sub-sectors which contribute to their gross domestic product (GDP) are manufacturing, construction, transport, 1 finance, insurance, and tourism.

The common characteristics of the economies of West Africa are low per capita incomes, 1 high population growth rates, rural poverty and low standards of living. The other common feature includes open economies in which foreign tracte accounts for about one quarter of 1 national GDP, and heavy dependence on one or a few export commodities. For instance, cocoa accounted for 54 percent of Ghana's total export in 1986, petroleum 97 percent of Nigeria's in 1985, and cattle products 41 percent of Mali's in 1979. This last factor makes 1 them particularly vulnerable to the vagaries of world commodity prices, coupled with 1 stagnant or declining quantities of the export. 1 2.3 Main aquatic weed species 1 2. 3 .1 Occurrence In the tropics, the main floating weeds in order of importance are water hyacinth (Eichhornia 1 crassipes), water fern (Salvinia molesta) and water lettuce or Nile cabbage (Pistia stratiotes) (Pieterse and Murphy 1990). Water hyacinth originally occurred only in South America, but it was spread by man in the nineteenth century because of its exotic, hyacinth-like flowers 1 (Pieterse 1978; Gopal 1987). Already in the beginning of the twentieth century it was introduced on the African continent in the Nile Delta in Egypt. Serious problems on the 1 African continent did not occur until the 1950s, when dense masses developed in the Zaïre river in Zaïre and in the White Nile in the Sudan (Mitchell et al. 1990). Subsequently, it was reported from the Pangani river in Tanzania, the Incomato river in Mozambique, the Sabi 1 and Makabusi rivers in Zimbabwe, the Kafue river in Zambia and the Swartkops and Vaal 1 rivers in South Africa. Although in the infested areas in Africa control programmes were implemented (Lebrun 1 1959; Holm et al. 1969; Koch et al. 1978), further spread of water hyacinth on the African 1 1 1 1 12 1 continent was not effectively stopped. During the past decade this has led to large scale infestation of Lake Victoria in East Africa as well as to the alarming spread of water 1 hyacinth in West Africa. Water fern is also of South American origin. It was probably spread out of its natural habitat 1 in the 1940s. Subsequently it invaded waterbodies in many tropical regions. Very serious problems occurred in lake Kariba at the border of Zimbabwe and Zambia after the lake was 1 newly filled (Mitchell et al. 1990). Water lettuce occurs throughout the tropics and is considered a native weed in West Africa. 1 In the ECOWAS region, the major floating weeds are water hyacinth and water lettuce. Water fern does not occur as yet to any marked extent in this region, except in Côte d'Ivoire and in the Tano lagoon on the border between Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, where it is reported 1 as one of the major floating weeds.

1 Water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes [Mart.] Solms): Water hyacinth is able to grow in very different fresh water habitats, but favours stagnant water. lt cannot withstand the "burning" effect of water with a high salinity. This explains 1 for example why the water hyacinth population in the lagoons of Nigeria is reduced drastically during dry seasons, and very massive again during rainy seasons (Akinyemiju, 1 1987).

1 The first report on water hyacinth in the ECOW AS region was in 1977 (L. Fagbohoun, cited in Van Thielen et al. 1994) in Benin. In 1988 it already caused very serious problems in four ECOWAS countries: Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria (ECOWAS 1988). At present 1 it has spread to eight ECOWAS countries. These include, apart from the four previous 1 mentioned ones: Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and The Gambia. The present spread of water hyacinth in the region is summarized below:

1 Benin In South East Benin water hyacinth is clogging up waterways in the Ouémé-Sô river system 1 as well as in the Sô river with its adjacent flood plains and connected lagoons. Recently it also invaded tribu taries of the Niger river in the far north of Benin.

1 Burkina Faso In the beginning of 1995 it became apparent that some small reservoirs in the city of 1 Ouagadougou were infested with water hyacinth. 1 1 1 1

1 13 Nigeria 1 In Nigeria, infestations of water hyacinth in the Badagry Creek, bordering Benin, were reported in local newspapers in 1982, and in 1985 the alarm of the invasion of Nigerian 1 coastal creeks and lagoons was raised by one of the national newspapers. Since 1985, water hyacinth bas spread throughout most of the inland coastal waters, rivers and creeks of the Delta area in Nigeria. Recently, it also invaded Lake Kainji (Farri and Chizea, 1995; 1 Kusemiju 1995) and the river Niger upstream from this artificiai lake. In Lake Kainji infestation is still relatively low. However, in certain parts of the lake a shore vegetation of 1 water hyacinth has developed up to 5 metres wide.

1 Côte d'Ivoire In Côte d'Ivoire water hyacinth appeared in the Ono lagoon, near Abidjan, at the beginning of the 1980's, after it was preceded by another exotic floating weed, water fern, a few years 1 earlier (Bard et al. 1991; Guiral and Etien 1991). Subsequently, water hyacinth spread via 1 the Comoé river into the Ebrié lagoon, between Grand Bassam and Abidjan. Ghana In Ghana, water hyacinth was first observed in the Accra/Tema metropolitan area in 1984 1 (DeGraft-Johnson 1988). It was probably introduced as an ornamental in the East Legon quarter and spread via the Odaw river. Flowers of the water hyacinth were sold in the streets 1 and subsequently the weed spread to the Kpeshie lagoon, which is Accra's main sewage outlet, and a lagoon at a distance of 45 km (the Sakumono lagoon). In 1990 water hyacinth appeared in the Tano lagoon, situated between Ghana and Ivory CoasL. These plants had been 1 transported from the Abidjan area via the lagoon system. Vast stretches of water hyacinth currently occur in the Tano lagoon. Together with hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata), they form 1 large floating islands, on which even a bush vegetation has developed in certain areas. In the Tano river water hyacinth only occurs in the vicinity of the lagoon. It does not occur upstream, which also points to a spread of the weed from Ivory Coast. Water hyacinth is still 1 absent in other areas of Ghana. 1 Mali 1 According to various sources, water hyacinth was first observed in Mali around 1990. From the area around the city of Bamako, where it bas probably been sold as an ornamental, it rapidly spread into the river Niger and adjacent waterbodies. Currently, infestation in the 1 area around Bamako is alarming. During the rainy season dense masses are flooded out of the creeks and tribu taries into the main river. 1 In addition to the Bamako District, water hyacinth bas spread into the Niger river system up 1 to the Timbuktu region, which would imply that it bas already infested the Niger Inner Delta. 1 1 1

1 14

However, reliable data concerning the delta are still lacking. This delta is one of the major 1 wetland ecosystems in Africa and a habitat for a large number of animal and plant species, including migrating birds from other African regions as well as from Europe. The floodplains 1 are also important grazing lands for cattle. A large scale development of water hyacinth in the delta area could be disastrous.

1 Niger In the Republic of Niger, water hy_a_c;_i_nth was first reported in the Niger river near the city 1 of Niamey i_Il"198_8~- Subsequently, the water hyacinth vegetation markedly increased and became a nuisance in the 1990s. During the 1994 rainy season water hyacinths were spread 1 over the floodplains into the mouths of the tributaries in Tillabéry and Ayorou regions, 150 km upstream of Niamey. Less than 100 km of the total 550 km of the river Niger in the Republic of Niger is currently still free of water hyacinth. In 1992 water hyacinths were first 1 recorded to flow into Nigeria via the Niger river.

1 The Gambia According to the survey, water hyacinth did not occur in the other member states, with the 1 exception of one site in The Gambia (a pond near the capital Banjul).

(Î

1 1 \ • "' r 1 (, r Water f~!}lJSalvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell): ( L, Water fern also thrives in stagnant water. lt can form mats up to a thickness of 15 cm. 1 Furthermore, in contrast to water hyacinth and water lettuce, this weed can be a serious pest in riœ fields. Recently, Australian researchers have located the original habitat in the 1 southern part of Brazil. Probably as a result of biological control mechanisms, it has not spread in South America out of its natural habitat. In the 1940s, water fern became a serious problem in Sri Lanka and subsequently it spread to other areas in Asia, Africa and Australia. 1 In Africa it has been particularly troublesome in Lake Kariba which is situated in Zambia and Zimbabwe. In West Africa, water fern has so far only been reported in lagoons and lakes in 1 the South Eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and in the Tano lagoon which is situated at the border of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Water fern tolerates a wide pH range, from 5.2 to 9.5, but the 1 optimum is thought to be around pH 6-7.5. The nitrogen supply to a large extent influences growth of this species, but this applies also for other floating weeds. An increase in nitrogen 1 level causes a linear increase in both total dry weight and number of plants. Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.): 1 Water lettuce occurs throughout the tropics. The plant performs best in water with a pH around 7 (Pieterse et al. 1981), and not around pH 4 which was previously claimed by 1 Chadwick and Obeid (1966). Water lettuce also favours stagnant water, in particular a habitat 1 1 1

1 15

where it grows in association with other aquatic plants, such as a grassy shore vegetation. 1 It is very common in reservoirs, ponds and along the shoreline of large lakes. The plant can create compact floating mats, which spread from the fringes into open water, and it can survive for extended periods on moist muck at the banks.

Water lettuce is easily crowded out by the water hyacinth, but it usually remains present 1 despite the predominance of the latter species.

1 Water lettuce, which is endogenous in the ECOWAS area, causes serious problems in reservoirs in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Nigeria. In the latter country it accounts for 10-15% of the aquatic plants that have infested 60% of the coastal water bodies. Furthermore, water 1 lettuce is especially troublesome in the Lower Senegal River system. These problems have arisen after the construction of the Diama dam, which prevents the inflow of sait water. Due 1 to a change in ecological conditions, i.e. the brackish water had become fresh, dense mats of water lettuce have developed in various lakes, which are connected with the Senegal river. 1

Other aquatic weeds: 1 A wide variety of other aquatic weed species is found in the various water bodies in the region. These species include emergent weeds (rooted plants with most of their l~af and ste111 1 !,i~§Ue_above the water surface) and submerged weeds (most of the vegetative tissue beneath the water surface; they are rooted or attached to the bottom of a water body by root-like organs). Emergent weeds are only found on the banks of rivers or on the shores of lakes. 1 They can be very troublesome in irrigation canais. Major examples are: the grasses Phragmites australis (reed), Echinochloa, Eleocharis and Panicum spp., the sedges Scirpus 1 spp., TYJJh.tJ, spp. and Cyperu~ spp., and the broad-leaved weeds Ludwigia stolonifera and Polygonum spp. These weeds are widely spread in the ECOW AS region.

1 In some countries, Salvinia nymphe/lu/a was recorded during the country surveys; it occurs 1 often in combination with water lettuce. Another grassy weed of major importance in rivers, lakes and reservoirs in the ECOW AS 1 sub-region is Vossia cuspidata (hippo grass), which forms floating islands. Other floating weeds of local importance are the Azolla spp.

1 Troublesome submerged weeds in the region include Ceratophyllum demersum (hornwort), which is a major aquatic weed in the reservoirs of Ghana and in lakes of Burkina Faso, 1 Potamogeton spp. and Vallisneria spp. 1 1 1 1 1 16 1 2.3.2 Classification of problems

At low densities, aquatic plants are generally beneficial to the ecosystem because they 1 produce oxygen, provide food and serve as hiding, shelter and hatching places for fish. Furthermore, aquatic plants break down many organic substances, purify the water by 1 trapping silt particles, and they take up toxic compounds, such as phenols and heavy metals. However, aquatic plants are regarded as serious weeds when they occur in dense vegetation, hamper the use of water bodies and create serious environrnental and socio-economic 1 problems.

1 The predominance of one or a few aquatic weed species also affects the biodiversity of the waterbody. In general, eradication of one dominant species may result in the dominance of 1 another species. Therefore, weed control measures should mainly be aimed at reducing the populations of the aquatic weed species to acceptable levels. Control of water hyacinth and water fem, which are introduced plants that did not occur in West Africa, may be an 1 exception. Total eradication of this very noxious weed from these waterbodies would not be a major loss from an ecological point of view. In practice, however, total eradication will 1 not be feasible. Consequently, also with regard to water hyacinth, the aim of the control programmes should be to keep growth of this plant at a low level.

1 In creeks, lakes, reservoirs, as well as in fresh water lagoons in the coastal areas of Nigeria and Benin, water hyacinth is found the whole year around. In the saline lagoons they appear 1 after they have been flooded out of the rivers and creeks following rise of the water level as a result of the annual rains. They may survive in the lagoons for 2-3 months, and reproduce 1 when the salinity is low, but finally they will flow into the ocean where they will die. The floating weeds affect transport, social and recreational life, and hinder fishing and 1 operation of hydro-electric power schemes. The presence of mats of aquatic weeds cause anaerobic conditions, reducing fish production. Furthermore, the increased evapotranspiration caused by the presence of aquatic weeds results in substantial water loss, which might be 1 more than twice the loss caused by evaporation from open water. Finally, it must be noted that the mats of aquatic plants are favourable breeding sites for vectors of diseases like 1 malaria and bilharzia. 1 As elaborated in Section 2. 5, the socio-economic impact of floating aquatic weeds can be severe. In Nigeria, for example, it is estimated that more than one third of the local fish supply is presently threatened by mats of water hyacinth, making fishing difficult for more 1 than 20,000 fishermen, or even impossible so that they are forced to look for other means of livelihood. Moreover, the presence of floating weeds hinders or prevents transport via 1 water of people, logs, food products, etc., resulting in much higher costs of transportation. 1 1 1

1 17

The increase in costs was estimated to amount to 200-300%, while the floating weed masses 1 have also led to a sharp increase of the frequency of breakdown of engine boats. In the riverine areas of Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Delta, and lately in the Rivers State, inhabitants of a 1 number of villages have been forced to abandon their homes and migrate to urban areas (Alimi and Akinyemiju 1991). The country surveys, conducted in the framework of the present study, show that in Benin, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana the problems experienced with 1 water hyacinth in rivers, creeks and lagoons are similar to those in Nigeria.

1 A special problem are the weeds in reservoirs used for providing drinking water and for irrigating crops. In these shallow waters the floating weeds Pistia stratiotes and Vossia 1 cuspidata, the submerged weed Ceratophyllum demersum, and the emergent weeds Scirpus spp., Ludwigia stolonifera, Polygonum spp. ~nd Typha spp. create the major problems. 1 2.4 Status of floating weed control in the ECOWAS region 1 The methods of controlling aquatic weeds practised are: a physical control by hand or by hand-held tools, or mechanically with engine 1 powered machinery; b chemical control; 1 C biological control.

Where single control is ineffective, the methods are used in combination. This is called 1 integrated control.

1 Ideally, control should be by taking preventive measures, such as by keeping the aquatic weed vegetation at such a low level that dense growth will not occur, or by making growth conditions of aquatic weeds Jess favourable by alternating the water level, preventing inflow 1 of nutrients, or by planting trees which decreases the light intensity. However, this type of management of aquatic weeds is often difficult to be organized in practice; in most cases 1 control measures do not start before dense growth of aquatic weeds has become apparent. Therefore. prevention programmes are important to avoid introduction and further spread of 1 exotic aquatic weeds. Management will also depend on the type of waterbody (see Pieterse 1994). In the ECOW AS region, physical control of aquatic weeds by hand-held tools is the major 1 method practised, and given the availability of cheap labour it is also the most economic one, particularly in small water courses. Heaping, drying and burning of the removed aquatic 1 weeds are the major components. Other methods of control are used to a limited extent in countries with heavy infestations. 1 1 1 1

1 18

The present state of affairs regarding the control of floating weeds in the various countries 1 is summarized below.

1 Benin Manual control through local initiatives is the major method of control. Mechanical harvesting is not practised. Biological control started in 1991 with the import of the weevil 1 Neochetina eichhorniae from Australia. The weevil was reared by the Plant Health Management Division of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), located 1 in Cotonou, and released by the Department of Fisheries in Benin in cooperation with GTZ, the German Agency for Technical Cooperation. In addition, in 1992 the weevil N. ~,:.uc~i_ was introduced and released in Benin. At present, the development of the weevils is 1 monitored in the various creeks and lagoons; an increase in mortality of water hyacinth has been observed. In 1991 public awareness programmes have been started. Radio and press are 1 involved at a Jow scale. Manual removal of aquatic weeds is integrated in general cleaning activities in the villages. A television documentary is in production. An extension worker is 1 added to the biological contrai team to guarantee the information, communication and collaboration with the villagers involved.

1 In 1994 and 1995, the water hyacinth moth Sameodes albiguttalis has been released at several sites in the Sô river. Very recently, in July 1995, a biological control agent against water 1 lettuce, the weevil Neohydronomus affinis, was released in the Mono river system.

Burkina Faso 1 Early 1995, water hyacinth was found at various sites in Ouagadougou. The Ministry of Environment has organized an eradication campaign, which was still going on at the end of 1 this year. A National Committee has been established under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment. Television, radio and press have been involved. Fishermen and florists play an important role in removal activities and surveillance. A workshop has been organized in 1 September 1995 in collaboration with the project team of the Floating Weeds Study.

1 Côte d'Ivoire Control of water hyacinth in Côte d'Ivoire is mainly conducted by hand or with hand-held tools. Herbicides have been applied from the mid-1980s after occurrence of heavy infestations 1 of water hyacinth, water Jettuce and water fern, especially in the Ono Lagoon and in Jagoons 1 and backwaters of the Comoé river. Mechanical harvesting is carried out in lagoons and reservoirs. From 1987 to 1992, the 1 Public Works Department conducted a major effort to contrai water hyacinth and other floating weeds. During that period, the inlet of the Comoé river at Grand Bassam was 1 reopeœd several times to enable a flushing out of these weeds, and to increase the salinity 1 1 1

1 19

of inland lagoons. The expected effect, a destruction of the weed population, was achieved. 1 However, the opening spontaneously closed due to the present hydrological characteristics of the lagoon system. At present, control measures are concentrating on the use of floating 1 barriers to control the flow of water hyacinth. Work on biological control is planned by the "Comité Local d' Appreciation des Projets (CLAP)", to be executed by the "Centre Ivoirien 1 Anti-Pollution (CIAPOL) of the Ministry of the Environment, and financed by the UNDP. Chemical control of aquatic weeds is conducted in artificial lakes near the provincial capital 1 Yamoussoukro. The herbicide used is 2,4-D, but it has not resulted in the expected degree 1 of control. Ghana The control of water hyacinths, which were first observed in this country in 1984 in the 1 Accra/Tema metropolitan area, is organised by the Ghana Water and Sewage Authority and the Volta River Authority. In 1987 a National Water Hyacinth Eradication Committee was 1 set up within the Environmental Protection Council. One of its activities is to distribute posters to raise people's awareness of the problem.

1 Manual control through local initiatives is still the major method of control. In the drinking water reservoirs manual control is exerted by means of rakes; the plants are collected in 1 canoes. Sometimes the outflows have to be closed for removal of weeds. As for mechanical control, of the five aquatic weed harvesters available, two were in operation in October 1994 ( the time of the country survey). These are used in the lower 1 Volta river near Ada'foah and in the Barikese reservoir. The three other harvesters are locatc:d in the Kpong Headpond, the Owabi reservoir and in the Volta river upstream of 1 Ada'foah; as mentioned, they were out of order at the end of 1994.

The herb_iddes paraquat and glyphosate were applied for controlling water hyacinth shortly ------1 after its appearance in Accra and adjacent areas in 1984. At present the water hyacinth seems to be eradicated in the lagoons, but it is still present in the small streams of Accra. 1 In the 1970s aerial sprays with paraquat were carried out in the Barikese reservoir near Kumasi, which were not very successful. Also in the 1970s the herbicides ~.4-D and 1 paraquat have been applied on a small scale in Lake Volta. Subsequently. the Environmental Protection Council has strongly opposed further chemical control programmes. It is now only 1 applied in combination with biological control (see below). A two-year project on biological control, coordinated by the Food and Agriculture 1 Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and financed by the European Union, started in September 1994. This project will mainly be concerned with the control of water hyacinth 1 by the weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi, as well as the moth Sameodes 1 1 1

1 20

albiguttalis, the weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae for the control of S. molesta and the weevil 1 Neohydronomus ajfinis for the control of water lettuce. Prior to the start of this project, in April 1994, N. eichhorniae and N. bruchi were released in the Tano river lagoon. These 1 insects had been obtained from IIT A in Benin and subsequently been reared in ponds at the University of Ghana in Accra. The release site was visited on October 29 1994 and it was 1 observed that the insects were spreading. The two-year project will also be concerned with mechanical and chemical control of aquatic weeds in Ghana. It is carried out by the Institute of Aquatic Botany (established in 1961 by the Council for Scientific and lndustrial Research

1 in connection with the formation of the Volta lake) and the University of Ghana. 1 1 Mali In Mali, there are no governrnental projects dealing with aquatic weed control. Control of 1 water hyacinth is conducted manually through local initiatives, and by the electricity 1 company. !I! Niger In 1989 the Department of Fauna, Fisheries and Fish Culture of the Ministry of Hydraulics 1 and Environment started a public awareness campaign on the poî.ential danger of water hyacinth. ln 1991 an FAO mission was conducted on the aquatic weed problem in the Niger 1 river. As Joss in fish yields amounted to 40 %, due to interference of water hyacinths with the use of nets. A manual contrai programme was initiated using incentives of the World Food Programme to facilitate the participation of the villagers involved. It was estimated 1 that cleaning one ~required ~5 man-days. Recently, a manual co_11t_r0Jgrog~amme for the river Niger, funded by the Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KfW), was carried out by a 1 private enterprise paying villagers involved.

Nigeria 1 The National Committee on Water Hyacinth, established in 1985 and based in the National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI), directs and coordinates 1 aquatic weed control activities through 5 sub-committees dealing with surveillance, biological, mechanical and chemical control, and practical uses of the weed. It has 1 established bilateral relationships with both the Benin Republic and the Niger Republic to discuss the research and control aspects of the floating weeds. Furthermore, State and Local Govemments through various departments and ministries as well as River Basin Authorities 1 involved in management of waterbodies, including the control of aquatic weeds, are in close contact with the National Committee on Water Hyacinth. From 1984 - 1989 public awareness 1 campaigns were organized via radio and posters. Florists were approached by members of the National Committee and made aware of the risks of trading exotic weeds. Due to a lacl 1 of funds no awareness activities have been undertaken ever since. 1 1 1

1 21 In Nigeria, water hyacinth could be manually controlled to a satisfactory extent during the 1 first years of its invasion, but in 1985, the year of establishment of the Committee, the infestation had increased to such a degree that manual control in the coastal waterways was no longer successful, and mechanical harvesters had to be introduced. Manual control in the 1 coastal areas occurs now mainly for clearing water hyacinth from canais, and for completing the clearance of mechanically treated areas. However, in the interior of the country, manual 1 removal, organized through local initiatives, remains the major control method.

1 Mechanical harvesting requires a considerable capital outlay; equipment needs to be available in sufficient numbers to enable the clearance on a regular basis in order to outpace the reproduction of these weeds. Due to lack of funds, mechanical harvesting is nota continuous 1 exercise in the plagued coastal areas, but is done in an ad-hoc fashion by local companies for opening up already blocked water bodies. In 1994, the total budget for aquatic weed control 1 was only Naira 2 million; most of it was spent on the mechanical clearing of the Niger river upstream of Kainji. lt is the intention of NASENI to purchase a large number of small units of mechanical harvesters, and to distribute these to the Local Governments of the Niger river 1 areas. Furthermore, it is planned to use physical barriers, such as booms, to increase the 1 effectiveness of mechanical control. Chemical control of water hyacinth has been investigated by the Insi:itute of Ecology of the Obafemi Awolowo University in Ile-Ife. Sorne creeks and channels in the Ogun, Ondo and 1 Delta states were sprayed either aerially or from boats, using the herbicides glyphosate, diquat and terbutryn. The Nigerian Government intends to restrict the use of chemicals to 1 areas where there are no health and environmental hazards. In this context, water pollution by decaying weeds is also taken into consideration.

1 Biological control is considered by the Nigerian Government to be a major tool for long term management of the water hyacinth problem. In 1992, rearing of the water hyacinth weevil, 1 Neochetina eichhorniae, started at the Nigerian Institute for Horticulture (NIHORT) in Ibadan, and releases are now in progress at various sites along the Niger river. So far, no 1 weevils have been released by NASENI in the coastal states of Nigeria, but the presence of weevils on water hyacinth was recorded in the Badagry Creek in 1994. lt may be assumed that plants had drifted into Nigeria from the Benin Republic, where weevils have been 1 released. The releases in Benin have been carried out recently, and the effect on reducing the water hyacinth population has not become visible as yet. However, results obtained with this • 1 weevil in other countries indicate that this is an effective control mcthod.

Senegal 1 In the Djoudj national park, which is situated in the floodplain of the Lower Senegal river 1 in Senegal, approximately 50 km east from the city of Saint Louis, water lettuce was 1 1 1

1 22

successfully controlled by the construction of small dams to prevent the inflow of fresh water 1 from the Senegal river. As the salt content of the soil in the park is still relatively high, the water in large areas of the park became brackish, causing the death of water lettuce plants. However, it may be expected that eventually salinity of the water will decrease again. In 1 ~------other parts of the park the water l~el was temporarily decreased. This also led to dying of water lettuce as a result of a higher salt content of the water. In the Lac de Guiers water ------· - - --· ~ 1 lettuce is irregularly removed manually. However, the water lettuce infestation is so massive and covers such a large area t11at labourers cannot cope with the problem. Aquatic weeds 1 (mainly Typha) in the irrigation canais in the floodplain of the Senegal river are regularly 1 removed by dredging. The Gambia A small infestation of water hyacinth occurred in a pond near the capital of Banjul. This 1 should be removed before the situation escalates. Water lettuce is found at several sites in 1 the Gambia river. Togo Until now no problems are experienced with aquatic weeds in Togo. Water lettuce is the 1 major floating weed found, but in general it has not reached any alarming proportions. However, lake Zowla is heavily infested, especially by water lettuce. Aquatic weed contrai, 1 if any, is conducted manually. Awareness activities are planned by the Ministry of Environment. Importation of water hyacinth from Ghana is checked within the existing 1 quarantine regulations. Mauritania and Cape Verde 1 Aquatic weeds do not pose a problem in these dry countries, except in the reserves of Mauritania in the Senegal valley. There are no ongoing weed control programmes. 1 Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau In all these countries there are minor infestations of water lettuce. There are no emergency 1 situations. Manual removal is applied where necessary. 1 2.5 Socio-economic impact of floating weed infestations in the ECOW AS region

1 2. 5.1 Introduction 1 As indicated in the previous section the occurrence of floating weeds in the ECOW AS region differs from country to country. The problem shared by all the countries is the potential 1 spread of the floating weeds into the whole region which might cause major economic tosses 1 1 1 1 23 1 if nothing is being done.

Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana Niger and Nigeria have already experienced substantial losses 1 due to the infestation of floating weeds, especially water hyacinth, and their governments il have already invested in the control of floating weeds, as is illustrated in Table 2.2.

1 Table 2.2 - Governmental expenditure on current control programmes

1 COUNTRY INVESTMENTS IN TYPE OF SECTORS US$ TREATMENT INVOLVED

1 Benin $70,000 in 1994 biological control fisheries donor budget 1 Burkina Faso $5,000 manual removal and national coordination, national budget awareness campaign hydro-energy, fisheries, florists and 1 media Côte d'Ivoire $ 2,500,000 made mechanical; floating fisheries/transport 1 national budget and available in 1987, 1989 barri ers and hydro-energy donor budget and 1992 for dragging operations

1 Ghana $ 500,000 made chemical, mechanical water suppl y, hydro- national budget available in 1994 and manual contrai energy production and 1 highway authority Niger $ 168,000 manual removal by Ministry of Hydrau!ics 1 donor budget private enterprise and Environment Nigeria $ 100,000 in 1994 mechanical; some national coordination national budget experimentation with 1 chemical control Source: Interviews 1 Especially in the Niger river system the problem may become very serious if nothing is being 1 done on the short term. Water hyacinth has recently also been observed in the land-locked country Burkina Faso. Fortunately, no invasion of water hyacinth has so far occurred in the 1 Senegal river. This should be prevented as otherwise the whole sub-region could be affected. The 1osses and hazards caused by floating weeds are especially felt at the rural community 1 level. In several affected areas, rural households lose time and money to keep up their daily 1 1 ~··

1 24

1 11 activities. They face problems in getting clean water, there are increased health problems and they often see their incomes (e.g. as traders in fishery products) reduced. Children in lagoon areas cannot go to school during periods of major incidence of floating weeds, fishermen 1 cannot fish for prolonged periods, and farmers, who rely on irrigation water, have to spend much time in cleaning their channels. It takes a day for one man to clean 100 sq. meter of 1 water hyacinth. In several affected areas, rural households are forced to abandon fishery activities because of the floating weeds, which reduce both their income and the sources for protein intake of the family, and in several cases they migrate because they can no longer 1 sustain their economy. 1 A general indication can be given of the number of people that are potentially affected by floating weeds (Table 2.3), even if they would not discern any direct link with floating weeds. It is obvious that the rural population would be more affected than the urban 1 population. In the region, the vast majority of the people in rural areas live in the vicinity of water. In this study it is estimated to be 70% of the total population, i.e. 100 million 1 people. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 25 1 Table 2.3 - Estimation of people potentially affected by floating weeds. 1 Countries Population Rural Population (1992) X 1000 population related to (1992) in % water syst. x 1 1000 Benin 4991 64 2236 1 Burkina Faso 9650 91 6147 Cape Verde 399 67 187 1 Cote d'Ivoire 13484 61 5758 Gambia 902 78 492 1 Ghana 16117 68 7672 Guinea 7642 78 4173 1 Guinea Bissau 1049 73 536 Liberia 2823 56 1107 1 Mali 8539 80 4782 Mauritania 2058 59 850

1 Niger 8431 80 4721 Nigeria 91170 84 53608

1 Senegal 8200 64 3674

Sierra Leone 4386 70 2149

1 Togo 3948 78 2156

Total 183789 100247 1 1 1 1 1 1 Source: PC Globe Inc. 1992 and FAO 1994

1 Policies have so far been based on technical assessments of the incidence of floating weeds (levels of infestation of water bodies); a multi-sectoral focus and a multi-disciplinary focus have been absent. The latter give due account of the considerable consequences of the 1 floating weeds for the different sectors, viz. fisheries, transportation, agriculture in irrigated schemes, water supply and public health, and hydro-energy production, as well as of the 1 socio-economic consequences for the people who live in the affected areas and depend on the water bodies. In the following sections, these aspects are worked out. 1 1 1 1 1 26 1 2.5.2 Fisheries

Fish is one of the chief sources of animal protein in West Africa and in many communities 1 fish plays a more important role in the diet than meat. Few data exist on the number of households that rel y entirely on inland fishery, which makes any estimation very difficult. 1 On the basis of data collected in some countries, an extrapolation bas been made for the 1 whole region to determine the number of people living in inland fishing communities • The

total population living in inland fishing communities in the whole region is .,,,-thus estimated to 1 be approximately 4.5 million people. Floating weeds in the region directly affect their livelihood. Women in fishing communities are particularly affected, as bas been observed 1 during various field visits.

Fishing provides also a very important employment opportunity in both the coastal and inland 1 areas. For some countries, fish-exports (sea fish and inland fish) are an important source of 1 foreign exchange, as is illustrated in Table 2.4. In waters heavily infested with floating weeds, fish production is reduced due to both a decrease of fish population resulting from anaerobic conditions and difficulties in catching 1 as the use of nets and boats is hampered by the plants.

1 Precise data are lacking but some general trends can be established. On the basis of statistical data from the Nigerian Federal Department of Fisheries (1990) on artisanal inland fish production in Nigeria over a period of 9 years, one can observe a global tendency of 1 decreasing quantities of fish production. The periods of decrease of fish production correspond with the years of infestation by water hyacinth. The same observation holds for 1 the Tano river system in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, where decreases of fish catch of the order of 30% have been reported since the infestation by weeds. However, statistical data for 1 inland fishery in Benin (Lake Nokoué) do not show such a tendency. As there are other factors which can provoke a decrease of total catch, further study is certainly required to make an evaluation of the relationship between total fish population, total catch and the 1 infestation of floating weeds. 1 1

1 1 It is estimated that the number of people relying on one fisherman' household is 10, which includes: The number of people per household 6.5; The numher of people that work with fish products (smoking etc) is 30% of total numher of fishers. It is assumed that the numher of people relying on inland fishery 1s cquivalent to the relative participation of 1 mland fishery in GNP. Although this procedure of extrapolation may hc questtonable; the results ohtained for 4 countries for which data are availahlc show a remarkable resemblance. 1 li 1 1 27 1 Table 2.4 - Relative importance of the fisheries sector in the sub-region Co untries Inland Sea Imports 1992 Exports 1992 1 (xl,000 MT; 1992) (xl,000 MT; 1992) (xl,000 US$) (xl,000 US$) Benin 31.5 8.5 3210 85 1 Burkina Faso 7.5 0 5700 0 Cape Verde 0 8.5 235 2600

1 Cote d'Ivoire 17.7 69.3 117391 99707

Gambia 2.5 20.2 200 2130

1 Ghana 57 369.5 16700 20040 1 Guinea 4 33 4350 0 Guinea-Bissau 0.2 5 420 760 1 Liberia 4 4.9 2393 614 Mali 68.5 0 1040 3990 1 Mauritania 6 79 610 197950 Niger 2 0 1606 0 1 Nigeria 109.4 209 198940 24850 Senegal 24.8 302.1 23680 150985

1 Sierra Leone 16 40.2 1550 10770 1 Togo 0.5 10.3 11170 965 1 Total 351.6 1159.5 389195 515446 1 1 1 1 1 1 Source: FAO 1994 Already in the late 1980s it was noted that "water hyacinth was causing problems for the 1 fishermen as it gets entangled in their fishing gear" (FAO/DANIDA/NORWAY 1990). In other reports in that period, which appeared in the journal The Guardian in 1987 and 1988, it was stated that fishermen were giving up their jobs and migrated to the cities. In 1988 it 1 was estimated that in Nigeria over 60,000 artisanal fishermen became jobless. Similar observations have been reported in the other affected countries. Abandoning the fishery 1 activity or moving to other water bodies has been a common way to respond to the problems caused by floating weeds, especially water hyacinth.

1 Losses at the household level depend on the fishing techniques practised. The fishermen who fish with nets and hooks are affected through reduced production and increased costs for nets 1 and hooks. When other fishing techniques are applied, such as the awa and acadja 1 1 1

1 28

techniques, creating areas in which the fish is concentrated through the use of natural 1 materials (poles, mats and baskets, plant material etc.), there are no reports of decreased catches. The appearance of the floating weeds have caused an adaptation of the fishing 1 techniques. For example, the awa technique has expanded into water bodies where it was not used be fore. 1 All fishing communities are affected in their transport needs, whatever fishing technique is used. Floating weeds cause a substantial increase in time expenditure, isolation and damage 1 to boats. Sorne fishing communities have developed a technique whereby bamboo sticks are located off-shore from the community, preventing floating weeds from getting to the shore. 1 The system requires substantial maintenance, and after rough weather conditions, manual clearance of the shoreline is needed as well as repair of the bamboo. The aaverage costs of 1 manual clearing are estimated by local authorities at approximately US$ 5,000/hectare. Fishing communities are not interested in a practical use of the floating weeds. They want 1 to get rid of the problem and are willing, as was observed in Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire, to spend substantial time to control them.

1 Government support, so far, has not been able to reduce the problem. Any control mechanisms that would be proposed could however count on substantial interest of the fishing 1 communities, which would also be supportive to implement the programme (time expenditure). In Ghana, for example, fishing communities established already in 1988 a Committee for the Control of the Water Hyacinth. With local funding of transporters and 1 labour from villages an enormous effort was undertaken to control water hyacinth in the 1 region. The present estimation of total losses in the fishery sector is based on previous studies 1 (Kusemiju 1981, 1988, 1990). It is estimated that roughly 60% of the water bodies in the coastal lagoons of Nigeria is infested with water hyacinths, which would cause an estimated Joss of catch of 50%. The region is highly representative for coastal areas of Nigeria and for 1 other coastal countries. This region accounts for roughly 70% of the inland fish production. 1 The estimated total Joss in a country is calculated as follows (Doeleman 1990): the GNP is multiplied with the percentage of the inland fishery sector in the GNP, subsequently this is multiplied with the percentage of inland fisheries which is affected by floating weeds and 1 subsequently this is multiplied by the estimated impact of the aquatic weeds on fisheries in the infested areas. If these values would be respectively 7% (part of fisheries in the GNP), 1 10% (the percentage of inland fisheries which is affected) and 20% (decrease in catch in the infested area), this would result in 0.07 x 0.10 x 0.20 x GNP. 1 1 1 1 29

Table 2.5 indicates that the potential losses in the sub-region could reach some US$ 28 1 million in the region. Estimates of other experts indicate that at current infestation, the losses could even be of the order of US$ 68 million for the affected countries alone. Their 1 calculation is based on 20% infestation and 40% catch reduction in infested waters. i1 Table 2.5 - Estimation of potential losses in the inland fisheries sector

Countries GNP Inland Sea Total fish Estimated Potentiai 1 (millions (X 1000 (X 1000 production relative loss US$ ; 1991) MT; 1992) MT; 1992) 1992 participation (millions in land US$) 1 fisheries/GNP

Benin 1806 31.5 8.5 40 6.98% 2.52

1 Burkina Faso 3000 7.5 0 7.5 1.00% 0.60 1 Cape Verde 315 0 8.5 8.5 0.00% 0.00 Cote d'Ivoire 9380 17.7 69.3 87 0.75% 1.42 1 Gambia 213 2.5 20.2 22.7 4.69% 0.20 Ghana 5725 57 369.5 426.5 3.98% 4.56 1 Guinea 2615 4 33 37 0.61 % 0.32 Guinea-Bissau 185 0.2 5 5.2 0.43% 0.02 1 Liberia 1083 4 4.9 8.9 1.48% 0.32 Mali 2233 68.5 0 68.5 12.27% 5.48 1 Mauritania 978 6 79 85 2.45% 0.48 Niger 2138 2 0 2 0.37% 0.16 1 Nigeria 27751 109.4 209 318.4 1.58% 8.75 Senegal 5023 24.8 302.1 326.9 1.97% 1.98 1 Sierra Leone 818 16 40.2 56.2 7.82% 1.28 Togo 1378 0.5 10.3 10.8 0.15% 0.04

1 1 Tot;;! 64641 351.6 1159.5 1511.1 28.128 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ::iource: PC Globe Inc. lYYL and FAU 1YY4 1 1 2.5.3 Transportation Heavy infestation of floating weeds affect the transport of timber and other goods, transport 1 to schools and the provision of social services, in addition to fishing activities. Transport 1 1 1

1 30

efficiency may decline markedly. It has been reported that during dense infestation of floating 1 weeds, motorboats require more time in the order of 40% to cross a waterbody and that operational days decline by 35 %. Both factors generate a price increase of transportation 1 between 200 and 500%. Those users of waterways who want to guarantee transport at any time are obliged to procure stronger motors; motors with Iess then 80 hp cannot pass areas 1 with dense stands of water hyacinths. Floating weeds also contribute to the corrosion of bridge pillars. Costs for repairing bridges 1 may also be included in increased transportation costs.

The losses in transport due to reduced efficiency and increased costs affects ail sectors of 1 society and especially those people, who entirely depend on the water bodies for their transport and production needs. It is not possible to make an estimation of the total tosses 1 which are produced in the transport sector. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 31

For a number of countries in the region, irrigated agriculture is of crucial importance (e.g. 1 Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger), while other countries are planning an increase in irrigated agriculture. aquatic weed infestation causes marked tosses in agricultural production. No data 1 are available. In Sri Lanka, tosses in irrigation schemes due to water fern amount to 2-3 % (Doeleman 1989). Table 2.6 gives the order of magnitude of the lasses in the region when 1 the production of irrigated agriculture would drop with 1 %. 1 2.5.4 Agriculture Table 2.6 - Potential losses in agriculture

1 Countries GNP Agric. as Value lrrigatcd % Value Estimated (millions % of GNP agriculture of value irrigated Joss at 1% US$; 1991) (1991) (millions US$) agriculture (millions (millions 1 US$) US$)

Benin 1806 47 849 5 42.44 0.42

1 Burkina Faso 3000 47 1410 30 423.00 4.23 1 Cape Verde 315 21 148 100 148.05 1.48 -Cote d'Ivoire 9380 31 4409 15 661.29 6.61 1 Gambia 213 30 100 5 5.01 0.05 Ghana 5725 51 2691 15 403.61 4.04 1 Guinea 2615 45 1229 5 61.45 0.61 Guinea-Bissau 185 51 87 5 0.87 0.01 1 Liberia 1083 21 509 5 25.45 0.25 Mali 2233 55 1050 40 419.80 4.20 1 Mauritania 978 35 460 30 137.90 1.38 Niger 2138 45 1005 30 301.46 3.01 1 Nigeria 27751 37 13043 5 652.15 6.52 Senegal 5023 22 2361 15 354.12 3.54 1 Sierra Leone 818 44 384 5 19.22 0.19 Togo 1378 33 648 5 32.38 0.32

1 Total 64641 30381 3688.21 36.88 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Source: PC Globe Inc. 1992 1 1 1 1 1

1 32 1 2.5.5 Public health There are some indications that the incidence of water related diseases, e.g. bilharzia and 1 malaria, is increasing in countries which experience a major infestation of floating aquatic weeds. Studies and observations suggest that this would be the case in Benin and Côte d'Ivoire. A recent thesis done in the infested area Aboisso in Côte d'Ivoire reveals an 1 incidence of bilharzia among school children up to 90 %.

1 Communities along the infested water bodies report increased presence of mosquitoes and the incidence of malaria and bilharzia. In this context it should also be noted that quite some communities depend directly on the water bodies for their drinking water. Access to drinking 1 water is often hampered when floating weeds isolate the community. Water quality also 1 declines when the surface is covered by a dense mat of floating weeds. To obtain reliable data, an analysis should be made on the incidence of bilharzia and malaria 1 in infested areas in the last 15 years. The study should be undertaken in at least two countries and would involve people living along water bodies that are infested, using as a control group of people living along water bodies that are not infested. The analysis could be done on the 1 basis of registers of patients in local hospitals that belong to the targeted population.

1 In fishing communities along lakes and rivers, children often use canoe transport to go to school. In infested areas children often cannot reach the school when the shores are blocked.

1 In estimating the costs of floating weeds in the health sector, it is assumed that 30 % of the public health expenditure is related to vector diseases and that the incidence of floating weeds 1 would add between 1 and 2 % to the treatment of vector diseases (Doeleman, 1990). The total additional costs for the treatment of water born vector diseases, related to floating 1 weeds, might be in the order of 4 to 8 million US dollars in the region, as shown in Table 2.7. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 33 1 Table 2. 7 - Potential additional costs in health sector

Countries GNP Public Total Estimated costs Estimated costs 1 (millions cxpenditurc on expcnditure on for trcatmcnt of for treatment of US$; 1991) health as % of health as % of vector disease vector disease 1 GNP (1990) GNP (1990) >1% >2% Benin 1806 2.8 4.3 0.15 0.30 1 Burkina Faso 3000 7 8.5 0.63 1.26 Cape Verde 315 not available not available 0.00 0.00 1 Cote d'Ivoire 9380 1.7 3.3 0.48 0.96 Gambia 213 1.6 0.01 0.02 - 1 Ghana 5725 1.7 3.5 0.29 0.58 Guinea 2615 2.3 3.9 0.18 0.36 1 Guinea-Bissau 185 1.3 0.01 0.01 Liberia 1083 3.5 0.11 0.23 1 Mali 2233 2.8 5.2 0.19 0.38 Mauritania 978 5.5 0.16 0.32 1 Niger 2138 3.4 5 0.22 0.44 Nigeria 27751 1.2 2.7 1.00 2.00 1 Se ne gal 5023 2.3 3.7 0.35 0.69 Sierra Leone 818 1.7 2.4 0.04 0.08

1 Togo 1378 2.5 4.1 0.10 0.21

Total 64641 3.92 7.84 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Source: UNDP 1994

Those countries that rely on reservoirs for drinking water can face serious problems if the 1 reservoirs get infested (which is the case in Ghana). The tloating weeds cause a reduction of the water quality and also reduce the volume of water in the reservoirs through evapo­ 1 transpiration and sedimentation. Production costs are increased through the need of chemicals 1 for improving water quality and maintenance of reservoirs. 1 2.5.6 llydro-energy Hydro-power is of considerable importance in the ECOW AS countries. There are indications 1 from electricity companies in the member countries that dense infestations of tloating weeds 1 1 1

1 34

may lead to both a reduced efficiency and increased costs of maintenance of the dams. 1 Electricity companies are taking initiatives in order to control the damage caused by the 1 floating weeds. In estimating the costs of the total losses in the energy sector at a potential loss of O. 5 % and a high alternative of 1 %, the total value of energy production is calculated at a standard price :1 of US $ 0.154/kWh. Table 2.8 shows that the total losses for the hydro-energy production in the sub-region can be estimated at between 7 and 14 million US dollars. However, it must 1 be noted that the losses could be substantially higher. In several countries, energy production is regularly interrupted for a number of days as the inflow to the turbines has to be cleared 1 of weeds. Floating weeds also reduce the volume of water in the reservoirs through evapo­ transpiration.

1 Table 2.8 - Estimated losses in hydro-energy production.

1 Countries Electricity Electricity Value of Loss at 0.5% Loss at 1 % production 1988 consumption 1988 production (millions US$) (millions US$) 1 (millions kWh) (millions kWh) (millions US$ \ Benin 5 175 0.72 1 Burkina Faso 128 128 18.38 Cape Verde 35 35 5.02 1 \ Cote d'Ivoire 2210 2210 317 .26 Gambia 44 44 6.32

1 1 Ghana 4750 4468 681.89 Gumea 512 512 73.50 1 Guinea-Bissau 15 15 2.15 Liberia 834 834 119. 73 1 Mali 205 205 29.43 Mauritania 121 121 17.37 1 Niger 160 297 22.97

Nigeria ' 9825 9825 1410.43 1 Senegal 763 763 109.53 Sierra Leone 201 201 28.85

1 Togo " 41 281 5.89 Total 19849 20114 2849.43 7.12 14.25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .source: PC lilobe Inc. 199L. 1 1 1

1 35 1 2.5.7 Summary of losses by floating weeds The estimations of losses caused by floating weeds, listed in Tables 2.5 to 2.8, are 1 summarized in Table 2.9. 1 Table 2.9 - Assessment of total losses 1 Sectors Low estimated losses High estimated losses 1 (millions US$) (millions US$) Fisheries 28 56 1 Health 4 8 H ydro-energy 7 14

1 Agriculture 36 72

1 Total 75 150 1 1 1 1

1 2.6 Institutional setting

1 The institutional setting of the control of water hyacinth and other floating weeds in the ECOW AS region, as described in the previous section, is summarized below. 1 Benin The Department of Fisheries, in cooperation with GTZ, has started a biological programme 1 on controlling water hyacinths. The Plant Health Management Division of the International 1 Institute of Tropical Agriculture, located in Cotonou, is actively involved. Burkina Faso 1 Recently, a National Committee on Floating Weed Control, was formed. Côte d'Ivoire 1 Mechanical harvesting is carried out and barriers have been established in lagoons and reservoirs by River Basin and other Governmental Authorities. A project is proposed by the CLAP (Comité Local d' Appreciation des Projets), which will be executed by CIAPOL 1 (Centre Ivoirien Anti-Pollution) of the Ministry of the Environment, and financed by the 1 UNDP. 1 1 1

1 36

Ghana 1 Control of water hyacinths is organized by River Basin Authorities, notably the Ghana Water and Sewage Authority and the Volta River Authority. A National Biological Control 1 Committee has been established within the framework of the National Agricultural Research Project. During the period 1993-1994, the Austrian Government financed a biological project 1 involving the release of the weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi in the Tano river, and in 1994 a two-year project on integrated control of aquatic weeds started, carried out by 1 the Institute of Aquatic Biology, financed by the EU and administrated by FAO. Niger 1 A National Commission for the control of water hyacinth has been formed in 1992.

Nigeria 1 Water hyacinth control is organized by the National Committee on Water Hyacinth, based in NASENI (the National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure). NASENI deals 1 with the water hyacinth control in the coastal areas as well as in the Niger river system, and it has bilateral relationships with both the Benin Republic and the Niger Republic for discussing research and control aspects regarding floating weeds. Furthermore, State and 1 Local Governments and River Basin Authorities are involved in the control of aquatic weeds, 1 as it is a major component of the management of water bodies. In the other ECOW AS countries, national committees on control of floating weeds do not exist, but the problem is handled by Departments of Environment, Hydrology or Natural 1 Resources. The danger of severe infestations, however, is well recognized. ln Mali and Niger, the occurrence of water hyacinths in the Niger river system has already become a 1 serious problem. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 37 1 3 PROJECT RATIONALE The project proposed comprises the establishment of an ECOW AS coordination unit for 1 aquatic weed management and five regional projects on integrated control of aquatic weeds. lt results from the need to harmonize the methods of aquatic weed control in the various 1 ECOWAS countries (see ECOWAS 1988). Moreover, a strategy should be devised to control the proliferation of aquatic weeds in a socially, environmentally and economically sound way. This necessity is due to the limitations in the capacities of both ECOW AS and the 1 member countries to control adequately the expansion of floating weeds, especially in the case of a sudden escalation. The proposed project will help in strengthening the capacity for 1 weed control in the region, which has sectoral and overall national and regional connotations. 1 3 .1 In relation to sectoral development strategy The problems of floating weeds impinge on the sectors fisheries, transportation, agriculture, 1 health, social services and hydro-electric power generation. Traditionally, there has been little coordination between the various sectors, and when problems are occurring there is a tendency to achieve quick solutions by combatting the symptoms rather than their causes. In 1 the case of floating weeds, generally, control measures do not start before dense growth of aquatic weeds has become apparent, and these are only aimed at controlling the present 1 infestation, and not at preventing re-infestations.

Exchange of ideas between the various organisations faced with controlling floating weeds, 1 notably between the river basin Authorities and the hydro-electric power authorities should lead to avoiding of duplication of efforts. 1 Coordination between organisations in conducting experiments for finding long-term solutions is highly desirable, but it is obvious that the national governments and regional organisations have to take the lead in tackling this prablem which affects so many sectors and the 1 community as a whole. The contrai of floating weeds requires national and regional projects for developing multi-sectoral intervention strategies as is further described in the next 1 chapkr. 1 3.2 In relation to overall national and regional development policy

1 The occurrence of floating weeds is increasing and the problem may become massive if nothing is done. In this context it should be noted that it is relatively cheap to contrai floating 1 aquatic weeds when they are present in small quantities. However, as mentioned in the previous section, it is common practice that measures are only taken when dense masses have 1 developed, and these are very costly. Furthermore, it is evident that in areas where floating 1 1 1

1 38

weeds, notably water hyacinths, not occur, it is of utmost importance that introduction is 1 prevented.

1 The interdependence of the waterways network facilitates expansion of these weeds. Since the problem of floating does not stop at country borders, measures to solve the problems should be taken on a national and regional level. The efforts of a single country to control 1 or manage weed would be ineffective or wasted, unless they are supported by neighbouring countries which share the same water. International cooperation and coordination, therefore 1 is a must.

National and regional coordination would lead to increased efficiency and economies of scale 1 through the execution of joint programmes in e.g. public awareness and data collection and management, through the exchange of ideas and experience, and, generally, through avoiding 1 of duplication of efforts. 1 Where necessary, national agencies, sometimes with support of international organisations have undertaken weed control activities. The proposed regional projects will be built on the experlence obtained so far and will strive to develop and test techniques that are sustainable 1 in technical, socio-economic and environmental terms. There is as yet no umbrella organization that adequately deals with the above-mentioned matters at the international, 1 policy formulation level. ECOW AS would be best suited to carry out the task, because the mandate of ECOW AS permits harmonization and coordination of policies, programmes and 1 regulations. The main need therefore is to strengthen ECOW AS capabilities in this respect by 1 establishing, and initially supporting a coordination unit for aquatic weed management. The other need is the establishment of regional projects on integrated control of aquatic weeds.

1 The urgent need for a regional approach and bilateral consultations was stressed by the participants of the regional workshop on floating weeds control in the ECOW AS member 1 countries, held Abidjan in January 1995, as well as by the Steering Committee for the present Floating Weeds Study in its meetings in January and June, 1995. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 39 1 4 SELECTION OF PROJECTS 1 4.1 Introduction During the Data Collection Phase of the ECOWAS Floating Weeds Study (October 1994 - 1 April 1995) a series of country surveys was carried out. The ECOW AS study team (ECOWAS senior staff of DIANR, the Department of lndustry, Agriculture and National Resources, and the consultants) visited the countries. Upon arrivai, the study team contacted 1 the Steering Committee member, who brought them into contact with the relevant technical specialists and departments; the study team could not visit Liberia and Sierra Leone, but 1 instead specialists were asked to meet the study team outside these countries.

The ECOW AS study team identified and recruited national consultants and resource persons 1 to supply additional observations. The contributors to the Study are mentioned in chapter 10. The national consultants were supplied with a set of questionnaires covering aspects of weed 1 taxonomy, distribution, dynamics, harmfulness, and control activities and usage. A sample set of questionnaires is annexed to this Final Report (Annex IV). After receipt of the reports from the national consultants the ECOW AS study team analyzed the collected data and 1 included the summary of these analyses as well as resulting recommendations in Country 1 Status Reports. The Country Status Reports each contain an inventory of actual or potential aquatic weed problems met in the country concerned; these problems were either observed by the study 1 team and/or the national consultants, or they were brought to the attention of the study team by national authorities. The country inventories were screened by the study team on present 1 severity and size of problems. AU problems that were neither very localized nor very small (never more than 10% weed coverage on a surface area basis) were consolidated in a "list 1 of aquatic weed problems", showing country and location of the identified problem. It is obvious that not all problems identified in the Country Status Reports can be addressed to simultaneously, because of constraints in implementation capacity and funds. A selection is 1 required which is governed by a number of basic considerations.

1 Firstly, it is evident that not all problems are of the same order of seriousness: they are all based on situations where the aquatic weeds were reported to cover at least once a year a surface area of over 10%. In many of the situations, the weed cover (including emergent 1 weeds) did hardly surpass the 10% cover for already many years, making the problem concerned less urgent than in situations were the weed cover reaches say 40% or more, or 1 in situations where weed coverage has been strongly increasing recently. In other words: the severity of the weed problem has to be rated. 1 1 1 :I 1 40 1 Secondly, also the special position of ECOW AS and its mandate are factors in determining which projects are to be prepared first. Since ECOWAS is a regional organization, it should strongly focus its attention on regional problems. The floating aquatic weed problem in 1 general is regional (in the sense that all ECOW AS member states are infested to a larger or smaller extent and in an increasing way). On the other hand, many of the identified weed 1 situations are of a purely national character: they are found in isolated water bodies, where local control measures can be carried out successfully, at least on the short term. In fact, a number of the member states have on-going aquatic weed control projects in situations that 1 have high priority from a national point of view: hydropower reservoirs, irrigation systems, drinking water basins. Priority from the regional (ECOWAS) point of view should not be on 1 such "national" projects, but be based upon:

problems with regional significance: aquatic weed infestations in river basins, 1 lagoons or large lakes that caver more than one country, can only efficiently be 1 tackled by a joint regional approach; problems that are representative: aquatic weed problems in one country that are 1 comparable to situations in a number of other ECOWAS countries (e.g. drinking water basins). The regional interest is clear: one well-prepared project carried out under the auspices of a regional organization in one country will serve as a testing 1 ground and demonstration for all the other countries at the same time.

1 Thirdly, ECOW AS should also focus on activities that generally improve the success of aquatic weed control activities within its mandatory area by:

1 creating public awareness: informative and educational programmes for the general public are essential to prevent a further spread of aquatic weeds (and other exotic 1 plant and animal species); active community participation will be stimulated.

coordination of national programmes: aquatic weed problems, like other problems, 1 are better solved when research and control activities in various (national) situations are complementary. A regional organization can play an important role in keeping 1 track of developments, in disseminating relevant results and documentation, and in cost-effective training and strengthening of national staff and agencies. 1 monitoring of the aquatic weed problem: a regional problem can best be monitored from a "central" regional position. In such a situation, effective direction of 1 activities can take place, and new or renewed infestations can be tackled 1 immediately. 1 1 1 1 41 1 4.2 The selection process

In the selection of problems c.q. interventions to be tackled through ECOWAS, the above 1 considerations were duly taken into account. Four selection criteria were identified, which, 1 for purpose of selection, are considered to be of equal importance: Urgency of problem. A problem is considered urgent when (i) the reported coverage of weeds is large (regularly over 40%), (ii) the weed coverage has recently been 1 increasing, (iii) the economic damage is reported to be very substantial, or (iv) the 1 weed cover is small, but it presents a threat to neighbouring sensitive areas. Problem representativeness. A problem is considered representative when it is (i) recorded from a number of comparable circumstances, or (ii) the situation concerned 1 is expected to become common in the future (e.g. small irrigation schemes, drinking 1 water basins). Cross-border relevance. A problem is considered relevant when it is mentioned from 1 a number of situations in more than one country, that are more or less interconnected (e.g. in a river basin or lagoon system).

1 Sustainability of results. Results are considered sustainable, when (i) they can be expected to last longer than others (e.g. biological versus chemical control), (ii) the 1 long-term socio-economic effects are considered high (e.g. strong positive effect on fisheries, creation or safeguarding of rural jobs), or (iii) their environmental side­ 1 effects are considered less. All listed problems were confronted with the identified criteria. For each criterion mentioned 1 above, the following weighings were used:

+++ the criterion is rated very important (e.g. a severe and increasing weed problem, 1 or a basin-wide problem, or a sustainable control approach is proposed); ++ the criterion is rated important (e.g. a manageable problem in a very 1 representative situation, or a small but increasing problem); + the criterion is rated to be of low importance (e.g. a relatively low and stable weed coverage, or a research programme on the control of a less common weed 1 species); 1 the criterion is rated to be of no importance. To establish the final problem classes, the ratings were simply added. This resulted in two 1 classes: 1 1 1

1 42

Class 1 (total score of 8 pluses or more); problems that require high attention, and 1 for which a project should be prepared and carried out Class 2 (total score of 6-8 pluses); problems that should either be handled at a 1 national level, possibly with the help of an ECOW AS Coordinating Unit later on. 1 A representative number of examples of the selection process is given in Annex III, which includes all the sites rated Class 1. The complete listing of the selection process (the Long 1 List) is kept in the project files.

1 4.3 Final selection of projects

The final number of potential projects on floating weeds is numerous as is illustrated in the 1 previous section. Detailed preparation of all these projects at feasibility level was not possible within the limited time frame of the present study, and also not required: a number of the 1 priority projects are already prepared by national agencies, or are under implementation.

The present ECOW AS Floating Weeds Study has prepared project documents for six priority 1 projects, which were approved by the Steering Committee in June 1995. The main characteristics of the project are given in Table 4 .1. The preparation of other projects will 1 be one of the tasks of the proposed ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43 1 Table 4.1 - List of selected priority projects

1 1 PROJECT NAME COUNTRY OBJECTIVES/REMARKS ECOW AS Coordination Unit for ECOWAS- Strengthening of capacity of aquatic weed 1 Aquatic Weed Management wide control and managemc,1t through a unit capable of initiating, coordinating and monitoring activities, projects and programmes in the 1 ECOW AS sub-region Integrated Control of Floating Benin and Establishing of methods to control water Weeds in Benin and Nigeria Nigeria hyacinth and other floating weeds in the coastal 1 areas through operational units for testing and implementation of control methods

1 Integrated Control of Floating Niger, Nigeria Establishing of methods to control water Weeds in the Middle Niger River and Benin hyacinth and other floating weeds in the river Basin Niger through operational units for testing and 1 implementation of control methods

Integrated Control of Floating Mali Establishing of methods to control water 1 Weeds in the Upper Niger River hyacinth and other floating weeds in the river Basin Niger through operational units for testing and 1 implementation of control methods Integrated Control of Floating Côte d'Ivoire Establishing of methods to control water Weeds in the Tano River and and Ghana hyacinth and other floating weeds in the border 1 Reservoirs in Côte d'Ivoire and areas through operational units for testing and Ghana implementation of control methods 1 Integrated Control of Floating Senegal and Establishing of methods to control water lettuce W ceds in the Lower Senegal Mauritania and other floating wecds in the lower Senegal River System River through operational units for testing and 1 implementation of control methods 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44 1 5 THE PROJECTS 1 5.1 Objectives The development objective of the projects is to corne to effective management of floating 1 aquatic weeds in the ECOW AS region to secure: transportation, water quality, optimal conditions for fishing, optimal conditions for human health, production of electricity by means of hydro-electric installations, water flow into and out off irrigated areas, recreational 1 and other uses of waterbodies and prevention of water loss via evapotranspiration 1 (transpiration via plants). The immediate objectives are to strengthen the capacity of the ECOW AS Secretariat and of the ECOW AS member countries in aquatic weed contrai and management, and to develop 1 measures for long-term control of floating weeds, especially water hyacinth, water lettuce 1 and water fern. The specific objectives of the projects are:

1 to install within the ECOW AS secretariat an unit capable of initiating, monitoring and coordinating activities, projects and programmes in aquatic weed contrai and 1 management in the ECOW AS region

to introduce and implement methods for controlling floating aquatic weeds and to 1 prevent a further of exotic floating weeds in the ECOW AS region by means of establishing regional projects which are concerned with weed management, raising 1 public awareness, extension and training 1 to enhance the capacity for collecting and disseminating information on floating weed management by establishing a documentation centre at the ECOW AS coordination 1 unit to create conditions for an effective exchange of information between the ECOW AS 1 coordination unit and the different target groups such as river basin authorities, authorities of hydro-electric schemes, local authorities and local people who are 1 directly affected by waterbodies (fishermen, people transporting good via water, etc.) to establish, in concert with the National Governments, as well as with ECOWAS, 1 regional operational units for testing and implementation of integrated management programmes, mainly based on biological and physical contrai of floating weeds. 1 1 1 1

1 45 1 The expected results of the projects are: Implementation of these projects will lead to management of floating aquatic weeds in the 1 ECOW AS region and prevention of a further spread of exotics, such as water hyacinth and water fern. Moreover, an information system on floating aquatic weeds will be developed and the organisational structure, mutual coordination and cooperation between the various 1 countries in relation to this topic will be made optimized.

1 5.2 Description of selected projects

lt is envisaged to establish, and support for a number of years, an ECOWAS Coordination 1 Unit for Aquatic Weed Management, which will be concerned with the formulation of inter­ country and inter-sectoral policies and intervention strategies and which will generally 1 contribute to successful aquatic weed control through the following:

Coordination of national and regional programmes 1 Aquatic weed problems, like other problems, are more effectively solved when research and contrai activities in various situations are complementary. A regional 1 organization can play an important role in keeping track of developments, in disseminating relevant results and documentation, and in cost-effective training and strengthening of national staff and agencies. The Coordination Unit can prepare and 1 tender projects to be conducted by national and international institutions.

1 Creating public awareness Informative and educational programmes for the general public are essential to prevent a further spread of aquatic weeds (and other exotic plant and animal 1 species). In a number of cases regional programmes are more cost-efficient than 1 national ones because of economies of scale. Monitoring of the aguatic weed problem A regional problem can best be monitored from a "central" regional position. In 1 such a situation, effective direction of activities can take place, and new or renewed 1 infestations can be tackled immediately. The Unit will be placed in the ECOW AS Secretariat and resort under DIANR, which is at present located in Lagos. However, in the near future ECOWAS will abandon its buildings 1 in Lagos and move to Abuja, which is far removed from any area of major floating weed infestation. lt is, therefore, recommended to locate the Coordination Unit in the ECOWAS 1 building at Lomé, Togo, which is situated closely to many floating weed affected areas in the region. 1 1 1 1 1 46 1 In addition, there will be 5 Regional Projects dealing with the integrated control of floating weeds in (1) the coastal areas of Benin and Nigeria, (2) the middle Niger river basin in Niger, Nigeria and Benin, (3) the upper Niger river basin in Mali, (4) the border area of 1 Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, and (5) the Senegal river system in Senegal and Mauritania (see 1 map). The projects are executed in the most affected areas to prevent further spread of the weeds in the region. The projects will release biological control agents, test and carry out physical 1 control measures in pilot areas, and provide technical training. The concerned member countries will be responsible for implementation. The Coordination Unit will support and 1 coordinate the regional projects' activities, particularly in the field of awareness creation and extension and training. Furthermore, the unit will be responsible for initiating prevention 1 programmes in the remaining ECOW AS countries. The projects will receive technical and financial assistance for establishment and the first 1 years of operation.

1 5.3 Detailed f eatures

1 The features of each project are described in Volume 2 of this Final Report. 1 The regional character of the proposed future programmes should enable the various countries involved to optimize their organizational structure, mutual coordination and cooperation, in order to control the floating weeds in a most efficient and effective manner. 1 The importance of an integrated, multidisciplinary approach is already recognized. In this context, attention should also be paid to awareness and training activities as necessary 1 components within the projects.

Based on the gravity level of infestation, combinations chosen out of biological, mechanical, 1 physical and, possibly, chemical control methods for the different countries involved are proposed. To enable execution of no matter which control activities, the indispensable 1 component to be integrated from the start, is awareness among the population. The controlling activities are inextricably bound up with specific active participation of all people involved. To achieve participation, communication strategies will be developed and 1 elaborated, involving mass media as well as interpersonal communication. The mass media can play arole to attract public's attention to the subject, having an information and agenda 1 setting function. On the other hand, interpersonal communication is considered most important and effective in the process of actually educating, training and motivating in order 1 to change attitudes and behaviour. 1 1 1 1 47 1 Special attention in the projects will be given to public awareness programmes and training, in particular to prevent the introduction and further spread of water hyacinth and water fem. 1 The awareness activities/campaigns will be conducted in all ECOWAS countries affected or potentially affected by the floating weeds. 1 1 5.3.1 The ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management 1 The unit would have the following main tasks: identification, preparation, coordination and monitoring (of regional) projects m aquatic weed control; 1 2 support to relevant national agencies in project preparation; 3 design and implementation of public awareness and education/training programmes; 1 4 assistance in harmonization and coordination of policies to national and regional agencies dealing with phytosanitary aspects of aquatic weed contrai; 5 organization of training on biological control, mechanical and other contrai methods 1 at appropriate centres in the ECOWAS region. 1 As mentioned, the Coordination Unit will be placed in the National Resources Division of 1 DIANR, and consists of the following permanent ECOWAS staff: head of the Unit, administrator, public awareness/media specialist, and supporting administrative and transport 1 staff. The Coordination Unit will be govemed by a Consultative/Steering Committee, which next 1 to the ECOW AS Secretariat will comprise representatives of the ECOW AS countries. The committee will be chaired by the Head of the Division of Natural Resources of DIANR; the Head of the unit will function as secretary. The committee will meet twice a year to review 1 and approve the Unit's programme and the budget.

1 A technical assistance team will be assigned for the duration of 3 years, with the possibility of an extension of 2 years, consisting of:

1 a team-leader, a long-term consultant, who works jointly with the Head of the Unit, and who is an expert in institutional development and policy formulation and who 1 is an agro-economist 1 2 short-term consultants, namely an aquatic weed specialist experienced in training 1 1 1 48 1 for a period of three month per year for 3 years and a communication/training specialist for a period of 4 months per year for 3 years.

1 Furthermore, a partnership will be established with IITA for technical back-stopping in the field of biological control. The firms providing equipment for mechanical control will be 1 responsible for short-term training of operators. 1 Detailed job descriptions are given in Volume 2, Project A.

1 5.3.2 Regional projects on Integrated Control of Floating Weeds 1 The 5 regional projects will have the following scope, based on an integrated approach: establishing a fully equipped administrative and support unit in each region for 1 implementing the control programme; 2 establishing facilities for rearing of biological control agents, in regions infested with water hyacinth the weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi, and the moth 1 Sameodes albiguttalis, in regions infested with water fern the weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae, and in regions where problems occur with water lettuce the weevil 1 Neohydronomus ajfinis; 3 releasing biological control agents in those infested areas where releases have not 1 yet taken place in the framework of other projects and monitoring them in the release areas (which will include a study on their development and the damage they inflict upon the weeds at selected sites, with the aid of local communities); 1 4 implementing physical control methods which will include the use of handtools and harvesters; 1 5 technical training in biological control and other techniques, where appropriate; 6 creating public awareness in the regio concerning aquatic weeds, in close cooperation with the ECOWAS public awareness specialist who is included in the staff of the 1 ECOW AS coordination unit.

1 Each of the 5 regional projects will have a fully equipped administrative and support unit, which is headed by a director, who is assisted by a financial manager. The units fall under 1 the direction of a National Ministry, dealing with the environment, fisheries, agriculture or hydraulics. In each country engaged in the regional projects, a biological team will operate, consisting of 2 entomologists and 2 technicians, and depending on the gravity of the situation 1 from an economic point of view, a physical control team, consisting of 1 or 2 engineers and 2 to 3 opera tors. In addition, each team will include one or two extension workers. These 1 teams will resort under the units governing the regional projects. 1 1 1 1 49

1 In view of the regional character of the projects, as well as of the importance of integrating the biological and physical control programmes, and an optimal implementation of the 1 awareness programmes, the activities of each unit will be supervised by a Technical Advisory Committee, consisting of one or two senior scientists in the field of aquatic ecology and/or 1 aquatic weed management of each country where the regional project is carried out, a representative of the ECOWAS Coordination Unit and the short-term aquatic weed specialist. 1 5.4 Recommendations on phasing 1 The proposed projects are of equal importance and it is recommended that they start at the same time, if there are no constraints in implementation capacity and funds. The 1 establishment of the ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management, however, is essential. lt benefits the whole ECOWAS region and the regional field projects depend on 1 the Coordination Unit for receiving assistance for training, public awareness and technical backstopping. The unit will also support projects already conducted by the national governments, and initiate efforts for starting regional projects. In addition, there is a need 1 for quick action on the promotion of biological control on a region-wide scale, and this can 1 best be done by a coordination unit as proposed, in coordination with IIT A. The planning of more regional projects other than those in the present document, is a task of the coordination unit. If, despite awareness campaigns, in certain areas infestations expand 1 or become more detrimental, and are of a regional nature, additional project proposais have to be drafted. During the project, the ECOWAS coordination unit will give priority to those 1 countries which have recently been infested, notably Burkina Faso and The Gambia. in addition, priority will be given to countries which are likely to be affected in the near future, 1 such as Guinea and Togo. This will be achieved by conducting public awareness campaigns. 1 5.5 Contributors to the projects 1 The main beneficiaries of the project will be the member states and ECOW AS secretariat. The expenses covering the implementation of the project will have to be taken into 1 consideration. A financial mechanism has to be set up whereby government, ECOW AS and 1 the main funding agency will be involved. 1 1 1 1

1 50 1 Government contribution 1 The government of each member country involved in a regional project will provide: premises for its national staff employed by the project 1 enumeration for national counterpart staff 1 ECOW AS Executive Secretariat contribution to provide premises needed for the project coordination unit and the support staff 1 enumeration for the project support staff (secretary, driver) 1 Donor contribution expatriate staff comprising the team leader and consultants 1 equipment (vehicles, computers, etc.) travel and transportation support services 1 expenses for training, :::eminars and in-country workshops expenses made by the steering and technical advisory committees 1 expenses involvement of IITA (training, breeding and release of insects, etc.)

1 5.6 Project cost estimates

1 The detailed cost estimates of the projects proposed, based on 1995 prices, are presented in Volumes 1-6, attached to this Final Report. The summary of the cost estimates is given 1 below in Table 5 .1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 51 1 Table 5.1 Cost estimates

DETAILED COSTS IN US$ OF SELECTED PER YEAR TOTAL 1 PROŒCTS (equipment, steering (3 years) coaunittml lllfflb; Hilll\ not included) 1 COORDINATION UNIT (PROJECT A)

1 Staff costs (local component) 30,000 90,000 Staff costs (foreign component) 320,000 960,000 Travel and transportation 142,400 427,200 1 Operational costs (local component) 31,200 93,600 Operational costs (foreign component) 40,900 122,700 Equipment (local component) 14,000 1 Equipment (foreign component) 116,500 Steering committee meetings 110,000 Training 85,000 255,000 1 IIT A contract (incl. training) 131,868 1 Total 2,320,868 1 REGIONAL PROJECTS PROJECT B {Integrated contrai of floating weeds in 1 Nigeria and Benin) Staff costs of unit in Nigeria 64,750 194,250 Staff costs of associated team in Benin 26,000 78,000 1 Travel and transportation Nigeria 20,000 60,000 Travel and transportation Benin 23,000 69,000 Support services unit (for Nigeria) 6,000 18,000 1 Support services unit (for Benin) 3,000 9,000 Equipment unit Nigeria 178,000 Equipment for team in Benin -- 76,000 1 Technical Advisory Committee (50% for Nigeria, 50% -- 35,000 for Benin) -- Equipment for mechanical contrai in Nigeria -- 1,100,000 1 Manual contrai Nigeria 10,000 30,000 Manual contrai Benin 10,000 30,000 Training team Nigeria -- 6,000 1 Training team Benin -- 6,000 Sub-total Nigeria -- 1,603,750 1 Sub-total Benin -- 285,500 TOTAL -- 1,889,250 1 1 1 1

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1 PROJECT C (Integrated control of tloating weeds in the Middle Niger River Basin in Niger, Nigeria and Benin) 1 Staff costs unit Niger 65,500 196,500 Staff costs associated team in Nigeria 32,000 96,000 Staff costs associated team in Benin 17,000 51,000 1 Travel and transportation Niger 40,000 120,000 Travel and transportation Nigeria 10,000 30,000 Travel and transportation Benin 23,000 69,000 Support services unit for Niger 6,000 18,000 1 Support services unit for Nigeria 3,000 9,000 Support services unit for Benm 3,000 9,000 Equipment unit Niger -- 168,000 1 Equipment for team in Nigeria -- 76,000 Equipment for team in Benin -- 76,000 Technical Advisory Committee (costs equally divided -- 66,000 1 over the 3 countries) Equipment mechanical control Niger -- 800,000 Equipment mechanical control Nigeria -- 370,000 1 Manual control Niger 10,000 30,000 Manual control Nigeria 10,000 30,000 Manual control Benin 2,000 6,000 1 Training team Niger -- 6,000 Training team Nigeria -- 6,000 1 Training team Benin -- 4,000 Sub-total Niger -- 1,360,500 Sub-total Nigeria -- 639,000 1 Sub-total Benin -- 237,000 1 TOTAL -- 2,236,500 PROJECT D (Integrated control of tloating weeds in the 1 Upper Niger River Basin in Mali) Staff costs unit 65,500 196,500 Travel and transportation 40,000 120,000 1 Support services 6,000 18,000 Equipment -- 168,000 Technical Advisory Committee -- 35,000 1 Equipment for mechanical control -- 800,000 Manual control 10,000 30,000 1 Training -- 7,500 TOTAL -- 1,375,000 1 1 1 1 1

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1 PROJECT E (Integrated control of tloating weeds in lagoons in Côte d'Ivoire and in the Tano river lagoon in 1 Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire) Staff costs of unit in Ghana 65,000 195,000 Staff costs of associated team in Côte d'Ivoire 46,500 139,500 1 Travel and transportation Ghana 40,000 120,000 Travel and transportation in Côte d'Ivoire 25,000 75,000 Support services unit for Ghana 6,000 18,000 Support services unit for Côte d'Ivoire 3,000 9,000 1 Equipment for team in Ghana -- 168,000 Equipment for team in Côte d'Ivoire -- 66,000 Technical Advisory Committee (50% Ghana, 50% Côte -- 55,000 1 d'Ivoire) Equipment mechanical control Ghana -- 800,000 Equipment mechanical control Côte d'Ivoire -- 800,000 1 Manual control Ghana 10,000 30,000 Manual control Côte d'Ivoire 10,000 30,000 Training team Ghana -- 8,000 1 Training team Côte d'Ivoire -- 8,000

Sub-total Ghana -- 1,366,500 1 Sub-total Côte d'Ivoire -- 1,155,000 1 TOTAL -- 2,521,500 PROJECT F (Integrated control of tloating weeds in the 1 Lower Senegal River System in Senegal and Mauritania) Staff costs unit Senegal 66,750 200,250 Staff costs associated team in Mauritania 14,500 43,500 1 Travel and transportation Senegal 20,000 60,000 Travel and transportation Mauritania 15,000 45,000 Support services unit for Senegal 6,000 18,000 1 Supp0rt services unit for Mauritania 3,000 9,000 Equipment for team Senegal -- 138,000 Equipment for team Mauritania -- 51,000 1 Technical Advisory Committee (50% Senegal, 50% -- 55,000 Mauritania) Equipment mechanical control Senegal -- 400,000 1 Manual control Senegal 10,000 30,000 Manual control Mauritania 2,000 6,000 Training team Senegal -- 8,000 1 Training team Mauritania -- 3,250

Sub-total Senegal -- 881,750 1 Sub-total Mauritania -- 185,250 1 TOTAL -- 1,067,000 1 1 1

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1 TOTAL OF PROJECTS A, B, C, D, E and F 11,410,118 Physical contingency (12 %) 1 1,369,214 GRAND TOTAL 12,779,332

The total costs of the Coordination Unit (Project A) amount to US$ 2,320,868. The total costs of the 5 regional projects (Projects B, C, D. E and F) amount to US$ 9,089,250. The grand total, including 12 % physical contingencies, amounts to US$ 12,779,332. However, it must be taken into account that the local costs differ from country to country, which implies that the estimates mentioned in Volumes 2-6, containing tht detailed description of 1 the regional projects, differ to some extent. The cost estimates are based on 1995 prices. The price escalation (price contingencies of the Foreign Exchange estimated at 5 % and of Local 1 Currency estimated at 12 %) is not included. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 55 1 6 EXECUTING AGENCIES 1 6.1 Legal and institutional framework 1 The aim of ECOWAS, recorded in its revised treaty in 1993, is to promote co-operation and integration, leading to the establishment of an economic union in West Africa in order to raise the living standard of its peoples, and to maintain and enhance economic stability, foster 1 relations among Member States and contribute to the progress and development of the African continent. ECOWAS has thus the mandate to harmonize and co-ordinate natural 1 policies, and to promote the integration of programmes, projects and activities in all sectors. It has National Secretariats, which operate at Ministerial level in their countries, for support 1 of the various national and regional projects.

1 6.2 Required organisation and management

The project dealing with the establishment of the ECOW AS Coordination Unit for aquatic 1 weed management will be undertaken by the Natural Resources Division of DIANR, being 1 part of the ECOW AS Secretariat. The organisational structure of ECOWAS can be summarised as follows:

1 ECOWAS Institutions: a the Authority of Heads of State and Government; 1 b the Council of Ministers; c the Defence Council; d the Executive Secretariat, with main office in Nigeria, until now at Lagos, but it will 1 be moved to Abuja in the near future; e the Tribunal of the Community; 1 f Technical and specialised commissions, including IANR commission. 1 National ECOWAS secretariats, for support of the various projects, which are governed by National Steering Committees; the head of these Committees are the representatives of the 1 Central Steering Committees, and they operate at Ministerial level in their countries.

1 The regional field projects will be undertaken by National Directorates, dealing with the environment, agriculture, fisheries and hydraulics. 1 1 1 1

1 56 1 6.3 Capacity assessment of the recommended executing agencies The ECOWAS Coordination Unit for Aquatic Weed Management will be governed by a 1 Steering Committee composed of representatives of Member Governments and chaired by ECOW AS. The government representatives will be Department Directors dealing with the 1 environment, water resources or plant protection, while the Chairman will be the Head of the Division of National Resources of DIANR. The Head of the Unit will serve as secretary 1 to the Committee. The ECOWAS Coordination Unit will be a vital instrument for exchanging ideas and 1 experience, establishing joint programmes and avoiding duplication of efforts as well as avoiding or managing conflicts that may arise from the use of chemicals or the release of insects, which might be allowed in one country but not in another. Because the Coordination 1 Unit can fully utilise the facilities of the National ECOW AS Secretariat, it is in a unique 1 position to promote, monitor and evaluate the various projects in this regions. The activities of the units of the regional field projects will be supervised by Technical Advisory Committees, which are mentioned already in chapter 5.3.2. Each of these 1 Committees consists of 2 or 3 members of each country directly involved in the regional project concerned, 2 members of the ECOW AS Coordination Unit, and one members from 1 the consultancy team, which advises the ECOWAS Coordination Unit.

1 6.4 Identification of training needs

1 As explained already in detail in chapter 5 of this report, technical training in biological, mechanical and other methods of controlling floating weeds is an essential part of all the 1 projects. The ECOWAS Coordination Unit will design and implement training programmes, and organise these for the staff of the regional projects as well as employees of river basin authorities, public works, etc, who are actually involved in activities aimed at aquatic weed 1 control. Back-stopping on training in the field of biological control will be provided by IITA, and training on use and maintenance of machinery will be executed by the companies 1 supplying the equipment.

Prevention of the outbreak of troublesome floating weeds is a vital part of the training 1 programmes. The further expansion of the floating weeds could be substantially controlled if effective public awareness programmes are put into place. The cornmunities at large, and 1 especially the men and women belonging to the various affected sectors, can contribute to the control programmes by reporting new infestations, and monitoring (regularly reporting) the further increase and spread of the weeds. In addition, their participation will result in 1 very substantial savings if they take part in the early control of floating weeds by removing 1 1 1

1 57

these plants by physical means in the part of the water bodies they utilise for fetching water, 1 fishing, etc. Education or training of the local communities in prevention and physical control of floating weeds, will be executed under the responsibility of the communication specialist, 1 who will be involved in the preparation of audiovisual, printed and educational materials. He will also liaise with the communities at large by establishing contacts with the media, and who will contact the men and women in the affected sectors by means by organising 1 educational, training programmes in cooperation with the trainer, and/or with experts 1 specialised in aquatic weed control and socio-economic aspects. 1 6.5 Agency and system of monitoring and evaluation The ECOWAS Coordination Unit and the unit of each regional project will record the 1 progress of its project in a Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix (M & E Matrix), which will be updated every two months. The M & E Matrices to be used by the ECOWAS 1 Coordination Unit and by the units of the regional projects are presented as annexes of the project documents in Volume 2. The release of the biological control agents in the various areas, their development, and the damage they will inflict upon the weeds will be monitored 1 by the units of the regional projects at selected sites, with the aid of the local communities. 1 7 BENEFICIARIES, TARGET GROUPS AND MAIN ACTORS

1 ECOW AS and the governments of countries where the regional projects will be carried out can be considered as beneficiaries. ECOWAS will govern the Coordination Unit for Aquatic 1 Weed Management, and it will closely cooperate with the countries governing the regional projects.

1 The projects will also have a direct impact on the communities and households that are located in the affected areas. The different regional projects will directly implement the 1 required interventions whereas the coordination unit will specially focus on assistance to the individual projects and on public awareness creation. The latter is one of the most important endeavours to guarantee that the losses both for the national economies of the region and for 1 the households living and depending for their livelihood on the waterbodies, can be hold.

1 The distribution of benefits is summarized below: 1 a) an impact on key sectors of the economies of the different countries; b) a substantial and quantifiable impact on sectors in which problems are felt at the enterprise level; 1 c) a substantial impact on fishermen's income; 1 1 1

1 58

d) a impact on the quality of life of people living in and around the main infested 1 waterbodies; e) a reduction of the risk of acquiring water borne diseases for people living close to 1 waterbodies; f) an improved income of women who are directly related to fish production (smoking) and 1 trade and a reduced time burden on other activities. Target groups include regional and international institutions, national institutions, and end 1 users. As far as the end users are concerned the major target groups are the local people (men and women) living in the near vicinity of infested waterbodies. However, also men and 1 women in other areas who benefit from electricity production in hydro-electric schemes and production of irrigated farmland, can be considered as target groups. Local people to be considered as specific target groups include fishermen, farmers and people who depend on 1 local transport via waterways.

1 The main actors include extension workers, communication agents, trainers, biological control specialists, mechanical control specialists, operators on harvesters, scientists in the 1 advisory committees, etc. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 59 1 8 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS 1 8.1 Financial and economic justification 8.1.1 Approach

1 Normal practice in economic analysis is to compare the "with-the-project" situation with the "without-the-project" situation in order to assess the incremental costs and benefits, i.e. the 1 costs and benefits that can be attributed to the project.

In the present study this practice cannot be followed because at this stage it is impossible to 1 develop a realistic without-the-project scenario. For this scenario it would be essential to predict the spread of the infestation of aquatic weeds in terms of area and pace over a period 1 of at least one but preferably two decades. On that basis, estimates could be made of the development of benefits foregone due to the infestation. However, the prediction of the spread of the infestation requires a profound insight into the environmental conditions 1 prevailing in both the catchments of the rivers as well as in the rivers themselves. At this 1 stage, the project lacks this insight. Moreover, even if this insight would be correct, the project would not be in a position to 1 arrive at a realistic assessment of the benefits foregone as yet. Certain effects of the project, for example, do not confer a benefit within the confines of the project. These externalities are in general difficult to measure. The side effects of the proposed interventions in public 1 health and improved access to services, may serve to illustrate this point. Improved energy supply and more in particular, a more regular power supply have substantially more benefits 1 than would be reflected in the revenues from the increased sale of kilowatt hours.

Assessing the benefits in the with-the-project situation faces similar constraints. From the 1 viewpoint of sustainable economic development, for example, it is unwarranted at this stage to define the optimal level of interaction between the biological and resource system, the 1 economic system and the social system in the case of inland fisheries. Improved conditions for fi8heries may result in overfishing, whereas in addition it remains to be seen whether the 1 increased catch meets the demand at current prices. In the present study, we have used financial costs and benefits derived from an estimate of 1 the current levels of lasses due to the currently prevailing levels of infestation and of the costs that would need to be incurred to minimize lasses. 1 1 1 1 1

1 60 1 8.1.2 Cost!benefit analysis As described in Chapter 2, losses caused by floating weeds are experienced in several key 1 sectors of the economies of the ECOWAS countries: irrigated agriculture (infestation of channels), fishery (reduction of catch and increased costs), health (vector disease treatment) and drinking water, energy (loss of electricity production), transport and in some countries, 1 tourism. These losses are estimated to range between US$ 75 and 150 million per year. With proper weed control, these losses will not incur or at least be reduced; this is defined as the 1 direct benefits of a weed control programme. The types of losses and benefits are classified in Table 8.1

1 The indirect and social costs are of equal importance. Rural households lose time and money in the pursuance of their daily activities; they sometimes have to migrate or children cannot 1 attend school.

The direct benefits of the proposed regional projects have been calculated on the basis of a 1 hypothetical model for loss reduction. This hypothetical mode! is constructed on the basis of 1 experiences with floating weed control elsewhere in the world. Table 8.2 indicates that with an integrated approach to weed control a rapid reduction of losses can be realized. The data in this table, which in line with experiences in other parts 1 of the world are based on a hypothetical mode! for loss reduction, should be considered indicative. At first, the impact of the control measures is the result of the very targeted 1 interventions that can take place with either the use of machinery or labour in strategic locations (intake of irrigation schemes, intake of water in hydro energy plants and the 1 opening of channels for securing navigation). Mechanical control and/or manual control is relatively expensive, however, the immediate benefits are high. After 5 years of intervention, the use of machinery may be substantially reduced because the biological control agents will 1 have developed to such an extent that they can at least partly control the floating weeds in 1 a sustainable manner. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 61

1 Table 8.1 Classification of losses and benefits

1 sec tors type of losses type of benefits

agriculture - increased time expenditure - reduced time for clearance 1 for irrigation - increased availabihty of - loss of volume of irrigation water water

1 fishery - reduction catch of fish - increased catch - increased costs of production - decreased costs of - access to services production 1 - increased access to services

health/drinking water - increased costs for the - decreased costs for treatment 1 treatment of waterborne of vector diseases diseases - reduction of costs of - reduced quality of drinking drinking water 1 water - increased costs of drinking water production

1 energy - reduced production of energy - increased energy production - increased costs of energy - Jower costs of energy 1 production production transport - increased costs of transport - reduced costs of transport - increased time expenditure - reduced time expenditure for 1 for transport transport

1 Table 8.2 Percentages of reduction of losses due to integrated weed control

1 YEAR 1 YEAR2 YEAR 3 YEAR4 YEAR 5

agnr,ulture 90 95 95 95 95

1 fishery 15 25 35 50 80

health/water 0 10 15 25 35

1 energy 90 95 99 99 99 1 transport 90 95 99 99 99

The direct benefits and costs of regional projects would be 3(, depicted in Table 8.3. The 1 background to these figures as well as : '. : breakdown per annum is given in the project documents attached to this final report. 1 1 1 1

1 62 1 1 Table 8.3 Costs and benefits of regional projects (US$'000) 1 TOTAL REDUCED LOSSES COSTS IN 1 (benefits) TH REE YEARS (cost estimates of 1 three year projects) 1 PROJECT AREAS Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Benin/Nigeria 1,811,000 2,866,000 3,772,000 5,189,000 5,419,000 1,889,250 1 (Project B)

Middle Niger 5,219,000 6,404,000 7,377,000 8,687,000 11,061,000 2,336,500 1 River Basin (Project C in Niger, Nigeria and 1 Benin)

Upper Niger River 3,766,000 4,522,000 5,124,000 5,995.000 7,700,000 1,375,000 1 Basin (Project D in Mali) 1 Ghana/Côte 9,180,000 10,315,000 11,219,000 12,193,000 14,064,000 2,521,500 d'Ivoire (Project E) - Lower Senegal 3,321,000 3,932,000 4,414,000 5,068,000 6,307,000 1,067,000 1 River Basin (Project F in Senegal and 1 Mauritania) - Total 23,297,000 28,039,000 31,906,000 37,132,000 44,551,000 9,089,250

1 -

lt is noted that the available data did not permit a calculation for the value of water transport, 1 which in several of the infested project areas is of crucial importance. If the reduction of losses in this sector would be incorporated, the direct benefits 0f the project might be higher 1 still. Another aspect to take into account is the numerous effects at the household leve1, where apart from the direct negative impact on income, floating wceds cause a disturbance 1 in everyday life; reduced access to social services, loss of time and sometimes loss of 1 1 1

1 63

communication for several days. Alleviation of these constraints is certainly another 1 important benefiting factor of effective project implementation.

1 It should also be noted that the costs of the ECOW AS Coordination Unit, which are estimated to be US$ 2,320,868, should be added to the cost figures in Table 8.3. As explained in the project document, the activities of the Unit, especially with regard to 1 training and awareness creation, would be beneficial to weed control and prevention. 1 However, direct benefits of these activities are difficult to estimate. Despite these additional costs, the net benefits (the difference between benefits and costs) will 1 be substantial. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the figures presented here are indicative only. 1 8.2 Impact on women 1 Most of the problems caused by floating weeds are felt on household level, affecting men as well as women. However, there are situations where the living conditions of women are 1 particularly influenced. For example, a decrease of income in areas where women have specific economic roles, such as in merchandising fish and less fish is available. A reduction 1 of fish catch will also bring about a decrease in fish consumption, which is for many of the local communities a valuable source of protein. This will affect women and small children in particular, with possible negative effects on their health. The hampering effect of floating 1 weeds on local transport via waterways may also interfere with the activities of women. This may apply to trading activities of women in general as well as to obtaining goods for their 1 households, which implies that they would have to spend additional time and money. During the survey it became apparent that in certain cases in Benin women are paying men for removing the weeds to facilitate their transport by means of small boats and canoes. Another 1 aspect which should especially be considered in connection with women is the risk of obtaining water-born diseases. The probability of catching a disease like bilharzia is for 1 women relatively high, given their daily contact with water for washing clothes and other household activities. Moreover, due to dense stands of aquatic weeds in nearby waterbodies 1 they may have to go further away. Active involvement of both men and women in the local communities is needed for successful 1 control of floating weeds. However, in most of the national programmes women are not approached as a specific target group. It is very common that women do not participate in 1 village meetings where such problems are discussed, due to cultural habits or a Jack of time. On the other hand, it appeared that women are taking part in local initiatives to control water 1 hyacinths by physical removal or by assisting men in supplying drinks and food. In Benin 1 1 1

1 64

and Niger women are on a small scale involved in using water hyacinths for making 1 compost.

1 The above-mentioned local initiatives of women show their interest and willingness to participate in contralling aquatic weeds, at least if this will improve their working and living conditions. Women could also be involved in spotting new infestations and guarding areas 1 where insects have newly been released to guarantee an undisturbed development of the insect population. They may also play an important role in raising awareness to their children 1 with regard to the risks of floating weeds and the ways to contrai them. Consequently, women should be better informed and more actively involved in awareness programmes. In 1 this respect, however, one should be aware of the risk to raise a work overload for women. lt may be concluded that management of floating weeds and further prevention of their 1 spread will imply improvement of the living conditions of women. Therefore, it may be presumed that women will benefit from the praposed projects. Detailed information on the 1 actual effects of contrai programmes on women, however, are hardly available. Indicators for gender impact to measure these effects, on women as well as on men, should be included in the monitoring programmes of the proposed projets. These indicators are included in Table 1 8.4.

Table 8.4 Checklist to be used for Gender Impact Assessment (GIA) of 1 aquatic weed control projects

1 Effects on division of work between men and women; Division of work Change in work Joad due to participation in weed control activities and improvement of access to waterbodies. 1 Improved access to waterbodies, which provide implications for: Resources and . Possibilities for land use for men and women; benefits . Incarne for men and women (trade and transport, fishery, cattle-breeding, agri- cultural production -especially rice); 1 . Availability of time for men and women (although weed controlling itself is time-consuming, time can be gained due to improved acccss to waterbodies); Effects for men and women caused by pollution (fuel/diesel for machines, smoke 1 Health output when burning the plants); Effects for men and women on: . Physical safety and accident risks; . Persona) hygiene (access to water); 1 . Water-related diseases, like bilharzia and malaria; . Nutrition (due to change in amount of fish consumption). Effects for men and women on: 1 Social aspects . Degree of mutual organization in the community; . Degree of participation in each phase of the controlling programme and decision making at community Ievel (participation in village meetings); Level of information/education (access to raùio, press, other communication 1 channels); Culture, rdigion and tradition. 1 1 1 1

1 65

1 8.3 Impact on the environment

1 At low densities aquatic weeds produce oxygen, provide food and serve as hiding, shelter and hatching places for fish. Dense vegetation of floating aquatic weeds may bring about 1 various negative effects to the environment. These include:

- a decrease in the biodiversity of the ecosystem; 1 - oxygen depletion in the water under the floating mat which may lead to dying of fish and other aquatic organisms; 1 silting up of a water body as a result of accumulation of silt particles in the roots of the floating plants; - development of disease carrying organisms, such as snails (Biomphalaria spp.; Bulinus 1 spp.) which are the intermediate hosts of the bilharzia parasites, and mosquitoes (Anopheles spp., Mansonia spp. and others) transmitting malaria, encephalitis and 1 other water-related diseases; - acidification of the water due to plant exudates, etc.

1 Heavy infestations of aquatic weeds threaten, besides the often multifunctional use of waterbodiews by man, the aquatic ecosytems in general. This applies in particular to the 1 biodiversity (including the improved conditions for unwanted organisms).

Therefore, removal of dense vegetation of floating aquatic weeds is generally considered 1 as beneficial to the environment and man's welfare. However, it should be taken into consideration that the control measures are not associated with any form of environmental 1 contamination, which depend to a large extent on the methods applied. 1 Removal of weeds by means of herbicides, particularly on a large scale basis, may lead to adverse effects on the environment and human health. These effects are the result of both the direct and indirect toxic impact of the herbicides as well as the effect to the 1 environment of large masses of dead plant material. Bacterial action will decrease the oxygen level in the water and create the retum of the nutrients from the plants to the 1 water. As prolific growth of aquatic weeds is often connected with high levels of nutrients, a new aquatic weed infestation is likely. For these reasons the use of herbicides is not recommended in the present proposai with the exception of very specific cases. 1 These may include small infestations of recently introduced wceds, such as water hyacinth and water fern. Under such circumstances the amounts of herbicide to be used may be 1 relatively small and, if effectively applied, no repetition will be necessary. In certain emergency situations a single chemical control procedure could be justified, but with 1 reference to the possible negative effects the pros and cons should be accurately balanced. 1 1 1

1 66

The actual project proposai is largely concerned with biological and physical means of 1 control which should be combined in an integrated control programme. The question whether this will bring about positive or negative effects to the environment should be 1 identified by means of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). An EIA can be defined as "a process for identifying, predicting and evaluating the effects of certain activities of man on a particular ecosystem, both beneficial and adverse". Although the 1 present project proposai is aimed at improving man's well being, this could be based on a short-term vision as, due to reasons which could be unknown before the project is 1 implemented, the environment will be altered irreversibly. Therefore an EIA should include a prognosis regarding man's short and long-term well being, within and outside 1 the affected ecosystem. An additional integral part of EIA is a description, if necessary, of mitigating measures, i.e. measures envisaged to reduce harmful effects of the project 1 on the environmental and man's well-being. The EIA for the proposed project should consist of a sequence of activities which are 1 closely linked to the different phases of the project. In the inceptior. phase the possible positive and negative impacts to the environment should be identified ("scoping"). The environmental attributes which are potentially affected by the proposed integrated control 1 projects can be summarized in a relatively short list. These attributes may belong to the non-living part of the ecosystem (physico-chemical characteristics) and the living part 1 (biological characteristics). The biological characteristics include non-human (flora, fauna, micro-organisms) and human characteristics. A list which would be appropriate to an aquatic weed control project is presented in Table 8.5. However, the list can be modified 1 for a particular weed control project, depending on the judgement of individuals 1 conducting the scoping exercise. Subsequently, the Inception Report should include an Environmental Impact Statement based on the scoping procedure during the inception phase. If necessary this could Iead to 1 a modification of the integrated control programme. For example, the use of machines in a water body could bring about inconveniences to the local people living along the shore 1 of a water body, for example by interfering with washing and bathing. In the Inception Report instructions should be given to minimize these possible negative effects. 1 The implementation phase should start implying the commencement of monitoring procedures concerning environmental effects. During monitoring the impact of the project on the environment is assessed. This may lead to a modification of certain project 1 activities. 1 1 1 1

1 67

Table 8.5 Checklist to be used for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of 1 aquatic weed control projec1s

1 ATTRIBUTES KEY ISSUES 1 1 1

A Phys1co-chemical characterist1cs 1 1 1 Land effects on land use of banks and adjacent zones through improved access to water body (humans/livestock/boats/machines etc): soil degradation; erosion; pressure on natural 1 resources. Water effects on water quality of surface water inside/outside the project area through removal of tloating weeds and intensified use of the water body: oxygen; sedimentation; nutrient 1 enrichment; pollution. Atmosphere effects on air quality through intensified use of water bodies and banks: pollution by 1 fumes and smoke (fuel; diesel). B Non-human bwlog1cal characteristics

1 Flora effects of tloatmg weed removal on aquat1c plants: hiod1ve1sity, and g1owth and development of other tloatmg spec1es, suhmerged weeds and emergent plants; effects on phytoplankton and algae: biod1vers1ty, and growth and development; effects of im:reased access to water bodies on wild vegetation, crops and ornamental on 1 the banks. Fauna effects on fish and shellfish: biodiversity, and habitat for feeding, spawning etc; effects on aquatic mammals, birds, reptiles etc: biodiversity, and habitat for feedmg, 1 breeding etc; effects on other aquatic organisms (insects; benthic fauna); effects on wild and domestic animais on the banks of water bodies and adjacent areas: 1 access to drinking water and palatable vegetat1on: reduced risks of drowning. M icro-orgamsms effects on microbial communities 111 water bodies and 111/011 their bottoms (esp. due to 1 rotting vegetative material).

C Human biological characteristics 1 1 1 Health and safety effects on physical safety through occurrence of accidents (boats etc), drowning; effects on persona! hygiene (access to water for washing, bathing etc); effects on diseases (quality drinking water; sanitation; waste disposai; water-related 1 diseases); other health implications through attraction of people from other areas, with the risk of introducing new d1seases. 1 S0cio-econom1cs effects on employment and mcome: directly through weed control activities (manual removal; labour for mechanical and biological control) and 111di1 ectly through 11nproved conditions for fisheries, trade and transport, livestock and agnculture; effects on food production through 1mproved conditions for fisheries and livestock; 1 effects on gender aspects through changed conditions on household level (drinking water; washing etc.), transport and trading etc.; effects on culture, tradition and religion through impact of moving people for labour 1 (social contlicts); evaluation of costs/benefits of project's interactions. 1 1 1 1

1 68 1 8.4 The role of public awareness Special attention in the projects will be given to public awareness programmes and 1 training, in particular to prevent the introduction and further spread of water hyacinth and water fern. The awareness activities/campaigns will be conducted in all ECOWAS 1 countries affected or potentially affected by the floating weeds. With regard to the communication strategies, different options exist. These are prevention 1 and various means of intervention. The latter should be based on the gravity of the problem as well as the spread of the weed species. In continuation, the programmes will 1 be carried out and messages will be defined and disseminated through the appropriate communication channels.

1 Within the population as a whole, initially three main target groups are distinguished. In the first place there are the policy and decision makers. lt is partly at this level that 1 cooperation is needed to facilitate both regional and local activities. Awareness, knowledge and a right attitude are essential elements to that end. Secondly, professionals in different working fields, such as communication, environment, water affairs, fishery 1 etc., are to be approached. In their roles as intermediaries towards the surrounding target groups and as technical executors within the controlling programmes, they need to be 1 informed and, where necessary, trained. The third group to be involved is the general population, entirely as well as specifically identified, like for instance fishermen and horticulturists. As mentioned, the distinct groups will be approached through particularly 1 chosen communication channels, the messages formulated and disseminated in accordance with background related to desired behaviour and/or information needed in the scope of 1 achieving the projects' aims. The respective roles and mutual linkages are identified to be positively exploited in a collective tackling of the floating weeds problem. 1 The overall objective will be to make the people aware of how insidious these weeds are and what kind of problems they may cause. In addition, ways and means should be 1 discussed to involve local communities in implementing control methods. Consequently, one of the major objectives of the campaigns is that the people will be able to recognize 1 the plants. Emphasis will also be laid upon the importance of eradicating new, small-scale infestations as soon as they are spotted. Furthermore, detailed attention should be paid to 1 the methods available for controlling aquatic weeds. 1 1 1 1 1

1 69 1 8.5 Project risks Whether the follow-up projects will lead to an effective control of floating aquatic weeds 1 in the ECOW AS region will largely depend on how and when the control methods are carried out. In this context it essential that integration of the various control methods is optimal. For example, if biological control is not implemented in an adequate way, the 1 project may become a failure. This may happen when release of insects is not done in a systematical way and the level of aquatic weed infestation is very high. There should be 1 conditions for an undisturbed development of the insect population until a certain threshold is reached. Biological control is a slow process and a residual population should 1 always be present. As far as water hyacinth is concerned, it may be assumed on the basis of results of control programmes in other regions, that biological control by means of insects will only bring about partial control and that additional, physical control is 1 required. Integrated control should be implemented in such a way that the different control methods supplement each other and have an additive effect. Physical control 1 should be reduced as biological control gains momentum. The use of cables or other barriers could be an important tool for effective integrated control operations, as the physical size of infestations may be manipulated or broken into smaller manageable units 1 for control.

Very important for the success of the follow-up project will be the effect of the public il1 awaœness campaigns. If the local authorities in the ECOWAS countries will not be able to stop a further spread of exotic floating weeds, in particular water hyacinth, the project 1 Will fail. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 70

1 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1 Conclusions: 1 Floating aquatic weeds, in particular the exotic water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 1 are causing serious problems in Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria. New, relatively small-scale infestations of water hyacinth have been observed in 1 Burkina Faso and The Gambia.

The floating weed water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), which is endogenous in West 1 Africa, is causing serious prol>lems in Senegal, and to a lesser extent in Côte 1 d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. The exotic floating weed water fern (Salvinia molesta) occurs in Côte d'Ivoire and in 1 Ghana in the Tano lagoon bordering Côte d'Ivoire. The total yearly losses in the ECOW AS region, due to floating aquatic weeds, are 1 estimated to vary from 75 to 150 millions of US$.

The costs of a further spread of the exotics water hyacinth and water f ern are 1 difficult to estimate, but, based on the present losses in infested areas, it may be 1 concluded that benefits of preventive measures will be extremely high. At present control of floating aquatic weeds is mainly manual, in general carried out 1 at an ad-hoc basis. ln Benin a biological control programme was started in 1991 and recently biological 1 control agents have also been released in Nigeria and Ghana against water hyacinth, and in Senegal against water lettuce. 1 The biological control programmes are not coordinated on a regional basis, which is urgently needed as it is evident that the spread of insects will not stop at national 1 borders.

1 The local population is not aware of the risks of spreading water hyacinth and water fern as ornamentals. 1 1 1 1

1 71

1 Recommendations: 1 To establish an ECOWAS coordination unit for aquatic weed management. To start public awareness campaigns in ail ECOW AS countries affected or 1 potentially affected by floating aquatic weeds.

To implement integrated control programmes based on a combination of biological 1 and physical control.

1 To start five regional projects in the most heavily infested areas: the coastal areas of Benin and Nigeria, the Middle Niger River Basin in Niger, Benin and Nigeria, the 1 Upper Niger River Basin in Mali, the coastal areas of Côte d'Ivoire and in the Tano River Lagoon on the border cf Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, and the Lower Senegal 1 River system in Senegal and Mauritania. To eradicate new, isolated small-scale infestations of water hyacinth and/or water 1 fern by physical and/or chemical control.

To start training programmes, to be designed especially for the persons directly 1 involved in executing control methods. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 72 1 10 REFERENCES Akinyemiju, O.A. (1987). Invasion of Nigerian waters by water hyacinth. Journal of 1 Aquatic Plant Management 25: 24-26.

Alimi T. and O.A. Akinyemiju (1991). Effects of water hyacinth on water transportation 1 in Nigeria. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 29: 109-112.

1 Anonymous (1990). Fishery statistics of Nigeria. The Federal Department of Fisheries, Lagos, Nigeria. 1 Bard, F.X., D. Guiral, J.B. Amon Kothias and Ph. K. Koffi (1991). Synthèse des travaux effectués au Cro sur les végétations enhavissantes flottantes (1985-1990). 1 Propositions et recommandations. J. lvoir. Océanol. Limnol. Abidjan 1 (2): 25-40.

1 Chadwick, M.J. and M. Obeid (1966). A comparative study of the growth of Eichhornia crassipes Solms and Pistia stratiotes L. in water-culture. Journal of Ecology 1 45: 563-575. Doeleman, J.A. (1990). Biological control of Salvinia. Economie Assessment Series no. 1 1. Canberra, Australia, ACIAR.

DeGraft-Johnson, K.A.A. (1988). Aquatic plant invasion and water resources - The 1 Ghana experience. In: O.L. Oke, A.M.A. Imevbore and T.A. Farri (eds.), Water hyacinth, menace and resource, Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Lagos, 1 Nigeria, 7-12 August 1988, pp. 32-35.

ECOWAS (1988). Sub-regional floating weeds control programme: Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, 1 Ghana, Nigeria. Agriculture. Lagos, Nigeria, ECOWAS Industry and Natural Resources 1 Department. Encyclopedia of the Third World, 3rd Edition (1987). Facts on File, Inc., USA. 1 FAO (1994). Fishery statistics 74; 1992. Rome, ltaly, FAO.

1 Farri, T .A. and F.D. Chizea (1995). Water hyacinth infestation in Nigeria: status report. paper presented at the regional workshop on the contrai of floating weeds in 1 ECOWAS member states. Abidjan, Ivory Coast, 17-21 January 1995. 1 FAO/DANIDA/NORWAY (1990). Socio-economic conditions in Nigerian fishing 1 1 1

1 73 1 communities, based on studies along the Benin and Imo estuaries. Cotonou, Benin. 1 Gopal, B. (1987). Water hyacinth. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier. Guiral, D. and N. Etien (1991). Les macrophytes aquatiques des berges lagunaires. J. 1 Ivoir. Océanol. Limnol. Abidjan 1 (2): 25-40. Holm, L.G., J.V. Pancho and R.D. Blackburn (1969). Aquatic weeds. Science 166: 1 699-709. 1 Koch, W., G. Harris, K.B. El Tigani, F.R. Hamza, M. Obeid, M. Akasha, V. Leffler and T. Hafliger (1978). Investigations on the chemical control of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms in the Sudan. In: Proceedings EWRS 5th Symposium on Aquatic 1 Weeds 1978, pp. 415-427.

1 Kusemiju, K. (1981). The hydrobiology and fishes of Lekki Lagoon, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Natural Sciences 3: 135-146.

1 Kusemiju, K. (1988). Strategies for effective management of water hyacinth in the creeks and lagoons of South-Westren Nigeria. In: O.L. Oke, A.M.A. Imevbore and T.A. Farri 1 (eds.), Water hyacinth, menace and resource, Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Lagos, Nigeria, 7-12 August 1988, pp. 39-45.

1 Kusemiju, K. (1990). Our environment and the Nigerian child. Lecture presented for World Environment Day. Nigerian Environment Society, Lagos, Nigeria. 1 Kusemiju (1995).

Mitchell, D.S., A.H. Pieterse and K.J. Murphy (1990). Aquatic weed problems and 1 management in Africa. In: A.H. Pieterse and K.J. Murphy (eds.), Aquatic weeds, the ecology and management of nuisance aquatic vegetation. Oxford, UK, Oxford University 1 Press, pp. 341-354. 1 Oke, O.L., A.M.A. Imevbore and T.A. Farri (1988). Invasion of Nigerian waterways by water hyacinth: ecological and biological observations. Proceedings of the International 1 Workshop on Water hyacinth, held in Lagos, Nigeria. PC Globe Inc. (1992). Data on GNP, population, agricultural production and energy 1 production. Tempe, USA. 1 Pieterse, A.H. (1978). The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) - a review. Abstracts 1 1 1

1 74 1 on Tropical Agriculture 4: 9-42. Pieterse, A.H. (1994). Aquatic weed management. In: R. Labrada, J.C. Caseley and C. 1 Parker (eds.), Weed management for developing countries. Rome, Italy, FAO, pp. 225- 235. 1 Pieterse, A.H. and K.J. Murphy (eds.) (1990). Aquatic weeds, the ecology and 1 management of nuisance aquatic vegetation. Oxford, UK, Oxford University press. Pieterse, A.H., L. de Lange and L. Verhagen (1981). A study of certain aspects of 1 seed germination and growth of Pistia stratiotes L. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 30: 47-57.

Thielen, R. van, O. Ajuonu, V. Schade, P. Neuenschwander, A. Adité and C.J. 1 Lomer (1994). Importation, releases, and establishment of Neochetina spp. (Col.: Curculionidae) for the biological control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Lil.: 1 Pontederiaceae), in Benin, West Africa. 1 UNDP (1994). Human Development Report. New York, USA, United Nations. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ------

ANNEX I

Map of the region (with project areas indicated)

zo•

Project E --

15'

10•

L.

1~ ,.,.. ,. 1------~------1

1 ANNEX II 1 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE STUDY 1 1 Study Staff ECOWAS - Mr M. Traore Counterpart to the Team Leader, DIARN - Mr P. Djigma Project Coordinator, DIARN 1 - Mr A. Mangane Project Supervisor, DIARN 1 Study Staff Consultants 1 Long--term assignments - Mr P.J. van Rijn Team Leader, KIT - Dr G. van de Klashorst Biological Control Specialist, Euroconsult :11 !I1 - Mr H. Manni Fisheries specialist/ Aquatic ecologist, Euroconsult Short-term assignments - Dr A.H. Pieterse Ecologist/ Aquatic Weed Expert, KIT 1 - Dr A. de Wit Economist, KIT - Mrs S. Kortbeek Public A wareness Specialist, KIT 1 - Mr J.C.J. van Zon and Mr A. Tempelman Project Supervisors, Euroconsult 1

1 Steering Committee Members (SCM) and National Consultants (NC)

Benin 1 - Mr A.M. Baglo SCM, National University Benin 1 - Mr O.P. Agbani NC, biologist Direction des Peches Burkina Faso 1 - Mr S.P. Ouedraogo SCM, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Department Fisheries 1 - Mr R. L. Ouedraogo NC, University of Ouagadougou Cape Verde 1 - Mr H.C. Silva Soarez SCM, Ministry of Tourism, Industry and Commerce 1 1 1

1 Contributors to the study, continued

1 Cote d'Ivoire - Mr Ph. Koffi Koffi SCM, Centre Ivoirien Anti-pollution 1 - Dr R. Arfi NC, Centre de Recherches Oceanologiques - Mr N. Etien NC, Centre de Recherches Oceanologiques

1 Gambia - Mr E.M. Kunjo SCM, National Agricultural Research Institute 1 - Mr L. Sonko NC, National Agricultural Research Institute Ghana 1 - Mr K.A.A. De Graft-Johnson SCM/NC, Institute of Aquatic Biology

1 Guinea - Mr M. Bah SCM, Direction Nationale de l'Environnement 1 - Dr A. Diallo NC, Universite de Conakry Guinea Bissau 1 - Mr A. J. Bock SCM/NC, Directorate of Plant Protection

Liberia 1 - Mr P.W. Nimpson SCM, Ministry of Agriculture

1 Mali - Dr A. Diarra SCM, Institut

1 Mauritania - Mr D. Boubacar SCM, Division Faune, Flore et Parcs 1 - Mr Y. Diawara NC, biologist 1 Niger - Mr S. Maman SCM, Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement 1 - Mr T. Harouna CN, Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de 1 l'Environnement 1 1 1 1 1

1 Contributors to the study, continued 2

1 Nigeria - Dr T.A. Farri SCM, National Agency for Science and Engineering 1 Infrastructure - Prof. K. Kusemiju NC, University of Lagos - Prof. A.B.M. Egborge NC, University of Benin 1 - Dr J.S. Ayeni NC, National Institute of Fresh water and Fisheries Research 1 - Dr E.E. Sowho Transcon Ltd, logistics and general support - Dr W. Shobowale Transcon Ltd, logistics and general support 1 - Ms Y. M. van Arragon Transcon Ltd, communication and public awareness Se ne gal 1 - Mr S. Diouf SCM, Direction des Parcs Nationaux - Mr N. Kane NC, agronomist

1 Sierra Leone - Prof. H.G. Morgan SCM, University of Sierra Leone 1 - Prof. E.T. Ndomahina NC, University of Sierra Leone

Togo 1 - Mr H.K. Bassimbako SCM, Direction de Protection des Vegetaux 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ------

ANNEX Ill - Examples of the selection process of aquatic weed problems

··-·::::_- ··· .. .::: :":ÙRGENCT OF iRoBij~I:{/!i:1'. /:?}{t:/{f:;:- :-·ictloss-:soRbER:: :§lffiî.~NABÎ1irv ..·ntÔBLÊM:t. ·· · REP~\lJ.VENf.:SS :.: J.œLEV ANÇE· .. O'f l_ŒS~TS

Lagune de Porto Novo Benin +++ +++ +++ ++ 1

Sô River Benin +++ +++ ++

Lac Ahème Benin + ++ + +++ 2

Okpara River Benin + + ++ (-)

Sota River Benin +++ ++ ++ 2

Mare aux Hippopothame Burkina Faso ++ ++ ++ 2

Comoé River Côte d'Ivoire +++ +++ ++

Lacs Estétiques Yamoussoukro Côte d'Ivoire +++ ++ ++ 2 Lagune de Tano Côte d'Ivoire +++ ++ + ++ Lagune de Ono Côte d'Ivoire +++ +++ ++

Taabo Reservoir Côte d'Ivoire +++ ++ ++ 2

Gambia River The Gambia +++ (-) Lake Volta Ghana + + + (-) Tano River-Lagoon Ghana +++ +++ +++ +++

Kpong Headpond Ghana +++ +++ +++

Rio Géba Guinea-Bissau + ++ ++ (-) Niger River Mali +++ ++ ++ ++ 1 Mare Djamba Kouri Mali +++ +++ +++ 1

Baguineda Irrigation Scheme Mali +++ ++ ++ 2 ------

ANNEX 111-continued

··,,, ·SwATER·:sooY. :- .. ,,: CO~Y URGENCY oîL 0:h(oBi..EM··i 't-'<{::· (·_:/Jf ·: êioss-:noRhEa'- 'SIJS1'AI~ l ,PRI_.O_RI_·,· TY:.··. 1 PROBLEl\f ~PRESENTA.îl~f REL:E.:VANCE .. ofîmsûùffl\}r ·..

Senegal River Mauritania + +++ +++ +++

Niger River Niger ++ ++ +++ ++

Pools/Ponds in various districts Niger +++ ++ + 2

Badagri Creek Nigeria ++ ++ ++ ++ Yewa River Nigeria +++ ++ + ++ Lagos-Epe Lagoon Nigeria ++ ++ ++ 2 West-East Mahin Creek/Lagoon Nigeria +++ ++ +++ Benin River Nigeria ++ ++ ++ 2

Jebba Reservoir Nigeria ++ ++ ++ 2 Niger River Nigeria +++ ++ ++ ++ Shiroro Reservoir Nigeria ++ + + (-) Lake Chad Nigeria ++ + + + (-) Senegal River Senegal +++ +++ +++ +++ Parc de Djoudj Senegal +++ +++ +++ +++ Lac Guiers Senegal +++ +++ +++ +++ Granville Brook Sierra Leone +++ + +++ 2 Great Scarcies Swamps Sierra Leone ++ + ++ (-) Lac Zowla Togo + ++ + ++ 2 Lagune de Lomé Togo ++ + ++ (-) 1 1 ANNEX IV - Questionnaire

1 CEDEAO FLOATING WEEDS PROJECT ECOWAS 1 FLOA TING WEEDS IN ...... (country)

1 MAJOR WATER BODIES

', . ,' ,'','',,, ,,•'•,' Nature of wàterbody · · nr Name area ',,' ' (ha) lagoon lake river rcscrvoir irrigation system

1.1

1.2 1 1.3 1.4 1 1.5 1.6 1 1.7 1.8 1 1.9 1.10 1 1.11 1.12 1 1.13 1.14 1 1.15 1.16 1 1.17 1.18 1 1.19 1.20 1 1.21 1.22

1.23 1 1.24 1 1 1 1

1 ANNEX IV - (continued) 1 CEDEAO FLOATING WEEDS PROJECT ECOWAS 1 WATER BODY Nr ...... (from table 1) IN ...... (country) 2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WATER BODY

1 2a LOCATION ,' 1 State/province District Map coordinates Managing authority

2b MAIN FLOATING WEED SPECIES . ,',','::,,:::::·, 1 :·:·:'";,,' ',,',,,,,•,;•,,,', Species C-0mmon name ++ j1m:[~:') - 1 1 l 1 + i 1 Eièlthomi(l çra$sipes Water hyacinth 1 Pistki. stratwtes. .. Water lettuce ',,,',,, ·,·:·::::,, •Salvttiia ïm>J(sttt ::• ,•','':,:: ',, Water fem 1 Other aquatic weeds: - - 1 =- + + + always present in large quantities; + + sometimes present in large quantities, or always present in moderate quantities; + sometimes present in moderate quantities; 1 absent, or present in small quantities. 1 2c SURFACE AREA INFESTED Pertod or 1 the vear ·· 0 % 1- JO% 11 -40 % 41 - 70 % 71 - 100 % Oct-Dec • 1 ·: ./Jani:.h,'.Jar:: •. ···· ,.. ··Ap~~n. 1 .Jul-Sep ,,. •· 2d IIlSTORY OF THE INFESTATION

1 Main floating spedes is causing harm SÎllCC! more than 10 years l more than 5 years more titan one year

1 1 1 1 1 ------

ANNEX IV-(continued) 3 NATURE OF HARM

.. = Additi0Ja1 =: .. Activity -0bsèt'vatifins=.:.· . -:·· .

a Navigation transported goods: - commercial traffic (fenies, large motoriz.ed boats) - local traffic (small boats, canoes}

.1> Fisheries production .... kg/ham fish production ain species: , fishing acùvitiès main gear .·. a)...... · ......

ç Agriculture/irrigation ...... irrigated area .... ha ·· · water storage (irrigatio~ ·reservoir) main crops: . ~ water transportation (channels) - livestock drinking places

{) Public health no of people using - drinking water supply the water: • bathing/swimming - incidence of malaria · é Other . hydropower r~ervoir - industria1 processing water · - wildlife reserve

1) + + + \'CI: Important; of national sigmficance; 2) +++ very important; strongly interfering with water use; ++ important; of local significance. ++ important; regularly interfering with water use; + of moderate importance; + moderate importance (from time to time; small quantities); no Importance. no importance or not occurring. 1

1 ANNEX IV - (continued)

1 4 ORGANISATION AND METHODS OF CONTROL

4a ORGANISATION OF FLOATING WEED CONTROL ···:·:·::;.·.::.:;:•. 1 Resp<>nsibfo ~entrai ·(gov.ernm:ent) ·a\ithU,dty:. 1 ·. ~s_·::~~?=~!;~r~î:.t,~:~1::~,,::::.:~t~~i,::,:: YES/NO ·,/ hQ:W.:-ofteu is -~h,t.budgef avail~lef '..,... ·... 1 - is ît spent? ·' ·· ,·.- · ·· ·· ,, .. ,,,,.,, ... ,.. ·· .,. · ··· Who ~ .carryîng ~ut the ~~tuai weed. ~ontrol? · (e.g~Ja~urers J):oiû th~ ~vtlloriiy 1 ~o~t:l'.fçtors,, . . .. 1 locàfpe~ple, ,9ther)?)(' :·. .. . :· ....

1 4b METHODS OF CONTROL ::•,;:·.·:;,,:,,,,::·.··· type of weed contr-01 remarks/observatiom, Î::======~======-===~I information 1 Man,ual rem<>v~l. YES/NO - how often? . .. : .·: .,... (times/yr) 1 .:: ,.,,:~t~~~;,;:w,~?:,, :.\:::::·····'···:·, :, - (man-hours) .,,,_ :'-ts:1:u·::s~~r,ifr, .· · _:.::.i-:-.::'::i(. good/sufficient/moderate/bad 1 t--~~~~~~~~~~--,..~~~~~~~~~~-----1 ;r!~~0Jf;'.f~p,~ YES/NO (limes/y,) ...... :now. manfm.àcfüµës?· · .. .r· ··. \,: - 1 - résufts? .. ,-..: :: . ··-:. ·... ,.,,, ...... :.. :.,. good/sufficient/moderate/bad .· ê11~~ical è~ntfol · YES/NO 1 ~ how o{t~n? . (times/yr) - ,_what he!g~cides?.: · (brand names) 1 :~J'i~\~lf ~ood/sufficient/mod::~e::d&a) ,' ' ,',',','',',',',',',',',,,,,,',,,',, ,,,,•,••, ,•,,:, ,•,•,•,•,:,•,•,•,:,:,:,;,,,,,,,,,,.;, 1 YES/NO (names) ::~~~l~n'~;'',''' (year) .-'~ ·-.made a-vailable ffüfu. :whete.?" · (agency) 1 ··iê~uhs?.· ·. ,·,· <, good/sufficient/moderate/bad 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 ANNEX IV - (continued)

1 5 UTILISATION OF HARVESTED WEEDS method of utilisation informatio11 rcmarks/observations

1 Animal feed YES/NO .. , ~ .. for wbat animalsf(.\...... ·.. ·.. :wbat .. w.eeds m usëdV/> · . 1 (kg/yr) ,'-~:_:·::::~~~;~~:':::r:.~~;;::,':·,:~,,,J)):>~' good/sufficient/moderate/bad 1 YES/NO .~~~r:~=:. wbat"qÜ~tity ·of·wéédsf :.-:-::'.' .: ... :.:.:-:::• (kg/yr) 1 ~ .:results? · good/sufficient/moderate/bad YES/NO 1 (kg/yr) good/sufficient/moderate/bad .,.Sou~~ ot:'~n~rgi,;':(~fu~) .. :,.)\} YES/NO 1 1 1 -:[°': r·~~;i:!~lfi~!;;!:;t:::::i;/i;::::::,::t':::':'· - (agency) ·• ·. ,-.whàt'\v~êds ..ar~ :use.dt:,:-:-:::. 1 ,;.,bat -:qU:arttttY'hf\;~p~?):·/·· (kg/yr) ~ ·:rèsults? · · ·· · · · · good/sufficient/moderate/bad 1 Qth<:r use, namely à) •• ~ ...... ,. YES/NO :~,~e,F:i~::::;;, good/sufficient/moderate!~yr) 1 '.t=S1?1îf{; YES/NO (kg/yr) 1 ". .·tesum·r-· .. . . good/sufficient/moderate/bad

1 6 OTHER OBSERVATIONS 1 1 1 1 1 1