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Impact of Large-Scale Irrigation on a Closed Basin

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Impact of Large-Scale Irrigation on a Closed Basin IMPACT OF LARGE-SCALE IRRIGATION ON A CLOSED BASIN WETLAND: WATER FLOW ALTERATIONS AND PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON THE SULTAN MARSHES ECOSYSTEM IN TURKEY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY FILIZ DADASER CELIK IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Patrick L. Brezonik, Heinz G. Stefan, Advisors JULY 2008 © Filiz Dadaser Celik 2008 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank a number of individuals and organizations which made this study possible. First, I would like to thank my advisors Prof. Patrick Brezonik and Prof. Heinz Stefan for their guidance and assistance throughout my Ph.D. education. They patiently provided the vision, encouragement, and advice necessary for me to proceed through the doctoral program and complete my dissertation. I also wish to acknowledge my other committee members Profs. Marvin Bauer, David Mulla, and Jay Coggins. I was very fortunate to have the opportunity to discuss my dissertation work with them. Their suggestions and careful reviews of this dissertation have improved it greatly. This research also benefited from discussions with many professors. I would like to thank Profs. İbrahim Gürer, William Easter, Kenneth Brooks, Mary Renwick, and Kristin Nelson for their comments and suggestions. Special thanks to Dr. Uygar Özesmi who provided much of the inspiration for this research through his earlier work on the Sultan Marshes. He also provided valuable advice and encouragement for me to pursue this research. The Council of Higher Education in Turkey and the Water Resources Science Program, the MacArthur Program on Global Change, Sustainability and Justice, St. Anthony Falls Laboratory at the University of Minnesota provided financial support for my graduate training, for which I am extremely grateful. The MacArthur Program on Global Change, Sustainability, and Justice and the Graduate School at the University of Minnesota provided financial assistance for the field research. I would like to thank State Hydraulic Works (DSI) for providing historical hydrologic and climatic data regarding the Develi Basin. I also would like to thank General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks for providing guidance and assistance during the field research. Kovalı and Ağcaaşar Irrigation Associations in the Develi Basin provided historical data on agricultural practices in the region. I would like to thank the staff of these associations and villagers of Develi Basin who not only shared their valuable ideas but also welcomed me sincerely during the field research. i I would like to thank my mother Fatma Dadaser and my father Ali Dadaser who always made my education one of their top priorities. Without their support and encouragement any of my achievements would have been possible. Special thanks to my extended family in Turkey, particularly Metin Çelik, Ahmet Dadaşer and Sedat Kahraman, who accompanied me during my trips to the Sultan Marshes by taking time from their busy schedules. I would also like to thank my son Fatih and my daughter Hüma for their patience and understanding during this research. Finally, I would like to thank my husband and best friend, Mete Çelik, for his love and support during this graduate program. He was my side through the coursework, examinations, fieldwork, and writing of this dissertation. Without his help and encouragement, I could have not been able to complete this dissertation. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation analyzes alterations in a closed-basin wetland system resulting from the construction of a large-scale irrigation project in its catchment. The study was conducted at the Sultan Marshes ecosystem (Develi Basin, Turkey), which has been severely degraded within the last 20 years due to diversion of its major water sources for agricultural irrigation. Spatial changes in the Sultan Marshes from 1980 to 2003 were analyzed using satellite remote sensing. Changes in the areal coverages of lakes, marshes, agricultural, and steppe areas determined by unsupervised classification of four Landsat images showed that both lakes and marshes became smaller after construction of the irrigation project. Steppe areas expanded onto wetlands. Significant portion of northern (Kepir) marshes were converted to agriculture. Hydrologic changes in the Sultan Marshes were analyzed statistically and used to develop a dynamic hydrologic model of the system. Water levels dropped more than one meter in the lakes and marshes from 1993 to 2003, and decreases were observed in ground-water levels and spring flows, although precipitation and evaporation rates remained mostly stable. Simulations with the hydrologic model showed that even if surface water continues to be used for irrigation, reductions in appropriations from ground water and springs would restore and protect water levels in the marshes. Agricultural and environmental changes in the Develi Basin were analyzed after the irrigation management was transferred from state to “irrigation associations” in 1994. The analyses showed that irrigated areas and water use in the Develi Basin showed significant fluctuations. The area allocated to production of high water-consuming plants increased. Water fee collection rates were lower than 100%. Although soil and water quality in the Develi Basin did not change significantly, ground-water levels, flow rates from springs and water levels in the Sultan Marshes all dropped. Four recommendations were developed that would help to resolve the conflict between agricultural and wetland water requirements: (1) a basin-wide approach water planning, (2) more realistic water pricing, (3) demand-based irrigation scheduling, and (4) rehabilitation of the irrigation system. iii Economic costs and benefits associated with water diversions from agriculture to the wetlands were estimated, and the optimum or economically-efficient amount of water diversion was determined. When only direct-use values of the wetland (reed cutting, animal grazing and ecotourism) were included, the annual optimum amount of water diversion to the wetlands was found to be 5.2 million m3 yr-1 (165 L s-1) compared to about 62 million m3 yr-1 (1,957 L s-1) used in irrigation. Diversion of 5.2 million m3 yr-1 water would be sufficient to restore the conditions in the marshes. The analysis showed that economically-efficient restoration of water levels in the Sultan Marshes is feasible with moderate amounts of water diversion. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xii OVERVIEW...................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 : CHANGES IN THE SULTAN MARSHES ECOSYSTEM (TURKEY) IN SATELLITE IMAGES 1980 – 2003 ..................................................... 7 ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................... 7 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 7 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 12 STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................. 14 METHODS ................................................................................................................... 15 Image Acquisition..........................................................................................................................15 Image Preprocessing .....................................................................................................................16 Image Classifications and Change Detection.........................................................................16 Accuracy Assessment of Individual Classifications ............................................................18 Analysis of Climate Data.............................................................................................................19 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 19 Classification Accuracy................................................................................................................19 Analysis of Individual Classification and Changes..............................................................20 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WETLAND CHANGES AND CLIMATE/WEATHER ....................................................................................................................................... 26 v SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS................................................................................. 29 LITERATURE CITED ................................................................................................. 30 CHAPTER 2 : HYDROLOGIC SUSTAINABILITY OF THE SULTAN MARSHES IN TURKEY...................................................................................................................
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