Thinking the Disruption of the Biopolitics of Abandonment

CEU eTD Collection

Doctoral School ofPolitical Science, Public Policy andInternational Relations the biopolitics ofabandonmentof theThinking thebiopolitics disruption I n partial fulfillment of the requirements for the of forn partialfulfillmentthe Doctor Philosophy degree ofrequirements the “We the donot are peoplewho count” Supervisor: Dr. MichaelMerlingen CentralEuropean University Budapest, Hungary Anna Selmeczi Anna March 2012 Submitted to By

CEU eTD Collection reference. form the made acknowledgmentin appropriate exceptwhere person, is bibliographical of thesisinstitutions. This no previouslycontains materials written and/or bypublished another hereby I state the that thesis containsmaterials no accepted for any other degrees in

Statement

any other any other ii CEU eTD Collection excess freedom that and juridicaland technologiesof government that rendering Foucault’s conditions Michel of in theabandonment epistemological to start, Locating, technologies governmental thethat render poor politicalunequal as and/or e abandonment establishment of theeducative tr urbanism surplus orderof the current neoliberal population how the asking contains inclusion m abandonment is and useful therefore be to not fostered – production abandonmentand of– life surplus that challengesthat biopolitics. what in terms they find the freedom might doso to give hints for thinking political the subject and When, notto.where, supposed are people surplus what think doand cityissay, to the in their “everyday” struggles supposedremain;t to are politics shows, people’s poor ofthesis secondthe unequal part their the as challenge allotment, to ope aspire thecannot position, poor abject precarious and their to due where, and apply realm where theequality of all politics. Whereas this ap everyday resistance is asit citizens, juxtapose I bearing legal struggle toclaim their place in the city, thatmaintainsknowledge that argue disruptionthe of this first part of the thesis concentrates discourses that distance surplusthe frompopulation fostered (bio)political the community, the shack contingency oforder the r of appropriation the of excessfreedom equal capacity the as of everyone exposeto the I ofdisruption of of offerthe conception the politics, account an

Grounding this re baseMjondolo.this Abahlali ovement, Grounding - dwellers’ assertion of equality beings nkingas thi speaking and Focusing on Focusing thattod fromay observation the urbanStarting the emerges as the main for site the

B materializes ased on the resonance of Abahlali’s political practice with Jacques Rancière’s of the surplus population obstructive their and uselessness of liberalism as the framework of biopolitics in

1) constructing politics their 1) as by – the drawing on

in emerges on the horizon of governmental rationality of rationality onthe governmental horizon emerges splintering

where the neolibe the where o

rder, I present Abahlali the transgression of the spatial and discursive boundaries within which discursive boundaries and ofspatial the transgression the proach relegates proach strugglesrelegates of marginalpopulations a to - sub

the shack

my field ule to which s/he is subjected. ison to subjected. centrality s/he Building ofule which the the of accountof this deployed in the poststructuralist literature on poor people’s , usteeship of development is no longer pertineusteeship of nolonger development is of of as infrastructure

- inscribed in on dweller as the sub - research with the large ral urbanral order is contested, I the Abstract

processes of rendering unequal. Abahlali biopower disruptsdie. thatlets the i ’s politics’s as a three- a a of speakingand space listening, 2) material thesis n this political subjectification against the notion of of the subjectification against notion political

the rights of the political community

a life whose capacities cannot be rendered and and he crux of crux Abahe ject andofject knower politic the forced relocation ize the power to disallow life alongside , followed bya - politicized reading in the problem of

I offer a re - st shack African South

biopower to let die in terms fold ’s struggle forplace a hlali’s struggle

, I begin the begin , I d

- politics of proximity iscussion of iscussion

approach practices of politicized reading of – between , as coinciding with as well as rights

conomic subjects. Turning, nt. nt.

the political political the

inquiry s, 3) and the spatial a form of of a form dwellers’ when political , , then do not

nly nly the the by . to to iii a - I

CEU eTD Collection on benchthea old at was when sitting - promidefinitely enteringcan the I Nowis fact. home a thesis stretch, your that’s allthat,and that without me project in has rightfaith this helped performed and me.exercise nowbe wouldnot This myKiven, There love: simply are an been familyalways. thank My has enormous I my support parents did. I to me wanted do this. I asking if support.I and companionshipfor,moments, and atthank forlove his difficult Ádám Mestyán Vera Asenova, Kriszta Simon, Lóránd, Zsófia Tamás Pásztor, neglect friends,My whom have I and Lawrence Smith, as well asRose andGraeme Hastie. homealways Jenny be Igratefulto me Durban, creatingloving support.For a in will and for Bu honored.feel Ndabankulu, ThankyouMnikelo Mazwi Nsibande, Mark Mashumi Figlan, I last; momentthe to first the from my of work supportive been has Pithouse,who Richard known youis car and days those much so for all ever you thank my teacher: confidenceme, their in will always I grateful.my be my Zodwa Nsibande, friend, navigator, For all that I have learned an T surrounding Paraizs, Zsuzsa Blum and Eszter Fügedi for their care and their help with all the practicalities Eszter Sata, Róbert to Irén Varga, Stubenvoll,thank like would especially Sára Tarcsi, Júlia At CEU, creatingfor one’s academic home even that intellectual and material support it provided for my project. StudiesDepartment Relationsfor the European and ofInternational to whole the the gratitude challenging gratefult very advice of Prem KumarRajaram. from receive enoughand learn to fortunate been have CEU my I Throughout at years youreadhope on: tremendously and made journeypossible support opennessendless this and rigor, Merlingen. Having Michael supervisor, my most gratefulto am I it, lead up to research that the workand completed this having For for and in love believing me

his work would be non- workwouldbe his tler, Kerry Chance, Michael Neocosmos, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott for inspiration for inspiration Ntseng, Graham Philpott Neocosmos,David Kerry Michael Chance, but alwaysbut stimulating studies andresearch.

truly life o Alex Astrovo Alex : se two things: Iwill re thank you. - forming; I thank discussions.forming; I youfor allour amI indebted to greatly existent have not to I theAbahlaliexistent had luck encounter baseMjondolo. Iapologize, and for all the time that Icould not spend with them. d experienced while withmovement,working the all, above and,

for for

Ack

I thank him for his engagement and encouragement. I am am engagementI his himencouragement. for and thank I

ed these last fewmonths: Eszter Oláh, Erzsébet Strausz,

s question all have from that I learned student his being no words tono words how express much love, your strength, and

nowledgements age home.age ci him as my friend is the greatest honor. His greatesthonor. isfriend the intellect,my him as procate, and will not ask you what my contribution my contribution youwhat ask not procate, will and

posed to

work this research. would I like extendto my

, there are many people tomany people are , there

I than - rides. S’bu Zikode, having Zikode, S’bu rides. k you for your enduring and and my sister for their rewarding. I I rewarding. , . I . thank and his and

t he he iv

CEU eTD Collection

Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Part II Chapter 1 Introduction ...... Acknowledgements Part I 3.1 2.2 2.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 3.2 1 4 3 2

2.1.2 2.1.1 1.3.2 1.3.1 1.2.2 1.2.1 1.2.3 1.1.4 1.1.3 1.1.2 1.1.1 3.2.3 3.2.2 3.2.1 3.1.1

The problem Methods thesisOutline of politics of subject the and freedom Excess The return of the police Biopolitics of dispersal: the sensible order of abandonment Splintering nurture: The fissured topographies Conclus The politics of excess freedom – freedom of excess politics The The biopolitics of excess freedom excess of biopolitics The Surplus life Surplus Influx control and public violence –

Splintering nurture and spaces of abandonment Spatial apartheid – Neoliberal urban governmentality T Governing life through (un)freedom Devoid of freedom: bare life Freedom as the equ asthe Freedom The problemof excess freedom The absolute redundancy of life surplus Thinking abandonment with Foucault’s biopolitics Producing and abandoning surplus life The “SlumsAct”: Influx control revived Program Management Realm Public the and people” “Business the Policing urban milieu thefactualization law of and Policing the globalcity andthe ‘factualization of law’ Materializing abandonment: Thebiopolitics of the globalcity The politics of excessfreedom: Introduction Surplus life andthe politics of excessfreedom

...... recreation” “passive or violence” “Public The biopolitics of disper

he political rationality of depoliticization of political rationality he ...... ion

......

...... again? yet al capacity to act otherwise toact capacity al Table of contents

Thinking the disruption of abandonment with Rancière

...... s ......

al The non-litigious interest”subject the“public of

...... – ......

the biopoliticsof dispersal

......

of care of ......

......

.....

.. 121 102 116 112 105 92 69 21 21 92 86 73 69 81 65 57 64 51 37 37 41 48 33 29 25 21 21 95 18 iv 1 1 9 3 v

CEU eTD Collection Conclusion

subjectification Chapter 4 Chapter 5 List of References 5.6 5.5 government 5.2 5.1 4.4 5.4 5.3 4.3 subjectification political and life” “abetter of promise The 4.2 4.1 4.4.1 4.2.3 4.2.2 4.2.1

“From shackto Constitutional Court” – of technologies asliberal rights and law resist”: to impossible “near is that Freedom Introduction “I am the professormy of own suffering”: living politics as a formof knowledge words of excess The law” of reversibility “strategic The vocalAbahlali’s proximity politicsof strong” stand wewill power, is wethink, which, knowledge, that with “So,

Abahlali baseMjondolo: the beginnings

...... learning: eliminatingLiving thedistance of Problematizing politicalProblematizing integration, contesting unFreedom bein speaking of equality the Asserting beings”: human are We animals. not are “We subjectification political and betrayal formed”: be to wasforced “It Abahlali’s vocalpolitics of proximity: suffering andpolitical speaking, The litigious disruption of the biopolitical order of dispersal ......

......

The rolelitigation of in Abahlali’s politics ......

explanation

......

...... 199 130 207 168 179 168 152 183 157 193 1 174 171 141 137 131 147 136 gs 61 vi

CEU eTD Collection access urbanto infrastructure often emerges asa question of life anddeath. of abandonmentWith takeshape. basic services rolled back, or never rolled out in these areas, infrastructuralnetworks, it is in those areas th customized increasingly inhabitants join to encouraged their reconstruction,institutional with respective populations. While profitable territories are subject to continuous spatial and landscapes urban increasingfragmentationof ofare reconfigurations the consequences such mostthe obvious themselves as competitive entrepreneurial localities, reconfigure urban development. Among of process otherand, reinventi the noweach in with cities are compete state, to forced the of auspices developmentunder out the conceptionsspatial ofcarried modernist homogeneous twentieththe ry. In centu highly aimingmobile ground to globalcapital, departing and from ofrole cities under globalized neoliberalism, a transformation beganthat in thelast decades of and is therefore not to be fostered. In large part, this effect can be traced back to the shifting andproduction abandonment oflife: surplus a wholife se capacities cannot be rendered useful processes suggesting that in our presentday theurban emergesthe main as for site the A Durban… and non- Johannesburg Cape Town, Camps in d backyard and of shantytown metropolises, eviction forced American legally of regulations impeded several are mechanisms by whosesurvival people homelessrendered months government’s bytheir wake of the thousands ofin ofhundreds Katrina, Zimb Hurricane abwean shack 1 Introduction

Police shootingsPolice The problem

into developed and undeveloped areas, and the parallel

in in French banlieues , poor black, poor of people unsaved left New Orleans at do not carry the promise of profit that spaces - long shacklong - wellers to peripheral Relocation demolition campaign, homeless homeless campaign,demolition exhaustive list of events and and of events exhaustive list

isolation oftheir - dwellers ng

CEU eTD Collection interrogating into the mismatch that exposes the freed anddemocratic politics at extent isthe life currentlyproducedabandoned, surplus and which subje political ideal the with matched up spatial assemblagethe it molds bare lay that the freedom population surplus had the of never populationpoor. rationality ofurban Thereconfigured ofdevelopmentsurplus the urban and dismantled,largely the of ideal “governing through freedom”m governance capacities to partake in the seamless cycle of production and consumption of the the provision life fissuring by tying population being were fundamentally intertwined within the framework of liberal rule. members o as subjects of freedomwas essential for thetechnologies aimed improvingat their as lives linked to a particular construction of the political subject: the political inclusion of individuals seems to bring more ofthesame. throughout most of modernity, despite political emancipation, urban neoliberal development empire the to objectives ofliberal the theofpopulationtied life been nurturing the had a state to efficiently nurturing the life of its people. rupture in the rationality ofmodern political rule that used to tie the legitimacy and strength of t ofreconfigures patterns and inclusion exclusion within the (bio to sought provide to populations, urban their neoliberal development significantly Consequently, intensification of spatial demarcation and policing, such access more is and more restricted. off itssealing through from obstructive potentially people and due places, the to consequent

hen, in materializing the abandonment of large groups of the governed, represents materializing ofgoverned, major in theofit a hen, abandonment groups the large At thesame time, since theopt f the population. and the Hence, f inclusion thepolitical regulation of well collective

With the tutelage governance With connection. tutelage of of disjuncture the a social this signals in ultimately displacing the late

Of cour imal flow of economic circulation is now to be secured now to is imal secured be circulation flow economic of ct ofct liberalism. considering Yet, the present crisis of se, ethe life- - modern ideal ofmodern ideal basic protection that states In the - supporting infrastructure infrastructure i supporting to fostering rationality of liberalismwas om of thesuperfluous as excess

post - colony, where abandoning or - eets its limit figure )politicalorder. Arguably , neoliberal urban, neoliberal Effectively ndividual

in the is is 2 -

CEU eTD Collection subjectification of the of surpluspeople?subjectification ? abandoned the yet ready to govern themselves. Whereas the nineteenthmodel century the Whereas to themselves. govern ready yet thesepeople that prove meant continuously to thatwas trusteeship” “educative answermentioned,themselves? wasfound the development, As in morespecifically,an abolitionthe ofexploited be against slavery will ofthe peoplea now entitled to govern with accessible rendered abundance thatwere How of(Duffield the 2007,14)? resources can an lives populations, but theto freedom”“excess slaves of emancipated development had ofproblem for bythe capitalist slavery imperialism, posed abolition arguesthat Duffield colonized the or unemployed the (Mehta subject autonomous 1999), 2 thenot of life freedom the questions: to following respond imperative. development, surplus thatconsecutiveofthe cycles population off. routinelyThrough capitalismthrown has attend to theto unintended ofnomic consequences liberaleco government, that is, deal withto the in times revolution, ofindustrial rationale the the of the “development doctrine” has been Mark

ambivalent freedom had been won, what do you do with such ‘free’ men and women” men and ‘free’ such won, doyouwith been what had freedomambivalent

as well. Here, excess freedom appears from theperspective of abolitionists: “when such

Duffield

In hisIn analysis of the relationship between liberalism, development, and surplus life, Excess freedom and the subject

In a In

in tandemin the conceptof with paradoxically the patronizingliberal not (2007, drawing(2007, onCowen[1996]), Shenton and showsthat,since its invention n attempt to address the concerns emerge that here, the present thesis seeks to And equally been been equally the liberalanswer economically not to surplus only , - to what are the conceptual consequences of thinking the thinking of consequences political conceptual the what are - be improved?c be How – “the underdeveloped” – How does neoliberal urban governance contain the excess excess contain the urban governance How neoliberal does the actualthe redundancyand potential the dangerousness of an wean conceive ofthepolitical subject

of politics of

can contained. be Referring to the

, that, is,

of the industrialized politically surplus are, in fact, not fact, in are, ivity of - yet 3 -

CEU eTD Collection growth? And, what is And, is what growth? to done be impoverishedwhen racial the oppressed and ismajority populations heart within the ofdevelopedworld,surplus the within very the ofmotors unemployed life. surplus we requires k abandonment, rethin the relationship thatthecare, and urban government of the is poor thus better interpreted in terms of of withdrawal shapethe urbanin development takes for many,consideration neoliberal that, as when life interrogating the city;of neoliberal governance “the surplus the revanchist city” in “new global aid regime” in andIlcan 2011), Lacey are not, I argue, of primary relevance which poor, of critical analysts contemporary invaluably development have exposed (e.g. entailed largelyare marginalizationoverri anddislocation of dden spatial processes economic bythe rationality,governmental correlate the of empowerment and techniques “responsibilization” was South) accompanied bythe reformulation of category the of onthe of “the level poor” the West and the centralized nati universal infrastructure provision of dismantlingequalizing ideal later, the willdiscussed be reduction.as Although, poverty not problems emerge. with, To begin the objective of urban neoliberal development is, of course, throughpromoting either state through communities’self the or poor therendering byway of poverty ofinstrument eliminating astwentieth, Cowen(1996)still show,seen Shenton development and is as the ultimate of the inlatter part tutelagethe over the becomeworld’s “Third had World” discredited

critical geographers refer to this anti What happens when the underdeveloped – However, in relationto neoliberalthe reconfiguration of urban development, several

by neoliberal urbanism. Thus, the practices molding the responsible and self and molding practices responsible urbanism. the by neoliberal Thus, – crowd the metropolis? What is to be done when capitalism produces massive capitalism massive metropolis? when Whatdone be produces to the is crowd

(which characterized both the post (which the characterizedboth onal development programs of post - poor regimepoor

between (neo

(Smith 1996) (Smith

who are noonlylonger temporarily

surplus population productive surplus )liberalism, development and . Consequently, takinginto - reliance. - war welfare regimes of - colonial states in the

- reliant reliant the the 4

CEU eTD Collection e as ideal the globalcity the dislocating securing superfluous,more in physically the than Much overwritten, if not distancingcomplemented, effectsby the ofurban governingthe milieu. delaying effects of th the with mentionedtutelage, demisethe 1996). social (Valverde of Thus,especially people making between through ontologicaldistinctions is, manner, that same the rationalized in properfor the practice of freedom t and differentiating suggestsbetween that ready polity subjects democratic enframed liberal a by unfreedomof liberal imperialism (Hindess 2001; Mehta1999), the fact that these spaces are Whilesubjects. thisputs spacesof inabandonment parallel theto colonies ruled through the political economic as or themunequal that render freedombypractices people’s suspended is trusteeshipeducative is er pertinent?no long urbanneoliberal governance contain the politically surplus deemed useless, arefree citizens and therefore as mobile other In astherest? words, how does does How 1997,265)? andproperconduct(Hindess of “the government” governed subject the city figure in light of the constant vacillation of liberal political reason between the liberty of ifsecondary, completely not unnecessary. Buthow becomes safe wouldpopulation surplus the that render of trusteeship development educative viol and spatial demarcation deploy property increasingly municipalities owners wealthy and the against underdeveloped within, to 2009a).is, secure (Shapiro That to give site presently walls are being drawn to Outnumbering theofmutilated social,and forces privatized liberated city? the and floodsthe

nvironment for the smooth circulation of goods and people, that is, by nurturing the bynurturingof the is, space people, and that circulation of smooth goods nvironment for the ent policing. In turn, theent In criminalizationof policing. legal to discursiveand parallel poverty, the it become possible As I argue in this thesis, beyond the realm of governing through freedom, the surplus through surplus freedom, the realmgoverning thesis, of the beyond this in argue As I e developmental conception of individuals’ capacity for freedom are to police the police to movement urban settlementwho, and of although people

shield shield the privileged from and “theclass ethnic warfare” cities that hose whosefreedom not should practicedbe cannot be

does the vigilant polic

when the establishmentof an ing ofing the global 5

CEU eTD Collection the politicalthe inclusion peopleof surplus obstructive the their and uselessnessfrom the population. governmentalApproaching the problem freedom that appears between of excess that order crys ofurban construction the humanand as thinking or rights speaking beings whosestruggle forbaseMjondolo, a placein the cityexposes how of questions equality – field research with the largest South African shack argue, potentially allows for a re people as incapable political subjectsfocus, I sofreedom,as this superfluous to sustheir pend with coincide or, fact,in enableabandonment and work which toward surplusconstructing political capacities reconcile practiced. In other words, urban struggles direct attention to governmental efforts that aim to governmental persistent problematization freedom,of shouldbe not excess ofthat freedom however, that assessed from thepoints where it challenged, is the power to let die reveals I suggest, have to (1976)rights. HannahArendt’s terms,rights in their or, (Agamben 1998), conceiving of spaces of often by illegal means and amidst inhuman detrimental and circumstances, might for call community of equals. distances the surplus population from thecollec tive subject of the governed: from the and interest dissent oftheir unworthy in appearing public spaces,neoliberal urban governance economic interests deemed unfit for the market, their presence antithetical to the public in “public” ways that effectively removefrom poorest of the scope the its notion of the the thereconfigures same at governance market,urban time neoliberal the

In this thesis, I offer a re conditionThe consequent where the urban poor are forced eke to out survival, their

the conflictbetween the population’s surplus economic re

as equalcitizens abandonment asabandonment inhabited bylives of stripped politicaltheir existence - - politicized reading of abandonment. politicized reading of abandonment through drawing on my drawingpoliticized on of through abandonment reading . Thus, since point they to and practices discourses which tallizes the power to disallow the life of the surplus - bearing citizens – - dwellers’ movement, Abahlali Abahlali movement, dwellers’ are indeed stakeat in the dundancy and their anddundancy their

referents; with their their as as 6 a

CEU eTD Collection towards latter. the interpretation of Abahlali’s struggle for a place in the “world class city”, this thesis aims think freedom for political action as not fully capture to have or agency political to have Abahlali’s deny we either then biopolitical abandonment, (neothat)liberal the technologiesmolding of subjectof freedom notin spaces are deployed of freedom governmentIf relationbetween rethought. be wethe biopolitical and to accept has freedom assertionof equality the the political in faceof abandonment through that suggests Onof community of the otherhand, equals. disruptivethe the appropriation of excess they share the same orderof reality where those rights are inscribed, that they are indeed part precisely biopoliticalshack orderof occurs throughthe abandonment allotment,unequal my as dis openly to challenge aspire their position,poor andthe cannot abject precarious their to ofequality all theinscribed as rights ofpolitical the community donot apply where, and due - sub strugglesapproach relegates of marginalpopua to lations literature and governmentality drawing scholars on thisliteraturewould suggest.Whereas this practices devised by governmental rationalities, as the“everyday forms resistance” of - politics cannot be thought solely in terms of the mundane and strugglesmore and,poor urban hand, people’s one generally, subjectification. Thus,onthe thatof but a are reversalmaypoliticalreversible, abandonment their through process occur s/hewhich is subjected. This account, in turn, suggests only not that oflogies techno equal capacitytofreedomthe of expose everyone the contingency as toof order the rule accoun JacquesRancière’s writings practicewith political onthe conception of offer politics, I an interrelated conceptual In consequences. this work, based on theof resonance Abahlali’s Abahlali’ of perspective

t of the disruption of the biopower to let die in terms of the appropriation of excess of terms in ofappropriation excess letdie the to ofdisruption ofbiopower t the the

s assertions of equality as speaking beings, I will argue, two argue, has will I speakingbeings, as of assertions s equality cussion mobilization ofwill show, Abahlali’s disruption of the d by biopolitics. Throughd bybiopolitics. an disguised reversal of power political realmwherethe - dwellers’ claim that 7

CEU eTD Collection settlement in the also city, but to thisorder secure through effacing the traces of its freedom population translatedexcess ofsurplus into, mobility free the amon or g others, the contain not to only thatserve techniques discursive and of series spatiotemporal a with was what with stated above, suggestwe conceive I of policing and demarcation as coexistent political considered and, is be sayable, what and to moreover, visible delaying techniques is put to work: an apparatus that, at the same time, determines what is that t people, is, superfluous governmobility of to the superfluous thatin suggests order form existence, of “service delivery protests,” and the emphasis on the shack subjects. set a assumptionsthatdeny conditionalto and political as of themabandonment practices as the shack show- Ithat will dumping grounds!”), and rel isolated peripheral to evictions forced infrastructure, such as shack fires (“We being are left to burn because we don’t count”) or show that their freedom is not at all ambivalent; that obedience not their is unconditioned. with “the identity their Demonstrating people” the ofdemocraticas referents the order,they be to living way we the they do”, refute preciselythese terms of suspended inclusion. their we “Weare 7)know (2006, that declare: Abahlali the When to yet come. always superfluous as stable voters of the ruling party and entries on waiting lists for “a better life,” the supposedlycontains orderthat political a interplaybetween the sequence. It in so does them unbearablepushing livingboth, distances,this into or in conditionsinsurmountable or by people mobilityof superfluous excess the citysuspends African of South governance the policing,violent to th secure

In In presenting their resistance against the lethal impact of withdrawing basic In lieu of themandate lieu emptieddevelopmental and In out Their struggle against the te o bind their oftolives abandonment, spaces apparatus an and of distancing e unobstructede circulation of people and neoliberal goods, mporality of development discourse, or the label of label the mporality or of development discourse, ocation camps (“No to eviction to camps eviction human to (“No ocation dwellers’ mobilization exposes their - dweller asdweller a and thinking speaking complementing increasingly an Accordingly, and. Accordingly, inline not supposed supposed not 8

CEU eTD Collection significance. precisely in the context of such efforts that a re- eliminate and wordslum, the use So they inferior. feel to us we a think to us wants government nogrounds.has “Depoliticization oldestis the task of (Rancière politics” 2007,19); “ or, have to be distanced instates by distancing the demos and rationalities of rule in general, has to secure against the contingency of theorderthat it ( revolutionary as newsubject” “proletarian the population surplus understood be the should nor political ofrights, institution liberal bythe issubjectification guaranteed political Neither population and obstructivesurplus their uselessnessdoes political produce the subject.not contradict urban through governance the neoliberal of problemhorizon a as onthe appears excessfreedom that the contingency. To underline: recurrent problemrecurrent reason, continue of I political byreviewing literatureonbiopolitical the liberal reason.within political Laying theexcess freedom out problempeople’s a as of surplus of condition abandonmentthe locate epistemological life, of then of and possibility surplus ofnotion the survey a give comes first people, I with the to coincide abandonment surplus of thus the attempt to distance the demos a rationality of that rule replicates the ancient dynamics between politics and philosophy and in thesis, this in deployed With aimdissertation. the groundaccountof subjectification the political conceptually to 3

i ž ek 2006,ek It does, 268). however,thatneoliberalism, it, expose liberalism like preceding

To Outline of thesis outline

the stages of below such a reading, summarize I thechapters of the – spatiallyand discursively Chapter Chapter

from 1997, itself(cf.Hindess De 1 Igive an interpretat re useless and nothing so that we won’ that andso nothing re useless

from itself. In tracing how this practice of distancing – politicized of reading gains abandonment from their capacity to reveal that the order ion between the political inclusion political of the between ion ion of (neo)liberal governmentality as ” (Abahlali21,2007) ” June an 2007).an is, That the people t speak. They want Theywant speak. t . It is The The 9

CEU eTD Collection political. Therefore, of as abandonment the disruption oforder thinking the for allow yet not does of it biopower, (1982) sense, that i Foucault’s of governmentinconceive thatdrivethe unfreedomreversible relations power as through the of governedto contingency rulethatpractices the render unequal serve to mask, we can government ofsurplus the population throughom unfreed thattechnologiesof – I abandonment suggest unequal, unfreedomobjectgovernment the through render ofcontingent to upon practices rule as Arriving condition a therefo ofas equality domination. manifests presumption political the apparentofreason thatthe contradiction liberal conclude necessity to construct indifference orderto govern through unfreedom (Sider I 1987), freedom. these somewhataccounts byemphasizing Pushing further ificance the sign of the of which in routinely implicated it practices is beyond realms rule through the governed liberal political reason; that between its credo of universal equality and the authoritarian of liberal rule as the government of unfreedom, Iturn to an apparent contradiction withi literature following Giorgio Agamben’sapproach biopolitics). to Thusmoving on to accounts the total rule of s subject’s conduct (as in the governmentality literature), or as effectively non product and, same at the means the conducting time, of - the (neo abandonment current and production the biopolitical subject’s freedom do not allow for thinking political subjectification in the face of from pointderived out, freedom. then Asavailable renderings I of problem excess the the of freedom of potential conceptualizations its disruptionand fromofgovernance perspective respective the

Whereas thisWhereas for conception allows abandonmentthinking without positing the totality – whether or not thedifferent conceptual approaches can overeign power over people reduced to mere biological existence (as in the in biologicalexistence mere (as reducedto people over power overeign via a discussion of their shared roots in Kantian aesthetics, moveI from s, as coexistent with the capacity toact otherwise.

of surplus life, as it is either interpreted as the – are reversible. other In due words, re at an understanding of liberal understanding an at ofre liberal functional to the neoliberal thefunctional to neoliberal account for the questionsaccount for the )liberal self - existent due to to due existent

- governing 10 n

CEU eTD Collection dispersal of orderbiopolitics aboutthe this as think suggest to too, I capacities therefore, and political global sensible order of theall postdemocratic consensus (Rancière 1999), I debate whether we can assumeseamless a urbanneoliberal posing politicsis tangible Nevertheless, impeded. segmentation consequently, the and, of the of equality that cannotenacted,and be which thenocannot in partthathas case, part emerge of the popula parts ofsociological count the postdemocracy suggests withthat the traces of the miscount effacedall through the his account of possibility politics, neverthe excludes Rancière calculable the thatis, sum population. parts, Hence of its ,depoli philosophy took shape the of social and science thus on thisexcesscentered containing freedom. philosophy demonstrates,attempts philosophical construct thehave to ideal polity always any sensibledisrupt order. given As brief of a discussion Rancière’s accountof political freedom, of excess notion now conceptualiz and ofequality return ofthe the I to hierarchical order police basic every speaking being, withand police politics, latter the the collectivebeing ofbetween staging encounter an the Rancière Consequently, of unjustified. inequalityas bywayorder of say should one andthink, do,claim the community of part be equalsand to exposeso the who reversethose the ofrelations their conduct, thus and disrupt orderthe thatdefines what assertion of equality that renders the reversal of power relations political: politics occurs w Foucault’s freedom Ranci towards

The majorthat about change political in modernity brought this effort wasthat city’s distribution of places and livelihoods still coincidesa distribution with of

– an orderthatan reconciles conflict thethe between po surplus order

- to what he what to interprets theas homogeneousvisible regime of the As ongoing urban struggles indicate, the the indicate, struggles urban order.As ongoing consensual inclusive è re’s conception of politics, and argue that it is conceptionre’s and that is oftheargue politics, it

tion, dissensus the ed “improperproperty”ed ofpeople the toas the

ultimately

between the logic of thehierarchy logic between ticization succeeded. equated people the the with

of ’s dual concept of the conceptof’s dual the

pulation’s economic pulation’s the current - inclusive Whereas

era ofera hen hen 11

CEU eTD Collection one of the major achievements of political achievements ofmajor one thisorder? liberation the in –contained of political urbanneoliberal rationality appears as freedomexcess population ofsurplus – the then, educativeHow, trusteeship. establishment through the contained ofliberal the the absence of thedevelopmental tutelage: the surplus population in thisscheme is not of further power technologies population. addition,lack of productive the In the the biopolitical rationality that wassupposed to thesecure legitimacy through nurturing of rule redundancyof absolute surplus life the andto thus assigna should they understoodbe as crystallizationthe ofpower the to letdie, as particular responses translate into pr framework of thegovernmentality literature. These spaces reveal strategies of rule that theand governed who inhabit I of abandonment, into spaces devolve configuring urbanan topographywhere placesless valuable unserved are left and eventually asNorth, South urbanism”well the thereby Global as phenomenon of “splintering the in thatproduce the ofrestructuring urban trends of thesecontext intoglobal the Placing shifts apartheid spatial planning through the from inSouth prime ofcirculation the context, African realm urban discussing the spatial and economic rationalities that impede poor people’s access to the so asseparate to these people from inscribed their equality. techniques delaying and of with distancing set rightsa equal citizens as their redundancy and eradication” to the principles of costservice in recovery

biopolitics of dispersal operates of dispersal biopolitics how the aiming elaborate In to - discourse, which constructs the “world- the discourse, constructs which oductive technologiesof shaping responsibleandthe self

these spacescannotfruitfully be within conceptualized the

marginal localization

the free movement of people which, poor in turn, was argue that the relationship between those who govern who betweengovern those relationship thatthe argue

an excess freedom on that the perspective of the - provision and deployment the of“slum the class” as the city “shack

of low ling a major reve - co st housing deve housing st , -

reliant poor the reproduction of reproduction the Chapter 2

rsal of the the of rsal - free”

; st suggests suggests

lopment instead,

arts byarts do not is - city. city.

the the 12 -

CEU eTD Collection called bubble laws of Amer is latter aspect furtheredthroughofconsensus. This depoliticization the city the of the world class city, it works toward t Thus,through aiming eliminate extreme to poverty. and activities to regulationthrough prohibiting homelessness related offramework spatial segmentary nurture the ideal milieu ofmarket circulation. proliferationthe of norms heavilyit regulations, relies and onlegal intervention, as so to capacities productive ofareas theparadigm. governmental urban previous than in Resulting market that out point geographers’work,I critical neoliberalism how looks section at deploymentthe of juridico topography.Beginning with ofof globalcity’s lines more general transformation,first the the political literacy. are, in turn order essential asset of theneoliberal imperative of circulation forpl whoa ofperspective struggle those unequal, unequal, unequal aspolitical subjects. technologies that are in mutual interaction with technologies that render the surplus people as the withdrawal of , care

of dispersal is revealed as asegmented order of different spatio - As I suggestinAs I the second section, if we approach thisproblematic from the Continuing the analysis of the redundant analysis thatrender theContinuing of population parts technologies conception ofconception liberalism, governance neoliberal muchis more enhanciin active Chapter 3 , paralleled by different possibilities for appearance and, possibilities public about presumptions bydifferent paralleled

spatial order discussed in thepreceding in orderdiscussed spatial as opposed to liberal governmentalities of the previous era. Here, relying on relying era. Here, ofprevious the liberalgovernmentalities to opposed as In otherIn words turns to the juri

ican ican cities, for example, serve to guarantee that people are can be read as an assemblage of distancing and d , technologies of biopolitical abandonment of , technologies dical practicesdical thatparallel reconfiguration splintered the

the materialization ofhomogeneous the regime of ace in the city, that is, acemobility – incity,thatis, those the whose , on the one hand, departing from the naturalist naturalist the from on departing hand, one the O n the other, ef other, n the he vision of poverty from the prime visionhe the povertyfrom of areas - legal legal technologies changed has under

– chapter, it fosters adisciplinary is deemed detrimental, this spatial fectivel - temporalities, which , which y reinforcing the - space: theso

materialize elaying elaying ng the ng the the the 13 -

CEU eTD Collection mobility of surplus people. D of surplus mobility apartheid, and what the political conditions were that allowed for this return of the forced of movement trace free re to restriction howout the depoliticizing effectsofbiopolitical orderof the dispersal. milieuideal market forand the the smooth ofspaces homogeneity urban thus reinforce the juridico- Together,the dweller. urban neoliberal) of (proper the criminalization of poverty and political agitation) framed are in terms ofseamless movement imper approached addressedor bydemonstrators or political activists. In the spirit of the circulatory supposedbe not to are they which of size,within defined a shield with virtual a protected and the reconfiguration of violence as anti as reconfiguration of the violence and political subject with the victim of apartheid the whose wrongs are institutionally reconciled, groups in the liberal multiculturalism of“rainbow the thenation”, identification of the liberal institutions, resulting in the identification of equality with the integration of all racial conditions definedwere bythe post economic inequalities gaveeconomic themandate inequalities that developmental post theto first these processes that tie the meaning of the political to the liberal state and depoliticize the the section, I illustrate this process through three phenomena: the regulation of street trade, trade, regulationof three the street through phenomena: thisprocess section, illustrate the I subjectlatterof neoliberal ofmarket ofthe the and In part tailored to needs the interest. scope of the collective referent of legal norms – superfluous people’s mobilityis surplus emancipated of people. the Thespatialofsubject and poor containment neoliberal right the toward regulationworks t dividing spatial ofgovernment level government, urban onthe

ative of neoliberalism, both aspects of this homogenizing process (i.e. the aspects homogenizing (i.e. ofprocess ofative this both neoliberalism, Turning to the more specific context of the South African city, the second context city,the theAfrican ofSouth to more section the Turning specific rawing on Michael Neocosmos’ - apartheid state’s apotheosis of transitional justice and its

thus - democratic and apolitical. Furthering the and effect Furthering ofdemocratic apolitical.

fortified bygradually fortified themfrom removing the - the public– entered legislation shortly after the fall of

(2011) that, legal legal means ofcreatin

work in turn, is increasingly , I argue I

- that apartheid

g the the g these

sets he he 14

CEU eTD Collection distancing and delaying effects of the“world class” city’s sensible order, present I the driving “No their and nohouse, land, novote!” the contestthey knowledge this thinkingwhoand knowallotmentnot and beings, thattheir is justified are to willing declare recognition governments. This promise of the better life – process he shantytowns. in who of live contemptlife those the experience offor the politicians’ as generalized protestors), their feeling of betrayal particular in this case was soon - re the municipality’s rejection of communicating with the shack settlement for housing development, through the experiences offollowing the days (including breached its promise to give apiec ofe land the to community of the KennedyRoad Whereas the shack of theirpoint first,protest, spontaneous, I focus subjectifying on the role ofbetrayed. feeling withdiscussionmovement. subj of Starting the political their baseMjondolo, this order is disrupted. As this account is based primarily on my field research with Abahlali II excessfreedom the Part people, ofin superfluous charge of “public violence”. eThekwini Slums Municipality’s the Ac

post Moving onMoving an to interpretation and aimsthe contain waysit to of the dispersal order thusHaving outlined biopolitical - apartheid political order. H re consists in theshack

presumptions about their political illiteracy A

Chapter 4 Chapter nalyzing the statements of this early period, to to an order that treats them asdumb and invisible. It is on these grounds that - dwellers’ mobilization dates back to learning that the local municipality starts with an introduction to the history and the structure of the

is articulatedis as theassertion of equality: equality as speaking a promise that defined the mandate ofpost the the defined that promise a - dwellers’ recognizing themselves asequal parties to the ence their “decelebration” of theofficial Freedom Day - campaign t, and and depoliticizingdeploymentt, the oflegal the of Abahlali’s “living politics” that targets the , which are discussed in thesecond section

I I presentingturn to accountof an how

and

the terms of their inclusion into

I show I ectification from thevantage - dwellers’ and the arrest of

how articulatedthus and

the emancipatory - apartheid 15 .

CEU eTD Collection 2009), I next re next I 2009), alternative readings of Foucault’s law as strategically reversible of accounts thegovernmentality in second possibility section, drawing the of and attention to self construct the to products the the and appear as rights aim fromandinstruments governance of which its liberal framework of liberal rights as emancipatory entails for aFoucauldian theoretical perspective, the latter, in the first section I address the apparent conceptual problem positing the that and the possible role of litigation in emancipatory politics in more general terms. Starting with Chapt proximity in its literal, physical sense of claiming a place within or close to the city, in shantytown. th in education ongoing the and between academic education reason drives Abahlali’s pedagogical practice that intends to keep a direct and active relation settlements as the University of Abahlali baseMj education normally reproduces (Rancière the1991), movement names informal the environment and at the same time eliminate the “distance of explanation” that formal declaration entails, sokeepthis to as knowledge ductionpro about their lives within their very of andthat subject knowledge the object between equation the suffering. Complementingthe academic attitude toward shack the hierarchical distribution of supposed intellectual capacities that chara the movement’s intellectual practice along similar lines, I then discuss how Abahlali counter temporal principle of this

er 5 Completing theCompleting discussion politics of Abahlali’s of itsfinal proximityin aspect, thatis, ly close ly shackto -

legal resistance against the forced mobility of surplus lifemobility of resistancesurplus the against forced the legal movement’s explore I

interpret this reversibility through Rancière’s notion of literariness, that is, the politics of proximity politics of - subject. governing dwellers’ experiences and sufferings. Offering an interpretation of –

- to which some of themovement’smembers gained access – dwellers by declaring themselves the professors of own their e University of Abahlali, in other words, life in the in life otherwords, in Abahlali, of University e , that is, the imperative to stay discursively, spatially and and spatially discursively, to the imperative stay is, , that Pointing to the unidirec ondolo. As the sectionlast shows, the same tional and often and tional (Golder and Fitzpatrick(Golder and cterizes the NGO or totalizing totalizing 16

CEU eTD Collection temporary and fragile nature of their legal victories – law, as in the caseof theConstitutional Court hearing of theSlumsAct. Despite the of when butthe “invade” demonstratively places also placeincity, they their the preserving shack byordernot when the only distribution deployed this of spaces articulation of wrongthat the determines their allotment surplus people’s excess freedom be to otherwise. on these occasions technologies of citizenship are practiced upwards, giving materiality to the their tobelong the community whoseequality is enshrined in the constitution shack these rights weresupposedapply. not to emerges exactly where they assume thestatus of the rights- the shack emancipatory occupiers, theofpotentialreferencing rights illegal forcedthrough byof evictions example Indeed,is resisting illustrated the it valid. as proving they that through share the sensibleorder which in through freedom realm governed argue aimingIn to show how occursthis in Abahlali of falling appropriation excessfreedom,the without on back resignify the name ofcollective of the referent Irights, argue, allows for litigationthinking as declarations. This interpretation, which turns on the consideration that th sensible materiality and availability of a community’s freedom and equality inscribed inrights

- litigation against the Slums Act leads, on the one hand, to the shack the to hand, one onthe leads, Act the Slums litigation against that instead of having merely an abstract quality that is irrelevant on marginsthe of the dwellers mobilize to hear” “obligationto an The sensible avail - dwellers with the determination and the courage to stand up against their evictors – ability legal inscribed in ofas beyondtexts, equality the enabling , legal textslegal allow theshack ’s struggle, in the latter part of the chapter I that Aba their declaration that . On the other hand, it disrupts it otherhand, . Onthe the bearing citizens in the realm an essentialist notion essentialist ofan freedom. - dwellers to assert their equality hlali seem to remain aware of – those texts are supposed to be to supposed are texts those of prov the –in law - (Rancière 2007,(Rancière 86) dwellers

they knowthey they e governede can - dwellers’ re

succeed in where iding iding 17 - ,

CEU eTD Collection and R and thesis and the idea of knowledge entailed by Abahlali’s intellectual practice on the one hand, approach methodological this in the continuities between the point to to like would I below that posit towards promise, by here 2008,(but cf. Jackson 2010,Vrasti Rancatore 2010). 2008; Rather, my in striving own have ethnography lived up to this promise, or should even aspire do to not is ofso concern politics,democracycommunitywhat can or be. of policing discursivepractice frequent alltoo move politicsIR’s write differently, to beyond one, presumably radical lacking allowingin think “the lies and to promiseethnography” us of “givingvoic research, or of availablestyles presenting enriching 300) notes,(2008, rightly of instead merely existing diversifying methods of data t so and formal organizations, both less institutionalizedand within deployed byactors politics from aclose- a Mahler Joseph, Connor2008; Baiocchiand 2006; (cf. sociology Auyero science, anthropology political and onalso the methodological ofstrand political developing ethnography within the overlaps of Wanda movea (2008) Vrasti r that ethnographic methods; move a towards occurred has there 2006), Tickner 1997; Moon 2001; 2000, scholarship Enloe e.g. discipline2006; within the Cohnfeminist (see way 1987, of the working biopolitics/governmental within those not asinIR regarded staple isa the ethnography usually Whereas attempt to offer a re 4

o interpret livedexperienceo interpret ofpolitical” (Baiocchi As“the the Vrasti Connor2008,141). and

ancière’s (1991) conception of (1991) conception as ontheancière’s presupposition equality a other. Considering the central position of my research ofwithfield Aba central position the Considering Methods up perspective, with the aim the understand meanings to conceptions and of nd Auyero become has 2007), it activism more commonpolitical study to

- politicized reading ofpoliticized ofdiscussion a abandonment, methods here. due is ioning formation research within project, field the the of this efers as to the “ethnographicturn” in IR.Thus, drawing

Whether or not IR’s experimentations with ity literature), in recent decades, partly by - scholar’s toolkit (or of e” to abject groups groups e” abject to hlali in the present

- collection, 18

CEU eTD Collection them where they live, the decision to approach technologies of abandonment from the ofthe from abandonment decision approachtechnologies the to live, they themwhere the respect for Abahlali’s request outto carry research through engaging in a discussion with Chapter presumptionofuponwhichis based the equality it (see egalitarian pedagogy and Jacotot’s (1991) adaptation of through Rancière’s Joseph disruption conceptualizing translated ofbaseMjondolo into biopolitics abandonment the its and learning”. waysdistinctions between of knowing– th 2009), principleJune the with of discussingand sharing research outputs movement and the Network Rural and 2009,64– methodsresearch (cf.Abahlali mov the about ement. Beyond the fact that somemembers have themselves learned about thewith movement their with enquiries and spend time in the shantytown writing before towishing work with them. theseis a Among requirement for researchers engageto directly website, ontheir form contact a terrain, in note potentialresearchersto or churches)(and linkedNGOs, the to activists so as to maintain the practice of theorizing shack shantytown asthe of renderingplacemovement’s a the of that is, knowledge 4), production, with ofrelationship. line above (seeChapter ofUniversity Abahlali In the mentioned the idea ofpresumptions inequality that are frequently associatedwith the researcher ownon their about knowledge scientific social wellresearch as as thei of resistance to biopolitics, was it the movement determined that the course of thestudy based inter forms processpossible baseMjondolo the about ofin ested inproject planninga Abahlali what we would traditionally refer to asthe subject and object of research. When becameI

e consequent interaction between discourses also suggest the impossibility draw the to suggest also between discourses interaction consequent e A be to relationship Among is pointsthatneed addressed of mostimportant the here the bahlali’s effort to equalize “ the

Abahlali (22 May 2007) outline the conditions they set those set conditionsto they the May outline (22 Abahlali 2007) and thisand is, believe,I precisely goal of the “living formal ”

academy and the Universi - dwellers’ life in proximity to its actual 65; Lindela interview, 30 Lindela Figlan, 65; 4).

More specifically, beyond beyond More specifically, r experience of - research object ty ofAbahlali 19

CEU eTD Collection movement’s perspective, movement’s 1 what but biopolitical learnabandonment, we can fromthatit fact does. the chapters muchis so not whether notor political subje pursued question following politicalmost the beings.the Hence, in speaking, important infrastructural marginalization as coinciding with the denial of their equality as thinking, frameworkwasmyfor adapted research to Abahlali’s interpretation alongside”“reading the people the ethnographer works 2005,3– (Lassiter with collaborative approach ethnography in from over“reading the shoulders of natives” to 1991;(Rancière cf. Introduction to II Part politicsknow simply thatthey Abahlali’s is, put, they what they do,and dowhat say they assumption ofmovement,for discussing operation andstarting the the discourse the within of“distance explanation”entails that instead of hiddentracing motives acts unconscious and by theseall processes and circumstances, and wishes to work against reproducing the themselv members were some Abahlali contemporaneously,also proceeded because but inquiry parallels were then reinforced not only because the empirical research and the theoretical research and politicsthe of field betweenAbahlali’s understanding gained an throughout from parallels the anddistribution of speech intellectual visibility, assumptions about capacities resulted largely

analysis would imply. power”, in adopting the presumption of equality as itsmethodologi

While this approach certainly has continuities with Foucault’s with continuities has certainly approach this While es es ofaware Rancière’s work. turn, In the methodological approachthatwas molded my reading of Rancière’s work on the aesthetic character of politics. These

and thus to to practices thus interpret and that disallow life as coexistent with a

). Therefore, in line with

(2003, 30) (2003, cal principle, it goes further than what such an ctification occurs in the face of

call for “an for ascending analysis of of their spatial and

the move of the move ofthe the 14), the14), 20

CEU eTD Collection contemporary modecontemporary Therefore, extent. and I begin thischapter with a surveybrief of the helpsmakemanner of that its us sense a in abandonment life rationalities the ofand surplus rendering Foucault’s never explicitly framed the subject of biopower in these terms, it is within the framework of disposable (andlives are thus relevant to the questions posed and here), whereas he himself and ofressed add phenomenonwasted independent have or the before Foucault superfluous, of asbiopower conceptualized byMichel Foucault. will Although, I as shortly discuss, authors more of itstechnologies, precisely, reasonand modern political of function a as interpreted of orderofdisruption biopolitical day. the our and possible better a understanding ofoperation towards the promising a path be to appeared disposable, as well as the ways these practices are perceived by those subject to them, practices people as the that construct asinquiring into functions disallowingTherefore, life. crucial a feature discussionspower as modernpolitical emerged ofthat these ofform in the renderedunnoticeably. Indeed, being as waste, and withdiscarded impunity, be can killed disallowed, that lives about theoretical discussions atme tomy rhymed thisslogan stageof2008. Encountering initial research, an it with camps” forced relocation to peripheral sites of low 1 1 1 Chapter Part I

.1.1 .1

In the following the In attemptat such dering understanding,an ren people disposable is human to – grounds!” dumping “NO evictions to life ning surplus andabando Producing Surplus life – used to welcome webs to ofbaseMjondolo’s Abahlali used visitors

Surplus life and the politics of excess freedom of disper biopolitics The of liberalismthat we can trace the links betweenmodern political - cost housing development or isolated “transit s al

thus relegatedto equivalent places, a slogan rejecting ite for several months in

shack

- dwellers’ dwellers’ 21

CEU eTD Collection constitutes neoliberal urba distancing and delaying practices of rule. It theinterplayis of thesetwo aspects that by meansdispute political its through impeding of securing own against contingency other, individual capacities to participate in the econ order of police that aims to either utilize or contain the liberal subject along the axis of governance speaking urban Finally, neoliberal as,one every present being. onthe anI hand, continge order as social toany expose ofpeople “improper property” the reinterpretfreedomI excess of terms (1999)politics, in notion Rancière’s that of as is, the ncept co ofdual police politics, and pointingFoucault’shis and itsaffinitieswith dispositif to brief a into introduction toFollowing Rancière’s turn thought. I subjects, political as unequal the ofthatrenders governed the disruption order inthe not, itself,allowdoes for thinking abandonment understanding oftechnologies unfreedom the government– through problemexcess freedom of and the contingency of entails. it orderthat Thus, arriveI an at liberal domination to construct the diffe government thattheofliberal themout need push bypointing of unfreedom,further and of accounts turn to the I thatit cannot, freedom. Finding excess of from problem deriving the literature on biopolitical governance itspotential and ersal rev can account for questions reason, then assess whether the conceptualization of freedom available in the existing abandonment, firstI lay out theproblem ofexcess freedomas arecurrent problematic of this political reason. liberal In moving thinking disruption of towards the the biopol biopolitics, thenI locate the conditionepistemological of for possibility withinabandonment n and presentnotio the condition ofDrawing life. surplus onFoucault’s genealogyof rubbish? Identifying an essential link between totalitarian regimes of the twentieth century

To begin withTo begin the surplus life be to dispersed: massesHow of do people end up as – as reversible. Howev n governance asabiopolitics of dispersal er, recognizing that reversing relations of relations unfreedom reversing that recognizing er, rence between governor and governed manifests the governed and manifests governor between rence omic city,and, onthe ofglobal circulation the .

nt equality of onthe itical orderof among them among 22 ,

CEU eTD Collection inhabitants, did not begin with the decision not to provide sufficient decision to relief beginthe not provide them: not with to did “Katrina inhabitants, abandonment the of certai argue, American cities (Giroux 2006). of topographies persistence shaping also ideologiesthe disposability”,the of in but racist event 2005,an thatrevealedAugust not only the Bush administration’s “politics of visibility from timetime. to Suchwas the case in the wake of Hurricane Katrina in late consumerredundant well as goods people as (Venn 2006) – visibility However,instead. in spite of effortsto tos 4),spaces of of full”around desperateis (Ibid., a struggle planet life disposing wasted entails ofthe parts theglobe effected by the processes of ‘modernization’” when “[o]ur . Atpresent, increasingvol ever in turnedout human forwaste the grounds roleof dumpingcrucial man’s“no lands” that availablefor were expansionimperial as and, such, could “[play] the Zygmunt Bau overcrowdedon an earth” attempt make to men superfluous reflects the experience ofmodern masses of superfluity their 1992). (Canovan It is this continuity Arendt that refers to states:“ when she concentration the camp and, of technology people ultimately, the surplus mobilization of Af Africa. As she illustrates with the example of native people’s imperial subjection in South capital and peoplesurplus matched upperfectly in the of colonization Australia, Canada and convenientsolution spatial to two of producedkinds surplus through thiscycle; surplus by the crises following of periods growth. herindustrial In view, imperialism provideda thrown in the isoff byproductof to living regularly reference capitalism that “human debris” age preceding of the and imperialism,

rica, this match was cemented with racist ideology which, in turn, foreshadowed ideologywhich, turn, the racist in Nazi this match with wascemented rica, Sharing Arendt’s sensitivitythe Arendt’s to spatial natureSharing of“human debris” the man explains 5) (2004, its contemporary withexacerbation the of disappearance (Arendt 1976, (Arendt 457).

As Bruce Braun and James McCarthy (2005, similarly Braun803) As Bruce McCarthy James and n areas of New Orleans and their poor, predominantly black poor, andpredominantly of their Orleans New n areas

Hannah Arendt (1976, 150) coins the notion of the notion of the the coins 150) (1976, Arendt Hannah s outs of what no is sight longer of – use the human waste erupts into - T problematique, he totalitarian umes in 23 -

CEU eTD Collection function” of biopower at work in the context of neoliberal urban development, it is the to development, ofit urban neoliberal context the workin of at function” biopower withinpeople more beyond- city. or, grasp the the effortsto typically, “death Therefore,our in governability of a such milieu, on other,the thatultimately designate the place of surplus milieusideal for market competition, on the hand, one assumptions and about the Chapter as and, 2 people surplus the pastproducing over few due decadesis to increased the mobil of have sites becomemajor cities relation large in That those donot dynamics.which to tech capital play a major part in redrawing urban landscapes around the world, as governmental abandoninglifeand surplus 2004). (Sitze “scandalous genealogy” has thatone be to aware ofinterminglede th of processes producing precisely is It for reason, this that is, because the power to diealways let comes with a divisions: alongworked racial themselves,” while penalized when they did so, was all reflective of a spatial politics that resi poor bare”. merely laid it that Thefact it abandonment;days forfew a cause this short not did

dents unable to leave New Orleans were left there to die, and were advised to “fend for nologies materialize the distinction between lives that fit urban landscapes and those As the following chapter will discuss in more willin the discuss followingdetail, Asof the chapter dynamics globalized documented, thatwas force police once a at racist vicious and of receivership, forin lack employment school system public a thanfor consumption bourgeois residents'needs, literally rather redevelopment oligarchy, urban white greedcity's among the andcorruption private safety of residents, a levee syste and the rather security than commodities and of circulation capital for the engineered at in incarcerationofpoor the spatial the and Indeed, the neglectbrutal of the city's can poor compiled be a in long list: white flight will elaborate, it is the governmental aimto reconstruct these localities as

m wasinadequate poorly and that maintained,

its and, has graduates, widely as been - risk neighborhoods, a river and delta delta and river a risk neighborhoods, (Ibid.).

ity of capital, 24

CEU eTD Collection delineate these notions strictly. Cf. Cf. strictly. notions these delineate regulatory control of the population), his usage of the terms is not completely consistent. In this work, I do not through, among means,through, other racism 2009). (Venn space of competition is indeed intimately connected to practices constructing difference economic Hence, growth. we might also realize that neoliberalthe imperative of nurturing predominantly is present, at which, theobjectives, realization ofsupport governmental into thecollectivityintroduced of thegoverned based on an assessment of capacities their to measures materializing invariablyconditionaloncontingent abandonment divisions other are ofanti the eviction, politics might that wesee Thus 2003,258). (Foucault must turn we space that market its and of techniques the and discourses governing shifting 3 2 politiWestern model of Agamben’s reconceptualization Giorgio (1998) as of biopolitics the Foucault’s originary power the appreciating of 2008, evocative human and Thus,despite 22). (Foucault nature life mode a reason; governmental of pol by provided liberal framework” is whose“general mode a of as power of biopolitics modernity. dawn atof the of rule political nature thetransformation that ofepistemic human entry li conception theFoucault’s 2003) biopolitics, ofand to (1978, referring biopower perspective inquiry’s as did I above also is drawsto thatthethesis onMichelsay present 1.1.2 betwe 79 2003, Foucault not necessarily formulated in terms biological of e.g. races: class struggle can also readbe as racism (Cf. fragmentatio such another. theof Importantly, life through disallowing the a certainof population of part life through introducing a fragmentation into the mass of the governed, thus allowing the modern state to foster the and biopower must be noted. According to Foucault (2003), racism equips

While it is possible, based on Foucault’s (e.g. 1978, 139) writings and lectures on biopolitics, to to distinguish on andbiopolitics, lectures 139) 1978, writings (e.g. on Foucault’s itbased is possible, While Although the problem of racism cannot be pursued here, the pivotal relationship Foucault attributes to racism Foucault attributes relationship the here, pivotal be the racismpursued problemcannot Although of en biopolitics (as the disciplinary disciplinary the (as en biopolitics mental govern modulationsof onthe liberal rationality, emphasis an Due to setting the with abandonment Thinking - 84).

cs which, in turn, consists in the exclusion mere consiststhe offrom in which, in biological life cs turn, Rabinow and Rose (2006) and Lazzarato (2006). Lazzarato and Rose (2006) and Rabinow

- anatomo itical conduct that is woven around modern of itical conduct thatisideas woven around politics centering on individuals’ bodies) and biopower (a Foucault’s biopolitics Foucault’s 3

2 In other words, this work rests on a notion ona work this rests words, other In

fe biologicalexistence implied as for the biopower with the power to killto power the with biopower

- homeless laws, and n is n

the the 25

CEU eTD Collection prove lesshelpful.prove neoliberalism, ban ofunder camp spatialization might the paradigmthe the sovereign of the as 2007,Rygiel Thus, 184). of forhow makingsense abandonm investigating the “material, experiential and diverse forms” of their application (Isin and rightsovereign of the practiced sword thein form or “seizure” of “deduction” requires that,incharacter Foucault’s (1978, conceptualization, 136) is counterposed biopolitics. rationalities’ of An biopolitical potentially understanding productive yet lethal accountt canno for the variegated forms of “abjection”deployed in contemporary spaces of of exception logic camp the ahistoricalthe formulation, and Agamben’s argue, in (2007) the biopolitical continuity between totalitarian and democratic regimes, as Isin and Rygiel concentration of makingsense exceptioncrucial campfor localizationis of asthe sovereign analysis 19–20) of even Agamben’s(1998, the ofparticular, though spaces to in power allow atWithregard not stakes such(Lemke2005). does the transformations for scrutinizing modernity onlywith revealing the pr related fields of intervention, Agamben’s claimthat politics was always already biopolitics, theto modernemergence and reconstructioncontinuous of economy the theas and social offer aperspective on the ways actual practices of gov well as ways life, our life. as of knowing lies precisely in its linking the historically shifting rationalities of power to evolving ideas of through the ofstructure ban,the I believe that the analytical import of as ncept biopolitics co a the public realm, all the while maintaining it as a constant referent of sovereign power 5 4 emerging in second halfthe ofeighteenth the century, lay in theenabling government of “life form ofpower, shows,the this 253) novelty ofAs Foucault(2003, of biopower. objective

Cf. Ong (2006, 22– (2006, Ong Cf. Cf.

Dillon(2005a, 42) on Agamben’s“ Indeed, modernforms ofIndeed, originate precisely abandonment in the life 23). 5

ontologization versus eviously hiddeneviously link between life sovereignand power, 4

Whereas Foucault’s genealogies of political reason [ Foucault’s erning urban life congruence life in urban change erning ] ent takesplace in the global city

hi storicization” of modernity. modernity. of storicization” to prethe - fostering - modern

CEU eTD Collection laisser faire, passer e of intervening into their flows, proper governmental practice must consist in “letting things follow their course; limitations derive from construction modern the of economic socialand processes as Therefore,natural. instead rea governmental liberal that thedraw boundaries, rights and it its law subjects’ was power sovereign outcomes onthe level of governed collectivity the 2008, 11). (Foucault decide between what oféconomiste reason, out the evolving submission”, governmental dimension of an dimensionfreedom another “between absolutelyofand reserved liveandto those to let be to di non- and killed those to let liveis replaced mobile bya distinction pertinent between the the and the andimpliesthatpopulation through for the of subjects its came to be overshadowed by the regulation of economically relevant processes government. thatthe Thefact directof hold sovereign property over power the and livesthe possibility aggregatedand through population. the In – turn, abandonment fostering life disallow foster to of power “a prevalence 2003, (Foucault the live” and and 241), life let take natural economic dynamics free eventually theHence, économiste to a massified subject that is motivated by the sum of its individualmembers’ interests. no sovereign say itssubjectthe can to endowed who is certain rights, with how but to yes say major shift in the problematique s general” in 6 “self

ubject’s soleubject’s “mainspring 2007, of(Foucault interest Certainly, action”, 72). thisimplied a In his studies of liberal political rationalities, Foucault (e.g. 2008, 20 (e.g. 2008, Foucault rationalities, political liberal studies of In his - pertinent level of regulation, introducing a perspectival divide between those to be made perspectivalto a ofbetween be those regulation,introducing divide pertinent level limitation of governmental reason”. The term refers to the transformation of the limits of rule. Whereas for

it to the point of death” (Foucault 1978, 138; original emphasis). In this scheme, this emphasis).In 1978,scheme, original 138; (Foucault ofit death” to point the on the level onthe of aggregate subject,population, novel equally through an the and this –

ofchanging the aspect account of another when taking traced be can refers to the proper stimulation and encouragement of interests articulated within t aller

” (Foucault 2007, 48). Through such notions as the “true price” formulated by natural must and what must not be done be order mustnot what in must and achieve desiredto the criticism ofover the

e. That is, instead of on deciding subjects’ lives along a division

of rule: the question was no longer of how and on what bases bases what of question how the on wasnolonger and of rule: resulted in the restraint of the sovereign’s right “to - regulative mercantilist state, and their call to set – 21) emphasizesthe central notion ofthe

the decision between those to be be decisionthose to the between or at least itscondition of

critique of rule, had to critique of to rule,had 6

Consequently, as Consequently, problem of son’s son’s life or 27

CEU eTD Collection ertinent pertinent and non- the can bethus It said that the appearance ofpopulation the and, it, the between with division the livingtrading, beings”, the question utilitygained412). ofarticulation (Ibid., political andinhabitinggivenof a conceived “working, territorybe comeas people had to finality, When sta marginalism” 409). 2000a, the “political (Foucault economyappearance about regulatepopulationof the certain the brought a and efficiently is relevant to our discussion for a further reason. Namely, emergencethe of the rationality to which I return at a later point in this chapter – levelaggregate ofpopulation the had present onthe condition ofpolitical the ofparts the collective may become irrelevant. goalsby the be to ontheachieved of massified regulation, contrary level fatethe of some gauged moment the when, emerges possibility at a as reason,abandonment modern political be diewell that someof Thus will all”. after people inscribing hunger pertinent levels of the governed domain: while securing against “scarcity in general”, may “it pert the Foucault (2007, on illustrates 42) the example inout cancel of order to scarcityon scarcity, action “within governmental practice itself” (Foucault 2008, 11). 11). 2008, itself” (Foucault practice “within governmental action is This truth. wher tothis fully incapable grasp economic dynamics, marketthe is now reconstructed as a site of

(Ibid., 409) (Ibid., die to dois to has he what sometimes consume; to and live, to produce, to work,to is change that the state has to do introduce to this an onlyas able direction.individual is insofar negative a in It or able to introduce even a minimal change in the strength of the state, either in apositive al insofar exists individu point ofaswhat the view, he [sic] is state’s From does the Beyo inent level of the population, it has to be allowed ofbe inent thus to and the ittakenon- has effectpopulation, to onlower level nd the major impact that conceiving of governmental intervention at the at intervention ofmajor thatconceiving governmental impact nd the .

pertinent level of regulation created the space for the governmental with him. he Andwhat to sometimes has dofor state the e the principle of self of e the principle

the reason appearancemoderngovernmental of veridiction

- limitation appears, placing the limits of placing appears, limitation , and theand , sovereign is conceived of as te had come to be its own had its te come be to superfluous life into life superfluous

– a question to to question a 28

CEU eTD Collection of a condition that was previously interpreted as a transitory anomaly. decla “People transitory a as interpreted waspreviously that of condition a mass oftrading, beings” “working, living (Foucault 2000a, it 412), therefers to stabilization redolent ofis one a “downsizing” equals when progress redundancy 1.1.3 pressing the ofto human issue dumping grounds. assuming sovereignty even minimalintroduce a the in strength of change th the state”, irrelevant. of seems humanity part significant a of life governance neoliberal the global death wasto only the guarantee of 2003), (Foucault forits regeneration present the own of population theits entirety Germany totalitarianismexposing thanatopolitical Nazi of “essentially competing ofmercantilistpowers the almost era theentirety of population their was seen as of a constantly changing”(Dillon value that is terrain 2005a across and g continuouslydriven eligibilityof changin and interrogation ofworth the living the through epistemically of musta […that] proceeds the in life assay it continuous engage life, operationalchanging dynamics “if of promote, biopolitics”: biopoliticsto is and protect invest the death Indeed, of deployment biopower’s allowactual forof the materialization margin that abandonmentusefulness. the below toconditional larger of context the particular a epistemescope the defining of reason, political assessments such uponutility, contingent particular ofa a regime’s assessment of theusefulness of subjects for specific and changing objectives of then is rule. It

The condition of lives falling behind falling ofThe condition lives life surplus of redundancy The absolute Apparently, m Apparently,

and fundamentally a productive force” (Foucault 2007, 69), and whereas for the for the whereas and force” 2007,69), productive (Foucault a fundamentally and ). Redundancy replaces “long(Bauman replaces Redundancy 1998). - - way toroad the , 68 (Ibid. dumping site” over life in general. Hence, via their absolute uselessness, we backare illions of peopleworld around the areillions now deemed ; “It suggests a finality and irreversibility of the disaster. It in the biopolitical assay of utility is the state of - function function

modulates accordance in “the with term unemployment” in the era term the in unemployment” ).

In In terms as population the of a eir city, , 41). Whereas, 41). for the

ims, themselves to be completely completely be to or other entities

unable “tounable

order of order red red 29

CEU eTD Collection developmentalism) could legitimately carry social objectives,developmentalism) social carry legitimately followinge crises could th of the of versions Southern add, (and, state we can ofwelfare the policies economic essential to liberal governmental reason:those of theeconomy social. Whereas and the 2011).Duffield equalizing schemes of security social in Global Souththe as well (e.g. and Lea Stenson 2007, neoliberalal glob governance successfully dismantled democracies. Transported byinternationalfinancial institutions developmentand agencies, akin to the death of the social manifested itself well beyond the realm of former social l of governmentality the transformations’ direct relation to the evaporation of the postwar social contract the majority twentieth century crisis of the welfare state in the West. reconfigurationof neoliberal so the social” 1996).(Rose An expressive term ofgovernmentality the literature, the phrase refers to through “deathof utility and the of value assay the biopolitical redundancy feeds into (Bauman 69). 1998, – of society wealth future,the foreseeable to add nowin nor neither of economicthey side as cannot, balance, credit onthe are written debit not the redundant 9 8 7 this latter perspective, see Merlingen (2006; 2008), Selby (2007) and Chandler (2009). and Ong and (2004) Walters and Larner (2003), Maurer Perry 2001), and Reid e.g. Dillon (2000; see and politics, in world governance liberal governmentality/global Gordon of theprocesses practice of rule the and reflection theon act of governing. basicFor works, see e.g. Burchell, of conduct” formulated during the second half of the 1970s; the idea of governmentality as the interacting This stream of literature takes up Foucault’s ideas of modern political reason and his thought in the early 1990s and was, in the first half of the 2000s, “upscaled” to the international/global level. o real economy”. important to capital because there are more tempting ways for capital to make profit than slugging it out in the consequently, those who are employed laborthe on market”. “First, the laborglobal supply capital’sfar exceeds labordirect requirements”; and second develo

f the social”, thatthe complete roll is, social”, f the Despite the evident effect that neoliberalism had on public enterprise and expenditures worldwide, the “death I asrefer “governmentality to the literature” body of In his pment, Richard Ballard (2011, 4 (2011, Ballard Richard pment, review of the literature on the superfluousness of the poor for the contemporary notions and practices of and Miller (1991), Barry, Osborne and Rose (1996), Dean (1999), Rose (1999). For analyses of analyses For (1999). Rose (1999), Dean (1996), Rose and Osborne Barry, Miller (1991), and Giving shapecontemporaryGiving to forms of aba

As such, it significantly recast the relationship between 7

iterature focuses on this part of the world, it is clear that phenomena

- – are bound to unfavorable terms and conditions; finally, “labor is less is less “labor finally, conditions; terms and to unfavorable bound are back back stateof the is seedebated; e.g. Newman and Clarke (2009). 5) 5) “three defines that factors changedhave the capitalway values those cial policies in response, or rather, through the late the through rather, or policies response, cial in

scholarship that emerged in English Collier (2005); for reviews and critical assessments of andof critical for reviews assessments Collier (2005); – or or ndonment, the statendonment, the of economic ab ovo impeded 8

while adding to itscosts” to while adding Whereas due to these

related notion of“conduct

- language political language – the formation of formation the

two domains

30 -

CEU eTD Collection with the the oflatterhenceforthwith ideal the asactive rendered responsibleindividual. the and themselves, of capable sustaining those ofand need aid demarcation consequent in of those members”to each of its same time dismissing “the ideathat society as a whole owes services like and health education the while at “poverty”, and modernliberalism’s of“poor” the early reintroduced categories tu In ofsocial. scope the the redrawing profoundly and “systems” implied reconstructing the of ideal the economic pure as from notions of justice, the 1970s, two of intervention be types to had decoupled 2008).(Foucault two Separating the 11 10 pose could redundancy realm that, ofeconomyin muchand, concerned the is the with less that risks possible conceptually separatesgovernmentality both physically and offpeople redundant from the unrestrained economic processes” and socio (Ibid.). complements ofWhereas governmentlimited utility equalizing possible”) assay the establish to conditionsthe of civility, order,product obstructing beneficial(thus the dynamics ofeconomy) little the governingtoo and (so “failing self (Rose little” 1999,70). too governmental neoliberal enables arguably shakefear reasonto off of liberal “governing the correspondingly as “flawedconsumers”people redefined (Bauman 1998), this demarcation previously universal social services reconstructed assubject to market competition, and po perfectly illustrates how neoliberal governmental rationality relates to surplus life.With

between g between elements of the neoliberal deconstruction of the socio emergenceofthe notion of governance wit

See Foucault (2008, 19) for his original formulation of the problem of governmental reason as vacillating 44 (2007, Dean also See (1998). O’Malley and (1999) Dean Cf. - limitation reason, hesitation of the governmental liberal betweenmuch governing too - economic measures of the previous paradigm meant to figure as a “counterweight to to “counterweight a meant as figure paradigm to economic ofprevious the measures In In fact, the m overning too much little. too too overning and aterialization of very this demarcation for the operation of this realm (Foucault 2008, 142). That is, to is, That while realm 2008,142). of operation this for (Foucault the (Foucault (Foucault 11

Outlining a second a Outlining problem 204). Thus, it entrenched the imbalance and the the the imbalanceand entrenched Thus,it 2008, 203–204). hin public administration in reaction to this crisis;integral to this in both reaction administration public hin

their detrimentaltheir effectson the collectivity, neoliberal - liberal state. state. liberal ivity ivity and national which wellbeing make –

59) on the “crisis of governability” and the - rn, this intention of purification – axis derived from derived axis to to be discussed in 2 Chapter

the necessary 10

31 or or –

CEU eTD Collection the public health authorities would authorities health public the this of point: illustrative be will informal settlement approach to urban policing and incarceration (cf. Giorgi and Pinkus 2006). Thecontemporary 2006). (cf.Pinkus and to policing incarceration Giorgi urban and approach criminalization of poverty and homelessness evidently justifies an increasingly aggressive gaze. thebeyond governmental relationsinformal far property housingwithin settlementsremain backlog, insurmountable apparently an estate market, countering and real for the norelevance know, having formerly Furthermore,development onthe dem unserviced. structures often reflect ascheme that charges theexpenses of eventual infrastructure circulation. Whereas, for instance, industrial electricity consumption is subsidized, tariff realmthe deployment of its of borders along defined th the being cost governmentalitydistinguishesneoliberal between itssubjects, the discourse proliferating of from the prime realm of urban circulation. effectively allow for leaving certain spaces unsanitary since these can be sufficiently isolated the “sanitation government. frommodern city, problem problematic ofDiverging of insufficient classic a the resolution different demonstratethe criminalizationofvery to a the poverty segregation and intotranslates abandonment. social significantly decrease the riskof governing too Thus little. it is that economic redundancy too much or too little”, suggestI that thedemarcating practices of their neoliberal successor Duffield’s (2007, claim 7) “development a that provides solution to the problem of governing welfarist or developmentalist conceptions of redistributive social policies we could extend 13 12

t city’s biological circulation (cf. Foucault 2000b and Joyce 2003). demolished. rendered homeless when the owner of their home is eventually alloca o

It is for thisis reason It for Unlikein the caseof (early) moderntowns where places of poverty were thoughtto contaminate the whole scenes fromher documentary ( - recovery effectively rationalizes this process of sanitary segmentation, especially with Within the context of the neol Within context the

syndrome” (Swansson 1977), segmentary topographies of the global city ofglobal (Swanssonthe segmentarytopographies syndrome” 1977), , that is, for failing to consider that many people pay rent for their shacks, that scores are A place in the cityA in the place be doing everything to improve sanitation and safety. You’d be wrong”

Furthermore, as wil bel detailed in iberal city, the interrelated technologies of spatial ) showing the living conditions in Durban’s Kennedy Road 12 “Withmany so thousands of people living here,you’d think

As As Chapter 2 Chapter A quote from Jenny Morgan’s (2008) narration ted a low ted

will show, suggestive of the wa onstrating a lack of the will to - cost house and the shack is e fostered realm of Chapter 3,the .

32 ys ys

CEU eTD Collection strategies ofstrategies gove literature on urban reconstruction in global cities play a pivotal role in problematizing these Smith’s (1996) notion of the “revanchist city” and the stream of critical geographical bloom prisonindustry ofis, cours of the 15 14 preciselythis for and over justification despoticthem. consid so ered, wasthe the rule not As were among practice colonies, others, populations freedom. of the properly British Clearly, dispersion of the and behavioral norms – adistanceat – insufficient government, whether an or population a individual made government is to subject is not automatic. In line with the constant liberal vacillation between excessive and concurrence of the democ liberalism Rose1990), and and into formulating the least intrusive form of articulation within representative democratic polities, integrating citizens’ rights and freedoms rationalities modernity such Western partof the throughout greater although maximumfreedom ofeconomic processes and people who interact with these processes. But, rational crucialAs a problem politicaltargets reason. liberalpolitical shownmodern above, of 1 inc How democratic liberal do polities accommodate theilliberal practices that isolate, pose: spaces paradox such and the city,we havestep goa further interrogate to revanchist

“hyperincarceration”. “hyperincarceration”. of this literature is discussed. literature is discussed. this of

. See, among others, Brenner and Theodore (2002a) on the Cf. Lo 1.4 arcerate and abandon surplus andarcerate lives? surplus abandon ï Zeroing Zeroing in on “the enduring paradox of liberalism”2007,7), (Duffield thisquestion excessfreedom of The problem ity considers the practice of governance successful if it is realized through securing the realized successfulifsecuring it is of considers through the governance ity practice c Wacquant’s whether it is ruled thr rnance.

(e.g. 2009 and 2010) 2010) and 2009 (e.g.

However, order in to theassess possibility of politicswithin the

work on work ough persuasion byexpertise, formationough persuasion the of interests

e, note, accidental (cf. 2011a).Auyero

is conditionalis to an assessment of their capacity to

t rule, that is, “government at adistance” (Miller he he US as a as US Spaces of Neoliberalism of Spaces p enal state and the phenomenon of racy, as Duffield (Ibid.) pointsout, (Ibid.) Duffield as racy, . Cf. Chapter 2 Chapter 14

Certainly, Neil Certainly,

where somewhere

gained 33

CEU eTD Collection as well. To illustrate this point, he mentions the abolition of slavery: “Ema this he To abolition illustrate point, mentionsof well. the slavery: as Duffieldsecuritized, argues, the surplus population must conceived be of as politically surplus par security and in life to surplus subject of development the rendered which capitalism is problem,the Duffield’s conclusion notdoes go farenough. Discussing process the through of touchingupon this attempt,despite implications terms in political the Nevertheless, of 19). circulatory destabilizing and effects of underdevelopment’snon- the northbetween global south, and an developmentattempt contain “to articulates the of the oftheinstead lives improving (2007) cruciallyDuffield development showshow the citiesEuropean at the height of modernity and presentthe practice of development, overseas populations aresurplus dangerous constructedas wit both secure the liberal order against the hazardous capacities of subjects. its By pointing out that process (Cowenthe of development” dShenton an 1996,x). as “development doctrine the dealpopulation with was perpetuated practice to of the surplus capitalism.meansAs a to counteract the detrimental effects of industrialization, then, being infaceofinto the massive urbanization the povertyinduced and by nineteenth century came of the (Duffield 2007), doctrine development government little risks thattoo disorder andgovernmental colonizedof awareness demonstratingthe other, liberal the the reasonto of freedom. the Illustrating continuity between technologies to regulate the domestic poor and trusteeship, was meant to improve thecapacities of subjects, its to enable their proper practice ofpresump thisjustification;tions development, deployed through the establishment of supremacist the release to temporal a of invention consequent development provided the Cowen (1996) show,same Shenton at and ideas ofthe and progress liberal time,

allel, he takesaccount of the problematization of excess freedom What we mustbear in mind is the of here, construction development means a as to

“underdeveloped” and thus decreasing the difference and decreasing thus “underdeveloped” - security nexus is forged. How, that is, is, nexus issecurity that forged.How, hin governmental rationalities of insured surplus life” . In orderto. In be ncipation created

(Ibid., 34

CEU eTD Collection aftermath for politics in/of Haiti. in/of for politics aftermath n.d.; cf. Chatterjee 2004, 28 statement. stake at this much in ofmoreis independence ofHaitian 1804shows, example the very as the “war withinmeansmobility and, the of context the urban order slavery was thenorm,freed slaves had an excess of freedom” (Ibid.)? Certainly, freedom freedom centerits at must politicallythe superfluous. ofanswer, course, development:is supposedlya way to benevolent freedom suspend the of men w and ‘free’ such dowith doyou what won,freedom been had ambivalent an “whensuch ofreason: political contemporary question crucial paraphrases a modernitywithin the possibility of with life excess an of freedom” and 12), (Ibid., 16 institutionali so and totutelage ofdeveloped the the underdeveloped subjects the that establishing andThus,in regime a ofoppression exploitation. economic order the colonial politi equal and manifests the problem of equality: the threat that freed slaves will eventually act like the free abolitionists’ the question words, granted In safely be 2010a). other (cf. Rancière can because it articulates thefear politica that whom by to only not they rightspracticed those l are abolitionists ofThe problembythe excessfreedom slavery. of encountered the norm instance, for of, contingency revealing freedom,the their to practice thus unable be interpretation seems it to suggest, is in excess because it can be enact becauseexcess it risks disrupting the orderof rule.political Implying more than Duffield’s governmentality literature’s usual understanding of the

slavery and gained independence for the former French colony

The series of uprisings, lasting from 1791 to 1804, that are usually referred to as the Haitian Revolution ended To fully grasp the pivotalTo grasp fully the importance however, question, ofthe of nature this excess 16

on terror”today, byimplication the threat ofNevertheless, disorder. Duffield’s as Freedom cal subjects whose rights they whoserights have given,cal will subjects been and potentially question – – 29). Cf. Hallward (2010) on the prevailing relevance of the revolution and its

and here perhaps without noticing Duffield moves beyond the without noticing movesthe beyond Duffield perhaps here and

be further interrogated.What exactly does it mean “wherethat

–

Saint

notion - - Dominigue in its Dominigue problematique – is constructedasinis being omen?” (Ibid., 14). The 14). (Ibid., The omen?” ed by those assumed to colonial name (Corbett, name (Corbett, colonial

of the day, of day, well the as

is crucial,is then, zes a zes 35

CEU eTD Collection short of addressing this problem (see Duffield 2007, 14 and Agamben’s development with security does not take this promise far enough. The short detour to the role of emergency law of the persistent separation of the developed from the underdeveloped through connecting international contain the excess freedom of thesubjectnot recurrentthe problem ofpolitically the superfluous of underdevelopedquestion within” harder “the What suppress. ever to allthis does imply for security systems growing stillborn or the redundancyof and workseem of social t freedom population.means the Atthe excess containing same ofsurplus of decaying the time, no developmental governance, is atnottrusteeship longer or, least, primarily the deployed as of populations 2011).displacement poor (cf. Hence, the Ballard in era urban of neoliberal conceptions ofdevelopment urban renewal, hand with goes hand in the large scale Pinkus and Giorgi cf. 1996,x; (Cowen Shenton and process” ofdevelopment population surplus the the with socially detrimental effects of- late competitionbynatmarket is milieu of Astutelage. 2 Chapter idea seemsgivenof have upthe problemdevelopmental becauseit to the poses otherwise schematically “the conveyed death ofunder the soci the collectivity of political subjects. as of governed conception persisting the a signifies arguably must Thus,it done. be not and one necessarily that cuts acrossthe governmental problem city, global this developmental note problematizationfreedomof oftaken be as excess to has the identity of the liberal political subject with the developed. more direct intervention, development asa response to excess freedomattempts to reinforce betweendivision those who be can governed at distance a those and whose conduct needs 17

W hile Duffield’s (2007) interpretation of freed slaves as “politically superfluous” as slaves “politically freed superfluous” of interpretation (2007) Duffield’s hile S etting sight on the question of the political subject within the neoliberal order of withinthe the subject order neoliberal ofpolitical the sight question onthe etting

(2005) idea of the state of exception as the means to contain excess freedom, to mymind, stops

2006). shows, the kind of development that primarily aims to nurture the primarily of aims kind developmentnurture that shows, the to

Rather, as typified by the cult of mega cultof bythe typified as Rather,

capitalist economy, that is, to programs aiming “to deal “to programs to aiming capitalist economy, is, that

Nevertheless, as suggested by the phenomena bythe suggested somewhat Nevertheless, as ure antithetical measures to aiming to counterweight the - to – 15). - be improved?

al” notion, neoliberal development urban ? How can we conceive of attempts to - axis stretching 17

is promising, his discussion discussion his is promising, - events within present

between what must o render the o render 36

CEU eTD Collection animal whose politics places his existence as a living as in a living being question”. existence places his politics animal whose man is an amodern capacity political existence; theanimal for a living with additional he for Aristotle: was (Foucault 1978,(Foucault 143). between and relations biopolitics the between political order, and biopolitics the political doubtless intoquestions a draw discussion conceptualof the field surrounding tension the existence”amongpolitical governmental problems of the contemporary reason,such 1 18 gl urban under (Rajaram poor the to region 2003), (Doty 2011), to irregular immigrant referencein people dying to of heat exposurewhile totrying cross the Mexican as powe a it Accordingly, features disposability. redundancy and canof life be the that with killed impunity ofexpresses vividly the human condition interpret referents of present justreferredI as to the not subject consideration. Indeed, the neoliberal order’s renderingurban of surplus the population, which thei poststructuralist in thought “completion”from of Agamben’s Foucault, the unquestionablepopularity of Agamben’s 1 ispopulation nolonger pertinent. order an within for which establishment the developmental over trusteeship the ofsurplus the offor be thepresenteffort can help it to trace the governmental conception of excess freedom

.2.1 .2 Foucault’s Foucault’s r effortsr make to sense of contemporary forms doubtlessabandonment demands of

In alludingIn theto possible persistence of human beings’ “additional forcapacity a life bare freedom: of Devoid The biopolitics of excess freedom WhereasI previouslydescribed the biopolitics - quasi most quoted 143) (1978, 18

Without rehearsing the stakes of this vast literature, uslet see whether - leaning subfields of international relations and subfieldsand leaning of anthropology, international relations - day biopolitics as bare lives. Clearly, Agamben’sday lives. as biopolitics bare Clearly, notion (1998)

- Mediterranean (Miggiano the in s definition of biopolitics is this: “For millennia, manmillennia, is this: “For of biopolitics definition to - be very improved, well resonates with acc

obalized neoliberalism in general (Giorgi - concept used in this work as distinct

rful concept when deployed concept rful 2009) and the Pacific the and 2009) remained what - US border ounts that ounts 37

CEU eTD Collection mere biological existence and exposed to the constant threat of “unsanctionable killing” threat that constant of existencethe “unsanctionable to exposed mere and biological show some limitations. of biopower sovereign object bare life as within the captured structureals they ofban, the “spaces of confinem of logics identify the to (Colemantheseinterpretations 2009), are Grove correct of biopower” and “sovereign the relations tracing in only mostphenomena. Doubtless, mention the to characteristic 2006), transformation of security politics(van - Pin and(Edkins incamps detention lives of challengingproduction sovereignbare asylum power’s seekers spaces of exception that administer lives to b as camps operationfamine ofconstituted depoliticizing reflectionsrelief onthe invaluable form original pushing Foucault’s thus up take conceptualto questions ofrelationship betweenpower the sovereign biopolitics, and is violence routinely on applied lives reduced to biological existence, theseaccounts tend also manifest of transformedsovereignty, notions pointingand to instances where sovereign securityhumanitarian and ofpractices border aid. Engaging technologiesofwith power tha of exception and the Camp as thespace of its materialization for making sense of biopolitical relations literature, theof fall African(Desai 2008South during could –andcontinued. cities list be 2008) the refugee camps established for im homelessStates (SitzeAfrica to peopleof in United inhabitants 2004), (Feldman to the 2006), HIV/AIDS Pinkus and to 2006), people denied treatment post infected in

Most Most importantly for the present discussion, the form of life human reduced to its completionIn within the ofespecially to condition international disposability, Fat 2005, 7), theand operation of warthe on terror through the authors frequently draw on Agamben’s (1998, 2005) concept of the state ofstate the concept 2005) onAgamben’s(1998, frequentlydraw authors ent” (Peteet 2011; cf. Nealent” conceptualizing 2005;in the 2006). However,

exception at work within post atexception workwithin

migrants escaping the xenophobic violence that flurried up escapingthatflurried xenophobic violence the migrants ulation furtherSucheffortsdisclose (cf.Dillon 1995). ulation Munster 2004; cf. 2004; Munster e (Edkins 2000), practices saved resistant of - 9/11security discourse9/11security corresponding and Duffield Butler 2004,Duffield - apartheid South and Waddell Waddell and 38 o t

CEU eTD Collection exhausted inexhausted bare life and a i itself life is must that body bare biopolitical andThis the […] the formsa new mustthought. ways of politics that be must be based: “It is on the basis of these uncertain and nameless terrains, these difficult zones of indistinction, poetry poetry (cf. Rajaramdisruptive of mightbe 2004) the indeed orderofcamp, the seems theout be (Ibid.), sole to path of biopolitics. onwhich constitute “form to site the assuming that bare life, through is, transforming the bare life of the biopolitical body than through waysother in so camps, indoes and Australian detention ofconditions captivity shows,study col of the lager boundaries out, within the even ruled be not should – inhabitant” of camp the vegetation that characterizes Agamb of thoughtless the state into some human violence ofpushing beings in biopolitical success definelogics current the paradigm according ofto despite politics Agamben. is, That the politics” even in Nazi concentration camps,ultima the locite of exception whose generalized Bailey (2009, people have“refusedabandonextensively, Richard 113) to argued, their inhabiting thesespaces.subjects As, among others, (2005)Andrew Neal more and, 82) Agamben’s (1998, understanding ofhomo sacer the 19 and above RygielIsin and 2007). lip While (cf. apply contexts which logics to the not ofcamp does whenespecially considering the - Pin and Edkins individual resistance that the concept of thebare life allows for; practices that, for instance, of practices limited powerfulbut the beyond look must we life, ofabandonment surplus

bare life. t of of one their account base (2005) Führer avoid”.Cf. Agamben (1998, 187

According to Bailey (2009, 115), “it is this to precisely 115), Bailey According (2009, nstead be transformed into the site for the constitution and installation of a of is andformthat installation life whollyof the site constitution into for the be transformed nstead or the comatose Karen Quinlan, the Consequently, when thinking political subjectification in the face of the intensified intensified the subjectification in faceof political the Consequently, when thinking

Fat Fat (2005) present potentialas modes biopower challenging sovereign of lective political action indeed emerges within the radically demobilizing bios

– that is only its own is that its only own the possibility of the political disruption of the biopolitical order ofbiopolitical the disruption ofpolitical the possibility the 188), where he argues that, among other examples of bare lives such as the

he two possible modes of challenging sovereign power: the assumption of Muselmann en’s (1998, Muselmann 184) en’s - of - life” exhausted life,in exhausted for which, Agamben bare life” zo ē - state of lifebare that seem detainees desperate to so

”. is one of the figures on which a post sewing- (EdkinsPin and

This is also the point on which Edkins and Pin- 19

refers to does not give justice to justice to does give to not refers – . As Bailey’s. As (2009) case “the most extremefigure Fat 2005) or 2005) refugeeFat - biop olitical politics politics olitical for thinking Fat Fat into a 39 ,

CEU eTD Collection (2005) article is “Through the wire”. Cf. Rajaram (2004) governance and its possible disruption. its and governance conceptual seem fruitful strategyfreedom not a for be approaching to urban neoliberal does Pin power between of relationship distinction a (1982) problematization of bythedefined governmental freedom. amenablenot approachingto the ofquestion political subjectification from perspective a powerof “relation a ofas violence” suggests, sovereign conceptualization these notions are - Pin and (cf. As Edkins of 2009). departure Zevnik points best the be not exposed permanently may violence whichis to it sovereign political and bare life the subject, 22 21 20 render biopolitics asalimitless form of sovereign power over barelives completely emphatic thatbiopolitics awareness work’s entails lethal technologies of abandonment, to freed biopolitical rationalities as attempts either to instrumentalize or to contain their subjects’ of with contemporary understanding an wire” the however,“beyond when looking Clearly, most oftime the justified itsdirection. reverse to capacity dynamics onthe power, of toaccording Foucault, areexistence conditionedof onthe subjects’their freedom the shift to the in detention camp a domination active formthe of

discussion further below Pin p thoroughly recognized and maintained to the very end as a person who acts; and that, faced with a relationship of that if a it to is really be power relationship: indispensable it. On the other hand, a power relationship can only be articulated on the basis of two pole can only be passivity, and if it comes up against any resistance, it has no other option but to try to minimize it or it the it on destroys, it bends, breaks wheel, it forces, things; ower, a whole field of responses, reactions, results, and possible inventions may open up”

Quoting from section 2. See ( Foucault Cf. - - Fat cite (2005) also Fat defineFat bare life “a withoutas power life relations” (2005, 9). om, Pin and - Edkins In accordanceIn with their notion of powersovereign that is grounded in Foucault’s

2. 2000c former refugee 3 3 below. For now,it ) for a similar distinction between power relations and relations power between ) for a similar distinction

in supporttheir of argument .

in in reference to technologies that govern life in thedetention camp. Fat’s approach notis one we can draw on. Mehmet al Assad’s (2002) poem (2002) Assad’s Mehmet al

is sufficient to quote a passage from Foucault (1982, 789) that Edkins and : “ A relationship of violence acts upon a body or upon discussing refugee poetry including that of al Assad. ‘ the other

relationship of violence relationship a and closes the door on all possibilities. Its opposite Its opposite the closes all possibilities. door on Asylum ’ s distinct frompower relations that,

(the one over whom power is exercised) be

, the main title of Edkins and and the Pin , main Edkins title of 21

Certainly, such a distinction is states of domination of states 20 elements are which each 22

Fat’s (2005, 12) own (2005, own 12) Fat’s

That is, they present Despite thepresent .

, and theand , , Edkins and and , Edkins

devoid ofdevoid - Fat’s Fat’s

CEU eTD Collection biopolitics something like a ‘bare life’ is […] ofexclusion zo (2007, arguesagainst as inclusive 106) Prozorov Agamben’srenderingthe of biopolitics account(2005) Ojakangas’ of biopower consequently, and, with Mika with line of In ontological condition human being”. of freedom“an notion as Foucault’s of powerreinterpretation ona sovereign and based the conflationofchallenges biopolitics 1 23 refusal of cannot care figure asalogical strategy of resistance (cf. 2010). Reid Likewise, boundaries the ittightens radically that urban is governance byneoliberal structured biopolitical order differenceobvious sets thesetwo efforts apart. Ifofdistinctive one features the of the of freedom notion for conceptualizingFoucault’s resistance to biopolitics. Nevertheless, an between the conception of excessfreedom here advanced Prozorov’sand mobilization of love tosustain its life” (Ibid.; original emphasis). freedom human of being thatprecedes governmental not does care and require governmenta “the evade to production ofpower the over life”, the resistant subject has “to affirm radical the itslovingis, embrace”. to That tothreat ofof the indifferencebut nolonger power, “attitude challengeand to the view, biopolitical its suffocatingorder agape (Ibid., 111) or of “properly freedom”, “concrete” negative notion a Prozorov’s in Grounded heturn, counterposes conceptofa resistanc “mobilizing, fosteringand, ultimately, creating life” mode(Ibid.); a of to power which, in

.2.2 Cf. Dillon (2005a) and Margaroni (2005) for responses to Ojakangas’ (2005) intervention.

Proceeding through a similar line of argumentation, Sergei Prozorov ( Sergei line of similar a argumentation, through Proceeding (un) through life Governing As itwill be clear from the discussion below, there are many points of affinity ”.

of governmental care and thus abandons large numbers of the governed, then the governed, then the ofnumbers large careand abandons thus of governmental 23

Accordingly, he presents biopolitics as an essentially productive power productive essentially an as biopolitics presents he Accordingly, ē

from the realm of bios

freedom

entirely alien to : “ The very idea of isolatingin the human being

e that takes shape in the “refusal of care”.

the immanentist orientation of his criticism of Agamben, , one has to assume to has , one an

2007, 10) 2007, 10) 41 l

CEU eTD Collection Foucauldian notion of the conduct of conduct is doubtless more instructive than the sovereign more sovereign the is instructive ofdoubtless than conduct ofconduct the notion Foucauldian productivethe technology of liberalrule from deductive the practice of power sovereign – literature is an essential resource for thepresent thesis. It is indeed necessary to distinguish governing through freedom, the work conductedwithin the realm governmentality of liber ofconception fully answer his own question: “How is it that there is so little liberty in liberalism?” biopolitics,to 29), Prozorov (2007, justlikethe governmentalityliterature, remains unable to freelet aspolitical subjects. That is, in sidelining the problem ofexclusion as heterogeneous distinction between those amenable to the proper practice of freedom those that and cannot be offailing to consider that liberal governmentality entails a mob of scholarship. Namely, ofthat marginalizing the liberal problematization of excess freedom, politicalbio rationalities of power, I suggest that he, in fact, shares another lack of this stream considering its reductive understanding of freedom product the the as and instrument of Prozorov’s 31–32)(Ibid., biopolitics, share criticismI of the governmentality literature Thus, althoughsi notalthough reference sovereign in a to practice, mightcompletely a be not irrelevant notion. developmentthrough (a bearing conceptcertainly the touch of agape tur In orderof biopolitics. fostering their freedom and those whose conduct requires more direct control is integral to thelife- exclusion’ no modern does exclude anything, not ‘the biopolitical order of logically which power, mustexcludesubjects to seek its from domain the of power, Prozorov106) Ojakangas’, it following to“ depicts than, be: (Ibid., inclusion into the biopolitical order exclusionor from has be to it a morecomplex

Certainly, asCertainly, indicated for above, achievementsall their expanding in Foucault’s ”. In fact, as was pointed out above, delineating subjects to be governed through governed be through to subjects delineating above, was pointedout ”. as fact, In milarly his to assessment and ofAgambenianconflation the sovereignty alism as a particular form ofpolitical reason that centers on the problem of n, when the latter category is no longer to be contained contained be categorynolongerto is latter n, when the in even t ile and contingent but constant contingentconstant and but ile unlike sovereign the order [the]

), then exclusion, exclusion, then ), form of ‘inclusive ofform ‘inclusive

question question […] […] the the 42

CEU eTD Collection “integral vision” itspolitical to (Mehta“integral 1999,9). contemporary liberal theorists’ accounts of imperial rule, the government of unfreedom is consequence of theway constructs it and makes use of freedom. Most palpably manifest in that is, to the discrepancy between the theoryand practice the of liberalism, to but Importantly, 2007). this claim does refer not to hypocrisy the of philosophy, liberal political withgovernmentautonomous as of the judgedindividuals incompetent be adults to “ for government been order “the always essential sustaining unfreedom”the has of liberty: Barry as freedom”fact, (2001, In argues,through 1999). Hindess 94–95) “governing (Dean of liberal political reason at its limits, at points where it diverges from the technology of related to the governmental problematization of freedom,we also have to assess the operation how understand outlines.orderto In orderit biopolitical the shaping the interests offreeself and the 1990). crucial for pondering the condition of politics within the biopolitical order (Miller and Rose citizens’ capacities, which, in turn, thrive best when their freedom guaranteed, is remains democratic relations as rel liberal governance is premised1999; cf. Rose (Cruikshank That1996). is, the conceptof idea that democratic rights are pivotal for the “social fabrication” of citizens upon which andknowledge is power central to nthe discussio that follows. Of particular importance is the liberal governmental reasonconstructsthe human beingboth as the subject theand ofobject aspopulation the collective of object of modern techniques political regulation, claimthe that like Just of rationalities power. contemporary examining whenban

Liberal political reason has been asmuch concerned with paternalistic rule over minors and Nevertheless, as was previously made clear, realizing the betterment of life through ations ofations a productive mode of thatworks power through individual - governing citizen is not all there is to liberalism and

the abandonment of surplus life is is life of abandonment surplus

the notion ofthe the ” (cf. Dean Dean ” (cf.

a direct 43

CEU eTD Collection authoritarian rule and discipline, and yet otherssupported while liberal ofauthoritarian rule are through “the ethos and eliminatedhopeless or are left to owntheir are others devices, “improved” through or whe question, subject to fromin identified lacking governed be limits. is the onwhat those Depending delineate,to Hindess as (2001) does, several modes of governing people who fall beyond subject that is not (yet) capab limits of liberal democratic governance, this suggests asustained problematization of the tied to subjects’ capacities for a proper practice of liberal citizenship. Clearly outlining the forms ofinto inclusion politicsboth and the active betterm colonial metropolis as well. Hence, liberalism grounds a political order that implies variegated the in practice of the politics from ill permanently women, the children, or as paupers, Murray Tania (2007, the Li notes, it exclusion14) grounded of populati “defective (as Mill’s[1859,subjects Stuart John in of despotism 23] “barbarians”), justification as over condi such firstthrough improving subjectthe itself, then, is contingent upona judgment derived from realizedof be theto liberties through autonomous the or to subject, out has teased political be the real basis of political inclusion” ( capacities ascribed to all human beings exists athicker set of social credentials that constitute a political subject, such as“a sense of justice” or the ability of reasoning: “behind the philosophyliberal political outlines numberfora conditions of achievi human grants and nature assured “an identity” political to all simple of fact by the being born, 1996, H with through encounters sciences liberalism(Cowen Shenton its modernhuman and endorsed existence, which understanding of developmental a human of is, course, forms rule of

Centralthe to indess 2001, Mehta 1999). Qualifying 2001,Mehta1999). indess the of state universal equality thatderives from tions.Whereas problematic this ther thisther lack is perceived to be remediable, somecases are considered

compatibility betweencompatibility defense the liberty ofand individual authoritarian le ofle self Mehta 1999,Mehta 49–50).Whether the improvement of life is - government, and correspondingly it becomes possible government, correspondinglybecomes and it possible

primarily emerged in the context of the primarily in context emerged colonized ent ofent life, the pattern of iswhich ng thefull capacities of ons” such 44

CEU eTD Collection inclusion into the order of liberal governmentality is correct. If, however, we interrogate the analysis concerning the establishment of self Cruikshank’s 195). (Ibid., away” graduallyitself wear Residuum] it [i.e. the should that for is economicmatter”, “dead they were to be abandoned to their fate: “the canbest that be hoped without are standard a to maintain” As(Bosanquet 1906, 47). they were consequentl Residuum gathers in that ourtowns large [are] people whom the wehelp because cannot they a “R interests to strive, nevertheless, as Bosanquet was forced to realize, there inevitably remained poor’s for the space wasprovided homewhatever and worked the However diligently visitors establishing social peace turned o who poor resisttheseprograms’ homeguidance,Cruikshank recounts visitors’ in success difference- (19 twentieth99) Cruikshank cites century,early Barbara acharacteristic case of such that justified rule” 2007, colonial (Li 14). wer colonized character: the or “ifcolonizers and capacity in or lacking deemingpopulations individuals development, liberalgovernmentality to has first establish theof condition unfreedom through and/or suspenddespotism to freedom through m, freedo order in through governable judges realm it the beyond consideration the that 1987). (Sider is, difference That construct to discussion, overhowever,the thenecessity us is colonizedto earlier add ruling allows to population. surplus the forwith technology dealing 2001, (Hindess 101). welfare” till circumstances their allow for therealization of thecapacities of liberal subjects

esiduum”: an underclass that seemed to lack the capacity for self Discussing the formulation ofDiscussing self notion pointback takesus the to as predominant of this development To sure, be construction construction Citingprocesses. Helen and Bosanquet her grappleefforts to thewith e essentially the same, successful trusteeship would eliminate the distinction n molding lettingand flourish poor self individuals’ - help programs for the poor in the nineteenth and the in programspoor for the help - interest as What liberal of the problematization

an instrumentan of poor people’s - interest: “[The] y deemed - interest. 45

CEU eTD Collection from proposing the restructuring of relations of production as effects of capitalist discipline upon sections of the population deemed to lack these habits that prevents experts subjectsdevelopable integrate are d through the market economy: “It is, in part, recognition of the ‘improving’ more sharply”. population: “the most which organization can do for the Residuum is to define the hopelessness of its position certainly leaves the social order unquestioned. social the order leaves certainly technologies of self governmethe hopeless group. Declaring some aslacking “standards of life” might read asatrace thenofbe of distinction socialthe that pioneer work makes the poorintegrable between this and even as resisting self dwellingbeyond, as and it poses thatBosanquet recall and Residuum further problem the of 25 24 securing it. However,the point here that is the authoritarian, as well asthe benevolent few ongovernmentality’s the limits,although, throughout past centuries, it occurs liberal notproject populationsa dominationof is exactly colonial liberalIndian of governmentality, the Of 1987,17). (Sider course, people” ofto special animals,reference not skills wild the [abi (a capacity that they utterly feared); rather, they were attributed to “peculiarly Indian of Indian people, they denied that these were due to the natives’ capacity for collective action instance,assumptions. For wh ereas white colonists benefited from theskills and the products contradicting of and interaction suggest economic betweenrelations groups social illustrates from Columbus to the authors of the War on Poverty in in 1960s), the fromofWar authors onPoverty the the illustrates to Columbus isfor justifying pivotal speechless t andnecessary Whereasdepiction impossible. the populations as ofandignorant oppressed importantthe argument differences thatconstructing between ruler ruled and both is

Indiansand bl through ignorance,’ blame the victims for their suffering; both invoke ignorance

“ the of surplu the economic integration is overly optimistic194) not about (1906, least, Bosanquet the To say When Columbus says, after apparently handing the native people lities] to see, hear, smell, or know the forest […] savage attributes all, in their precise Ana lyzing lyzing the complex dynamics col of ac Cf. ks are poor because they are ‘culturally deprived,’ ntal strategy that people unworthy that renders amenableliberal of, not to, strategy or ntal Li

and when the United States government, in the War on Poverty of the 1960s says that

on on 20) (2007, - government, subhuman. Justifying their abandonment, at least, this move thismove least, their at government,abandonment, subhuman. Justifying - governing tech

the similarly stabilizing effect of the alternative case when supposedly supposedly case when effect the of alternative stabilizing the similarly nologies, we might register the political significance of heir subversion (as theheir subversion discourse wellof very power 24

onial domination, Gerald Sider (1987) makes ” (Sider” 1987, 7) a solution to poverty”. a solution

they are making identical utterances: Both Both are utterances: they identical making

swords blade first, that‘ they first, blade swords .

the manifoldthe cu t themselves t themselves s 46

CEU eTD Collection story, establish a biography; it is of this life, itthis is of life, establish a biography; story, be as is thatultimately events which a italways full of can told is itself events, worldly constitute disappearance chief characteris [...] The death. birth and between the time and interval meantthe world itto meaning to if is related designate an altogether different has however, the liberalism of for ambivalence justified rationally and morally, politically domination” appearto be gh coherenceenou to be told, no matter how accidental or haphazard the single events and their causation may a always with will be endstory the result activitiesare two indeed whose of politics, understanding Greek ‘somehow is a kind of praxis’. For action and speech, which, as we saw before, belonged close together in the 97)account of humanl (1958, with Arendt’s description Bosanquet’s finally, Compare, it; in drifting”. all development is aimless and no storyconnected out of it, for every merelyday the repeats mistakes, the follies mishapsand of yesterday; is there a child. Hence his life is one incoherent jumble from beginning to end; it would be impossible to make even memory, in the sense that his past is so completely past that he has no more organized experience to refer to than in not f moment classtheis he only without lives only; this of present type remarkable for his andforesight self condemnable vision oftime, underl throughthe notion of progress”.See further Bosanquet’s (1906,168 – of empire is anchored in the patience needed to serve and realize a future. And that future is invariably expressed there project is infinitely patient, perhaps even secretly counting on its own extended incompetence, of not getting it marginalization. According to Sider (Ibid., 21) “ becomes apparent only vehementbecomes inthrough denial, its apparent governed: humiliating the andpolitical economic trans otherfor the must the Each to between dominated. dominatorsand speak imposes dialogue a “ equal humanity: recognitionof albeitthesegroups’ quiet, prior, a surplus technologiesofdevelopmental a governing 26 – and poor the but Thecolonized mutuality. thatrequire deny strategies this, then, ofAll reveals and governedstrategies populations, distancing engaging both

not kin, /As if I had no speech /If we two do not speak together, we do not speak together because of this. /If we two are talk together/ But you comewith the sharp thing/ To come chase me like a deer /To come pursue me like a pig s gestures, each of its symbols

Cf. the Timorese poem that Sider (Ibid., 22) quotes: “We two might simply conver

and hence permanently remaining in between. By the nineteenth century virtually every liberal liberal every justificati virtually century By thein nineteenth between. andremaining hence permanently we are not kin because of this”. domination in time in domination the insults and the slander that they must themselves be seen as an attemp alwa but economic, and facts One ofmostremarkable about the domination is never simplythat it is political to maketo claims the future against ” . . See also Mehta (1999, 30; original emphasis) on the temporality of the liberal empire: “…the liberal “…the the empire: temporality the of on emphasis) original Mehta30; (1999, See also

Cf.Fassin (2007). ife and the significance of life of significance and the ife – –

claims to to present reasons and justifications for its current existence, and actions to occur actions to ining theirining hopelessness: “The ideal economicman, as iswe know,

- control; in the Residuum these qualities are entirely absent. […] true entirely The are absent. qualities the Residuumthese in control; ys entails attempts to humiliate the dominated. So crucial are

Consider also the temporal dimension of securing domination or a temporal ordering of the world that are central to the process of bios domi (Ibid., 21)

as distinguished frommer tic of thistic of specifically human life, whose appearance and - nation contains it contains within nation narrative for the political subject: “ the political subject: for narrative ” (Ibid., 22) (Ibid., ” . nd alien populations populations nd alien seem imply to always 26

169) argument about the Residuum’s . To sure, be thisrecognition often oresight, e ti we me being me –

, that Aristotle said that thatit, Aristotle said within each of its acts, each of acts, each its each of within The process ofThe process domination – se/ se/ We mighttwo simply

he is almost without he is almost without

remaining imperial. This This imperial. remaining in in the past as well as The word‘life’,

t to situate a on 47

CEU eTD Collection above outlines freedom”above “excess recurrent a as turn,problem biopolitical In governance. of productivepredominantly power 1 of reason, for.instrument cannot political be it accounted liberal of literature’s freedomthe understanding onthe governmentality based as disruption, of its and for theabandonment thinking politics isthisinsight crucial Whereas equality also leavesspace for resisting domination: 22;(1987, original emphasis) argues,thisdouble dynamic secured. As – orders havejustified be particular which ofto and of governance freedom,sort against ofutilization general, freedomimprove in to it life also assumes pr the the governmentalityand Hence,construction entails again. althoughliberal doubtless of the domination, thusproblem freedom logics encountering ambivalent excess of once assertionsomethe do that subjects (yet) not conditions, meet recogniwe can these effectivity” political (Mehta of for “the 1999,49), equalconditions humanin and capacities su equality framework the and such of improved equality waysof political that pathlife long towards the economic before subjects they are exploited, abandoned or, in the luckier case, launched on in astoday, the colony well as the glo

.2.3

Diverging both from the conception of sovereign biopower seizing bare life both seizing of of and from biopower conception a Diverging sovereign the as Freedom te otherincorpora as the an other contradic basic both incorporation attempted definesThis and dialogue,denies the returning theto distancing. pposedly secures. In the efforts of liberal political philosophy political the define to theliberal In effortsof secures. pposedly prefiguring the conceptof political subjectification advanced below –

the equal capacity to act otherwise act to equal capacity the tion of thisform domination – of

deployed through the government of freedom, the discussion discussion governmentfreedom, through the the deployed of bal city

– thus opening a space forthus and opening space resistance a continuing –

have be to rendered unequal as political and/or

that it bothcannot and create s ofs recognizing and denying e - existence of some

product and theproduct and ze the Sider 48

CEU eTD Collection in the faceof the in abandonment. politicalpopulations subjects,unequal it paves the way forpolitical thinking subjectification approaching liberal technologies of r Furthermore, reversible in function of abandonmentpotentially a biopolitics. reveals as permits, governmentality conceptusually - from top departs and the freedom of devoid life bare notion of space thatthe a limited rather conceptual the conceptions. Thusofferingperspective a onthe “death between power and freedom within the biopolitical order that differs from that ofprevious the relationship the to approach an suggests ofgoverned, it the equality same the the deny time dominatio arguing that liberalgovernmentalityonly not but compatible is conditionalto technologies of 28 27 relation forpower a condition exist: to direction., their dynamics, subjects’freedomreverse Indeed to such freedom the is strictly relational character of power relations” is due to subjects’ capacity to shift their of function governmentalreversible before,strategies? As noted for Foucault(1978, “the 95),

2007, 26). 2007, entail. thought would Foucault’s litera governmentality

Thus it alsoThus (1997) Shearing and O’Malleye.g. Weir, See refusal submit to cannot, therefore, be separated toequivalent determination). physical a Therelationship between and power freedom's sin cepermanent support, without the possibility ofwouldbe power recalcitrance, precondition,time its sincefreedom mustfor to exist power exerted, be also and its asmay the appear reedom well for[F] condition the exercise of power (at samethe Why abandonment dotechnologies ofunequal reveal as rendering potentiall a

n, domination while is conditional to strategiesgovernmental thatrecognize and at

escapes the governmentalitytendency literature’s of being “anemic the on practice of politics” (Li ture’s “top ture’s down outlook onlife

- 28 down” analysis, due to which it falls behind the critical potential that that critical to the potential it which due falls behind analysis, down”

ule as contingent on rendering certain individuals or or individuals onrendering certain contingent as ule Kerr Kerr

and (1999) the focus on technologies ofunequal focus ontechnologies the rendering - foste McKee ring governmental rationalities that the

(Foucault 1982,(Foucault 790) - function” of function” biopolitics that extends ( 2009)

for a for criticism of .

allows for 49 y

CEU eTD Collection as Sider’s (1987) discussion with Sider’s ofIndians’ as orinteractions the colonizers freed and as above,capacity the equality for governed noted presuppose the rendering unequal, of Strategies the sense. contingent in Foucauldian relations as onpower abandonment governm further intervention this analysis pushes even or despotic more towards direct government tends interpreted as the function of freedom that liberal governmentality installs inits subjects: is still in line with the governmentality literature’s notion of freedom,for this equality can be the capacitymeans of governm equal appropriating of implies the of subjects: their freedom “to act otherwise”, to divert or reverse action upon their actions 1978, cf.power otherwords, 1991, 5; Foucault Cadman In imply relations equality 2010). the those– whoagainst govern rationalities andis, technologies of formation subject can and appropriated be turned back leaves space for the inevitably it body(Ibid.), subverted andonthe physically directly acts and asymmetrical structuring the possible field of their actions, but unlike violence, which is completely this In conception, biopolitical gover governmental vacillatgovernmental governedcaseswhen technologiesto unequal the in the ofrender requires interaction but rule However, conceiving of freedomthe governed subjects’equality as that is implied in the

om, not of in course, the although, liberal sense of autonomous self - politico bythe suggested as hand, one . On the What begins as a norm implanted “ norm a implanted as What begins authorities inname righauthorities the ts,autonomy, their offreedom their their rearing, can be ‘repossessed’ asademand citizens, that consumers, survivors make of child patternsin of or adoptionof conduct the appropriate literacy or numeracy, ent of unfreedom, it requires we of requires at that and ent unfreedom,look technologies it of domination

possibility for the field of actions to be restructured by the governed. That That by governed. restructured be the to of field actions for the possibility ion between utility or non or - ion utility between hence the “strategic reversibility” of power relations (Go nment entails actan of shaping the conduct of others, from above pertinence and excessive or or excessive insufficientpertinence and ” , such as the universal obligationsof universal the as , such philosophical attempts to justify the ent. Such ent. aclaim,Such ofcourse, - government. turn, In

(Rose 1999,92) (Rose the cited Timorese

rdon 50 .

CEU eTD Collection follows, I turn to Jacques turn to follows, I Rancière’s conception equality. of freedom and what in this framework, for expanding avenue different undertaking.a Offering conceptual wi of “Foucauldian freedom” and Li’s (2007) Gramscian account of practices that reverse “the reversal as Both forthe thinking political. of(2007) ontologization relations Prozorov’s power imperial ruleagainst its own subjectivitypolitical of the governed (e.g. liberal political philosophy’s efforts to justify attention to fact the that rationalities and of domination deny workto abandonment the freedom.subjects’ realm governed through freedom, is, in of that the absence efforts governmental to construct of domination. poem illustrates, such 32 31 30 29 formations of particular a era, made upfrom the vis of study strata Deleuze’sthe in with terminology, or, studies archeological conception and reversible continuous ofrelational theof thus is power with subject Foucault’s reconstructionparticular, ofhis Foucault’s notion of the dispositif 1

truths of enunciation, tru enunciation, of truths several and essays Rajaramin and Grundy Shapir see aesthetics: and politics concept of his abandonment withRancière practic maycalled a state is domination be of one means, faced what with military power relations, immobilizing them and preventing any reversibility of movement by economic, political, or modifying them, remain blocked, frozen. When an individual or social group succeeds in blocking a field of to strategies adopt participants the various of allowing mobile, being instead the power relations, which statesand of domination: somet“[O]ne

.3 See, instance,See, for one of (1992, Deleuze’s 166) definition apparatus/of the Rancière’s thought has not (yet) been widely taken up in IR, but there are some important works drawing on This point is al This ll to improve” underline thatFoucault’s itself, thought,suffice a to underline in for not such improve” does ll

es of freedom do not exist or exist only unilaterally or are or exist es exist only or freedomnot of do unilaterally At its clearest perhaps At itsclearest in Deleuze’s Gilles (1988) account of thought, in Foucault’s The politics of excess freedom so why, in terms other than the bare life, lip life, the in bare than termsso why, other , then, 29

signals a

Arguably, then, “freedom’sArguably, then, submit” refusal to remains workbeyond at the 30

ths of light and visibility, truths of power, truths truths subjectivation of power, and of ths truths visibility, light of

on the notion of excess freedom directs our freedom notion ofdirects hand,onthe excess centering other On the strategies can be located and contested even statesby in the governed slight slight

departure from Foucault’s ( claim about natural of equality human As beings). such, it allows

imes encounters what may be called situations or states of domination in domination or of may situations whatstates called encounters be imes - Warr (2007).

o (2006; 2009a; 2009b), Nyers (2003), Moulin and Nyers (2007) (2007) Nyers and Moulin (2003), Nyers 2009b), 2009a; (2006; o - sewing might be interpreted as disruptive of of as biopolitics. sewinginterpreted disruptive might be

–

Thinkingthe disruption of 2000c

ext ible and ible and sayable.the remely and constrained limited”. , 283) distinction between power relations relations power between distinction 283) , . In such a state, it is certain such a state, that In it is certain dispositif : “

(Deleuze 1 31 An apparatus comprises

” . , that is, historical is, , that

This analysis

992), the992), 51

CEU eTD Collection power relations, offreedom relations, otherwise. power the act to work of Foucault’s freedom,” is (Ibid., critical 316) projec we what are,thinking do, think”. or aim Thus,through the give to impetusthe to “undefined doing, being, or made the has possibilitycontingency we what are, us of that nolonger , 315 (2000d sec is, the 1988,onpower, (Deleuze inthat sayable 68), relation the ourselves” formulated element displayed”,one of“critical behavior ontoloand constitutes gyof the his approach to visibilities and statements as“a priori What Deleuz and say, do”. think, way of tracing the conditions of possible experiences and articulations that shape “what we emp 33 between commonality thesenotionsfundamental – sensibledistribution the of between his archeology,methodologyaffinities idea Foucault’s betweenof and his the on(e.g. Indeed, occasions 2004a, project. notes Rancière several critical as to the distribution of of and the beIn anto the seen can be what sensible, said. ordering can what Foucault’s episteme priori can be understood in a Kantian sense – clarification 13) of(2004b, politics claimthat his analysis”. In turn, this commonality due is to Kantianthe rootsthey Rancière’s share, as and Rancière’s work

literature as theliterature product and, at samethe instrumentthe time, of gover

Again,as Prozorov hasizes that for Foucault that (2000d hasizes forms determining what presents itself sense to experience”. Aesthetics, then, much like Arguably, Rancière’s concept of politics defined is in termsvery similar to Foucault’s , 316). Centering on the “third agency” that puts the visible and and the visible thatputs onagency” “third 2000d(Foucault the Centering , 316). 316) ontology ofpresentgenealogy,–316) the is whichto “separate seeks (2007) (2007) or, inor, his fact, dispositif – also argues, this also argues, is “the attempt to subject conditions of possibility to historical

and Foucault’sand episteme Tanke’s (2011,. In summary, 77) the

e e neo Foucault’s(1988, calls unique 60) ) “what “what given”) is isbe to understood

freedom is irreducible to the one posited by the to the governmentality the by one posited freedom is irreducible re - examined perhaps by Foucault – examined byFoucault perhaps

is, in Rancière’s (Ibid.) interpretation, equivalent 33 is aestheticis at its core underlines: “aesthetics

and, byimplicatiand,

conditions under all which ideas are nmental rationality. t affirmative of the reversibility of ond element of Foucault’s ond element of Foucault’s on, between Foucault’s on, between – -

Kantianism, that is, and criticized as thesystem ofa 50), there are there 50),

out, from the out,the from – by by 52

CEU eTD Collection order against isquoting it which runsworth order up,it him length: at sensible and given of the politics concept 32) (1999, Rancière’s distinctioncentral to is this police socialization of populations”, and largely Foucault’s endorses extension of notion the of the produces power meanswhich individualizationeffects through the of by “as offormulationa theof Foucault’s relevance biopolitics dispute not does he Although (omni)presence of power relations does not automatically refer to the presence of politics. two(1999), betweenRancière the For the differences thinkers. crucial signals relations power of nature any contingent social given order. dis a is enables what (1999), it Rancière For power. shortly see, essentialis to this process, just as much as it was to Foucault’s relationality of tothe according contingency order. Foucault, that is, ofsensible Freedom, the we will as Rancière’s parallel, idea ofon politicscenters conditionswhat relations power

, distinguishes he such concerns from of question politics the (Rancière 2010b, For 93). itselfmerely because power relationships are at work in it. For a thi institutions techniques,equally and say it is to important thatnothing political is in magnificently,done thatthe police orderextendswell its beyond specialized important M show, is as to is.it thenSo while political, nothing “everything is political”, but this is pretty poor as a logical conclusion. If everything is policing” to is with an “everything an ofretort allowsto power one concept that “everything is political” since power relationships are […] everywhere. The [The] concept [of power] once allowed a certain well Nevertheless, Rancière’s (e.g. 2010b)withNevertheless, Rancière’s (e.g. dissatisfaction the notion Foucauldian of

pute ( pute - meaning militancy to contend dissensus exposes that ) the ng to be political, it ichel Foucault has

bodies the and ’ reversibility 53

CEU eTD Collection 34 of ontology andconception aesthetic ourselves the ontol of order that this 2004b,(Rancière 89). determining common how the shared be the to partsbetween is of specific the community disclosing articulations that experiences and common,the same is at which with time Defined as a“communal distribution of thesensible”, the policeorder i of hierarchical ordering correspondingly,sensibilities and, capacities, and of societal groups. while fromit toearly reference the the modernregulationof life wealth and (cf.Foucault2007), theconcerning processes thatunsettle the contingent aesthetic order,on the other.Detaching analogous appropriation of Ka

subject subject of argument disputein over capacitthe are at in it it was power relationships work but simple that the because the fact through not a political space Rancière’sand the grounds that both are the product of governmental technologies and thus delineating them ismisleading

Cf.Cruikshank (1999, 55 maintaining the sense of extensive ordering, Rancière conceptualizes the police Very muchVery i 1999, noise (Rancière as 29). visibleis and an and task; it is an order of the visible and the sayable that sees that a particular activity sees and ways of saying, thatthose areby assigned bodies name place particular a to order an thatdefines first ofthe bodies allocation ways of doing, waysof ofand being, [ of define it.lack Butto youthis, first must the of define configuration the perceptible The police is, essentially, the law, general Rancière’sIn crucial binaryof the police politics, and then, we find the two thinkers’ must give rise to ameeting [ never set up never advance. in la configuration dusensible configuration la (1999, 32) argument against this line of criticism: “The domestic this argumentline h criticism: of “The 32) (1999, against n linewith Foucault what (2000d defines) as the goal of acritical – other isthat not, otherthis speech discourseis the as and understood 58) on a Foucauldian/feminist criticism of Arendt’s public/private distinction distinction Arendt’s public/private criticism of a Foucauldian/feminist on 58)

ntian onntian aesthetics one the hand, their and main disagreement 34

] in which one or the other is inscribed. The police is The thus is] whichinscribed. thepolice in or other one la rencontre la y of women in the community” ] of police logic and egalitarian logic that is ly implicit, that defines a party’s share or .

ouse hold ogy concerns, forogy concerns, has been turned into s a partition of partition a s

as the – –

on on

CEU eTD Collection such capacities, it in is fact capable of p it distribution denies which sensible contrarythe to speaks, thatitthat, too who demonstrates equivalent to the disruption of thisorder because it occurs through the emergence of a subject commonmatters and whose utterances are regarded irrelevant or inscr distribution of spaces, times andthatcapacities thesame at time defines who has asay in i is order logic. Thepolice logic egalitarian thean and police thebetween as encounter politics To order? the recall definition part in police a earlier,quoted Rancièreunderstands (1999) of distribution communalfunctions. and order’s places Rancière, politics “to is thegivenness resist of place” (Dike 36 35 necessarily collective (cf. May 2010). do,and or thus emerges asthesubjectof freedom, of the subject politics for Rancière is liberates herself from effects the ofpower and knowledge that delimit what she can be, think ( Foucault’s t ableready and subject a given order is always a collective act: shared the ofconcerns the community, the political refusal of place one’s function and within of modeextent of and is, the ofcommon,that the partition However, in consequence to Rancière’s (

slavery”; “[f]reedom is thus inherently political”. inherently “[f]reedom is thus slavery”; (2000c, 286), where he points out that freedom for the ancient Greeks refers primarily to the condition of “non - human universality and is therefore unthinkable in t of autonomy that one thereby achieves. In such a sense, a practice of freedom functions as an affirmation of potentiality, freedom is not only available to available only is not freedom potentiality, affirmsmy previous argument that Foucault’s notion of freedom implies the presumption of equality: “As a displaced, Foucault’s freedom can indeed be understood as a collective experience. Incidentally concer 30). 1999, (Rancière to all to nevitably hierarchical, since it consists of an account of the community’s parts underlying the parts ofcommunity’s consists ofthe hierarchical,sinceit account an nevitably

Nevertheless “Political activity is whatever shifts a body from a assigned place to it or changes a place’s destination” equally n of Rancière’s politics in such spatial such spatial terms in Rancière’s politics n of What does What does it mean tha : in as in : ) individual who, ofcareself the individual ethics meticulous the 2000d) through , see Prozorov’s (2007) argument that once the opposition between collective and individual is serting one’s freedom one is always already Cf. Robson (2005, 5) and Rancière and 5) (2005, Robson Cf. o concern itself with the community becomesan issue”. Instead of

t subjectthe of politics is the collective of those who have no all 36

“The question of question “The politics begins when status the of the without any possibility for discrimination, but it is also available it is also available but discrimination, any possibility for without It is the group of those who have no part in in the groupthe is whonopart police of have It those

. articipating in the political life of the community.

erms of a narcissistic individualism” (Ibid., 11). (Ibid., erms individualism” a narcissistic of 2010b, on emphasis 93) the orderas police a

and Panagia and wholly free wholly

(2000, 121) 121) (2000, a particular group’s participation in ç 2007, 17; original emphasis). original 2007,17; ç , irrespectively of the positive degree positive degree the irrespectively, of for defini tions of the central utable. Politics is , th , is point is point Cf. Foucault Cf. Foucault 55 35

CEU eTD Collection obey it. And to do that, you must already be the equal of the person who is ordering you” (Ibid., 16). an order at least two things are required: you must understand the order and you must understand that you must being is required: “There is order in society because somepeople command and others obey, to obey but in order every social order” lies in the fact that for such an account to be operative, the basic equality of every speaking merely as perceived a noise signaling pleasure and consent pain, sonorous emission is understood as speech, capable of enunciating what is just, whereas some other emission is the whole of whole the countthe community, de the by the people who have no qualifications ruleto inand, turn, it enables them identify with to whoConsequently,freedomof donot. commonappropriated be those since the can as virtue to thebelongs oligo freedom the “improperproperty” is of not it people: does belong to the demos just free whobe like those qualifications. of“proper” possess one means the also that This of qualification sort or(virtue, “wisdom”),people, wealth the that is, – of community the all,equally. ofqualified to appropriation granted freedomrule, through the is that because it demonstrates the political capacities of a collective that, in principle, is not thein example of the ancient Greek city,t being speakingspeaking any (Ibid., with other being 30). 1999, 16), non- of supposedly a contingency” of thesocial order because it consists of ademonst “sheer the of refersexposing act 1989). the (Rancière Thus,politics to or ignorant indifferent they activities,were to artistic supposedly, which, writing or other and poetry thought in nights engaged polit spent their labor,they longregeneration a of day after physical of when, instead capacities ofand workersthe who distribution times contested century have acco becauseorder it demonstrates thata group attributesparticular has other than it is supposed to of Instead referring theofto mere being rejection excluded,thisprocess disruptive is of the 37

According to (199 Rancière According The basicmiscount – rding to the orderpolice – ï that that enables politics rooted is precisely in thefact that despitelacking any

(the freedom rich): whoqual of have is those 9, 23) 9,

every political order is conditioned on an account of speech “by which a he inevitable incompleteness of thepolice account of theparts political form of life enacting the basic equality of “any consider, for instance, the movement of nineteenth he basic equality of everyone gives rise to politics fining will policeinevitablybe the order wrong: or revolt”. In turn, the “sheer contingency of 37

In turn, as Rancière Rancière turn,shows as In (Ibid.) ration of equality (Rancière ifications to rule as well as demos

the way wealth

is allowedis

ical ical 56 to to

CEU eTD Collection some construction ofconstruction city some to must identities linked be orderof the political to exist, philosophy philosophy’s for “For political existence: guarantee political is xii), (Ibid., the politics” place and everyone’s orderand goodpolitical the for defining by way capacities of equal politics, their exactly to contain, or better, to distance those without (specific) qualifications to rule from “confusionthat the of politics ande police” th that political philosophy realizes, attempts philosophical tradition and ofPlato’s thought in particular, Rancière arrives at the conclusion philosophy (Rancièreoriginates 1999, Based 62). onhis re exposeto the contingency of any order, social is the very “scandal” in which political capacity the ofequal being, all through enacted equality speaking of basic every the is, That relationshipand ofphilosophy. is causepolitical the ofparadoxical politics thought, very the problem excessfreedom, of as which, and derivewe can from(19 Ranciére’s 1 rise theto political subject when it takes shape entailed in every sensible ordermade up of visibilities, statements and relationspower – itsorder and conditioning of what isone and can one what door think – that of say freedom subject might the political the uncounted. Thus, we t disruption that this exposure causes in theorder of and roles capacities, they emerge asthe basicmiscount wholeexposethrough and the the identify ofpeople with the that, is toimpossible equate them any to “real” part of the community, but as they themselves equate the whole with the sum parts, ofits each having specific roles and qualifications. As it the with identifying in and common freedom appropriating is in nopart”: that all thathas to “part the meaning of people always“the are less 1999,10).more or the again, people”(Rancière Hence, the than

.3.1

Hence, throughHence, property the ofimproper the people, we circle back to I what call the depoliticization of rationality The political

function within (Ibid., 29). In turn, this function, that is, is, function,theitselfof aim 29). that turn, rid this In “to within (Ibid., function

entire community, the disrupt people necessarily thatthe count aims to

as the improper property as improper property the of people. the

- examination of the politico o disrupt a given given a o disrupt a capacity that is 99, 2007) 99, 2007) gives gives 57 -

CEU eTD Collection and, inand, particular, h A perfect illustration for such ideas of distancing Aristotle’sis preference for rural democracy task oldest the of politics” – andfrom city thatPlato banishesNo poets the then, wonder, sophists hascontained be of to (Chambers cf.equality everyone 2004c, 2010,59; Rancière 30–53). unmasks that of power threatening the e language” “th order, the of contingency the To efface with demonstrated theis emergence ofparthas the no that the6). part in construction (Ibid., miscount thatmay the miscount”: maskfundamental a whosecomplexities to count ‘parts’, 38 reduction: correspondingand times capacities, and the has engage political to of beyond distribution functions the ofpolis, the order peoplethe free mean yet of poor to the the presence that toInfaceofchallenge to standing only location. the social also not but political order ideal the of everyone, reduces politics to the soci(ologic)al and, ultimately, to the spatial: to mask the basic equality sheer the contingency of the order social ( “[eliminates] thedifference between politics and thepolice”, and thus works towards effacing

Cf.

the discussion on 1999, 15). place its strength adistanceat from turbulence, its adistanceat from itself ( politics must regulate the intermittency of th political, social, and territorial space: thecoincidence of distances. […] The of art It then falls to the art of politics [as in Aristotle] to enact another coincidence between Political philosophy the it depoliticizes,then,constructing polity, Political ideal because,in

Rancière’s idea of the “excess of words” below. words” theof “excess of ideaRancière’s is notion of notion is (Rancière 2007,19).

prosodos – in its Aristotelian version Rancière 1999,63; cf. Chambers2011). is, That it : “that surplus“that makeswhich presenting oneself, e demos

by imposing intervals whichimposing intervals by – attaches political capacities

“[d]epoliticization is

in its own spatial Rancière 58 38

CEU eTD Collection political philosophy political science into social (Rancière 1999). improved, now I turn to specific a feature of the contemporary order: the transformation of for contemporary attempts containing at the excess freedom o neoliberal governmental rationalities persistent and their reinvigorated significance 2007). (cf.Rancière for liberal Despite restoration of thesefigures of Aristotledemonstrates, philosophy political a recent trend of the “return to the political” aiming to “heal Marxistmetapolitics” with a disc hardRancière’s of(Rancière truth reality” as 2004b, “the social and Tosure, be 87). metapolitics refers to the Marxist attempt to separate, through the notion of ideology, politics order,butthe aims pacifyi at parapolitics (Bosteels 2010), project sense 2004c).a fillingofarchipolitical In gaps the the Rancière true to the character, archipolitics consist in substituting the anarchy of democracy with an order that is “three great figures[:] archipolitics of political the analyze tradition philosophy, onto (1999,Rancière goes defines 65) and makes started, a getting possibility” 40 39 upto “politics add timesand the 2007, thus of (Rancière dispersal” 19). againstdisorder distancing of the order politics,spatial and social of the ordering func

or thought. thought. or Chambers suggests (Rancière 1999, 63), and not of the police order, although, the two, perhaps, cannot asbe neatly as delineated the politic of elimination that of politics“program is the thought, Rancière’s of rendering work on the lands could, in principle, gain the is. that An doing politics, money on the assembly: the the or timeattending lack waste on to t is the only real passion of the masses” (Ibid., 18). (Ibid., masses” the of passion real only the t is profi that thus the “proper” virtue of political presence, this is not an outcome Aristotle considered, “for he was convinced

It is important to emphasize, as Chambers (2011) does in his criticism of Todd May’s (e.g. 2008) anarchist This usage of ussion ofarchipolitics),the and parapolitics), more (under Hobbes(under Tocqueville Explicating the paradoxical relation between politics and philosophy in these terms, these philosophy in politicsand paradoxical relationbetween the Explicating

arkh – prosodos with its model being Aristotle – ê –

of the community; the significancehence o

political philosophy takes part in the police order’s conditioning of what can be done, said,

refers to the assumption that ng it by incorporating its 1999,11). its agents(cf.Rancière ng it byincorporating Finally,

(Ibid., 16). (Ibid.,

parapolitics through their modern incarnations, however, to accountto however, modernincarnations, their through aporoi

(the have due todue their distance from center, farmersthe presumably recognizes the political conflict at the heart of 39

, and metapolitics, and

In political political formulationIn ofphilosophy’s the - nots)the wealth ofthe f themyth of thethree metals (cf. ”. With Plato as its main f the subject f subject the not 40 euporoi

al philosophy” philosophy” al d,although hard

(the haves),and re repeatedlyre - to tions

- its be be 59

CEU eTD Collection essential in in essential pertinent makingthe oflevel thinkable action governmental . suchepidemiology demography, disciplines as and, political effects of about (1958) anti observations to the Arendt’s (Foucault Parallel of 1978,143). human life” made realmcalculation the and knowledge explicit into of modern social sciences. Biopower is, after all, that which brought “life and its mechanisms polit rationalities fit into the tradition of political philosophy andthe programmatic elimination of count assess the significance of 41 (1990, Hacking 2) shows, it is almost impossible to underestimate the significance of basicmiscount enactedthe politicson as verges complete elimination. and, parts thus its withsum the With ofcommunity equation consensusregime’s (Ibid.,the of the 92). it” with politics philosophy and philosophical of bythe and project achieving politicsbydoing away 105). science “Social (Ibid., been has fi the “sciencethe of opinion”,postdemocraticpolitical philosophy finally thecountrealizes total ofvisibilityend of the the between gap politics sociology”and 118). (Ibid., Conflated with of the collectiveforms visibility space, of end of “the realizes the turn, in which, opinions”, mediaby “the conjunctionconstituted ofvisible and whateveris of thecount endless visible”, regime “homogeneous 104),the the orderaccording(1999, Rancière is of political to

has been ruled out as immaterial” (Arendt 1958, 42 is a hopeless to search for meaning in history when everything that is not everyday behavior or automatic trends periods to politics or histor statistically appear only as deviations or fluctuations. […] The application of the law of large numbers and long

“The laws of statistics are valid only where large numbers or long periods are involved, and acts or events can ics. Crucial among characteristicsthe pointing into this direction is precisely the role of . Linking it to the discussion above, we might now begin to see how biopolitical how biopolitical see to might begin wenow above, the to discussion . Linking it Drawing on two ofRancière’s predecessors – The essence of thepostdemocratic consensus regime that defines the contemporary , the people (as the equally people (as the, the speakingpolitical equally subject) population, the with

economics as a science, Foucault’s account proves that the emergence of y implies nothing less than the willful obliteration of their very subject matter, and matter, it subject very their of the y than implies less obliteration willful nothing

this process,this whichmight we refer to astheliteralization the of

– nal formnal relationship strained bythe between taken 43 ).

most importantly perhaps, statistics, were Arendt and Foucault – Foucault and Arendt - power an agen t of transformation 41

Indeed, Ian as we can better 60 -

CEU eTD Collection semantic ambiguity” of the Western concept of the people, that is,the conceptthethe of that in oscillation of “dialectical people, Western semantic ambiguity” People Agamben (1998, government compassion capturing the French Revolu to its tion, obscuring reference it emerges through enacting the basic miscount of politics. For Arendt (1990, 75), conversely, due to the political e as politics way of life. a specific with politics circle: a it identifies was vicious politics of that her definition at aimed demonstrating sends appearance and politics its packing” (Ran atransformed reduction, ofpredictionthat object and statistical is an people knowledge into form its the of in present people, people.a “Such the to finally became equal parts sum its of emphasis). everybodyto henceforthwhich had –and did” original fall (Hacking 1982, 280; for[…][B]ureaucrats categories hungry […] easily countable designed classifications, into them.demandskinds categorizing and “Enumeration related to lifeofacquisition in the ofpopulation, phenomena its processes the for intervening characterizing the f fetishistic gainedthe waveof Moreover, (Hackingpeople 1990,2). data collection shape of notion becamethe normal statistical, society numbers”, of “the avalanche printed through When, ofsubject/object modernconstruction the politics. the for knowledge statistical 43 42 1999,116). (Rancière a community of opinions that are equal to parties”, there no is representable barrier left included When everyone“is in opinion. homogeneity speakingbeing; the ofinto miscountthe equality every dissolves of public thepopulation, people are nolonger to enactable scandal from the of deriving the democracy interpret primarily as a critique of the Arendtian idea of a specific political sphere and a political way of l of a way and political a specific idea political sphere of the of a critique Arendtian primarily as distinction between the private the and public realms: the ‘Ten wrote “I Theses Politics’on [Rancière 2010c] hand, much of his conceptualization of politics can be read as a cri out common scenes rather than governing common interests” (Rancière and Hallward 2003, 202). On the other Arendt Rancière declaredly shares Arendt’s conception of the of nature political “Theaction: basis of agreement [with

, 41) on on 41) , (1958 Arendt Cf. In counterposingIn the prevalence of social science to politics asunderstood a staging scene of appearance, ” ] is that politics is a ma ] is that politics

ation. as “a unitary political body” and “apolitical body” as unitary Thus, the will Thus, the statisticalto knowledge brought about the literalizationof the count: the ” (Rancière 2003, 3). qual speaking beings; “the people” is the empty name that is filled by the part that has no part when , “

le peuple See below and Rancière (2010a). Rancière and below See – 176 ) ) “fundamentalthe discovers 178 biopolitical fracture” in “ the ” in modernity became identical with low“the people”, that is, masses.the When irst half of the nineteenth allowed century for knowledge extensive 43 “

the Unlike in previous ages, which unabashedly divided those worthy of divided worthy ages,those previous unabashedly which in Unlike tter of appearance (

victory of victory Relatedly, as discussed above, Rancière, thefor arepeople the subject of

“

the people equality

advance, every individual is individualnucleusand is advance, the every image of apparence in the modern world” ”

as “the members the lowerof classes”, adoptshe ), a matter of constituting a common stage or acting

cière 1999,105). of things or people to count. Counting is toCounting count. people or of things ticism of Arendt’s theorization of the Greek those who did not participate in the in the participate not did who those .

diffuse and constant 42

Equated the with ” ife

between between . The The

Arendt’s ‘ Theses “ the the

61 ’

CEU eTD Collection 14). disjunction that bears the empty name of freedom, the improper property, the entitlement to dispute” (Ibid., 13 themselves not reallyare the They poor. are merely reign the of a lack of position, the effectivity o struggle. Thus, he concludes: “Just as the people are not really the people but actually the poor, the poor conceiveto the poor. with people city comprises only two parts: the rich and the poor. However, as and However, the poor. two the rich parts: only city comprises or without qualities without theor proper accounttotalizing of the consensusregime earlier and ages’ divisiontangible of people with thebetween to difference the parallel a Drawing ofcommunity. incorporation the ofparts the Ranciére’s understanding, postdemocracy refer in of bettermentvehicle interests, towardsthe it life through the populations’ governing polemicalthe enactment thereof (Ibid.). a “exclusion” through totalizing account of socio- wages consensusregimeon war that of the process division”, upthe byshowing count political life from and allowed dumb thus “make uncounted the rest, to for the themselves 44 about talk we excess nolonger withoutcan residue, topopulation sum the their equals so and individualsalwa are and parts the people, and thus theimpedes enactment of everyone’s basic equality. When of theconsensus regime precisely is that it eliminates the miscount between the community’s t part the are whomustask, we However,

he The

“ fundamental proposition fundamental In contemporary contemporary In euphemism are only parts […] there 1999, 14; original emphasis). 1999, 14; proposition remains the nopart same: is there whonopart of have those (Rancière of society contractual of and government byconsultation […], fundamental the forms the into policed converted Butunder onlybe that can parts partners. are There groups, categories, communities, on. so and interest minorities, socioprofessional and Reinforcing the idea that liberalism enables a life of the poor as a category that exists prior to politic Onthe one ys already included into the order through their interests and identities, ” hand

mentioned

to rule,to argues: he Rancière Rancière 44 here here refers theto actual equivalence of the free but non

(1999) commends Aristotle’s Aristotle’s commends (1999) hat has nopartif the count is now The total? essence

political identities and categories, impedes s, he refuses to identify politics with class class identify with politics refuses to he s, s precisely to this all he

refuses to fix the meaning of the people and

of the society – - fostering political rationality observation that the order of the social majorities - encompassing f the initial f - qualified qualified – 62

CEU eTD Collection continuum ofcontinuum positions. the to temporality development and lend count, notionsof progress liberal of absolutized the developmental continuum liberalpolitical of thought. Togetherwith the de of rationalities postdemocraticgovernmental stillhomogenizing draw science opinions, onthe dynamicsmutually reinforcing the of all (Ibid.,grading” 116). Indeed, complementing the seamlesshomogeneity created by t materialized wasdissolved into “a continuum of positions […]mimicking basic school since be axis orderofpreviously the whichhas the cannot enacted, along it consensus reducedfreedom: the to instrument freedombeen of has governmentality.Exclusionwithi 45 of the fit condition completely contemporary absolute life surplus redundancy characterizing not This does postdemocratic circulation. account,however, the navigate ready to yet not speaks the he ofattempt bondsidentities 1996), social programsconstruct and of that to those assessing theof construction those neoliberal “the poor” after the death of social the (Rose mentgovern of the poor in terms akin to those of the governmentality literature. Similarly to count isthe now all identities or “social ties” (Ibid., 116; translation modified). That is, in line with his claim that aggregate of theassisted [ only line”, is “countablethementionsunsubjectifiable one “invisible, which in an beyond dissolutionof to explicating he pointconsensual has restated. In exclusion, be the earlier an Laceyand Ilcan 2011); its and are practices. so distancing delaying (cf. of alive apparatus developmentand the well (e.g. 2007), is Duffield responsibilization or identity, despi attitude type ofproper interest, time being”. Mehta of liberalism temporality that and desires information energies, of circulation the with thethings, with buzz of world, effect, In

This remains true in spite of the ambivalent temporality that “the end of the promise” implies (Rancière 2007). 2007). (Rancière end the of promise” implies “the that the spite of ambivalent temporality in true remains This Yet, considering Rancière’s (1999) account Rancière’s (1999) considering Yet, the consensual “politics exercised altogether in the present” in synchronicity “with the rhythms of the the rhythms the “with in of synchronicity in the present” altogether “politics exercised the consensual

- encompassing, Rancière heregives an account of theconsensual 45

Sustaining an ever an Sustaining de

(1999, 30) refers to, amounting to the cementation of inequalities “for the ]”: of the unemployed, the poor, or those lacking or poor, the ]”: unemployed, ofs assistés the - encompassing euphemism of interests and the - rejuvenating industry engaged in creating the engagedcreating industry in rejuvenating te or, in fact, due to its securitization and itssecuritization to or, due fact, te in

of there - incorporation of marginalgroups,

” replicates imperialthe politicizing effect effect politicizing he he 63 n

CEU eTD Collection general public”: of sight public”: is thegeneral the fromremoved vision average. of margins the the perfectly fits “clean apparently – The homogeneity. redundancy to presumptionof shape postdemocratic gives market, it increasing adaptationcriminalization of of the supposed poverty,and law needs the of to the global city spatializes and that these spatiotemporalities materialize. To a significant extent, the sensible order of the abandonmentbelow, precisely is deployed through the oftechnology distancing and delaying spatiotemporalities according to the threshold of access into fostered localities. As discussed the urban redevelopmentmolds a particular sensible order, allocating different of the of heart at market circulation realm. imperative governed the The of into demarcation margins ofcitymanifest rationality the governmental that a tangibleundoubtedly draws lines the andthrough of homogeneousregimewithin onthe ofSpaces abandonment visibility. clearly: the divisions that neoliberal governance instates into the city space certainly splinter 1 partthat the nopart then? has of totality absolute theconsensus. assume cannot the andhe thesuch, as himselfof excludes possibility politics never Rancière questioned. Especially considering that, despite thepessimistic tone of postdemocracy, urbanism. Therefor of neoliberal slippages within the government of the poor: they are inscribed into the biopolitical rationality correct,simplyas itstechniques regarded governmentality is ofbe cannot abandonment governmental the and technologies it implies. If my 46

.3.2 See e.g.See Rancière (2010a).

Turning to the topography of the global city, one possible response one emerges rel possible city, the to topographyofglobal Turning the governmentality urban Neoliberal guiding the (non- - up campaigns” or the refurbishment of city spaces up refurbishment use the city “for the ofcampaigns” or of the

codifies the consensus regime. Through intensified policing, the policing, intensified Through consensusregime. the codifies )government of places beyond beyond prime)governmentthe of realm places of circulation

46 e, the ideaof theall

What are we to make of the fundamental proposition of makeproposition wefundamental to What the are of

–

the biopolitics of dispersal of biopolitics the earlier depiction of neoliberal urban - inclusive consensus needs to be

atively atively 64 –

CEU eTD Collection the movementcontaining ofredundant but a free citizens to encountered through their struggle for a place in the city, I suggest we attribute the attempts at practices and presumptions that Abahlali governmental depoliticization withthe and to view andequality freedom. spatiotemporal, corporeal and political techniques that separate people from inscribed their variegatedtechniquesgovernmentality resorts to of to distancingdelaying, and redundanc problemthe ofpolitically superfluous. In the the faceof the conflictbetween the economic struggle with governmentality’s exposes neoliberal population ofsurplus encroachment the regime, the imperative Lacking the means of developmental trusteeship, theat spatiotemporal limits of theconsensus their too. development unnecessary render redundancyofseems lives absolute such to forthe life ofthe disrupted; disrupted; that is, whether and how political subjectificatio n can occur within its orderof 1 significant parts of their population entrepreneurial subject, liberal democratic polities accommodate technologies that deem on margins is, )capacities. of That the the governme sensible (in orderof- the entailsdistribution a abandonment of desires, and goods political reveal, alongside the assessment of individuals’ capabilities to join the proper circulation of exclusionary apparatus, and regularlymanage crackit to open. as Second, thesevery struggles occurring urban of struggles all thepersistentlycomplete.in question First, world corners its

The question that remains is whether and how thebiopolitics of dispersal can be assumeorderofconsensusto spatiotemporal Nevertheless, wethe be cannot the Conclusion y of city poor homo

Thus, in line with the previous of thediscussion linewith previous of rationality Thus, in the to to secure the milieu of seamless circulation against the undue œ conomicus - dwellers and their democratic rights, neoliberal urban

ignorant, inscrutable or infantile, and thus unfit not only only andnot unfit infantile, or thus inscrutable ignorant, , but , but also for politics. In turn, as argued above, the ntal rationality shaping the ideal rationality the ideal ntal shaping biopolitics ofbiopolitics dispersal .

CEU eTD Collection dwellers’ political illiteracy and other practices meant to render them unequal. Thus, Isuggest order biopolitical ofurban contingency the the we recognize impossibility of politics. To the contrary, taking the Abahlali’s struggle seriously requires that conceptual the shouldimply nevertheless, not This, publicoutrage. or consequence without disposingoften function killing as life preciselyas life of impunity, with superfluous - techniques shack toof governance the which urban appropriat be read as positioned against the ways Agamben’s (1998) concept of the bare life has been Rancière’s previously discussed concept of politics and the role of speech therein, it can thus Offeringof for,goodlife. interpretation fight a an claimwho and desire, this through the despite inhuman whichare conditionssuffer, living speaking under they they equal beings orderthatabandons them.sensible subjects both ofsubjects ofcommunityand whole as of rights the development, equality in the enacttheir and, Abahlali with identifying conditionsgeneral, living in their and dwellers’ politics appropriatedgovernment, is as the ofpeople improper property the through the shack urban horizonof onthe neoliberal excess in appears which and being to as all, granted baseMjondolo,a I Abahlali Drawing on dispersal. theshack African with South - my research – disrupted be thatcan order of excess freedom, thesis this argues t governmental the the superfluousness problempersistent political thus expose and ofproblem careofglobalcity against splintering the urbanthe Presumingstruggles abandonment. that

- motivated shack bythe been thisworkhas extent, To great a ed by critical IR and anthropology. Doubtless, ed discussed be Doubtless, as bycritical anthropology. IR and will . That is, suggest I that in contesting forced temporariness mobility, imposed rgue that the political freedom, political thatthe rgue politics can and does emerge within the biopolitical order of of the biopolitical order within emerge does and can politics

hat abandonment is functional to a contingent sensible abandonmentfunctionalto contingent hat is a dwellers’ mobilization directs attention which the post the which in in the discourse about the shack dwellers’ movement, dwellers’ claim that, - apa rtheid regime shortly, the disrupt thedisrupt 66 - -

CEU eTD Collection intelligences certainly has implications for thinking and writing about politics too.Directed by work explanation at of distancing logic Recognizing the researchers. crucial for their disruptive politics while, on the other, allows for a reflection on our work as ther of egalitarianidea pedagogy further engaged is the in latter of parts Chapter asdispersal orderconditioned an the on establishing inequality of intelligences, Rancière’s the shack on impact assesses and ofthe law appropriating inscription politics, as their of in rights role 2010a), (cf. Chapter potentiality of Rancière rights andRancière Panagia 2000 Taking). accountof the implications of order the1994; Rancière ungrounded(cf.e.g. 2004c,exposing hierarchy ofsensible the canfreedom equality by appropriated be and anyoneall.As at they such, put be can to for use the police order has to contain: the equality of intelligences implies that inscript the muting equality of intelligences,the excessof the refersof words to power languagethat Rancière 19 hierarchy andof sheercontingency (cf. beings underlines social the of given any speaking his ofthrough Josephaccount Jacotot’segalitarian pedagogy,former to the the refers equality interconnected ofequa concepts the throughout my interpretation of their political subjectification, I draw on Rancière’s politics, aspect of this from living cue politicsof proximity.Taking vocal thoroughly andpolitical, the counter effectsoforderthat the Abahlali’s politics, problematize concerns of life in the informal settlement as fundamentally i mobility redefineswhat forced - ofthe shack stageddemonstration equality, the that as

e, Abahlali’s pedagogical practice and their conception of knowledge is, on the one hand, hand, one onthe of is, conception knowledge practice Abahlali’se, pedagogical their and As As - dwellers’ political su Chapter Chapter 91). Derived from his readings of Derived fromphilosophyand91). readings political as his historiography 4 argues, the manifold waysthatspeakingand understanding defines the bjectivity. relationIn to my understanding ofbiopolitics the of s considered political. lity of intelligences

distantiates them from their equality with a 5 focuses on Abahlali’s focuseslitigation the and onAbahlali’s

dwellers refusal and dwellers of disposability and the excess the and of words

this notionfor thepolitical against the equality of the against 4. As show I . Elaborated . Elaborated ions ofions 67

CEU eTD Collection some ofthose implications. to presumptionofcontingencyendorse intry the ofbiopolitics, follows,I what urban

CEU eTD Collection off” aparadigmatic is phrase of the Cinderella’s fragile shoe, off entails cutting as now parts Indeed, seen overgrowths. “cutting majorbecoming hubs in the now continentsof are foundcities” be competition “global to onall bythe for defined on that centered and “maximizing the goodcirculation Topographies bydiminishing bad”. the that(2007, demonstra 18) security Foucault present our challenge posed against the“poor laws” of the age of labor force medicine. Metropolises of targeted are a against mode thatorigina ofgovernance urban piling of category the in included be to now ofappear groups individuals ofgovernment circulation: indicated in the previous chapter, urban today’s struggles signify yet another model for the poor come As had as workersthe themselves parallel, and threats. in and, regarded be to f “labor for English “medicinethings”, this ofWith industrializationoutmoding oftowns. the outskirts thus its resources – 2.1 2 Chapter 18 aim being to secure the purity of that which circulates, wasit under the “urban medicine” of ) (2000b traces the changing ways a city’s vitality was thought to be protected. With its main lecturehi ofa about in the the urban conceptualizations

century French cities t - up hazardous refuse. Slogans such as “NO to evictions to human dumping grounds!” human to dumping grounds!” “NO evictions as to refuse.such up hazardous Slogans Emphasizingthe centrality of theideaof circulation within the evolving Splintering nurture: The fissured topographies of care orce medicine day

diverge diverge from mode of the governingpeople andof things through apparatuses ” circulation,” had redefined been as including the flow too of individuals global city global Materializing abandonment: The biopolitics of cemeteries, ossuaries, and slaughterhouses – hat “pilinghat -

global economic circulationglobal economic

present daymetropolitan order: in “world class” cities, up refuse” was first problematized as hazardous and tes tes i n the examplen the ofmoderntown’s evolution the story of publi – a competitiona that,as the for one te in, but twist the liberal c health, Michel health, c Foucault were relocated to the

the 69

CEU eTD Collection discussed above,that discussed the biopower, modernis, of“man governance the - spatial government.olitical of biop perspective certain moments in time – pertinent levels. Therefore, multiplicities of people are left unprotected in certain localities at det implies thatpotentially population relevant effects of reality to achieve the common interest at the pertinent level of the practice pertinent into and ofnon- governmental lives, for the regulation of the massified subject of the turnson division population implicit an wellbeing the urge with which aspiring megacities engage in redesigning themselves. precisely this shift. Today, processes materializethat abandonment to be seem exacerbated by in byinsulating samemilieu, but milieu offromthe goodcirculation ofbad. the that m 47 deployment of cost the neoliberaldiscussing foundations ofpost the order, despite theemancipator post the rationality governmental and of correlateurban thethe idea class “world took city” shape in aim amore to provide specific context for Abahlali’s str reason.Withthe political of modern gap within thisepistemological abandonment crystallizes

mobilize specificthe sense

I theI use term city’ ‘global aximizing good circulation seems goodcirculation be to aximizing by not carried out diminishing bad the the within

the (2008) documentary City”,Morgan’s about baseMjondolo Jenny Abahlali testifies to

Condensing the major claims of many contemporary movements in the title “A place the movements in many contemporary major the claims of Condensing In this chapter, I take a closer look at the ways neoliberal urban governmentality urban waysneoliberal lookthe at take closer a I chapter, this In practices that impede poor people’s access to urban infrastructure. Locating these - apartheid South African metropolis, effectively reinstating the minority rule’s spatial ,

inevitably entails the production and consequent the abandonment of superfluous - recovery and the return of the “slum eradication” discourse, I outline the

it gained through Saskia Sassen’s work. Cf. Brenner (1998a) and Robinson (2002).

interchangeably with ‘megacity’ or ‘metropolis’,thus not withthe intention to

y mandate of the first democratically elected government. elected democratically In offirst y mandate the that is, at spatiotemporal coordinates irrelevant from the rimental dynamics are allowed to take effect on non - apartheid approach lowto pertinent levels. Hence, governingthe Hence, pertinent levels. uggle, I first showuggle, first I how neoliberal as - species” towardits - cost housing, thecost 47

Certainly, as 70

CEU eTD Collection rationality rationality thus hand went hand in gi with governmental within social the and economic localities. Decouplingentrepreneurial the conceptionsplace to ofmore suitable of development image forcompetitive, urban the up late wasdis (backed by the massmodern notion of progress) technological service provision of ideal universal the welfarist governmentality, prevalence of neoliberal st the ofimplied thatresponsibilitiescorresponding of redefinitionpublicinfrastructure ofidea the beingsame time, constructedaslead At the the principles. their market competition with and impact on the conceptualization and Aseconomic policies. it wasalso mentioned there, ofthis process purification had major a which social, being considerationsresulted the in ofand justice from social out weeded governmentalities, the previous chapter discussed the latter’s disentanglementeconomy ofthe spatiotemporalthe orderof abandonmentalso revealed. is distribution beof to capacities heard seen,and in this account, depoliticizing the rationality of of the at pointing with the coincidence oftechniques distancing Moreover, the population. by the surplus to physicallythe distancing nurture milieu orderseeks ofsensible competition shack offrom abandonment order the spatiotemporal the outline I of finally apparatus dispersal, of phenomenabiopolitical a these spacesofpart Interpreting as abandonment. produce pri which,the beyond areas polarization, fragmentation and in (Graham 2001), Marvin and that is, processes thatresulted in infrastructural networks’ West and statist developmentalism were in theSouth replaced by “splintering urbanism” how generally equalizingrecount the planning spatial programs welfare of practices within the context of localities’ global competition for a highly mobile capital, I then

ate and members of the the population significantly were That reshuffled. is, thewith - dwellers’ perspective, and show this instead that of themproductive, render to aiming Drawing on Foucault’s analysis of the shift between liberal onFoucault’sDrawing analysisbetween ofshift liberal and the neoliberal

the provisionthe of privatized increasingly social services, ving Neilup what Brenner (1998bas refers to , 476)

me realm of circulation,

liberalism in the carded, giving 71

CEU eTD Collection liberalization and Theodore and (Brenner 2002World IMF and the loans b), attachedBank to conditionalities byway of North, the in state welfare offensive neoliberal on the the outpacing) (Duffield 2007) ossified North the - ofand altering so ofpopulationsConsequently, Southern states’ideals their with providing social citizenship development national social, programsthe were ultimately delegitimized (Neocosmos 2011). disengagement the economy and reconfiguration the of exporting neoliberal development of 2001). the turn, with In patterns ofMarvin replicated development (Graham uneven and populations, de ofimprove life their the effect of key urban areas’ industrialization, despite the declared universalistic intentions to reliance on the “trickle down” them (KooyWhat denying 2008). minority and “natives” Bakker and the to is more, with their of “spatial apartheid”(Balbo 1993). That is, networkedinstalling services for the white economic circulation together with the lives of the local white elite implied constructing cities (Chari 2010, 77). In terms of infrastructure provision, aims to optimize North colonial agenda onthe wasnever throughmetropolitanregulation modesall” of lives the efforts to reco shoestring”“hegemonyon a biopolitical technologies(e.g. 1995; Stoler Mitchell due2002), of to nature the the always Global has been colonialSouth While the deployeduneven. of array rule wide a spatial development.uneven “homogenizing spatial onpractices national a and scale” allowing for intensificationthe of 48

practice ‘indirect rule’, but also limited their ability to direct the course social and course of change”. the political direct limited ability to their also but rule’, ‘indirect practice inrulers Africa at effective government. “Scarcity money of an

With this notion, Sara Berry (1993, 24) refers to the contested and often unsuccessful attempts of colonial As struggles for a place in the city ncile the dual goal of economic exploitation and social ordering, “transforming ordering, and social of goal economic the ncile dual exploitation

were permanently undermined (Escobar 1995). Paralleling (and Paralleling often 1995). (Escobar undermined permanently were privatization of public services became the fundamental norm urban of 48

assumption of modernizationassumption theoryanticipating the spread- (Berry 1993) and the “racial frame” the and “racial (Berry 1993) scope of the defining the South distribution of “insured distributionSouth ofand “insured non- in velopmentalist regimes of post

this hemispherethis reveal, spatial development in d manpower not only obliged administrators to - colonial states insured lives”insured

- bound out out 72

CEU eTD Collection Review ethnographic account, see Seabrook ( .1 2.1 collapse ofmodernideal” individual the (Graham infrastructural 2001,296). Marvin and own “their itscities with 2010),confronting thus Global (McFarlane South the in governance 50 Cities 49 economic stra But,on puzzling. of level (GEAR,macroalthough the seemsstrategy - particularly 1996) (RDP, with 1994) the primacy of inGrowth, competition the andRedistribution Employment, replacement of ideals ofReconstruction theequalizing Programme the andDevelopment “passthrough laws” and the ofconstruction peripheral townshipsBantustans; and the of whiteminority rule and its almost incomprehensible system of discrimination carried out mandate. developmentalist ht In lig of the emancipatory promise to eliminate the inheritance historical context largely determining the fate of the first Mandela place under the global dominance of market forces and neoliberal ideology”, this with South Africa’s transition from apartheid “was t case of such trajectories of ideational collapse. As Franco Barchiesi (2002, n. p.) argues, today. explainfully the uneven radically ofpattern service provision shaping African South cities mantra of th developmentbalance budgetary investmentthrough the and to growth idea based ofon the achieving the thatdefined RDP’s state” goals developmental

14, 2011) criticism of Bond’s economic pr frames of this chapter. For research properly engaging the topic, see e.g. publications of the be sufficiently summed up in a single paragraph, but a more thorough discussion would stretch beyond the

Whereas Patrick Bond’s (2000) detailed account of the ANC’s transition from a developmental to a neoliberal To be sure, sure, be To , the special issue of of issue special the ,

50 and the Spatial apartheid – Spatial apartheid Post

In In fact, there seem to be anumber of elements in the late- ogram is very informative, it is worth consider Richard Pithouse’s (personal correspondence, April correspondence, (personal Pithouse’s Richard consider it is worth ograminformative, is very - the history of modernist urbanization and its neoliberal restructuration in the in the Globa restructuration and its neoliberal urbanization modernist of the history apartheid South Africa represents a unique and at the same time paradigmatic represents theparadigmatic uniquesametime a at and apartheid Africa South e GEARe striking both is relevant and (Bond2000, it Magubane 2002), not does International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. tegies the quick shift from the conception of“national conception the from shift the the tegies quick Social Text Social –

and, byimplication, NaomiKlein’s (2008)

yet again?

1996). Seefurther the journals : “Urban Margins: Envisioning the Global South”. For a more

he first case of ‘national liberation’ to take Urban Forum Urban

–

depiction ofthe ANC - centered “growth first!” , apartheid Third WorldPlanning - government’s national government’s national AfricanCentre for –post l South cannot - - government, democratic democratic - tran 49 sition

73 -

CEU eTD Collection formation, and their incomplete adoption of the international paradigm, see Huchzermeyer (2004, Chapter spatial development policy since 1989” American, the corporation behind the Foundation now owns Moreland, the company that has driven Durban’s longer exists, as Butler and Pithouse (2007, 9) note, the company still shapes the cityscapes in Durban: “ and other leading corporations. other and bytheofmostly experts newl the seventies, the beganunderminedin be already to approach signified GEAR,turn this bythe essential municipal services”. Much earlier than the ANC “thesuburbs): apartheid saw state itsroleas one of subsidizing and providing delivery ofthe subsidies thein whitemoresignificant much to townshipssure, (and, be the in black even provision for service apartheidsubsidies regime the significant manner”, provided skewed for the set the have stage reinforcement neoliberal advance. apartheid ofin spatial reconfiguration ofstate the 52 51 especially then president Thabo Mbeki, as incomp the “[Mbeki] World andby Bank: easily directed etent ofFoundation’s the reinforce removals,institution forced the to attempts legal approach statethat the lostitscapacitycontrol to the “urban influx” peopleof black dwelling. development informal and waspolicy reformulatedmuch the oflines along the international consensusonurban m of housing the question political time,divisionsConcerning (McDonald2002). this across cost from infrastructu National Party’sgoverning housing policy in the mid- this middle c this genuine African bourgeoisie that could break the link between Africaness and poverty. He saw the creation of hundreds of years and making a tactical accommodation with the global system would allow the creation of a been crushed from outside and that a lesson must be drawn from this. He argued that had the Revolution, Haitian the modern in world, liberation the how attempt first at about black instance, for

headquartered inthe United Kingdom(

On the role of the Urban Foundation in the late Anglo- ore particularly,againore due largely the to consultancy ofgovernment the Foundation, Urban - recovery as the mainprovisionrecovery the municipalservice by as principle of the nineties early – With regard With basic to as regard infrastructure, McDonald20) (2002, “ notes, American is the world’s lass, andlass, elite, as a blow against racism re and service provision, so making way to the complete endorsement of endorsement complete the makingway so to of provision, re service and

- second largest mining company originally based in South Africa, presently municipality relation (and their respective responsibilities) that 51 http://www.angloamerican.c .

With influence onthe Urbanmajor the Foundation gaining y formed Foundation Urban financed byAnglo- 52 Apparently offering a more flexible response more flexible offering a Apparently - apartheid reformulation of housing policy, the context of its ” .

eighties,the state increasinglyretreated om/ - ). Whereasthe UrbanFoundation no government’s apparent neoliberal apparent government’s Africans had been poorfor albeit in a racially , despite repeated

to the to fact American - Anglo

spoke, 5).

by 74

CEU eTD Collection promoted body bythe representing business interests was the addition of aso unionstrade and the movementcivic make could the Foundation’s to Urban proposal 2004).(Huchzermeyer differenceThe only thatthe delegation representing ANC,the the early eventhat theWorld Bank itself was forced to revise the site- post of the the bases provided negotiations at the National Housing Forum active vision from Foundation’s Urban the 1992, dominating themarginalization, pattern of apartheid spatial the reinforcing market thereby settlement included nominally (COHRE Despite 2008). thecriticism against this scheme for avers its one headsgranted were household (through state the where a policy theexperts housing 2004), Foundation’s (Huchzermeyer suggested ownershipself and individualized of schemes property 2009). vocabulary Foundation of Urban (Pithouse the replacement of “slum” with “informal settlement” in development discourse, mirrored in the asbut poor adaptive people’s solution housingto shortage (COHRE hence the 2008): reflected the new international paradigm conceived that municipalities’ choiceof cost promoting authorities and the Treasury e th cutbacks in through resourcegovernance allocation from thecentral government to local ofshift the democratic government materialized in GEARthe strategyfed and into urban to house” the serviced (COHREsite Thus, 2008). bythe time neoliberal the macroeconomic

- time subsidy that delivered the ownership of a landed property with basicservices with property the ownership of that delivered time landed a subsidy - nineties, it determined the pa In line with the neoliberal agenda of international financial institutions promoting - - apartheid housing policy. Consequently, regardless of the fact offact Consequently,regardless apartheid the housing policy. - enforced caps limiting their spending per budget item, budget limiting spending per caps their enforced upgrade element for and failing to challenge the property th of the democratic government’s housing delivery housing government’s ofdemocratic th the - recovery- pro and - funded Independent a Trust) Development of shantytowns no longer as noas of anomaly shantytowns longer - business subsidization was almost was subsidization business almost help infrastructure development infrastructure help and - service approach by the service approach bythe ion to carry to theion out - called “starter by eligible 75

CEU eTD Collection national provision of water through, at least, a stand pipe stand a at in least, the through, of water yard.provision People have complained (Huchz democratization saw the large was encoded into the governmental regime from very beginning. the Although the pe programmedRDPwith beliberation great the to a began realized impetus, collapse their in elect – – reinforcing while 2002), McDonald or democratic various Act Transition Government redistribution inresource advance thearticulated of first democraticLocal the elections, local government legislation (Robinson were uneven ossifying topographies laid.already inevitabl 55 http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/article456338.ece/SA 54 53 of“incrementalincomprehensibly low standards the houses”, process. two years – achieved waseventually between 1999 1994and million houses goal 1.5 to build ambitiousgovernmental whereas the Similarly, 2002). McDonald and (Pape installation ofwater - theelectricity, growing takingshape prevalence forof market, example the the in extensive

electricity grid” (Pape and McDonald 2002, 4; original reference omitted). reference and original 2002, McDonald 4; (Pape grid” electricity Fro connections. for figures positive saw Electricity 1994. also since inconnections of terms itthe million tosecond claimed have reached 1999

“ backlog housing The “The delivery of water was proclaimed a ‘miracle’ theby Department of Water Affairs Forestryand and by the apartheid residential structure by turning its units into “racialized and politicized Legiti oral districts” (Robinson 1997, 366). Thus, even though the equalizing goals of equalizing the the though (RobinsonThus,even 1997,366). oral districts” ermeyer 2004, 2).“

Department of Housing’s minimumnorms and A further element contributing to this process of ossification was the transitional mizing the inadequacy of the delivered housing unit, the policy was called ‘incremental housing’” 54 e (Pape and McDonald 2002). Hence, the grounds eventually grounds cities’ for the competitive e Hence, 2002). (Pape McDonald and

More critically,More the beyond notoriously poor quality of the buildings theand – the rapidly wathe growing backlog was estimated be inmillion to 2010. was 2.1

The exact form of these houses varies according to provincial standards, but the and electricity meters, often annull ganizations into a multiparty structure as“stakeholders” (Pape and

of 1993 entrenched - systema decision of

m 1994 to 1997, more than 1.5 million households were added to the - scale rollout of infrastructure, through securing the veto powers of the white minority vetoofwhite powers the securing through

1997). Largely counteracting the progressive ideas of ideas progressive the Largely counteracting 1997). - - housing standards require 30 square met s not the not s problemonly the with delivery backlog (Source: (Source: ed benefits the originally provided - at

- 53 2.1 55

especially ofthat and water -

million their location routinely re although with a delay of delay a although with making thattamed the that ‘Mandela’s houses )

e r s of floor space riod after

and the are are 76 -

CEU eTD Collection andRobinson (2002). (Pieterse 2005),spatial fragmentationofpost the the (Pieterse globa join the to the articulationin urge fitting a for neoliberalization found pressure general situation, original when the the being Such 2008). transportation and failureof the inter to due and, employment opportunities development by apartheidthe regime:on peripheriesthe of distant existing fromtownships, apartheid planning.inscribed Thedeve 56 thehalf size of Verwoerd’s 2005, 139). integratedcost”(Pieterse any globally and at ‘competitive’, about of‘worldmainstream importance - ideas being the uncritically, policy “many Africa, South metropolitan authorities seemfollow, somewhat to determined cemented. operates throug ofoperates withdrawal care,Huchzermeyerh the continues: (Ibid.) for tocontest the hyper contribute competitive cities “activelydiscourage”Huchzermeyer, the deemed of influx those to unfit governance 26).2010a, much Very in rhyme with the descriptionabove of urbancontemporary (Huchzermeyer portrays fullestshowmodernity signs innot ofthat does its and informality” necessity of competitiveness has very real spatial consequences: “A competitive city oneis mean itsthat effects are not not its does more deploymentitsvaguenessbut, importantly, prolific conceals the “is f notes, of 1070) conception (2004, competitiveness

Slums Act Slums

See, among others, See, Indeed, as most assessments of post ” (COHRE 2008, 86) 2008, (COHRE ”

aiming to isolate th

02), (20 Robins Huchzermeyer (2002), McDonald (2010a), Lemanski and Oldfield (2008) basic urban amenities such as schools, clinics, or public transport (COHRE and, indeed, houses this smallwould .

real. Quite to the contrary, the all - mobile capital. Pointing at the heart of the power thattoday ofpower capital.heart atmobile the the Pointing e realms of good circulation from to realmse of goodcirculation according bad, lopment sites were oftenlopment were sites those forassigned township - apartheid governanceurban show, present in lly raging competition ofworld

have been classified as ‘slums’ under the 1934 - apartheid metropolis cameapartheid metropolis be to - departmental in lacking planning, ar from straightforward”, its - pervasive reference to the 56

Although, as Turok as Although, c lass cities class’, - day day 77

CEU eTD Collection of that “acity works for all”, regime theoperated apartheid 2005, (Ballard 16). As a further illustration of the absurd reality habitation, wealthywhite urbanites have privatized the racist“fear mixing” of that once ability performstate’s to through regard, form this in of guarded almost paranoiacally Manifesting thesocio South cities in townships, gradually Africa took shape ofthe cities” “fortress (Robins 2002). ofpostinability the faceofreaction metropolises. to In supposedly more competitive the a African South 57 package of- completing the level, tax infrastructural on the 2008). effect effectOldfield enhancing of In fragmentary for investmentthe competition the completely excl publicroads, inenclosing ended 2007the of uplegitimizingCity CapeTown the Municipality otheron the side of the biopolitical fissure, hyper

city’s bid to become the “ you”, the one cited by Lemanski and Oldfield (2008, 10) is still in use,

Although the slogan on the official home page of the City of Cape Town today reads “This city works for Equa newbuilding shacks. “security measures” (as offered by private security firms) to prevent the poor from more attractive than other cities. Large South African municipalities increas manyare relatively simple ways not to make cities attractive to the poor, at least not services into these areas and not to permit the expansion of thesesettlements. There extend isto not approach ofsettlements,the through the door enters shack back still environments pro any residential in por cities to discourage city - decision mechanism by used One readily lly demonstrating the globally perceptible effects of the world usive type of gated communities reserved for the ultra World Design Capital 2014 - - apartheid government to contain the growing criminality in former psychological and effect oftransformation the their lacking trust in the

57 - ward migration of poor people is not provideaffordable is to of migration people ward poor

in its attempt to regulate private developers’ practice of ”.

tion tion to the need. real unwantedIf the population makers throughout South Africa’s largemakers Africa’s South throughout - securitized gated communities show a see e.g. the illustrative example of the illustrative of example the see e.g. benefits, municipalities ten - elite (Lemanski and - class imperative, ingly useingly pparent pparent d to d to 78

CEU eTD Collection benefit from the racially skewe to continue and thus, formerlyindustry “suburbs onthe unserved, infrastructure development services, the neoliberal imperative of cost wherereproducing tariff a poor structure the forced are to the pay most for municipal of thecorresponding era, theofficial policy still addressed the issueof settlements indirectly, removals to relocation camps Temporary (alias Relocation Areas: TRAs) recalled the practice of subsidytoperpetuation scheme apartheidthe topographi contributed and practicemanner, ratherhouses, a the contradictory In while of continued. has relocation of theto delivery low inferior be to wasseen thesettlement poor, housing upgrade for solution Africa,systemcodified South the However,in wasthe where subsidy agenda. shantytowns constructi same time onlywere referred asto illustrations ofvast the extent of delivery to undertaken.be Atthe elimination of informal settleme fervor. this period,the described In housingRDP the the thatwith to addressed backlog lower service tariffs in order to render themselves favorable for industry. 58 ofANC the years seven the in first notes, ofterm changing deployment the look the a at ‘ take slum” 2009, (Pithouse To grasp4). the significance of this discursive shift, it is interesting to cities and the image ofthepresumably competitive ones emerges with “the return of the

- pro the On 24). 2002, McDonald in quoted (Olver uncompetitive” will become products their aluminum like[a major Alusaf exporter], users to electricity provider),see further Hattingh(2010).

As the former Director General of the Constitutional Developm Constitutional the of the General As Director former Most of all, perhaps, the oxymoronic nature ofpost thenature ofoxymoronic the all,perhaps, Most on of globalcities and previously mentioned the shift the in approach to – – not independently of evident independently increasingly not marginalizingeffects the of the in situ

settlement prominence upgradeinternationaldevelopment gained onthe

d investments (Mc of apartheid”

nts was not onthe wasnot horizonofnts housinginstead, policy; the they business tariff business - government, the term was only applied in relation applied was only term the government, - recovery results in charging the charging results in recovery - policy of Eskom (the largest South elec South African Eskom largest of policy (the eradication’. As Huchzermeyer (2010b) eradication’. ent argues:ent “If we increase the price of Donald 2002,Donald 27). - apartheid idea l of integrative es, and forced forced andes,

58 expenses of

Similarly tricity - cost 79 ,

CEU eTD Collection housing as formulated as inhousing 2001bythenMthembi Minister government wasquick to show commitment. Nevertheless,as from evident for new vision the lives of at least 100 million slum dw authored World the the yearin BankUN a earlier and thatwassetadopted out objective endorsement of in situ a legalizing treatmenttopical elimination (Huchzermeyer their thus 2010b). and aimed is, it that the socio at 61 60 59 delivery the complements of low definitelyframework. a n (BNG)2004 outlined progressivehousing ofpolicy It New for Plan Ground” DevelopmentBreaking Human“Comprehensive the of Settlements: another twist to the contradictory dynamics of national legislation and municipal practice, the thatdominateseradication current African South practice. 2010b). its aim for the f “Cities without Slums” (Huchzermeyer ‘eradication’ Karamand on Based 2006). the (mis c 7have Goal Development

and othersand are left homeless houses, ofteni of destruction settlements.established settlementsestablished When destroyed someare are allocated residents surveillance and state violence to prevent the expansion of settlements or new occupations. The third is the where conditions in the settlements becomelife threatening. The second is the use so the removal to and on refuse point electricity, as limit such water, is to or first withdraw The services shacks. cities: “ in the‘global’ frompoor settling discouraging” SpecialRapporteur on AdequateHousing in his than the improvement of the lives of slum dwellers” (UN- erto the directed efforts being mayled to that Goals, have Millennium Development notes that there may have been a misunderstanding as to how to respect international commitments, such as the

As Pithouse (2010, n. p.) enumerates the techniques making up the violent assemblage of “actively the Miloon UN’s by also noted was Kothari, this misinterpretation out, points (2010b) As Huchzermeyer the Hence Absurdly enough, this attitude has changed parallel to the- to top hasparallel changed thisattitude enough, Absurdly 60 ‘Cities Without Slums’

Clearly working against the spirit of working the the against spirit Code 1997Housing Clearly discursive return noted byPithouse (2009, 4). n peripheral settlements, while others are coerced state into others settlements, while n peripheral ollowing fifteen years as eradicating informal settlements (Huchzermeyer

”. upgrades. When in 2000 the Uni When 2000the in upgrades. - concept as that of the“shack

ome provide constant to reference to adifferent approach to

- economic reasonsading le to their emergence as opposed to initiative: the goal to achieve “significant improvement in the - cost housingthe with promotion participatory upgrades ellers” (UN by2020, ellers” 2005,xxi)

report on a mission to South Africa: “… Africa: to a report South on mission hree Three primary are strategies being to deployed eradicate HRC 2008, 16). 2008, HRC

- free city”, the Department now defined city”,free Department now the defined ted ted Nations Development Declaration - Mahanyele, 11oftarget MillenniumMahanyele, 61

- This, despite thefact that, in y

built shacks, known as transit camps, of various forms of adication of slums rather - )interpretation of the 59 the Special Rapporteur , it is is , it this sense of

level international the South African South the - ot onlyot Habitat 80 et et

CEU eTD Collection appropriationof privateland (David Ntseng, interview, 12 “willing “willing the efforts to enable unobstructed circulation, effortsto the - the enable eradication quoted (Mlaba Doubtless, through have2008,142). COHRE becomeunsavory” in that areas a many remove inpolicy to street advancetraders ofWorld the 2010FIFA Cup:“We cleaned have context seemed ripe be the indeed to for Mayorproudly Obed Mlabato about the declare “Slums and the Act” “Slumscodification through ofProgram”the Clearance provincial eThekwini’s (2001) of the provincial Departme KwaZulu latterwasenthusiastically (2009), the tomanyaccording Pithouse taken aboard by provinces, ever more prevalent discourse of slum overpoweredevidently eradication it. Although, bothin supportfromsuch,lacking political as bureaucratic beginningand the and very the warnedframework at the (2004) the Astime,seemed Huchzermeyer 2009). be however, to developments conditional theto provision of twent of integration poorurban peoplerender whenauthorization proposingto ofthe commercial towards shack tracked release and servicing of land. through 62 constructing world 2.1.2

To be sure, sure, be To

slums by 2010, although this deadline 2010,althoughthisdeadline slumswas later the by moved2011.Considering to buyer Such is theSuch is we picture when get zooming fragmentary technologies onthe in of abandonment of andspaces nurture Splintering reas in the city and also townships. This is a wonderful opportunity for us to clean up clean forto us wonderfulopportunity Thisa is andtownships. also city the in reas the - Natal did so with an almost inexplicable impetus. In its 2004

one of the major obstacles to the more efficient delivery of housing in South Africa is the so - setting upof setting willing seller” principle that did not allow for a significant land reform, let alone the the public land alone reform, let a significant allow that not did for seller” principle willing - dwellers’ secure tenure on well - class upon of cities the ruins topographies. with colonial Albeit obvious - world aspiring the significance nt of Housing defined as one of its primary objectives of asprimarynt defined objectives Housing of one its

a corresponding funding mechanism, the BNG also calls for the fast

Furthermore, beyond makibeyond Furthermore, - J locatedfacilitate land, also seeksto it the u l y

y percent of low income units (Pithouse 2009). 2009). class city attributed to this mega

discourse culminadiscourse ng the much neededng the move - 2007 Strategic Plan,2007 Strategic the ted. ted.

eradicat - event, event, - called ion ion 81 -

CEU eTD Collection observation cannot fully grasp grasp fully cannot observation marginalized spaces, considering for instance the practice of “slum to poor defined strategic as ofnewly relocation thewell imaginaryas observing (1996) shows awareness of reach to we have the beyond dumping governmentality- grounds”, biopolitical condition that is largely determined by this fissure and its effect to create “human 2009a of(McFarlane2010,Shapiro boundaries developed/underdeveloped their divide within in Souththe convergecities Global North and reconstructing the in historically regional differences – 63 “interterritorial requirements the ofglobal when to supposed illustrates, adapting the specifyto a point made in previousthe chapte provided invaluable insights onneoliberal of and Nevertheless, rationalities technologies rule. the midsince focusgovernmental and exposes fissurea in the totalizing biopaspect oliticalcare. Certainly, of it materialthe imprint readjusted the cateredresizeddisplays forsocial, bythe those and cu and reaffirms biopolitics. neoliberal Fostered by the increasing marketization and out weeded from government provision, the service of urbanismsplintering materializes both fragmentation of processes infrastructuralnetworks’“sustain urbanism’, that is, unbundling that the Stephen triggerswhat hemispheres Graham Simon and (2001, 33) Marvin termed ‘splintering

South and the North, see Robinson (2002). Robinson see the and North, South policie - South

For an argument about the analytical import of eliminating the conceptual divide stomization of produce that services different pools of choices for responsible consumers American research on margins,urban despite striking “the similarities thein ways economicneoliberal s and political transformations are now affecting the lives of the urban poor throughout the the Americas. the thepoor throughout affecting are now lives urban of ands political transformations , Smith2002). As the previous discussion of the splintering of urbanism African discussionlandscapes South previous ofsplintering As the the em being the very phenomenon ofthe one em th being settlements informal of –

- of and thesocial material fabric of cities”. With the ideaof social justice 1980s, the Foucauldian literature on biopolitics and governmentality has and governmentality literatureonbiopolitics Foucauldian the 1980s, 63

Characteristically, contemporary governance urban on both

the spatial implicationsthe of the “death of thesocial” when the the partition.consequences of biopolitical the

Cf. Auyero (2011a, 431) on the lack of dialogue between North- r , in in order to make sense of the present framework. Whereas Rose between ‘global cities’ in the the cities’ betweenin ‘global - eradication”, his “competitive”

and and 82

CEU eTD Collection site development, for many, takesshape asthewithdrawal of care. As head. on its power to disallow life virtually institutionalized, we encounter biopolitical rationality turned infrastructural crystallization, the “death of the social” may become literal and so, with the comes hardly its could it explained to Programme”) be theseterms.in Thus,when prohibi instance the practice of installing prepaid meters), a municipal regulation that generally responsible costumer ofneoliberal governance may occur inmarginalized places (consider for death. Whereas modes of disciplinary functions forming the thatcarry provision e ofservic the eventually unservedgroups intoconditionscasting of inhuman that their lead people to living wors At retaining the monopoly oforiginal provider, the oft life matchingmarginal up subjects with marginal spaces; andprovision removing the measuresredistributive of itsregulation im ofemergence ofThat biopolitical abandonment. spaces is, the ofdethroning ideal universal pr equates and neglect associatedwithpeople, when to this lessvaluableofplaces groups means neglecting lessvaluable turn, practically in This, 1997,852). (Jones redistribution” strategically significan planningurban and infrastructure for buildingprovision microgeographies local within states cities 2009,and constructing Elden and Rivaling experimentalof 370). “are models competition”

ovidingbasic infrastructure - - support. At best, (and mostly marketablein less areas of theGlobal North) this means - and ts ts the electrification of shack settlements (as did eThekwini’s “Slums Clearance Due to the dualistic schemes of neoliberal urban infrastructureurban provision, schemesneoliberal theDue to dualistic of t service proposal aptly demonstrates,mobilizing theessence ofWestern liberal

(and mostly peri in

in whichin t regions whilst withdrawing policies geared to massintegration to and geared whilstwithdrawingpolicies t regions the state becom state the , -

urban areas in urban in areas South),the gaps Global emerge provision, in such aswater or electricity, we witness nothing less than the es spatially selective, muchmore is at stake (Brenner en with with en higher tariffs fewer and options.

it effectivelyit creates separate circuits of the Urban Foundation’s Foundation’s Urban the plies moreplies than

not not 83

CEU eTD Collection the improvement of the rate Infrastructure Developmentand “Housing concept of universal infrastr concept whereas already the idea of self guaranteed. farfrom communities, poor is returns, expected in which, providers’ infrastructural networks into market- thatthe of theyintegration of pathwaysothernetworks,note self albeit to the GrahamAccordingly, (2001) Marvin take and accountof “community one infrastructure” as infra build and “development frameworks” for private developers, communities are often to encouraged construct their own promotion of self spaces, state urban the and non- “non the conceptions of developing 65 64 for discourse the rationalitya with of corresponding appropriation government’s the African orupgrades community infrastructure development, we also have to take note of the South poor” in international consethe “governing the 1996). cf.2008; Seabrook into the informal thatflourishes sector in shantytowns(e.g. Berner, Gómez Knorringa and contempt for shack infrastructure” seems to be acontradiction in terms and carries similar risks of of hom ideal abandonment materializes. that Indeed, considering the distance between the emancipatory optionwhen even denied andthis is of thus traces “informal appear, infrastructure” it is

(Sleeman quoted in Graham and Marvin 2001, 79). supplier a sole by topublic thought most life”, they regulated were be efficiently a civilized as to “essential seen

In theIn era of universal service infrastructural provision, networks considered were t course, of Except, Therefore, beyond Therefore, operation registering ofthe a biopolitical productive rationality of ogenous cities and the present condition of marginal spaces, “informal marginal spaces, presentof the condition and cities ogenous in such successful ascases the inone a discussed UN - reliance (Duffield 2007). Thus, in localities thatare Thus,in notreliance (Duffield 2007). attractive enough - dwellers’ struggles for a living by projecting entrepreneurial potent - paying moralpaying is as adepicted crucial part of the development process. ucture development state’s monopoly”, the as “natural

state agencies aliken tur the to principle of the as development -

help infrastructure is quite distant from the late through Self - insured lives” of backward populations, beyond prime ofpopulations, lives” insured backward based ones is very based uponprivate onesvery much is conditional

- reliance” in the South African village Klapmuts, where where Klapmuts, in African village the South reliance” structure by themselves (UN nsus on participatory projects of situ in onparticipatoryprojects nsus - Habitat (n. d.) report on a project of o be “naturalmonopolies”: - Habitat n. d.). n.d.). Habitat

justifying the justifying

- in cases modern 64

- built built But, ials ials 84

CEU eTD Collection 2002, 107). exaggeration(Anonymous does likean sound alive” not Khayelitsha often for weeks or even months, interpreting the municipal pr off ofbeing services none leadmembers to cut (frequently whom employed) basic of are six costumer. When arrearsof ZAR 3000(cc. $400) of township householdswith average an size of cost full ideal towards the step within frameworkanalyzed the governmentality, of techniques biopolitical that– the of non- practice the aim the to reverse consequences ofmajor form a ofanti ANC- sign, accommodating opposing tec 67 66 subjectifyin practice it was almost impossible to acquire indigent status, suggests we better revisit the assumption that allhouseholdscan unless forpay services otherwise, they prove and thatin South the African within “indigent pol marginalism” of neoliberal urban governmentality ofmarginalism” neoliberal (Foucault 409),2000a, these in ces instan establishment of thedevelopmental tutelage. Instead, as they suggestiveare of the“political Relatedly, where even eradication or service cut-

(Pape and McDonald 2002, 5). 2002, McDonald and (Pape acquire indigent status municipalitiesthis harassment has been inserted into a process which makes it virtually impossible to even In the best of circumstances, indigent policies amount to harassment of the poor. But in many South African individual case had to be approved at a city council meeting before he/she become eligible for i developed a policy. Hence, there was no way to be declared as indigent. In nearby Ga informed that although the council had been allocat Rustenberg to get information about qualifying as indigents. However, when they arrived there, they were been evicted from their homes for non million have had their electricity cut off since the end of apartheid. Furthermore, some two million people have

To To illu the To indicate government’s “Operation Masakhane” buildgovernment’s (‘let’s it together’) announced in 1995 with Arguably, Arguably, developmentwhere assumesform the slum of infrastructure, informal strate: “In 1999, residents of the former Eastern District Council area of Klipgat to to travel had area of Klipgat Council the District Eastern residents of former 1999, “In strate: 66 g force of such categorization 2002). ofg force categorization (Pape McDonald such and

Further still, although we can trace the neoliberal re scope of cut of scope payment as a way of rendering municipalities ungovernable, can very be very can well municipalities ungovernable, rendering way a of as payment . Yet without it citizens had to rely increasingly on the market to set their service tariffs” service tariffs” market to their set the to on it rely citizens had .increasingly Yet without

the effort to implant self - offs: “…as many as 10 million So

offs, of practices tracing governmentvain. the throughin freedomis

- payment of service bills” (McDonald 2002, 22). 2002, (McDonald bills” service of payment - e disciplinede th areforming beyond to rise gave –it recovery hniques such as“slum eradication”. Similarly, while the icy” of the same period, the fact it that operates on the ed money to cover indigent subsidies, they had not yet - reliance is missing, we cannot talk about the the talk about is cannot missing, we reliance uth Africans have had their water cut off and 10 - actice as “[t]hey are killing us apartheid struggle, that apartheid the is, - articulation of “the articulation of “the poor” - 67 resident quoted in Xali resident quotedXali in - Rankuwa, a person’s

ndigent subsidy. as afirst 85 -

CEU eTD Collection 2.2 attempt political dealinggovernmentality’s the superfluousnesspeople? at with of surplus work, of at instrumentalization freedombe howwe identifyurban can neoliberal to assumeThus, ifaim wegovernmental containment cannot a developmental for the and wasargued aspreviously,however, we it come face we should recognize particularto responses the absolute redundancyof surplus life. Doing so, mobility is managed abandonment and deployed as is concomitant among with, others, Ichapter, suggest that we interpret techniques of distancing delaying and through which toattached account an of of speech. lines Thus, along the dis the the biopolitics of dispersal implies that within the sensible order of the global city, mobility is fr backtakes us to the biopolitics of dispersal,that is, the art of governingthe superfluous the as rest, whosemoreover, mobility an is emphatic achievement this of question liberation, on focusing In economy”? areeconomy as mobile people skilled but as for formal participation in globalizingthe to connected marginally the only formal who poorinhabitants are treat urban competitiveness freedom containment the of termsinto excess for the inquiring mobilityprovides and turn, in mobility, order (Rancière 2004a). Consequently, the allotment and ofare roles functional places to definedcommon distribution is whose partition bya ofsensible that the makes police upthe arguably it is precisely mobility that emerges as the “common” of the global city’s order; the and, mobility”, urbanmanaging is competitiveness about core, “[a]t 26) its (2010a, notes, 2005a (Dillon compatibility circulation the for, with, or of globalcitycrystallizes the governmental a gauge assay of the is utility where the capacity

eedom people. In turn, of superfluous complementing inquiry, Huchzermeyer’s the notion of

Affirming “thethat nomos Biopolitics of dispersal: the sensible order of abandonment ,

much Huchzermeyerlike 25) suggests (Ibid., practices practices movementthat constrain the who are ofmobileas people

of modernity is ‘circulation’, the developmental landscape the ‘circulation’, developmental is modernity of to to face the problem of excess freedom. : “how [do] policies for urban for urban : policies “how [do] , 40). Indeed, a , 40). cussion in the previous previous the in cussion s Huchzermeyer

CEU eTD Collection Open Democracy Advocacy Center (2007), the NGO the (2007), Democracy Center Advocacy Open local councilor’s neglect, two women from the communitydecided to act, ultimately seeking legal help from left all s of plans of out and routinely was infrastructure networked of all kinds supposedly on forsupposedly centering struggles biological survival. bypass documentary about two communities’ legal challenge against political and infrastructural delays. immediacy) networked lacking infrastructure is doubtless about experiencing distances and wayslaborious to cater for one’s basicneeds as opposed to the luxuryunnoticed of electricity and the capacity tospeak and be seen with the same move (Rancière 2005,23). possible and impossible”; a contingent apparatus that sorts the distance from networked )de (non who notby those are to the supposed act whoas equalsof those decide mobilization and public appearance. Approached from theperspective where it challengedis withcoincide and, what more, is on rest assumptions about these people’s capacities for population mobility ofsurplus the corresponding forced the and abandonment of of spaces of materialization abandonmenttemporalitydemonstratesspatiotemporal suspended how the andvisible andaudible, who shouldher spend time Thefollowing what. with accountof the amenities, its off of cutting thereby and urban the to access regulating beyond chapter illustrates, this urbanassumptions about dwellers’ sensibilities and politica 69 68 access to information and basic services are also engrave documenting Abahlali’s act of filingrequest their of information, the patterns parallel of

to go out even if it’s raining, even if it’s if raining, hot, even it’s go even if out to you need water, you just have to go out and fetch water with a heavy thing, and if you need the toilet, you have room, is electric the there

Prior to to Prior “The worst thing in living here… you know, when you are coming from a home where there is water inside , 68 To start with the trivial but nonetheless appalling: in its primary effect, (i.e. the velopment, the biopolitical order of dispersal is here revealed as “a distribution of the Abahlali’s the case, film that presents of Ntambanana, a village in KwaZulu

exclusion from circuits of information is just as much as of fromjust characte informationexclusion is circuits However, evident already aat second assessment, and demonstrated in a lives that are not to be fostered, these techniques define the distribution of what is of is distribution what these the define techniques fostered, be to are not that lives ity, if you need to bathe, you just go to the bathroom and just relax there but here, if

if it’s winter…” (Zodwa Nsibande, interview, 27 May 2009). authoring

the documentary. 69 d in the possibilities ofd possibilities occupying the in

As ODAC’s (2007) film shows in in shows film (2007) ODAC’s As l literariness. As the remainder of ervice delivery.Infuriated bythe

- Natal Province, that lacks that lacks Natal Province, ristic of lives

about their 87

CEU eTD Collection run around. It will come before the civil courts thecourts around. civil It run will come before through official channels resulted in another dispiriting, time consuming and ult electrification. for policy shacks1990 “Electricity All” ibition ofthe proh with total connecting of on thesedwellings based eThewkiniand labeling Municipality temporary,the replaced its t alsoraids affect shack place. vice then and ChargedZikode chairpersonS’bu vehicle. the arrest, resisting with of stolen having interviewed, Abahlali members rented a c wherewere be radiothey to a frequentlydeployed, tostation meansare visit violent too: public spaces. 73 72 71 70 paradigmatic a instance ofof biopolitics disper the dwellers’ “ruralization informal settlements has been discontinued” (eThekwin in quoted i Municipality costs huge required to relocate services these settlementswhen are upgraded electrificationor developed, of the

news out families in from poor was very powerful. Ourclean camp up eNkwalini in march today will cell be easy. not Our Even charging phones email be difficult. will just be that not communica political space this poverty: on poor people’s lived experiences of wa request to a ninetyminutes long tragicomedy (ODAC 2007). Cf. Auyero (2011b, 5) on the temporality of b the and at “Go, there!” “Wait to over wait aon calling Abahlali securitythe was Among obstacles guard obstructed. the of City was “invasion” Hall their citizens, equal as rights their as practicing the of enactment event engagement with the authorities” (Mukelani Dimba, ODAC 2007/1, 11:42 he program,he confirming previously discussed the in shift the government ofprovision service

“Inthe past (1990s) “ Pithouse, Richard to them both tortured. According station the of police At were “They wanted to see, they wanted to se We ask We the media our and comrades around countrythe ottom!”, and various forms of bureaucratic evasion, stretching the simple and costless act of filing the - chair Philani Zungu were imprisoned, thus, evidently, interview could take the thus,not radio evidently, imprisoned, Zungu Philani were chair 71 they waste millions on casinos, waste the oncasinos, millions themethey and fire usand killedrats be to bydiarrhoea ofthatbyleaving Many believe us Cut ” (Abahlali baseMjondolo, 15 ” baseMjondolo, (Abahlali

Just as significantly: and e vidently noless and regular often violent cut electricity tion from Abahlali baseMjondolo will be difficult until this latest attack has been rolled back. It It has back. will latest attack been rolled until this will be difficult baseMjondolo fromtion Abahlali - off one are raids of theSlum Clearance Program’s gravestimplications. As part of 73 70 –

- municipalintention ofshack explains Abahlali the the with The policythat

To secure the proper distribution of the audible and the inaudible, more and inaudible, the properdistribution ofaudible the the To secure because this is exactly what if was: it was occupying political space and forcing better and forcing if political space this itis exactly occupying what was was: because

Motala Heights Motala electrification was rolled out to all and sundry. Because of the lack of funding and the - ” that ,” the that is, to beyond push will poor the boundaries the of, the city dwellers’ ability to participate in the flow of information.

are being excluded from the school. it But will take fromschool. time all excluded put this are the being to aign in Kennedy Road over the weekend was very successful. Children

February 2008) e the faces of officials when they exercise this right, theywhen occupy -

but onlyin 2011...” iting, which “persuade the destitute of the need to be patient”. ar but upheldwere bythe police onthe assumption .

and around the world to please sal:

park, stadium and the A1 Grand Prix A1 Prix stadiumGrand the and park,

(email correspondence, 12February 2010). – 12 :01’’).Whereas Abahlali saw the imately pointless bureaucratic bureaucratic imatelypointless ). 108 2008, COHRE “ the attempt to raise this this theraise attempt to understand that understand 72

while while - off off

88 is is

CEU eTD Collection without electric iron without stored, be properlighting children are unable doto homeworktheir after sunset, - marks shack tangibleand into ofwi burden coping away), toilets sanitation explode oil is detrimental as it contributes to respiratory illnesses and serious injuries when stoves electricity, than expensive Beyondbeing more seconds. andadevelopsinto cardboard, over fire plastic, candle tipping lethally spreading a with 77 http://www.guardianweekly.co.uk/?page=editorial&id=1245&catID=9 76 75 74 prohibiting the elevation of permanent structures,municipality’s the slums program clearance temporary nature of shack settlements and reinforcing this illusory temporarin close tootherbuilt each constructedwith and riskoffires. constant shack exposedthe to thus alternative meansanduse lighting – heating of When

Cf. Mike (2008). Mike Cf. Zodwa Nsibande’snarration ofher own painfulexperience: (2008) Mike See C.f. Birkinshaw (2008).

, choosing to stay in the city despite such circumstances, shack By way of canceling its universal service delivery policy with reference to the is Municipality tryingis to force us to leaveour homes and to accept ‘relocation’ (which the relocation sites (Aba plastic bags for toilets in the city or without fires and rats and plastic bags for toilets in in the dark (if) allocated to the settlements (or the bushes if toilets are also lacking or are too far , really , which they tend to.

also seriously endangers- shack

. ‘ruralization’) by forcing us choose between living with fires and rats and

of night – mothers fear – th these direct life

, children womenexposed and are physical Adding to abuse. the to

dwellers’ lives: without an operating refrigerator food cannot operatingfood an dwellers’ refrigerator lives:cannot without 76 February 2008). baseMjondolo,hlali 15February

Lack of street lighting their school uniforms display where where comethey school uniforms their from. display - hazards, carves electricity denying further temporal dwellers 74 mostly candles and paraffin stoves –

In generally overcrowded generally In highly flammablematerial such as wood, Guardian WeeklyGuardian . W 75 hen approaching or using the few approachinghen using or the few

. ,

eating and cooking with cookingparaffin and heating combined the with absenceof (September 11, 2009)at - dwellers are forced to dwellingsare that and areand ess by and and 77 89 in in

CEU eTD Collection iron barracksiron thatare often quality ofshacksthan poorer the from whi makeshift homes are seen as disturbing debris on marketable land, the only “fast shopping facilities, and exclusive means oftransportation, mega redevelopment such led surrounding paradigmatically demonstrate, for those with access to the prime biopolitical circuit, 2010 forWorldCup the FIFA South andAs the preparations African through through. temporariness and forced mobility – signature a formulationprovides of the spatiotemporality of abandonment. 80 79 78 turn, forcibly In evicting is eviction. process allocated low be relocated,hardly people once will temporariness: are ifwhen and they informedabout “Temporary Relocation Camps” are ofcomplete uncertainty no- accommodation provide alternative donot prescribed time, the legally and/or within inhabitants even thenless these, consequentl and, destinations, butvarious all imply ing automatically

more than a year. But you notice here that that the government is building houses there for the people. And you’re supposed not to live in transit camps for […] the people, they know how to build these things, they must just to give themthe material to rebuild themselves. Bond 2007). prime hubs while bypassing marginal areas. The latter type (“Gautrain”) is put in place in Johannesbur development of private highways offering shorter travel times or exclusive transportation lines directly linking periods of their lives there. ( inBirkinshaw 2008, 4). homes for between five and ten years and a quarter have lived in them for over eleven years” (Nicholson quoted Lindela

“Yeah, we don’t want the Municipality to come and build transit camp for the people. We make sure that here One ofthe spite In [A]s we we [A]s

Figlan, interview,

depiction

know that you are supposed to go to a transit camp if there is a provision for you, when you notice paradigmatic of infrastructural forms bypasses, - recalls cost housing. cost – y, lengthening distances and the stretching state of temporariness. Sometimes of state temporariness. y, lengthening distancesthe and stretching s enforced by municipalities and accompanied by shack demolitions cast themunicipalities andcast demolitions by accompaniedenforced byshack

of informal settlements as temporary, many of their inhabitants have spent significant the – of apartheid removals forced illegal evictions –

2009). 30/06/ “[O]ver half the of 80 destination on the lives of those removed. “Transit camps” “Transit removed.or of lives those onthe destination

What worse, these camps, is consisting of rows ofcorrugated

C.f. Pithouse (2009). Pithouse C.f.

you stay in these transit camps stay inyou transit these further exclusion from crucial infrastructural networks household heads with informal dwellings have lived in their its spatialcorrelate the illegal because they lack court orders, fail notify to courtorders, they lack because illegal

- loci ofthein form uncertainty of stret shack s ever bring moreevents stadiums, spectacular - as Graham and Marvin (2001) show, is the

dwellers from homes their – in in present –

for more than even five years!” infiltr 79

- whereas day South Africa can have Southday have can Africa ate shack ch theirch inhabitants for those whosefor those

- 78 dwellers’ lives

a practice that But imposed - g g (c.f. purpose tracked” ching ching 90 -

CEU eTD Collection Muni year but during the two months spent in the Transit Camp, they have not been informed about this by t fence around the area, the camp problem. said also that They is water unexpectedly turned at off random the times day,of thatand despite the (Abahlali, 13(Abahlali, – (if hadjobs they in one the have and first place), of minimal finding chances new employment to lose meanstravelthetheir resources attending daily to city, they the school, the stop and urban centers represent the permanence of timestanding still: with relocated people lacking alternativebrighter) case, when provided, low left soon un- are blocks) tapsablution and water communal (e.g. removed,were appearto spaces be of abandonment per: se services that are initially provided 82 81 later point, it is to the corresponding juridico th

correspondence,12 February 2010). within a year was extorted by a court order building a highway through the area. Inhabitants were then promised to be relocated to low Inhabitants

Cf. the timeAt myt of visit, is condition. Whereas the question of disrupting this sensible order will be taken up at a a taken be upat orderwill sensible Whereas question condition. the this ofis disrupting all these circumstances contributing to complete isolation: “we are sittinjust

cipality notes, (research Abahlali’s photo-

complained September September

report about the Park Gate relocation site (Abahlali, 13 September September 13 2007). site (Abahlali, the about Park relocation report Gate th at despite their numerous requests, the Municipality fails to to Municipality fails the requests, at numerous their despite he transithe camp nea

May May 2007).

is completely insecure is completely 2009

82 ). As Richard Pithouse notes, the promise of allocating formal housing

Doubtless, Doubtless, the ofbiopolitics is realizedin fully dispersal –

in vain, as in it vain, time(email writing still at seems the of ) stank (Durban Siyanda with r smell of human - legal technologies that I now technologiesthatI legal turn. . Evicti. - co st housing st relocationin far sites away from on from the ir

shack settlements was due to to due settlementsshack was maintained. resolvethe pluggage - cost houses within a a within houses cost 81 excrement

As a (not much (not As a

he he . g here” - 91

CEU eTD Collection chapter, workchapter, distance urban to poor as of dwellers objects spatial neoliberal policing from violence “public and political reconciliation 3.1 3 Chapter factualization of in post law the onlegislation. Moving the to South African I context, locate aspectsthe dual of the regulation of American cities, I then illustrate their operation on recent sets of urb power demonstrat assessing the depoliticizing implications of this shift. Referring to these processes – demarcation in signifies terms of the usegovernmental of juridico- biopolitics of dispersal entails the that governmentalityproves to of ofrevealing be ofkind subjects neoliberal the practices spatial and neoliberal governance its circulatory imperative.turn, focusa onthe In juridical aims to assess how the biopolitics of dispersal is being reinforced humanto grounds!” dumping urbandignified Ho life. for baseMjondolo,struggle applicant,its Abahlali in first major a for the signaled victory this decision chapters, later in discussed be will As 31). (CCT[2009]eradication ZACC 12/09 for othe blueprint the be to supposed was also the invalidated so thus and -

Thus, in what follows, I will firstwhat follows,Iexplore what ofThus, in will kind shiftnecessity of the spatial 14 On October The return of the police – as factualization the of law, of drawingstudies the onDon juridical Mitchell’s e significant affinities with the regulatory technologies of early modern police

” on the other. Such phenomena, I will argue in the second half the in second of on,” argue other. Suchphenomena, the the will I law’ Policingthe global city the and ‘factualization of th ,

wever, wever, on the one hand, and in the regulation of the street in and hand, one on the 2009, called “Slums Act”, a provincial legislation of KwaZulu

. , in inquiring into the “Slums Act” phenomenon, this chapter chapter into phenomenon, this inquiring “SlumsAct” , in the the South African Constitutional Court judged unconstitutional Constitutional judged Court African South the to further pursue implicationsthe of

- apartheid apotheosis ofapartheid apotheosis the ruleof the and of law process

r provinces’ policies of informal settlement through codification of the legal techniques, with techniques, thenlegal the slogan “No relocation

trade, “urban influx”, influx”, “urban trade, - Natal that that that an an 92

CEU eTD Collection intervention in order to impose market rule upon all aspects of social life”. all aspects social inimposeof to upon market rule order intervention a in entailed it practice has interference, (2002c m natural self natural consequences ofconsequences the juridical technologies of neoliberalism, the continuing population. politicalthe subject 83 urban neoliberal of arguably the governance optimizing proactively conditions circulation, chapte of previous the Lazzarato 2009).Lazzarato competition donot naturally emerge but have be to created nurtured and (Foucault 2008, into the enhancement of their prime territories’ productive capacities (Ibid., 17). - sub fragmentation of theprevious paradigm’s spatial practices, which constructed cities “asmere within their major cities and regions”. Not only does this bring about the noted territorial forced engage“ today to inorder in restructuringthemselves states are capital, mobility of globalized toincreased responding in the emphasis), original in active con the urban ofprocesses adaptation to thiscompetition occur on every spatial scale, they a global interterritorial a for investmentrivalry Elden and capital 2009). Although (Brenner neoliber the chapter, the in previous deploymentmentioned for the reconfiguration has As law. of governmental city market,between regulation,the the and and implications the this

117) sets the anti economicand non “anti neoliberal incapable of complete control

arket’s being arket’s Whereasthe construction of economicdynamics units of economicnational , 352): Although there are many potential entry points into elaborating the conditions and and conditions many pointsthe elaborating are there Although potential entry into To be sure, this is very much in line with the neoliberal conviction neoliberal thatthe verythe market muchlinewith and thisis in To sure, be al primacy of competition fundamentally affects urban governance through triggering through governance fundamentally affectsurban primacyal competition of - regulation require

“[

- produced by the “‘the by produced W]hile W]hile neoliberalism createaspires to a ‘utopia’ of free markets liberated from all forms of state naturalism” marketthe recasts competitionand as in of interventioneed - naturalist market - economicconditions and, in turn, enables the operation of 83

Consequently, instead in of course”, “lettingthings followConsequently, simply their

of liberation, and thus t thus and liberation, of r ). According to Brenner (1998a Brenner totext (Brenner TheodoreAccording and 2002b). , let us first take a look at how neoliberalism reconfigures the relation

s and thus in need of self an (un an natural play’ of appetites, instincts or behaviors”. - concept of neoliberalism against “what the mass the “what concept neoliberalismof against

- space”, it also entails that states intervene muchmore actively )certain amount of intervention. dramatic intensification of coercive, disciplinary forms of state forms of disciplinary coercive, of dramatic intensification

as natural and contingent exposed - limit o contain the excess freedom ofthesurplus ation , liberal governmentality assumed that that assumed liberal governmentality Extending the scope of

promote laissez

- Cf. Brenner and Theodore Theodore and Cf. Brenner - media declare”, that is, the faire governmental power as

n capital accumulation . that effects that

Lazzarato (2009, Lazzarato (2009, line of discussion

re exponentially this this

assumption

both fostering fostering , 10; , 10; , 93

CEU eTD Collection the urban: “to police and to urbanize is the same thing” (Ibid., 337). of meticulously detailed regulation that this order developed in response became essential for the fu state. On the other hand, whereas these fundamentally urban concerns called the police order into life, the mode transportation andthe proper functioning of themarket all had to a be market town and its increased population confronted the ruler with novel problems: issues of health, crime, concerned with the of welfare i that town sovereign power, recognizing commerce as the primary source of the state’s strength, first became and the biopolitics of the urban: according to Foucault, it was with the emergence of the early modern market 2007, 48). to take note of at this point is the consideration that Foucault’s deconstruction of deconstruction the thatFoucault’s juridical consideration the is point note of this take at to responsive uncontainable,on as and what oflaw other.Inconstruction the turn, we need biopol between ofrelationship reading the more fornuanced a argue 11–52) (2009, Fitzpatrick will discussmore in detail in m analysis of his in ofengaging conception Foucault’s tend law to conclude that Foucault“expelled” law from scholarsAccordingly, norm. deploymentthe instrumentalizedof bythe best, at or, superseded biopolitical assemblages of discipl conceive of thelaw asthe means ofclassical sovereign power that, with theformation of the havemodern governmentalityscholars come the with emergence of to biopower, rule formulation (1978) original onFoucault’s largely governmentality. Based neoliberal of within law place the attentionto analytical our extend de 85 84 spatial technologies of demarcation segmentation. and optimal milieu forgovernment circulation, the cities of global widely m

and policeand power. On the one therehand, appears to be an originary relationship between m genealogy of the modern city. Elden’s (2007, 565) summary of the distinct spatial strategies summary the of distinct 565) (2007, Elden’s and to more widely”. to distribute and to security seeks while segmentation, measures of on working is isolating, discipline faire; laissez to as enable, and, itindeed, is, rather, as as little topossible, regulate seeks security while everything regulate security while is centripetal, minimal. thisbe should Discipline regulation, release and of enableto spaces, circulation and passage. Although circulation and passage will require some “While discipline operates through the enc

odern mercantilist era in in mercantilist16 era odern ) account) (2007 ofFoucault’s governingthe moderntown Police here is deployed in its Foucauldian sense, in reference to the mode of rule characterizing the early monstrates a significant affinity with the regulatory technologies of the police itical technologiesof government and law onethe onthe hand, Foucault’s and 84

That is, within the framework of a more interventionist approach to creating withinapproachto more interventionist is, framework the of the a That odernity (Hunt and and (Hunt odernity Wickham cf. Fine 1984,Kennedy 1994; 19921993). As I -

18 ts people. Evolving into the essential space of production and exchange, the

century Western Europe (see e.g. Foucault 2007, 110 and 312 and 110 2007, Foucault e.g. (see Europe Western century

, contradicting the “expulsion thesis”, Golder and 5,contradictingChapter thethesis”, “expulsion losure and circumscription of space, security requires the opening up inary and inary and regulatory technologies of was government, emphasizes the of the transformation of modes of political political modes of of transformation the of

of liberalof security apparatuses theand police: 85

Cf. Patrick Joyce’s insightful (2003) Joyce’s Cf. Patrick

ttended to if commerce was to fortify the tottended if the fortify to commerce was Conceptually, this entails a need to

is centrifugal; discipline seeks to seeks to discipline is centrifugal; affinitybetween neoliberal urbanism obilizes disciplinary Polizeiwissen – 314). In incorporate, incorporate, nctioning of

(Foucault (Foucault schaft

CEU eTD Collection as“a partner ofexchange” (Foucault 2008, 226). the the as “enterprise society”, “the poor” come be to the opposed proper neoliberal subject, thatis, poor”of (Foucault Within “the 2008). the neoliberal imaginarythat societyreconceptualizes ofeconomydisengagement the - government of unfreedom. market milieu,meansofneoliberal towardis major patrollingofa the borders security the the corresponding to modela of spatial government that moves f demise of legal technologies of power. In fact, asthe discussion in this chapter illustrates, notion ofimply centralized donot (cf.a power model ofand the 2004) sovereignty Neal 86 ), that is, the one who can but obstruct circulation. Where inequality produces Whereinequality circulation. obstruct whobut one is, can the that ), (Bauman 1998 governance when itturns juridical encounters the failed theentrepreneur, “flawedcons forced to rely on the law when it reaches its limits in the recalcitrant subject, neoliberal urban 3.1.1 of also revisite government are d. - implication, juridico By 2007,334). (Foucault of poor” the objective ofpolice the conception of urban government: “the elimination or at any rate control complemented are within circulation bad apparatuses aiming diminish to with an essential fromseparation subjects potentialentrepreneurial too. thatprovide to policies optimal seek an increasingly for climate goodcirculation ossify their spaces of enterprise that global cities now have to become. That is, segmentar reinforced) by splinteringof poor out networksplacewithin ofthe appear as infrastructure,

Thus, the neoliberal subject also differs fromthe liberal subject who was thought to be the hom Certainly, this phenomenonmost visible is if wethat recall Arguably, inArguably, linewith Golder Fitzpatrick’s and (2009) claim disciplinary that power is milieuand the urban the Policing o œc onomicus

as entrepreneur an of her

soc

ial couple

factualization of law of factualization

- hand went -

or himself. Hence, earlier technologies of security in - legal techniquesmode of thesame hand re with 86

Accordingly, as suggested as Accordingly, (and

rom apparatuses liberal of - forming the category category forming the homo

the neoliberal

œc on y spatial omicus umer” 95

CEU eTD Collection here is the is the right here century century reacted usage of city spaces: a regime of“revanchist the city” (Smith 1996, MacLeod 2002). re constructsa publicor handouts, in live on others’ dwell perspectivemiddlethe of due environment from the regulationofurban Whatas might the elements. appear “unsavory” through creating a legal environment that ultimately prohibits the public pre large as thechar “legitimate business or social purpose”, anti out carried by homeless people, or tying the of usage public spacesto engagement in politics. spaces public correspondingly, and, power urban juridical governmentality reconfigures how neoliberal American anti exactly theseat points the that conditions for legislation such as the Slums ortheAct spatial demarcation of the social and theeconomic has to be enforced by legal means. the neediness of indigence instead of thecompetitive spirit of theentrepreneurialsubject, the 88 87 a only fewquote examples:

particularly powerful a powerful particularly that monopoly and neoliberal governmentality are not necessarily in conflict. protection of monopolies through e.g. municipal bylaws discussed below. Cf. Foucault (2008, 136 mixed military tactics tactics military mixed Commune. Notably for Smith, as with the new urban politics of t

As Mac As The same seem - scale projects of urban beautification, cities improve their capacities to attract capital and countless other cities it is illegal to sleep in public; […]New in York it is illegal to enforc being are [I]n SanFrancisco, laws against incamping public, loitering, urinating and defecating In regulating the urb Leod (2002, 606) describes Smith’s (1996) notion ofthe “revanchist city”: “[Smith’s]

acter of neoliberal juridical intervention (Mitchell 2007, 218). Complementary to

- violently against the relative the relative against violently wing ‘revanchist’ , - s to apply to cases where competition would not secure sufficient inequality: consider the homeless laws emerge. In turn, this latter set of legislation perfectly illustrates producing with moral discourses about public ord public about discourses moral with nd derives from the French word ed with a newfound rigor; […] in Santa Cruz, Phoenix, St. Petersburg St. Phoenix, Cruz, Santa […]rigor; newfound a in with ed - class city a combination a that determines

populist move an environmentthrough the prohibition of activities typically

- dwellers, this ensemble of regulations, liberalism of the Second Empire the Second liberalism of ment, throughout which lastthe three decades of the 19 - homeless laws illustrate the proliferation as well revan er on the streets”. the er on che he he , literally meaning ‘r meaning , literally present present gime excessively that restricts the

significantly fin

and the socialismand the o -

de - siècle evenge , the original rev

for those bound to boundto for those the possibility the of .’ Smith’s referent concept is concept f the Paris Paris the f – 7) arguing sence of th anchists anchists

87 88

It is

To 96

CEU eTD Collection McDonald’s and CocaCola. and McDonald’s venues ofaround mega realm shape the through ofactively demarcation ofexclusive the trading competition zones basic requirement foraspiring any globalcity. Among other interventions, these bylaws the are infamous bylaws almost automati the secure circulation goods deployedideal and to ofexamplesmunicipal legislation people of 218). (Ibid., city” the in toout right simply “the hang denyingbut urbanites city announced SupremeCourt “ places, Virginia ofthecontrolling the usage public 90 89 begging shopping, and between this oftype governm codifying of definition purpose,” or the proper“business physical ideal binding distance of circumscribing illegitimate In space formulating legally regulations”. the a and urination, technologies triggers “an in explosion and juridical acts, legal mul a and accountof the (2007) from the rest – spaces– of public rangingprivatization wide the To sure, be ho

mentioned in the previous chapter. clean corresponding municipality’s the recall below, Mitchell (2007). Mitchell privatized streets of a housing development area when visiting his girlfriend and taking diapers to his

Beyond the “eThekwini Municipality 2010 FIFA World Cup South By Africa The initial case was a challenge to trespasthe ”

by not narrowlycircumscribing only the ofrights engaging Clearly, as Lazzarato (2009, 118) notes, such activation of disciplinary and security or lieon 7am sit 1997,306 to between sidewalks […] 9pm and (Mitchell machines, after 8 pm, or within six feet of any storefront; the city also made itillegal it illeg […] made Cincinnati streets; windows onthe near subways,washcar or to in or sleep

melessness is not the objectonly of legally regulating “bad circulation al to from beg getting anyone in and ofout car, a near automatic teller simply walking down the street can become acriminal offense, as - ev Hicks v. Virginia ents, ents, protecting so the monopoly corporations of transnational like 90

s- barment issued against cally attachedhostingmegacally to -

up campaignup removing street traders from central areas case illustrates. appalling In this instance of a majormeansa of separating fostered places ent signifies a shift shift a signifies inent the Kevin in political activity in public, Hicks who passed through the the through passed who Hicks - laws” discussed in more detail discussed laws” - events tiplication of tiplication norms

use ofuse juridico – the antiurban –307). apparently a 89 Mitchell’s child .”

Further Further D .

ue to to ue Cf. Cf.

97 -

CEU eTD Collection of law coalesces with the consensual identification of democracy with the legitimate state. dispute wrongsocial litigious a a the order.Thus,emergingover in factualization through the taming of political conflict, the effacement of dissensus milieu,market which to due law and in converge,works fact tandem postdemocratic the with as thefactualizat 107). movementsendless ofeconomyand lifestyles, the society, (Rancière attitudes” 1999, and flexible and adaptationeconomicinitiative oftheir throughtension social ex the and rights to norm ofjuridical growing conflation free the appropriateness to “the ofgradual fact: and law ofconception neoliberal economic the “economic an as we assessits role in reinforcing 334). “living more and towards than justliving, living better and than justliving” 2007, (Foucault q regulatingthe concernwith the police 2009, restores neoliberalism (Lazzarato 121), homo recastingthe competition through in of reminiscentmodern certainly of (Foucault the behavior are “worldand early 2008, 174–175), social conflict competition, regulationof the economy the govern through to urge consequent enterprise as “not just an of conception demand”the to judicial correlating spatial segmentation. of into The“growth goesplays but beyond governmentalities that and practicesneoliberal liberal between legal 92 91 the intersubjective relation between the factualization of law of and the the factualization relation between intersubjective the illustrates the well state of management welfare the its within and function the law” of “social conceptualization

Agamben’s (1998) conceptualization of the increasing indistinction between fact and law. from be distinguished should as notion Rancière’s itsthe political order, of and within law role conceptions

While the claim about the conflation of law and fact might suggest lawmight oth fact claimof and suggest thethe conflation While about While predating the neol 91 definite regulation” (Foucault 2007, 340). Likewise, in molding the conditions of conditions the (Foucaultmolding definite regulation” Likewise, in 2007,340).

However, the political significance of resurgence this of police power appears only if Thus, it what,realizes drawing onRancière 2010d, (1999, 2010e), we could identify ion ofion law iberal ideal of the “modest state”, Francois Ewald’s (e.g. 1987; 1988) institution a but way of behaving in economicthe field”, the and . Importantly, the proliferating regulationofinterventionist proliferating the the . Importantly,

the sensible orderofthee sensible th œ conomicus

as a“life-

order of consensus. “The law no longer , that is, the , the impedimentthat is, politics of

erwise, due to their different consensus regime. Arguably, theconsensus regime. Arguably, - juridical ensemble” entails the style” ora“way

- of uotidian - being” being” 98 92

CEU eTD Collection declared: ofentrances, the madeupheld bytheColorado decision bythe State (and US SupremeCourt) reaction, inlarge in consent. Originally listener’s without the a could approachanother distance person States United effectively“right spatialized the to left be alone” through codifying the proper difference that the consensus regime “bubble reference to the Virginia Supreme Court’s jurisdiction, is doubtless definitive of the so political activities that can be legitimately carried out in public. This in above trend,indicated its codifying homogeneousspace. differenceeconomithe between government of the global city, the dual process of eliminating political dissensus and the limitations of the postdemocratic “modest state” (Rancière 1999). Feeding into the This latter tendency, in turn, recasts litigation as a circu solidarity societies: societies: solidarity administration of society” (Ewald 1988, 58). “The norm defines what takes the place of the social contract in the thean instrumentas for so advantages to as status its technical much to its so constitutional conceals that it is at theonce andeffect the prize of particular in interests conflict. Its value is longerno related and Fitzpatrick and

2005, 78). from any entrance door to ahealth facilitycare ( hundred of radius a one areawithin sidewalk way or person public the other in such with counseling protest,or ineducation, oral engaging or to, sign a displaying to, handbill or leaflet a purpose of for the passing person consents, such other unless of feet knowingly person approachwithin eight pers shall such No another person The most instancefunction ofThe obvious this latter the restriction of is (potentially) - laws” (Mitchell 2005

2009, 103 2009, consensus

part, to anti – 107). . It is both the reference and the object of consensus” (Ewald 1987, 108; cf. Golder

). ). In a perfect crystallization of theanti c dynamics and the law materialize the order of consensus by - abortion activists campaigning near health care facilities’

stands for, recent decisionsstands of courts various in the Colorado v. Hill lar process that justifies the actions - political eliminationof in quoted ciological ciological

and effacing Mitchell Mitchell - cal feet feet on, on, led led 99

CEU eTD Collection exposure to radical social difference too. panhandling different fromvalues own, their byrenderingling panhand beyondeffects just discussed, annoyance of eliminating the encountersopinionsand with clearly apparent when we consider their “extensions”. Complementing the anti motive” ( discriminatory a governmental being comprehensiveness of thestatute is avirtue, not avice, because it evidenceis against there of pro that celebration ofthey illustrates, , donot onlyof neutrality specific kind prohibit a campaigning bubble laws impedepolitics as litigious appearance because, as the cited decision’s Se 81). (Ibid., obstruction” without of right nowpassage “the with alone” left coincides right imperative,be spirit“the to ofcirculatory the the theyin true go.Moreover, wherever bubble with shield protective the of radius to eightfeet wornin be public– a By creating expectationof privacy”. reasonable “a had homesthus their in were and rights of unwilling listeners against the nu Colorado listener” spaces.“unwilling to public As Mitchell (Ibid., notes, 80) theup until Hill v. dissensus for least at two reasons (Rancière 1999). First, they protectionextend the of the aslitigious be impeding can the as enactmentof understood politics Such decisions the 93 communities, malls, or fencedparks suchrepresent), regulation materializes unmistakably the already promotes (consider the major limitation to universal public accessibility that gated privatization of public accompaniedspace, wi turned to turned series of court decisions largely upholding on First Amendment ground beggars’ rights to panhandle, cities have

As reflecting on the difference in the specific object of legislation Mitchell (2005, 90) notes: “In the wake the a wake “In of notes: 90) Mitchell (2005, legislation theof specific in object the difference on As reflecting Unsurprisingly, in fact, the discriminatory character of laws the bubble becomes

– limiting behaviors associated with panhandling rather than panhandling itself”. the the decision, courts consistently interpreted the state’s responsibility to protect the - life activism Hill v. Co – illegal, this type of legislation protects citizens from the uncomfortable lorado , they effectively andoutlawthey allc proudly

jurisdiction enables people to take the “right to be left alone” left be to “right the to take people enables jurisdiction isances ofisances public e.g. picketing when these persons 93

Thus, fortifying spatial the thattheordering quoted in Hill Colorado v. in quoted Ibid., 83). th theth privatized policing of those spaces, – or behaviors related to behaviors or ampaigning: “Here the ampaigning: “Here hence the notion of the

- political political cond, cond, 100

CEU eTD Collection (Sennett 1994,310). (Sennett freedom moveaffluent, their circulate to without movobstruction,to freely” “to anywhere, e city,laws and global these arethe supposedsecure movement bylaws unhindered to of the thefreedom.relation to homo In its subjects’mobility, these legal practices either neutralize and instrumentalize, or contain dispersal into the juridical order. Establishing a variegated spatiotemporal order for governing of theofbiopolitics depoliticizingfunction the the inscribe imperative same at and, time, In thisfunction, In contributes urban law reshaping to space so physically distance to those as juridical facilitation of governing freedom reemerges as the legalization of curtailing freedom whose mobilityis superfluous and even obstructive to the flow ideal of people goods,and the of technology the and, enables such, homogeneity as materialization the of consensual legitimizing with circulation, bad and the in namedo so seamlesscirculation. of the laws anti bubble and spend” to (Ibid.), right the […] leftto be to alone right “the attaching and hand, one the consumption’” and middle flawless itsa work,play, fabricclass in of [and] crowd place white, the substituting public’ byminimizingotherwiseof or controlling homogenized a heterogeneity ‘the social of consensus regime. does It 94 anti the regulation consensual poor”, society the ofenterprise turns its disciplinary “the the face. As

of neoliberalismof

Indeed, corresponding to this idea of freedom, one of the elementsmaking up human capital homo Hence, theHence, legal techniques of managing mobility reinforce the neoliberal Entailing a a differentEntailing very government of movement, itsbyproduct,that towards is, - homeless laws ill œ conomicus governing the neoliberal subject neoliberal through the freedom. governing –

is exactly mobility: “an individual’s abili individual’s mobility: “an is exactly

(Crilley quoted by Mitchell 200 - 94 homeless laws,

and the poor, between potential flawed and consumers, good between Creating the conditions of unobstructed circulation, then, coincides coincides circulation, of the then, Creating conditions unobstructed

ustrated, where neoliberal urbanism encounters the liminal the urbanism subjectustrated, neoliberal encounters where so in so far asit shapes an urban landscape that creates “an ‘illusion

œ conomicus

on the other hand, codify hand, the other on the , that is, optimally, thatis, the mobile inhabitant of the ty tomove around” (Foucault 2008, 230). , 87). In in In povertyon5, 87). criminalizing turn,

neoliberal fissure between –

a pivotalnotion

circulatory

101 .

CEU eTD Collection emerg consensus, myusage of the notion of consensus is extended along t codified. aba sensiblemetropolisesshapes orderin the of present needs question the that to with dealt be in the remainder chapter of ensembleis this how this 3.2 of political emancipation. ofpopulation alsotothe works wo/men, distance economic it of subject from right subject the section elaborates, beyond featuring meansas the legal of equating befreedom. conductedthrough as cannot securely their Nevertheless, next whose conduct the 96 95 Committee. Truth Reconciliation coordinated and by the happenlitigation, ing most characteristically through the legal processing of redress monopolization byof state’s isthe and nation”, reinstated “rainbow multiculturalism the of all rectified were bythe ofapartheid wrongs the the the claimaround that disputativethe enactmentof thishe areinforces heterogeneous subject to subjectthe of emancipation. political On the otherhand, normscirculatory adaptationdynamics ofthe to market, legal increasing assumes ofand the through superfluous freedom?people’s As the discussion to follow demonstrates, this arguably occurs else?everyone that significantly constrains movementthe whopeople ofprincipl are, in present

“public interest”

Whereas Whereas similar in very are the governmentality mainurban in show, thewill trends as below discussion While, ndon life –

ed, particular focus is placed on the City of Durban (or eThekwini: Metropolitan Durban). - day South African cities, with the aim to provide the context within which Abahlali baseMjondolo within theAbahlali baseMjondolo thewhich with context aim cities, provide to South African day Having definedHaving the rol Influx controlandpublic violence a dual process. 95 in making thisin point

In In waysdowhat juridical contemporary a technologiesplay into mode ordering of

gaining form of forcedgaining the in imposition mobility mostly How do juridical techniques of power enable the government ofHow of enablethe techniques power superfluous dojuridical

On the onefactualizatioOn the n hand, of results which from law, an

I draw onMichael Neocosmos’

e of juridical practices within neoliberal urban governmentality, terogeneity isterogeneity impededlargely consensusregime bya built –

- The non The (2011) (2011) day wherein Africa, South the power to he lines of Rancière’s notion. Rancière’s of lines he 96

argument about the post - litigious subject of the of litigious subject – the people with a a people with the can be, once again, e, as mobile as -

national national - inclusive 102

CEU eTD Collection represent political protest almost exclusively in terms of destructive rioting driven solely by reconstruct asviolence antithetical democracy to and the ruleof law, impeded. e is This dissensus a staging through enacted hardly be can andequal the effectsof governance neoliberal global reinforcing the remnants of apartheid multiracial state, the contradictions between the constitutional inscription of the community as apartheid is now over and its effects into the present need not iseffects theneed present apartheid its into and delved now be into…”(Ibid., over 369). a past.state of “Theofconsensual notion the wasfoundedthat building to idea onthe evil the harms inequality victim,relegating of forgiving the thereby ofto subject equality the and multiculturalism, meaning the ofto does bytying equality so It politicization of inequality. for possibilities the regime the significantlylimits consensus a that forgiveness produced groups”the and proce sum“racial the ofcommunitywhole as the of equal reconciliation thus and monopolizeto the process. Combined, the formal of inclusion the Truth and Reconciliation Committee enabled the state to prioritize law asthe medium of allbackground for the realizing nationalismreformed African ofincoming the one”. In providingparticular, the juridical reform the between legitimizing new government the ofpower justice”and “transitional human the precisely discourse consisted in rights theAfrica”, “new the South of process constructing the ows, sh in 368) As Neocosmos (2011, aspect as amanifold that process equates post law, within the context of the current South African regime, we might interpret the latter observation about thepostdemocratic state’s self

Hence, due to due Hence, identi vastrecalling Rancière’s to this address problemduly here, Without pretending specially ed colonial racist traditions of the outgoing White nationalist elite and the so fying the realizationmanagement ofwithfying the equality the legal of the when considering parallel processes that –as discussed below - inclusive multiculturalist ofideal the “rainbow nation the ”, , while, at the same time, - apartheid democracy with the legitimate state. - ju stifying instrumentalization of the rule of ; in other words, their politicization politicization their otherwords, is in ; building building bridge “consensual a and, consequently,and, ss of state- 103 led led –

CEU eTD Collection enting on the series of protests 2009that seriesin of onthe made themedia: protests to world enting it comm ( MangosuthuButhelezi Freedom (IFP), Party Inkhata As an example of what theabove quote areaction is to, a few sentences from theleader of the ofillustrative happens: how this is State, Ficksburg,Free in protester killing police afterof the unarmed an published Western Cape Anti multiculturalism produce a regimewhere claims of equality dismissed are as atavistic. material motivations. 98 97 infrastructure prominent representative of Mvula Trust (an NGO specializing in the planning and development of community

what do you think people mobilization ofshantytown d or service delivery protests gets reduced because there is ongoing dialogue. isongoing there because reduced gets protests service delivery or system is set up for ongoing communication with the public around these issues, the likelihood of municipal riots burning things haven’t used those channels first, then they haven’t really got a basis to have a protest where they run around afterresort all channelsthe are d.addresse And if those channels are there and they’re put in place and the public or as public by a last the But, organizations civil think they be used by should society I delivery riots. service in the realm of… mobilization country, in Durban Abahlali baseMjondolo is the most significant. What do you think about the role of political

Cf. section 3.2 Cf. Despite her sympathetic approach to the struggles of unserviced people, the following exchange with a

can doif nothing happens,and nothing happens,and nothing happens. So,in that wayIunderstand non- public dissent our ugly pervasivein discourse culture beyond,the and consider only of already ofharvest rendering the during townshipsapartheid.country's ungovernable We have today Africa South we In reaping part,as before, are in I said have believe,bitter I the we ha we evicted, shot and made homeless. To them we are not quite civilized, we are lazy, and we and To themhuman contemptpoor. not to have fordeserve the webe are beings isIt cl in in areas) isrural exemplary of the thepower “service of delivery riot” discourse. “ A.S.: payment for municipal services. ” (L.M., interview, 13 October 2010). ve a culture a ve of non- ear to majority nowus that the ofelite, of officials the and government of police .3 of this chapter.

seen how this culture of ungovernability has found expression in form of the culture ungovernabilityof seen found howhas expression this –

I don’t know how much you’ve much how know I don’t - eviction Campaign’seviction (17 press April 2011) statement onpolice violence, 97 wellers informalor wellers sett

” L.M. [finishing my question] “ In other state other words, In

payment of and Butwe areof violence. none thesethings.

lements?

heard about it but

- There are numerous organizations around the Service delivery riots… I like I riots… delivery Service owned litigation and institutionalized […]

Politicsweb ifyou did […] But, ya. ya. But, […] –

about the about political I don’t understand what what understand I don’t , 28 July 2009), 2009), , 28July

to think that if the think that the to if And And 98 […]

The The

104

CEU eTD Collection mo limiting the usage of common spaces translated into the all late much is one circumscribed ofprotect the referent morewhoto the than used the be tightly the subject of interest. The subject whose interests the more recent set of regulations seem to reconfiguration Southneoliberal the Afric of governing 3.2.1 with militancy thepolitical position of helped (Neocosmos being 2011,365). similar results through promoting “the political passivity of victims” and thus replacing subjects of the atonement as confessional produces wronged and wrongdoer ofconstruction direction, Truth Reconciliation and fromthe opposite the Albeit Committee and its 99 frompopulation thecollective referent of norms. legal cities class seek world to removingexcess freedomaspiring contain through the surplus violence”,“public therefore, the discussion below thatthe suggests juridical practices of regime. onthe consensus Focusing of non- promised the constructing so subject free but development, channeledare into the of discrepantspatiotemporal order the subject neoliberal and the poor furtheredonthe level subsections effortsare show, such contain s are s right whose “The Rights of Man becomehumanitarian rights, that is, the rights of those who cannot enact them, of victims

often consisted only in victim’s narrations th of narrations in consisted only victim’s often “victims’” dissatisfaction with the reconciliation process, which, stopping short of meaningful compensation,

Arguably, then, the bilization of “the public” too. too. public” ofbilization “the - apartheid’s (partly obl apartheid’s As theregulation of street trading addressed in this section illustrates, the decade’slast Program Management Realm Public andthe people” “Business Altogether, these phenomena might be approached as figures of the law deployed to to deployed oflaw phenomenafigures the as approached be these might Altogether, the excess freedom that was granted to all after liberation. As the following

totally denied” (Rancière 2010a (Rancière totally denied” TRC’s practice of legal redress realizes the usual fate of Western efforts to export rights: to export rights: efforts fate of the realizes usual Western legalTRC’s of redress practice - inclusive program of political and economic emancipation. Thus, in economic and Thus,in emancipation. inclusive program political of igate)

laissez-

regulation of street trade, the Slums Act, and the notion of the and the trade, regulation ofSlumsAct, street accordingly, thisrecalibration is telling of the shifting eir grievances. grievances. eir , 72). faire

See Neocosmos (2010, 21

approach that, during the transition,be could

an metropolisan entails a recalibration of of urban they governmentality,where – 23) and Madlingozi (2010) on on (2010) Madlingozi and 23) litigious subject of subject litigious the 99

105

CEU eTD Collection 100 activities, approacthis market means recastby of be foremancipation thinking enabling regimeapartheid later could how Hintingthe at era. to informal infiltrated approach economy that attitude towardgovernment’s dwelling,tendency informal line in an this fell with enabling “movelocal ofAct economic 1991thatderegulatedinformal activities a emergence of an increasingly tolerant national approach, evidenced primarily by the Business the regulation reflected (Ibid.) of on,shows,local trade Skinner informal Caroline eighties as that restricted economic activities even within “black areas” (Skinner mid 2008). Fromthe of Act 1945 Consolidation Areas) (Urban Black the and manufacturing and locations, trading measures of Group Act the Areas of 1950 thatprohibited black people’s toaccess moreviable among others, reversing, period,thus comethis in tolerated be to tradersgradually had street activities Consequently, of legalminority rule. loosenedthe ofcorrespondingly construction 1990s apartheid order acc the early reconceptualization of the total restriction of their mobility as economically inefficient, by the trade, award the including Warwicktrade, market winning at 2008). Junction (Skinner a decade, this liberal spirit materialized in investing into purpose- fromDurban most res the betrade”. therefore spacecontribute to economy, should given the who and Businesses Act is aclear acknowledgement of street traders as business people, who once on the same day

minutes, after which they they tome were move at 25 after least which minutes, business. It prevented hawkers from taking up fixed stands by allowing them to occupy a spot for only 15 economic economic activities: how the government of people’s movement imposed by a perversely meticulous urban regulation impedes

The so Due to both its inability to control the urban influx of black people, and the parallel the and people, of influx the black urban inability control to its both Due to - - called “move - on” laws an offence.

“ ” This provin This

(Skinner 2008, 231). 2008, (Skinner on” lawson” enframed by the

h resonates precisely with liberal economic reason that defined the policies of the crumbling trictive to the most progressive city in the country within the span of cial legislation restricted restricted cial legislation

100

epted black people’s economic presence in cities, and

Similar to the trend that we have seen to change the change to seen trend thatwe have theto Similar Natal Ordinance t e r the international development discourse in this s away. s away. sal No hawking of goods within 100 mete 100 within goods of hawking

Skinner’s Skinner’s (1998, account: 10) “

of 1973 providean extreme illustration of es point could be occupied more than nd renderedenforcement the of built infrastructure for street r s s of a fixed formal

Turning Turning The The 106 -

CEU eTD Collection criminalization and the consequent exclusion of exclusion consequent majority the criminalization and the traders offrom street prime the mode businessthis “formalization” ultimately of impedesactivities (Sole 2009). their 2009a) oncethis neglected area and formalize muchthe trading of that occurs in the precinct the first one to engage with the area: “ 2008),(Skinner home night) the for the fire open building or over for who shelters traders havetime donot the means the travel or to safeforcooked developing traditionally needs their (e.g. is stoves accommodating food that consultative process, t nuisance, and certainly operates with a different idea of “business people”. daily through passing tradersstreet off living junction’sroleas and the a traintaxi hubwith 400,000 commuters 101 the officially started in 2001 with the Durban InformalEconomy Policy Durba (built1910) in Market Morning ofEarly demolition the poorwhich livelihood depends people’s on access publicspace.the The to ned plan symptomaticis of the fallrecent of a policyspatial thatdeclaredlyacknowledged the extent to 2009 (Sole 2009). The project remains contested ever since. metwas fierce with resistance theon side of academicsboth theand affected traders, it was passed i fifty years. Although the proposal, including the demolition of the market building and the relocation of traders,

“ ellingly silent about the earlier Warwick Junction project that was designed through project thatwasdesigned a the silentWarwickJunction earlier about ellingly 2010 team 2010

Presented as part of the Durban’s “facelift” program, 2008in September City Manager Public Program Public Realm Management n, BlessingKarumbidza (2011) showsthatthe formalizationlegal process – . Reaching the same conclusion, in her study on regulationof study in the informal her thein trade sameReaching conclusion, Sign As the(f ”

introduced a proposal to lease the Warwick Junction site to site to leaseJunction to the aWarwick proposal introduced aling yet another turn, however, the current fate of the Warwick Junction market market Warwick Junction of fate turn,the current yetthe another however, aling irst prohibited, then violently dispersed) protest of traders suggests, however, however, of dispersed)protest traders prohibited,suggests, then violently irst ( CoD 2009a) including street traders

, are ofare an era that returns to constructing street trade as The Warwick Junction willMall breathenew life into

municipality refers to the current redevelopment as

(PRMP) of 2005 – of 2005 (PRMP) ,

s explicitly worked towards explicitlys towards thu worked and , and the “temporary relocation” of relocation” “temporary the and a private developer (Warwick Mall) for eventually boileddownthe to eventually

(DIEP) and culminated in (DIEP) in culminated and

Mike Sutcliffe’s Mike 101

n Marchn Remaining Remaining

”

which which (CoD (CoD

107

CEU eTD Collection that were hitherto unregulated”. hitherto were that Karumbidza moved more aggressively towards re influx control relaxed, informal trade first tolerated, then encouraged; 3) 2000 trading areas. 102 people”.Whereasliberalreasoning the behind of“business the the notion deploying shiftgovernmental from deregulation re to regular store owner in that vici the nity” Ibid.). assess Karumbidza in To(CoD further quoted for street traders to sell “anything or [provide] a service that is similar to that provided by a prohibited it is policy, todraft according the businesses, formal theof competition constrains constrain street traders’ potential to compete with formal bu municipality’s in it the itsown be protagonist, city, debasing that should class” subject resilient poor. Hence, in order to construct the market milieu that presumably suits the “world survivalist entrepreneur, the supposed needs of the market seem override to those of the governmentality is revealed. While the icon of neoliberal the development regime the is of neoliberal where contradictions the many tradeamong ofone is areas regulation street interests to the urge to actively create the harmonizingdynamicsindividual faith shiftthe of in the from liberal to Corresponding the presuppositions. beingsuch of city” powerfulset class a notion of“world the the subjectentrepreneurial based onpresuppositions the space ideal about of with competition, of regulationdefinesthreshold the example urban the eminent ofwaysneoliberal an the hence it throughdevelopment),facilitating urban infrastructure in Durban millenniumthe new is informal municipalattitudeto progressive a with level national on the follows: 1) 1950 1) follows:

terest and interest.

According to Karumbidza (2011, 12), the regulation of informal trade in South Africa can be periodized as An illustrative example of such differentiation is of differentiation An example such illustrative ’s

11, 6) definition 6) 11, (20 102 - 1990: urban accessof unemployedblack peoplecontrolled and Street Trading Policy Directive

As opposed to the to 1990s’As opposed approach laissez that combined -

formalization refers to “the regulation, control and taxation of those activities those and of taxation to “the control refers regulation, formalization

- regulation and repression of informal street trading activities informal trading of and repression street regulation

ideal environmentideal of then, competition, the urban - regulation, theconsider transformed for rationale that, as that, as Karumbidza 24) (2011, notes,

the “double standards” defined by the standards” defined “double bythe the siness. Whereas no such rule - 2010: “ 2010: discouraged; 2) 1991-

during whichthe CoD differentiates between faire

trade (in fact

” deregulation .

1999: 1999: 108

CEU eTD Collection behaved’ poor people behaved’ of City’s the economic thelife, formal subjectedwas not to sector, the ‘nuisance’ of ‘badly city’s invigorated drive to establish “ onPRMP’s emphasis rigorously enforcing registrationand permit speakingEnglish people who can hardly afford the yearly renewals of therental fee), the occurs or poor detriment. to occurs people’s property market to informal settlements (Royston 2 formal theof or extension 2001), (Graham Marvin networks and infrastructure prime to regulatemarket activitiesthrough formalizationreplicate pattern the that relates self of thenotion down” “trickle effect of fosteringeconomic growt such fromundermining, market,arguably liberal myths,the so and other the among actors Karumbidza Ibid.). place value on different informal trading sites, such as pavements” ( property valuebuilt a has placedon dependingit, is onwhere located,it so is toimportant mo acknowledges themarket value of thespace for hereconomic activity: “Local government is the principleof neoliberal of cost subjects interest, wasderegulation 104 103 represented a serious limitation to the poorest group of street traders (often illiterate an thatthe organizational unit conflictual as poli informal andto returning settlements”. in the market, formal established aim of incorporating them into the formalma 2006, 5) argue that “[t]he provision of costly individual freehold titles to informal settlement residents, with the extra

2001 2001 Unit (BSU) (BSU) Unit

Interestingly enough, Skinner (2008, 238) shows that whereas the constant referent the of restrictive constant referent city’s the shows that whereas Skinner238) (2008, enough, Interestingly Challenging Hernando de Soto’s argument that “capitalism can work for the poor” provided the informal or ving towards dealing informal towards with ving traders as small people. business Insame the way that cies is formal the majority business, of actual - from Informal Trade and Small Business Opportunities Branch (ITSBO Branch Opportunities and Small Business from Informal Trade legal proc Whereas the legal requirements of formalization set out in the DIEP already might also suggest the municipality’s shift of focus –

esses that function within the informal property market the informal property within that function esses not least many because street actually traders their buy products from formal fact (The business.

built on acknowledging street traders’ justified need formarket space as Thus, ending up with literally removing the lower segmentsThus, lower up the ending literallyof removingwith economic ” (CoD2011,18). ” Karumbidza in quoted

responsible for managing the support of trade and small business was renamed

an ordered and ordered an rket,often resultsin poor householdsselling outto those more shop shop 103 owners doesowners not theirperceive relation informalto traders

, where‘ the city organized .) 006): simply006): inclusion put, either never - recovery promotes asubjectthat

are legalized, (Huchzermeyer Karamand

104 ) to 1991 est.: , Business Support

Incidentally, the PRMP was - holding clearly signals the h, municipal measures to h, municipalmeasures to CoD in quoted important part’ d in in - built built non 109 -

CEU eTD Collection towards the the combination oftowards cost informal trade in South African citiesmoved from a universalistic “de by chapter, the late previous pay and them and traders’ register ‘illegal to rentals, make not who could those “ traders City’” (Karumbidza 2011, According 25). Streetnet,to an international association of street imperative“advanceWorld Cup the to and related vision a ‘World ofa as Class Durban Metrothe Police to million $450.000) decision allocateR3.7 thejustified to (cc. City its 2004.Indeed, May in middle traders’ goods from several intersectio mid already- in foreshadowed practice 2008, 238), committees” (Skinner City bythe Manager Council throughforced the 106 105 nationally enforced deregulation, reversed the Business Act’s liberal governmental rationale municipalities’ inabilitycontrolto the exponentially inc bywas madepossible 1993amendment a Business the of which, Act, with toreference disparities.” environment policy role’. The councilor, in this statement, gives an indication of one of the dominant tensions in the South Africa[n] wherever possible, to cost recovery. This is, to an extent, contradictory as this amount would be prohibitive for poorer traders, he responded: ‘The Council has to be committed, contradictory to the national gove Council committee on informal trade: “When it was pointed out that charging traders R125 a month is (1998 by Skinner’s underlined is

urban development. As Leonie Sandercock scrutiny and democratic politics, creating such entities as ‘special exemptions’ and the like”. exemptions’ entities‘special as such creating and democratic politics, scrutiny governments have short circuited established planning processes and removed these developments from public the sole purpose ofstreetthe evict traders theto permits,force PRMPhave who not was did

To The contradictory policies emerging from the two rationalities’ coexistence (particularly in the latein (particularly coexistence fromtwo rationalities’ emerging the policies contradictory The

be sure, such such sure, be - Thus, active in the pre class suburbs. South Africa was announced as the host of the 2010 FIFA World Cup World Cup FIFA of2010 host the the as wasannounced Africa South suburbs. class

related exceptional routes ofdecision –

working within a neo Department for the implementation of the PRMP reference with to the

to the the to changing government discussed basic infrastructure in ofthe - World Cup mobilization of traders cities, World Cup mobilizationin of African however, South traders , 37) account of a discussion with a councilor heading the City of Cape Town’s rnments policy objective of creating an enabling environment for entrepreneurs -

1990s of 2000s, early municipalconception and regulating the - recovery and criminalization. - 105 (1998, 28) (1998, liberal framework while attempting to address apartheid crea

June byanJune - old ns in in ns businessthe neighboringcentral district the and to provide the legal framework for the municipal - makingare not unique withinthe practiceofcontemporary

notes: notes:

in November 2004, in “to fast “to new “clean - track many of these mega-

tocouncil’s new found developmental reased informal duetrade to the 106

- Legally, thistransformation up operation” thatup operation” removed “bypassing all the usual allthe usual “bypassing velopmental” approach

” (Ibid.) projects, projects,

nineties) nineties) . ted ted 110

CEU eTD Collection said. ‘[…] 67 that dismissive, often contemptuous treatment of the traders by the then Durban Town and congestion and overcrowding “beautiful” and clean to Dr Goolam Vahe relationship between policing the milieu of the market and deploying the notion of “health hazards”: “ the amall with shopping telling of traditional traders) street is accommodating area the (and surrounding market policing is, of course, neither new, nor accidental. Niren Tolsi’s (Ibid.) report on the controversy of re other rhetorical move of invoking the discourse of squalor as a justification for redevelopment and increased trad anyway in street thekill prices would whose mall’s plans, included permits from the area and relocate those with permits suggest otherwise. (Not mentioning the supermarket “economic opportunities f reclaim space, “people which has erodedbeen transportation by demands”. itAlthough claims create to of the the of Western Freeway over the busiest intersections 2009a). 50 000 street traders whose income ti is that nolongerseems under include to categorythe of the “people” those approximately November street trade in areas demarcated for themarket acti citythe practically reduces numberthe of available shelters (Karumbidza 2011), or prohibit force the codified amendmentpermitted the gradual formulation of a regulatory framework that effectively re ofannouncement South as host Africa countryofthe the 2010FIFAWorld Cup, this theand level intens the interaction of the increasingly neoliberalized macro restricted and prohibited trading zones would restrict informal trading” “ sought that 108 107 lift” formalization we are dirty, uneducated and can't make decisions for ourselves for makedecisions and uneducated can't are dirty, we

It is in relation to redeveloping the Warwick the Junction Warwick is inIt relation to redeveloping “Changing the face of Durban” included projects such as the Warwick F through - year Through bylaws that, for instance, ban street traders from sleeping on the street while onthe bantradersstreet from for instance, street that, bylaws Through sleeping 107

From what I remember frommy childhood, up to now nothing has changed. The authorities still think -

old Sam Moodley believes hasn't changed much since the end of apartheid. 2007), the City the 2007), deploys its ownmeans juridical to an foster idea of “peoplespace” Clearly, Clearly, “public the realm” managed through the PRMP’sfocus onpolicing

a set ofa set large- to reduceto the powers of authoritiesdevelop local to and implement that laws urban governmentality that sets out realize to matches sets governmentalitythat theurban d, d, d mobility of people. d mobility city, it was against white notions of order and it aroused their hostility towards their andhostility towards it aroused order city, itof against white notions was […] or both informal and formal trade”, the mentioned moves to ban traders without , the, market ified inter- scale inv desire for smoothtraffic fl

wasconsidered by whitesto be ‘a“health hazard” , when i city competition periodfollowing typified bythe the estments

(Skinner 1999, 9–10) 1999, (Skinner t grantedt cities power to adopt bylaws demarcating ; ed to accessing frequented urban areas (CoD

( the infamous Warwick Mall, the new International International Mall, the new the infamous Warwick CoD 2006).

that t that ows’ he City he ’ . ” vities of the“FIFA family” ( .

Vahed goes ontoextrapolate onthe - economic on governance the national

108 (CoD 2009a, n. p.) n. 2009a, (CoD ers’ business (Tolsi 2009)). The city’s The city’s 2009)). (Tolsi business ers’

However, protected byrulesHowever, protected and . Within the context definedWithin theby. context lyover that carries the inbound traffic

Council Council

‘

, as anti as , the the I'vegrown up he expresses its aim expresses to –

the sortof behavio ’s “face’s Durban - thetical to a to thetical placing the According According M&G re ,’ he 111 , 7 , 7 r -

CEU eTD Collection [quoted in Unterhal economic [forced] and are control removals – (“Influx nonsense” criticized the legal regime of influx control for twomain reasons: one, rather to economicreveal reasoning why minority rule. The group that was characteristically referred to as the technocrats used of academics white policymakers, and it did withoutso questioning the legitimacy of the deregulationist argument first entered the policy disc reason notis antithetical to the racist control of urban access either. In fact, when its government seems to be justified, apartheid its genealogy suggests that liberal economic transitionpolitical and, therefore, itopposing to the exclusionary pr all Whereas the laissez- cautious approach to spatial policies built on theemancipatory promise offree ma rket. compatibility of its governmental rationality with the (late deregul ofsubject liberated development. the space ope- upforned socio - world image proper a the of practices that actively filter investment into Umhlanga Ridge Airport (“Durban’s R8

decades todecades come”. it was, how the projects and initiatives of the first decade of this century set Durban up as a world class city for Sutcliffe Mike development projects such as the - encompassing politico- D 3.2.2 ation of urban governance realized in South African cities (cf. Skinner 1999), the (cf. 1999), Skinner cities African South realizedin governance urban ation of espite theprogressive institutional and infrastructural developmentsthat liberal

(quoted in CoD in CoD 2009b) (quoted The “Slums Act”: Influx control revived control Influx Act”: The “Slums

- billion ‘aerotropolis’”), the third phase of the Point Waterfront development and further faire ter 1987,43]), two, and

reasoning could indeed combined be with the construction of the economic of subject developmentstatist around the time of the

“ (oneeThekwini of the circulation of people and goods based on presumptions about about onpresumptions based circulationgoods and ofthe people Gateway Theatre of Shopping of Gateway Theatre class city, it ends up far removed from earlier conception its as economic and, politically consequently, from the emancipation : “Future gener the apartheid systemthe they Hence, working. was not ’s most affluent area ations will look time ations back important look at will this how remark and

for triggering black people’s political ourse in the mid in- the ourse ”

(CoD 2009b). According to City Manager Manager City to According 2009b). (CoD

s three kmnorth ofDurban) - )apartheid regime calls for a reads a Cape Timeeditorial 1970s through a group throughgroup 1970s a actices of neoliberal for fiscal its costs , with with , 112

CEU eTD Collection approach approach was inalready operation (C racism andeconomic calculation. mobility formulated re and forced era, blackapartheid the ofpopulation been had Africa South subjected to control influx and majority the andthroughout deregulation, vast of economicvia the to view efficiency in name segregation, the Thus, wh supremacywithether bymeansof and or racial total of rationalities: with be,ofcan varying technology was,deployed control and influx UnterhalterIndeed, (Ibid., perfectly 43) summarizes how fundamentally the biopolitical more oneconomic (Ibid., incentives” 123). Controloncoercion control. influx andmovement rolein less ofrest pivotal come to will oppre forces. As astatement of typical the technocrats’ approach illustrates, wasthis still racist mobilization. 110 109 often employment were to land subject - white high apartheid legislation either, and the segregationist rules of “native’s” residence and highly restrictive conditi restrictive highly prevent Africans living in the bantustans fromliving and working in the non Unterhalter’s (Ibid., 149) definition, influx control is a [s]ystem to control and direct labor, particularly used to of 1954, which legally grounded their removal from Johannesburg (Unterhalter 1987). According to Native Land Act of 1913, severely limiting the landownership of black people, and the Bantu Resettlement Act nineties, that is, during the time when housing development based on the Urban Foundation’s site

Beyond the underscore: To ssion, othermeans: now “Economiconly by(somewhat) will play decentralization a flexible access labor. to for more industry manufacturing of meet needs to and ofBantustans, the the outside andprevent create to the establishmentof unemployed an the in cities armyof labor maintain a migrant labor syst activism,em, political to African undermine to both [Apartheid laws of influx control] have been used to protect access whites’ jobs,to to On the other hand, economic otherhand, On considerati the legal normsmentioned in the previous subsection, major pieces of apartheid legislation were the 109 evictions and forced relocations from shack settlements continued even during the early

Their answerboth to problems wasdecentralization regulation and bymarket ons”.

OHRE 2008). OHRE 110 - formulated according to the shifting coarticulation the to shifting of stateformulated according

ons were never wereons never absent from of formation the

or mine challengeor or owners’ obstruction. - bantustan urban areas except under - and

- service 113

CEU eTD Collection in in Mandela’s sympathetic declaration. rule in local governments, municipal often interests overrode politicalthe mandate articulated and(Butler Pithouse 2007, Likew 11). stepalmost immediate fromback commitments undertaken the in last yearsof apartheid” the credibility newofpost some political the instances va bythe patterns reproduced albeit marginalizing spatial were market,only apartheid’s property not challenge segregationist and failureto the the and Solution’ hear shack vocalism, the same statement announced a People’s Forumwhere Nelson Mandela was to 112 111 what theshack ANC pursued bythe elected newly “solution” 43). South in COHRE condemninghousingAfrica” crisis (ANC2008,elections quoted “the encouraging people to “Occupy the Cities!”, as well asits campaign ahead of the1994 fundamentallyconsequently, it defined- early the of central demands the ofa the thedocumentedin Freedom already Charter couldbyeitherwhich hindered be setsof governmental Ofasapproaches. course, se increasingurban people’s black apartheid (COHRE 2008). vacant urban land; conceiving of this practice as reclaiming the land from which black people were banned under in developing the settleme the developing in shift in the approach to housing on the municipal level: the City’s 1991 decision to partner the Urban Foundation

In the period after its unbanning, the ANC actively encouraged land occupations, including the occupation of The fate of the Kennedy Road settlement (from where Abahlali started out in 2005) is illustrative theis illustrative of early out 2005) started in Abahlali Road settlement fate theThe of Kennedy (from where 111

Regrettably, as the discussion discussion in previous the Regrettably, as the chapterpost showed,the wasIt precisely this condition that cameattack underin the seventies and eighties by Stressing the pivotal issue of shack settlements and calling for inhabitants’ their – says President Mandela” (Ibid.). - dwellers’ views: - dwellers would have preferred. Due to the lack of a significant land of reform significant a lack the dwellersDue preferred. to wouldhave nt in two phases was revoked already in 1995, when it “felt able to change its plans for

“‘Your problems are My Problems. Your solution is My solutionMy Problems. My is problemsYour are “‘Your - nti ttlement and strengthening political activism – apartheid struggle was free the movement, alland of 112 ise, not independentlyise, ofpreservation the of minority

Nevertheless, the protection and emancipation protectionand ofNevertheless, the the

adopted in 1955 by the People’s Congress, one 1955adopted in People’s bythe - government was generally quite dif generally quite government was 1990s’ ofunbannedmilitancy the ANC - apartheid state allowed it to take an st delivery ofst delivery low - cost housing, “ cost ferent from from ferent

none ofnone - 1994 114 in in

CEU eTD Collection Elimination Elimination of Prevention and Re re the 15 February2008), developmenthousing municipal and strategies since spatial discussion demonstrates, the “ruralization” of thehas poor been an technologyactive of control into South its Constitution. through problems are My Problems…” – ANCblack betweenpopulation poor the ofconstruction identity the and political dipreviously 114 113 Kennedy Road be aborted’ Kennedy Road from staggered upgrades to relocation and recommended that ‘the entire development of againstrights forcefulevictions (Pithouse Butler2007). and Evi 26,of of Prevention Act Squatting replacingofSection and the Prevention Illegal 1951,the No legislation an t order ofdemolished, withou courtmade considering after therelevant all circumstances. (3) of the Constitution states that abandonment. against Section 26 thecontrol, infamousstruggles means of Addressing influx other as normswell legal hous regulating legitimization of the post - as purely ideological ormerely rhetorical, or even as completely dissolved in the consensual emancipation, the laws that replaced architecture thelegal of aparthei subject of the“new South Africa” as thesubject of socio in in

(1997) o (1997) referred to).

Chapter 7. Chapter Cf. Butl Cf. The - shack defined tangibly of 1998 LandAct and Occupationof Unlawful ction significance of this inscription for the political subjectification of the Abahlali is central to the discussion the discussion to the is central of Abahlali for the political subjectification inscription this of significance n the white elite’s success to maintain its power in maintain governments its to power success local elite’s n the white It is precisely against this politico er and Pithouse’s (2007, 12) summary of the protective measures of the PIE Act (as it is commonly

senfranchised subject, and its (presumed) ascendance to power via the consistent

may permit arbitrary evictions

African jurisdiction gains major significance. Although, as the previous significance.previous major Although, the jurisdictionas gains African … ” (CoD quoted in Butler and Pithouse 2007, 113 apartheid state. Indeed, as show I in 5 Chapter -

- KwaZulu the mobility of byway codificationforced of Thus, not Thus, not role for their least constructing governmentalin the “ No one may be evicted from their home, or have their home their home,have or frommay evicted their No one be was doubtless inscribed into the new African South polity - emergence of Slums Act of 2006 bears the marks the of SlumsofemergenceAct of the 2006bears - juridical background, then, thatthe ofreturn influx ing rights, gain a central role in the emancipatory ”

(RSA 1996). Aiding Aiding enforcement the (RSA 1996). of - economic development and political economic developmentpolitical and 114

at the 2000s least early (Abahlali 11).

. Cf. Cf.

Chapter 3 Chapter d cannot be written off off d cannotwritten be , the constitution, as

and Robinson dwellers’ – “Your “Your Natal 115

CEU eTD Collection arrested on charges of “inciting public violence”, leading them to problematize the notion of notion the them problematize publicviolence”, to ofleading “inciting oncharges arrested Throughout2007). the since history movement’s 2005,many of its violence’ ‘public is what Whointerest’? decides the “Who ‘public is what publicspaces: anddecides in penalized assaulted for protesting movement Slumsobstru when similarthe arise being proposed questions Bill, is not interests in the public interest’, public: measures prescribes)it wasleast, , at A crucial element ofshack the falling within its area of jurisdiction if such eviction is in the public interest” ( may proceedings[…] for institute the eviction of unlawful an whenstates notionthat “[a] Section 10it fissured a public” in of “the inscribes municipality relation to the current municipal governmentof street trade, this provincial act arguably biopoliticscontemporary of dispersal. 116 115 3.2.3 for Huchzermeyer’s (2007a) cited argument about the disto aims UN realize the to municipality indeed the way, its twisted In 9 (3) (c)). urbanto Section areas slums” 2006, of (KZN development the and sultant re and economicdevelopment in rural areas within its area of jurisdiction so as to avoid the undue influx of persons city. them to new arrivals. But the policy intention is clearly to restrict the influx of poor people moving in t people who find work or develop livelihoods from a first base in a shack often move out of their shacks and rent people into the city. In practice there is not an absolute barrier because era: the with those of apartheid continuities noted a year before the Slum

is clear interest’ once “Only ‘public interest’”; : it) “Ais required for ‘public definition supported parliament provincial

It is only sufficient to recall the 2001 introduction of the Slums Clearance Program. Cf. Huchzermeyer’s (2007 ” Indeed, one of the municipalities’ roles defined in the Slums Act is “to encourage and promote housing ly can defined, commentone the on appropriateness of […] section of the[10] Bill”. As articulated by another speakerthe at shack “ “Public violence” or “passive recreation” “passiverecreation” or violence” “Public to evict people to ‘ Municipalities evict when evictions wouldallow …the proposed Bill

count?”

(Abahlali 21June 2007).

s Bill was announced, the province’s housing policies show unmistakable and we would like to weareand wouldliketo weask: partofpublic? not the Do our b , §3.3.4 and §3.8) comments on the “Slums Bill” (that became an Act once the

- dwellers’ rejection ofSlums language(beyond the the Act’s - Habitat’s ideal of the “Cities without Slum”. Cf. the previous chapter the chapter Slum”. Cf. previous ideal the of “Cities without Habitat’s “…

what they tovery they what their perceived be exclusion from the 115 there is a clear attempt regulate theto flow of poor African

Paralleling the regulatorytendencies obse 116 ? Who is the public really? public Who the is ?

rtion of this of UN rtion - dwellers’ series of discussions about the series about dwellers’ of discussions

new shacksnew are erected and because

occupier fromoccupier buildings or land - mandate.

members and leaders were

As Pithouse ( Pithouse As ” (Abahlali,” 2May

KZN 2005a 2006, 11) 2006, o the cted or cted rved in rved , n., p.) 116 are are .

CEU eTD Collection marchers, the Abahlali (21 March 2010) state: toreference the safety hazard that Citythe Hall’s ongoing renovation would mean to the antagonisticrelation to itsreferents. to an that,when contested, in be proves idea spacean ofpublic mobilizes of the usage public securitization and their consequent criminalization, the municipal practice to regulate the imperative. A circulatory according the to space of of“public” public the note of reconfiguration take the to focus a with onthe technologiesofjuridical urban neoliberal government, here we only need Abahlali emerged as a collective political subject. people fromfourteen Kennedy the Road settlement spontaneous a at road blockade that the baseMjondolo itself due is to such an occasion: municipal government. mobilized bythe public”“the 117 occasion of his trial on the same charges, during which he

Cf. Abahlali Western Cape chairperson Mzonke Poni’s (2009) article entitled “Public violence” written on the the written on “Public violence” entitled article (2009) Mzonke Poni’s Cape chairperson Western Cf. Abahlali payroll and so by making important social questions into problems to be resolved bymaking problems questions social by important into resolved so be and to payroll ontheir has own The their experts state can byexperts. answered be questions only Technical arguments ar Whereas this moment ofpolitical sub 01:13:34’’ that like movement up The grew on. so and dispersedguns with… also if you cannot release them then arrest us. them becausewe out are the public should that beenhave the vic public. becausethe we are Now, violence. public, which for public those who were arrested be released or all of us be arrested because they were charged wemarched strength and day ofpeople, thet nex the to[T]hrough demand courage that s the the s movement evidently recognizes, either technicizationthrough or ; emphasis; . added)

e always used against us because it is assumed technicalthat

In reaction to the City’s ban on their protest march with jectification will be discussed in further chapters,

it was throughout their protest of represented himself, and won the case.

And protestagain, inthe day the next was 117

Moreover, the formation of formation Abahlali the Moreover, tims of their act . But […] take Rather,

(Zikode 2010,

the arrestof 117

CEU eTD Collection met with what Cameron UK what David metthe Prime with Minister famously referred to as ‘robust policing’ September 2011). 2011). September Bheki Cele Bheki recently assured his that audience General commissioner in the UK, Police the“riots” 2011 toof August the policing reference with tendency: is approachingis violence pathologicaas present consensusin pillar ofpolitical the basic argues,a (2011) Neocosmos 119 118 movementbetween be to fostered and thatto be disallowed – preemptauthorities robustly or “public counter violence” – brutalized. are criminalized orviolent judged (prohibited predicted increasingly, penalized)and, or asacts therefore, to such, but politics democracy not conception,antithetical to only is this Duncan South African political discourse, a more particular example might still illustrate the phenomenon. (But the phenomenon. still a might illustrate example more particular discourse, African political South Neocosmos (2011) on the parlance todayparlance is about ips townsh (including apartheid of struggles the ANC’s call to make townships ungovernable), the municipal post in country a resulting

killing of Ficksburg (Free State) activist Andries Tatane was Tatane Andries activist (Free State) Ficksburg of killing office, with rubber bullets and even live ammunition being reported during protest action policing”. for the funeral costs if people the die funeral costs for M Councillor NomvuzoShabala eThekwini, now theUnit were Eskom Electricity and Communications, Police Metro post by the police during demonstrations the Abahlali’s challenge of the municipality’s patronizing pedagogy of of un pedagogy patronizing the of municipality’s challenge Abahlali’s the paying your bills, but someone else is paying for ‘ connections. illegal making by mustrather said they but be patient, need for electricity, public’s seem at be present]a to doesn’t option viable this settlements, the right etro Pol

Whereas it is impossible to engage here in a discussion of the disappearance of “political violence” fromthe In her analysis of dissent in South Africa under the presidencies of Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, Jane - - apartheid South Africais nothing new. apartheid criminal violence.) apartheidviolence.) criminal (2010, 12) observes 12) (2010, that Complementarily, revealing of “the public” in whose supposed interest local interest whosesupposed in public” of “the revealing Complementarily, To sure, be this antagonism topost due the is will be democracy if t willpeople govern’. It saydidn’t that the willexperts govern. didn’tIt say that there people from any chance to debate these questions. The Freedom Charter said that ‘the experts they seize the rig steps to electricsteps apply for ice for their efforts. ‘ efforts. their for ice especially 119

wide shock and outrage. However, as Steven Friedman (2011) argues, police brutality in informal responsibility, risk, and “electricity risk, responsibility, depoliticizing logics depoliticizing la Illegal Illegal connections a have impactbad Municipality the on because we tohave pay

, who , chairs the Safety, and Committee,Health Services Social applauded the settlements, to teach residents about the dangers of illegal connections. connections. the illegal of teach residents about dangers to settlements, If you have electricity illegally your to connected house that means you are not

“[h]arsher forms of policing becamemore apparent during Mbeki’s period in because of these connections. ity,’ C he managers city decide to allow it.

ompletely disconnecting the current of shackgrievances since 2000

said Shabalala said ht toht answer thesequestions own ontheir – Cons “anyfuture violent protests onthe str l or residual to the authoritarian regime.

ofthe oft , Pithouse (2011) counts counts (2011) Pithouse ,

you, at fair all,’ is not which ideringmerely the number of [due to the provincial prohibition of electrifying shack - cited “transition” from apartheid political violence to violence political from apartheid cited “transition” - thieves”: recorded . She said theShe . Municipality aware was of the I urge people to stop this bad habit and follow than commits [sic] a crime and than commitslives at put risk a crime and [sic] - apartheid of construction Asviolence.

“[Superintendent Sbonelo]

and widely broadcasted in April 2011, for implying an evident distinction sixteen

planning a campaign that would tour - development, development, see local authorities’ most

said Shabala . unarmed Finally, to indicate the current the current indicate to Finally, eets of ourcountry willbe people who la - - ” (CoD 2011) (CoD ” Chapter 8 Chapter day South Africa Southday Africa dwellers from dwellers the

118 ” they expel the

Mchunu said said Mchunu (

IOL News Violence, in

The police were .

cf. popular

. killed killed

On On , 16 16 , 118

CEU eTD Collection 2006”. twice a inweek Lake “generalpublic” instead. definition of thelegitimate usage of public spaces promotes the“passive recreation” of the wasthat referred to above asthe materialization of theconsensus regime,municipalities’ vehicular traffic discourages publicgathering. but traffic. “technical” argument against protestmarches adverse their is effect vehicular thecity’s on 123 122 121 120 etc. projection, distribution, display, prohibitingthe in sponsors, monopoly of the its primary aimof securing more the constructing Eventangibly 2010, 15). misunderstandings, bylaws the possible also define “culture” and “recreation” (eThekwini that undeveloped places “used for publicRecreationalare or To purposes”. Cultural prevent 2010FIFAthe open “public define bylaws spaces” municipallyas owned developedor dissent (Ibid., 16). dissent pamphlets twice a year. to According the groupfeedings” of groupslarger than 25people without a permit,while an organization canapply for permits

general public for passiverecreation”. is a “Zuccotti Park privately owners, in New Operation Khanyisa (light up) in defiance of ESKOM’s large ESKOM’s of defiance in up) (light Khanyisa Operation number ofparticipants.” vehicularof traffic because durationthe of of march,the your refusal adhereto to 2 hours restriction and the movements”manifested the effort of Durban’s planners to rebrand the city as “an elite sports dest the time of the World Cup through the “policing of nuisance behaviors [and] the restriction of protest by social muster”. constitutional pass parks both commercial advertising and any and around thein stadiums fo the as fan well rmas political expression of seems to impose quite a drastic limit on the freedom of expression of everyone in South Africa. It in effect bans US group“Food affected especially affected hour lunch and peak reasons: “1) Jorissen Place is in the centre of Braamfontein [in Johannesburg] and business will be severely D epartment (JMPD)

Accord Typical, to the extent that borders on absurd humor, are the of a typical illustration To offer Duncan –

York City, which famously gave home to the protesters of the Occupy Wall Street. According to the which are situated on public property. The ban is so broad and all encompassing that I am not sure it will 120 ing ing

(JMPD quoted in 2010, 8) 8) 2010, in quoted (JMPD Doubtless, the materiality of public spaces is shaped in a way favors that (private) ” to legal professor Pierre de Vos (2010 Vos de legalprofessorto Pierre – N all grouped all under the ot Bombs” were arrested for violating a

of “ of prohibited the march of the Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee (SECC) for the following for the following Committee (SECC) Electricity thethe Crisis march of Soweto prohibited Eola Park in 2005. After residents began to complain, the city passed the ordinance in 123

Incidentally, SECC is the organization that SECC is the organization Incidentally,

any method of displaying writing, letters, numbers, […], method figures, letters, ofwriting, any displaying

Cf. Roberts (2010, 1486), who argues th argues who 1486), (2010, Roberts Cf. 122 Washington Post

Including its o the spatial re the

- owned space that is designed and intended for use and enjoyment by the cites cites

- h ourtraffic. 2) Your proposed gatheringwill result inserious disruption a

typical case the Johannesburgwhereby term “sign” –

gulation of the revanchist city: the revanchist of gulation (3 June 2011), “Food Not Bombs began feeding the homeless )writing duringthe daysofthe World Cup,“[t]his provision wn, circumscribed carefully among such, venues city ordinance

FIFA zones asconsensual spaces with the - scale cut 121 regulations the bylaws radically limit the space of

Likewi in 2001 launched its reconnection campaign at governing the city’s public spaces around - off measures (Pape and McDonald 2002). McDonald and (Pape off measures

of Orlando’s (FL Orlando’s of

of the privately owned Zuccotti Park se, furthering phenomenon the

in June 2011 three ac three 2011 June in

Metropolitan Police Police Metropolitan ), which bans“large ination”. tivists of the the of tivists

119

CEU eTD Collection urban dwellers of the South African metropolis are left with? political dissenters, theis “nation their and “s redevelopment, presence as impeded both Vos 2010(de Witheconomic). promise of the subsumed their emancipation urban under circulation becomes co sense of how the law’s adaptation to theimperative of foster effect become theenforcement arms company of aprivate “inmunicipalities these consequently that and regulations its to violation any enforce” and 124 in Abahlali’s political subjectif friendship for this young nation. We intend to build on this achievement” ( which has never been witnessed before. […] This augurs well for the consolidation of reconciliation and are priceless. We have seen remarkable unity, patriotism and solidarity being display President Nelson Mandela Nelson President enthusiasm, joy and excitement that has engulfed the entire nation in recent weeks has not been witnessed since

Cf. Neocosmos (2011). The reference is to president Jacob Zuma’s public utterances, such as this one: “The Considering that the bylaws prescribe it as ahost city’s responsibility t

was released from ( prison” - constitutive of the homogeneous anti ofhomogeneous constitutive the

ication, in - building” power of the football world cup all that poor poor allthat cup world offootball power building” the Chapter 5Iwill argue otherwise. M&G online , 6 June 2010); or this: “The social benefits mall people”and potential business

- 124 [:] FIFA”, we get a rather good rather a we get [:] FIFA”, politics of thepolitics conse M&G 6 July M&G

Discussing the role oflaw the role the Discussing ing the world class city’s ed bySouth Africans,

2010).

o “administer nsus regime regime nsus 120

CEU eTD Collection on was, in large part large on was,in of politicspopularity everyday and the notions of capillary power and resistance that itbuilds academic the notes, 114–115) (2002, 1992), Gutmann as Prakash and Haynes 1982; perspectives of ordinary people into historiography the of the Indiansubcontinent (e.g. Guha cf. Schram 2003). structures allowing for claim irregular tactics” of class and 1979), “disruptive 1978;McCarthy and Zald against repression(Tilly mass organization of thebasedpolitics poor on,among the others, difficulties mobilization”and of “resource that rested on the binary of thestate and the oppressed; approaches that conceptualized the “everyday forms ofresistance” (Scott 1985) offered a much idea that “where there power, is resistance” is there (Foucault 1978, 95), scholars of the thatconstrain and structures maypower contest embitter people of numbers growing poor donedoubtless, service those great thinking ofto thewhich, waysin revolt, about short the disenfranchised or, we anthropological literature that conceptualizes the resistant practices ofmarginal, subaltern, of“weapons weak” the 1985), (Scott such politics is the of everyday.Thestream the of prevailing procedures, regulati rules, expressions acts thatindirectly privatelyand forand the most part endorse,modify, resist or quiet 1990),1985; “the ofordinary” encroachment (Bayat the 2000), mundane,“quiet, subtle interested muteness”, “passive non Part II

ir lives. withWorking mostly a Foucauldian notion of diffused relations power and the B “Hidden transcripts”, “offstage dissent”, “politics of disguise and anonymity”, “self

esides the vastand fr The politics of excess freedom: Introduction , might add, surplus populations ofmight the surplus add, south global theseterms in has,

and at least in the United States, due to the sobering United States, the political in to sobering due least at and - based dissent (Piven Cloward, and e.g. or1977), opportunity - making and the formation of contentious politics (Tarrowmaking formation the and of 1994; contentious uitful project of the Subaltern Studies group to integrate - compliance”,“the infrapoli ons, orons, (Kerkvliet2005, order” such are 22): the - needed alternative to approaches tics of the powerless” (Scott

121 -

CEU eTD Collection subaltern groups, and subaltern dominant the and “the misses subordinate”, it internalfrictions within conflicts the and politicsof the for, inin literature onthe resistance onthe concentrating relationship between To appropria 182). 2012,9; of cf. literature(Gledhill Ortner 1995,180– resistance standards” moved radar off the mobilization popularmovements and that appear be to “reactionary bytraditional Left diffusedpower onall oflevels soc grounded suspicionotherwise Foucauldian to the state aas andmonolith the very conceptof several of its pitfalls into the fore. predominance of theeveryday politics research program in thepast couple decades bro 1995). coexist intermingle and (Ortner Nevertheless collaboration and resistance , the members o positions” that “subject and the plural varying 2000,536–537); (cf.Bayat populations abject grammars ofdissentamong hitherto neglected or unjustifiably schematized and criminalized enriche certainly anthropology of discipline the it andprovoked formsquestions within the everyday resistance of considering even the conditioning power of thesepolitico- era in which democratization itself generally got off ‘popular subject’”, which allowed for thinking “more radically democratic alternatives in an behind, as Gledhill (2012, 5) observes, success can be attributed to the concept’s “decentered inequa state ofdismantlingsocial context American the developmentalist and interestwaning in the idea of social revolution after the end ofCold the War. the In Latin chan conservativism of theReagan

ge in the wake of the 1960- the in wakeof ge To mention but a few that aremention fewrelevant a for thean but To that discussion this thesis:to due in f such (or any) populations choose to take any) to populations reject,theof (or choose and upor opaquesuch f waysacts te Ortner’s (1995, 176) phrase, who argues that there is not much politics much there not politics is Ortner’s that (1995,te phrase,who 176) argues with view to more recent studies of neoliberal governmentalities and - era and the “diminishing expectations” expectations” major regarding social era and “diminishing the d the of array conceptual tools for assessing the tactics and

70s’ civil rights and antiwarmovements, as well asthe iety, overt collective and dissent instancesor mass of to to a cautious and conservative start”. Yet, historical contexts, the literature on literature the contexts, historical lities itleft ught ught 122

CEU eTD Collection Certeau 1984). Certeau “practical intelligence” that the can“weak” supposedly utilize, thatand Scott (1998) draws elsewhereon (cf. de intellect. (Rancière 1999,1). (Rancière cf. Chapter social scientific incarnation of po theancient pointspreciselyto understand find the timewe to what could as for politics” ‘surviving’ busy too people are poor class working and idea emphasisthat “withpersistent onthe studies their insistenceBourdi assumptionsdriving thosethe and underlying this Pierre lower “realism” canthe in excessive (2007) pointsout, politics Gledhill understood traditionally grasped, as be more of marginalized populations conceptualdisconnect from world tendencyto further the A effects depoliticizing ofand contemporary other asone atomizing the mightdiscourse either or (Brown 1996), allowthe not for tracing power and resistance, if combined the frequent with move read almost to any or“offstage”act effect.another Namely, albeit focuslaudable the onlocalizeda their everyday contestation, we can thelocate conceptual process of “sanitizing politics” in 125 literature might wonder if early critics’ warnings about 1999,(Rose And, 20). thoughexposed aeven to readers amountfair of governmentality and ofproblems how,pursuit objectives, throughstrategies defined what what techniques in “what concerning questions of startingend) is, duetheseaccounts, mostoftenalsopoint the is to (and that this anemicofFoucault tend be Certainly, to as practice she onthe politics”. much observes, of MurrayTania (2007, Li succinctlystates, 26) draw “[s]tudies their that fro inspiration

The other pitfall of realism Scott’s pitfall other of The - class politics and resistance”. Indeed, Gledhill’s (2007, 10) note about the affinity (2007,the noteof and10) about class Gledhill’s resistance”.politics Indeed,

Arguably, such problems travel all too easily into the governmentality literature. As As I mention in the in mention I As of Scott’s (1985, conviction Scott’s 296) that“‘[b]readof -

Conclusion to the those of notion mightthis , effect be related

pen, in relation to wanted hap relation to ofin pen, sorts authorities various

125 is, according to Gutmann (2002), the romanticization of the subaltern

rationalities of neoliberal 2010). ofrule (cf.Chandler rationalities neoliberal litico - philosophical project of depoliticization projectphilosophical of depoliticization the totalizationontologization or of and - butter’ issues the are essence of nd individualized forms of of formsindividualized nd of of eu’s sociological eu’s sociological m ē tis , the kind of kind the , 123 m ”

CEU eTD Collection something in “the everyday” line something “the thatmoves in in biopolitics?with inapproaches IRcannot grasp.possibly Butdo they remedy political the Oranemia? thereis (Richmond To be 2011). ey sure, th direct attention to sites and practices that most theoretical peace or 2010), illegalimmigration(Ellermann (Cameron 2009), planning authors make good use of Scott’s “everyday forms of resistance” in the fields of development (s reversed being is fact, in and, reversible demands justice thatI many noteadd: mostauthors thatgovernmental even or is power - (neo 127 126 freedom, earshot discursive 1990,25; the of(Scott emphasis powerholders” added). outside thattheaccounts surplus population up ends in “in “the theeveryday”: realm relative of due belo public.Itsuchngs is to ofthe political ofkind to what subject is and what account urban governmentality are paralleled with a distribution of speech and visibility, with an of neoliberal technologies delaying and distancing the of ofbiopolitics dispersal, the notion through the two show chapters previous to the in tried suchhave As I education. providing obviously,cannot locate2010), the political dynamics stop that increasingly ofshort di nature, it is never Remaining within the realm designated by programmatic problematizations of a biopolitical rationalities sym is thatmatchstudy infrapolitics convenient ofis the between and raise the governmental - (neo lea Sula Central

governmentality. subordinate other domains of power (such as those of sovereignty or discipline) to the liberal framework of versions ofversions governmentalities that teachsurplus how life survive to on itsown (cf. Reid

rning to figure out for himself Cf. Dean See,e.g., Li’s (2007, 23 )liberal rule were heeded (cf. O’Malley, Weir and Shearing 1996; Valverde1996), Shearing )liberal and Weir were (cf.O’Malley, heeded rule )liberal rule conceives of its object and renders it governable, the point I would like to wouldlike I governable,point the it renders and object )liberal of conceives its rule Without calling into questionWithout into calling the ’s wesi, recounted to me how he had ‘learned to practice politics’ […]

(2007, 87) (2007,

ptomatic of limited the critical potential of the biopolitics literature.

confronted with its incapacity to Tracing to political. think the subtle confronted incapacity with its “reinscription thesis”, that is, his caution against governmentality studies’ ten studies’ caution is, against that his governmentality thesis”, “reinscription – 24; originalemphasis what was wrong and right the in world, how and to carry that assessment

importance ofthrough thewhich analyzing processes ) account: account: ) 41). Indeed, some Indeed, some 2011,37–41). Lacey and e.g.ee Ilcan “In 2001, Freddy, a young man from Lake Lindu in in Lindu man from Lake young a Freddy, “In 2001,

What this meant, for this was for him, What meant, - dency to building building 124 127 126

CEU eTD Collection forcibly evict them. […S]eeing the them. evict […S]eeing forcibly people of his village organize to contest the construction of a hydroelectric dam that would flood the land and forward to bring about change. His epiphany occurre ofposition post Here I can only refer the reader to aquite recent set of literature that questions, from the where it has been disruptive potential of universal claims can only limit the force of criticism. levelconcerns to the individualized regulation of neoliberal postdemocracy increasingly impedes raising particular intoof one translates speechvisibility and asso fix particular to ideas of public.If the the freedomthrough others and spacesto of abandonment, and how, in turn, thisdistribution invoke the collective political subject when distributing some to the realm of government to continue discourses of rule how neoliberal for problematizing allow not individual does the oscillation be thein governmental struggles wasdissolved popular only the reversibility of the other. That is, accepting that the collective referent ofmodern disc of deconstructingmodernstate’stotalizing exercise the technologies those that alongside infra but orders, governmental a underslave societies domination class should make not of cautious us only neoliberal and peasant Scott’s originatedin (1985) stratified observationsofof that highly resistance according toaccording “the which spaces,the liberties, the and rights won by individuals in their

unhelpful distraction to the work of development. paternalism‘Guidedof Democracy’, paving theway for decades of New Order doublethink and doubletalk. […] Sukarno, the first president, retreated into the t afraid He began to look with new eyes at the people around him in his village and in the state apparatus who were too practiceto politics a was step.positive He described feeling ashis of awakeningone from a long lazyand sleep. ipline us as individuals might lose its critical edge if we take the one for granted posit forand one granted the critical mightits if we edge take us lose ipline individuals as politics be whateverpoliticsis and The assumedabove (not) Foucauldian it. to pivotal o engage in political debate. […] They had to unlearn habits of quiescence cultivated through three I lackI the means and the space to take up the question of this suspicion on the level The fact that studies ofliberal gov - foundational and radicalthought, cosmopolitan Agamben’s(1998, 121) cl

most elaborated, provocatively Agamben’s that is, ontology. biopolitical of 2009), universal (Dean then the sustaineda reluctance ponder to the lso of these studies’ failure to reflect on the disjuncture between between disjuncture on the reflect to studies’ failure these oflso

dedication of the the NGO’s staffyoung […] he became co Politics ernmentalities unproblematically adopt accounternmentalities an unproblematically d a few yea a few d his successor, Suharto, to declare politics as an

became a dirty word.” rs earlier,rs whenan NGO […]began helpingthe

tween the population andtween population the nvincedthat learning

aim aim 125

CEU eTD Collection of [propertied] the people,, and the “actually existing arena of institu understood society, civil as distinct the hand, out one thateachits realm: carved argues on the betweenin firsthe one, qualified the the capitalism relation freedom equality and necessarily that with the consideration lines pursuingmultipleagencies policies welfare”. and these ofMoving along security parallel rights grantingcitizens”,and other to equal the “connecting populationsgovernmental to - nation society the civil to “connecting one modern state: the concerning lines twoconceptual distinguishes 37) ParthaChatterjee(2004, context, might be (Agamben not bodies” irreparable 177). 179; 1998, fragmentaryof a andmultiplicity body” people “as political excluded whole the and needy 2011). (Schaap struggles as the litigious name thatchallenges biopolitics2011), appropriated visionofexistence (Burke and a ground human can biopoliticalrethought, trap,carefully the it back right notthat fall into is boundto rights suggestthat,contr convergeto (2008; 2011) Schaap and Langlois(2011) Andrew AnthonyJ. theoretical perspectives, (2011), AnthonyBurke verypowerfor sovereign the from they to which wanted themselves”.liberate From diverse of individuals’ lives within the state order, thus offering a new more and dreadful foundation conflicts with central powers always simultaneously prepared a tacit but increasing inscription 128 sovereigntypost and technologiesof the problems popular the governmentalityin of own reificationofits the People/people fracture. series a In of meditations insightful around

Cf. WendyBrown (2004)and Rancière (2010a). Returning, forReturning, now, to the notion ofeveryday, the assess letus the conceptual risks of of the people, can give rise to transformative or disruptive political 128

Thus, the “original biopolitical fracture” between the People “as a

on the other, the society,political inhabited by majoritythe of , roperty and community and of, property mediatingrole through the tions and practices inhabited by a relatively small section

ary to Agamben, the universal subject of subject ary Agamben,universal to the vereigntystate so popular founded on - colonial colonial 126

CEU eTD Collection as that of the party” (Ibi withlanguage who foris the them;well“familiar ofnavigation as someone peasants educated politics and make instrumental use of their voting rights. Better, they find a mediator to do the They 59). (Ibid., to povertyline” have navigat the below categories of governmentality”, such as “refugees, landless people, day laborers, homestead, difficulty great andwith oftenbyillegalmeans, poor the have assume to the “demographic of bel preservetenuous formsscarce to their habitationand Here, survival. poor the areto forced conduct ofa squeezepolitics to compromises out their means of “stu norms as merely Chatterjee ideal, enshrined freedom41) the equality of and (2004, traces so propermembers of not rights, civil property “are who, lacking people population,poor the 129 political transformation 75). (2004, although Hence, he shows thatnow and then the people aspire to transg thatpoor ofpossibility the and seem not conceive ondoes terrain to struggles subpolitical a populations than the majority of the everyday resistance literature, he still locates these and muchredefinition goes of “entitlements”, fairer ofin a achieving distribution rights” occasionally promises of“everyday the the modern democracies as inaccessible and irrelevant for the latter. Thus, while he appreciates between governed,construc and relations the those and who govern paralegalgovernment the and ossified an population, Chatterjee gives accountof of the the

Arguably, this claim is a version of Arendt’s (1976) concept of the “right to have rights” are, mightwe say, Neocosmos (2011). course, serves as the point of departure for Agamben’s criticism of human rights. Cf. Schaap (2011) and

ciety and are not and not ciety regardedare such institutions of as by the (Ibid., the state” 38). “ Rights belong to those legal to title the those who proper to belong have Rights ff of politics” democratic thein society, political thus,aand in subpolitical realm where In effect, with spatializing the opposition between the “fictive ideal of society” betweencivil ideal “fictive opposition the spatializing effect,the with In The problemsthisschemewith proper citizens who must be paid the legally stipulated compensation 69) 2004, (Chatterjee ”

ress material its and discursive boundaries so as to achieve or social d., 65). d., 65).

appear, in my in appear, whenformally view, depicting the further in pursuing the politics of pursuingthemarginal in politics further

lands or building a authorities thats the e through the delicate meshes of local ts the collective subject of –

an idea that, 129 ongings gained

cquire; they of of 127 .

CEU eTD Collection to remain. of thespatial an transgression politicsshapethe people’s as indeed poor take can followingthe twochapters, premisethis is questioned bythose who are not supposed to govern. As, in will turn, I show in govern”. everyonecan premise thatnot criteria of the ideal constitution. But our actual governmental practices are still based on the an “actu canpopulation ways modulate the governed,they are 77) Chatterjee(Ibid., ultimately offers 130 struggle for a baseMjondolo’s of Abahlali such byrejecting positioning. Thecrux order 49). In what follows, I present a political practice that disrupts the world class city’s s hiddenfor the between apparent,the position a mastery of is established” (Rancière 2004b, misgsubjectare existence implies the assumption that whothose appearthrough claiming with this identity neoliberal governmentality and/or the inescapable bifurcation between bare life and political collective subject of rights merely as th a account.In vein, of similar conceiving the this reproduce of everyday interpreters the transcript, at hidden deciphering Stoppingthe short of rests. abandonment biopolitical order (constructed) need for mediation by the educated are of an accountof on speech the which unequalrender place.Thein (presumed) of muteness practices survivalist and the to leave itspractices for they of disruptiveofbiopolitics dispersal, not the are themselves in arepractices absentfrom the politics of surplus the people. It is, rather, to unde

the outskirts of the city” (Abahlali Western Cape, 21 September 2011). wants to confine us to discussions of peripheral importance just as we are already confined on peripheral land on […] We have every right to insist on discussion on issues ‘unrelated’ to ‘service delivery’. Yourchief of staff ‘service delivery’. the paradigm whole of reject factwe […] In government. your by provided delivery’ ‘service ‘service delivery’?Since when was human dignityonly about ‘ about only democracywhen was Since issues’. ‘unrelatedwith would not deal and issues’ delivery ‘service with Patricia de Lille: Mayor

Cf. an excerpt from a letter sent by Abahlali Western Cape’s chairperson, Mzonke Poni, to Cape Town As have I discussed in al” politics of dispersal: “Our political theory today does not accept Aristotle’s 130

This not is to suggest that tactical compromises, strategic concessions orillegal d discursive boundaries within which their “everyday” struggles are supposed whichstrugglesd discursiveboundariesare “everyday” supposed within their - co and uided “We

are […]are concerned that your chief of staff hasthat said a meeting onlywould deal

opted (cf. Schaap 2008; Langlois 2011). 2011). searches one “Where Langlois opted 2008; (cf.Schaap , fo 1, Chapter e product and instrument of capitalist ideology and/or of capitalist instrument productand e r Rancièrer (1999) politics occurs precisely when service delivery’? We rejectmany aspects of the

rline that these ensible 128

CEU eTD Collection political that biopolitics.the subject challenges for might hints thinking termsgive what freedomso When, in and find the where, they do to to. supposed not people are surplus what think doand say, to cityis life the in dignified

129

CEU eTD Collection movement’s mobilization was due to white intellectuals’ manipulation, I next turn ways manipulation, the I turn mobilization intellectuals’ to next white to movement’s wasdue the in, among publicunequal widely others, collectivetheir assertion the traced governmental ofHaving equality. ofpractices rendering introduction to this second part of the thesis just stated, present the centrality of speaking in assess the ofrole the feeling of betrayal in process,this then, i description of structure. its To explore the Abahlali’s emergence aspolitical subjects, firstI movement, brief theof a recount history with I the baseMjondolo,begin, to Abahlali myinterpretation largelythrough Asformulated ofpolit accountis the excess. this in as being appears of ofbiopolitics dispersal, the horizon governmental onthe freedom, which, a elaborate to begin by an imperative to construct the global city as a principle nod of circulation, in this chapter I 2 and3.Turning to the question of the possible disruption of the sensible order that is shaped late nineties’ liberalizing developmental approach to mid back from turn - the evident an Citytook Durban the of government particularly and discussed in theprevious two chapters, it was in periodthis that the policies of eThekwini infrastructure out asset by the mandate of thefirst Mandela- was 1996) starting to major a have impact on development the and provision of basic macroeconomic bythe shiftGrowth onized ic more and becomingmore frequent Province. Africa 4 Chapter

, Abahlali baseMjondolo, counting around 10000memberscounting At

this time, protests in poor areas of larger cities or former townships were n account of political subjectification as the collective appropriation of appropriation subjectification ascollective n accountofthe political suffering and political subjectification Abahlali’s vocal politics of proximity: speaking, currently ; it; was largely in the early 2000s th the largest social movement in post - KwaZulu Durban, 2005 in formed in , was , Employment and Redevelopment Strategy andRedevelopment , Employment ized accusation ized to according thewhich

urban governance indescribed Chapters governance urban govern n line with what the ment. as Certainly,

at the country’s the at - ap artheid South ( ics of Natal Natal RSA RSA 130

to to

CEU eTD Collection bushes bushes settlementthe in live 7000people around for upgrade (Bryant2008). Growing over rapidly the past to three four decades, c bulletin published after their first victory in the province mentioned the settlement astargeted revoke upgr the and Durban built thatis onformlearning”, this knowledge. of political subjectification last section I Looking conditions in entailed living sufferings bythe the close to stay to is which politicsofemphatically proximity, vocal of is, political a practice, the that utmost principle and the subsequent section discusses, to challenge the distancing and delaying effects of order this “self marginalized population’s assumption about South thusapartheid Africa, ntestingconstructions co Contrary official oftoo. any freedomto question into call Abahlali forms within the ofinclusion political their the order of post 131 the Kennedy Road settlement 4.1 ugly big box stores of Springfield Park where Tin Town used to be.” Clare Estate lie to the North, on the other side of Kennedy Road, and the shacks tumble down Eastwards to the Africa, to the West and the South. The big fortified houses of suburban (and und segregation Indian) apartheid er in main of city’s thethe dumpsite, largest to the fence against thea steep perimeter side of up squeezed cling hill

As Pithouse (2005b, 6– (2005b, Pithouse As

in situ their position therein, the shack d Continuing the limbo characteristic of its history from the early

(Pithouse Abahlali baseMjondolo:the beginnings – ade ofade thepartneredprojects by City the Foundation Urban 1991,in 1995 in City the its support and its and fordevelopment. a called support the 1999,nevertheless, halt to In an ANC at in the period of municipal reregulation seemed to be undecided between relocation relocation between undecided be municipal reregulation period ofseemed the to in

upgrade.

how this principle is channeled into the movement’s intellectual practice, in the

present present the form that potentially ofand drives sustains knowledge the Abahlali’s ). Most ofinhabitants the Most 2005b). 131 7) more7) specifically describ

While Kennedy While settlements included be Road first wasamongto in the . Finally, I Finally,

– located located in Clare Estate, a largely middle-

discuss the m -

dwellers’ “living politics” is formulated as an that started group a started as hidden behindthat ofshacks nine es the settlement’s location: “ the location: es settlement’s

- mig interested muteness” 1985, interested as 36), (Scott ovement’s egalitarian pedagogy,ovement’s “living rated to Durban from small towns and and towns to small from Durban rated

The shacks in Kennedy Road - nineties on, the fate of the nineties on, class Indian area of shantytowns. shantytowns. urrently 131 -

CEU eTD Collection policy central office be to used – section witholdest periods; the and spatially groupsbe assettled can temporally they differentthese delineated, in there themselves Zulu,as Xhosa,or Bhac termsIn of groups ethnicity,three make population upthe of people KennedyRoad: identify of KwaZuluvillages - 133 132 plans move to forwardthe out KRDC government, the set system local within the of provided 2008) community, responsible for different of portfolios such health as concern, safety and (Bryant by headed Zikode,S’bu was and composedof members various ofsettlement’s the massmeetings of 2005). through2001 (Pithouse yearlyRecruited electionstakingat nominationsand place of support the ANC, local operated theuntil late (KRDC). development elected Committee democratically KennedyRoad committee,Development the municipal decentralization process starting in the latein the starting process decentralization municipal civics movement of the ‘80s under party control”. (SANCO). According to Pithouse (2005 to the and region, in ANC, the this mostly via specifically, structurallythey are tolinked localthe councilor, these committees ties togenerally have political parties, planning and realizing development (Huchzermeyer, Baumann and Mohamed 2004; cf. Nel and Binns 2001). complement or replace the function of ward committees and ensure that “the community” participates in

(2010). members’and ashacks. For thoroughly account researched of the attack and its circumstances, see Chance be pursued underground for months, until early 2010. Their office was destroyed, as well as many prominent’s settlement fearing their lives, leaders of Abahlali were forced into hiding, and the suffered a

Wit On On - September hin the framework of “developmental local government” (RSA 1998), which was the ideal of the . With aim their make to for ofchannels “community use the participation” officially making structure, development committees

Organizationally, the antecedent of themovement can be traced to the settlement’s n armed attack that continued in a hunt for the movement’s leaders. Thousands of people fled the 133 Replacingthe traditiona

26 , 2009 ,

inhabitants convened for the purpose, in its early period, the committee was period, committee the itsearly in convenedpurpose, for the inhabitants Natal and the Transkei ( ,

the all the largely inhabited byamaZulu inhabited – largely families. - night campnight

b, 11),“ near thecommunity hall and wherethe area themovement’s a. As Kerry Chance (2010) notes, within the settlement, settlement, the notes, within Kerry (2010)Chance As a. l leadership l (

of the Youth League of Abahlali SANCO was a project to bring the bottom up democracy of the

of a ward or an informal settlement are supposed to supposed are settlement informal an or a ward of - nineties, representing the “lowest” level of the municipal the of municipal the level “lowest” representing nineties, Ibid. South African National Civics Organizations Organizations Civics National African South ), ), - nineties, the committee was established in Induna) of the apartheid era that, with the while

others come 132 at the Kennedy road settlement settlement road Kennedy at the

movement’s activities had to from theEastern Cape. 132 As As

CEU eTD Collection a satisfactory answer on what happened to the “promised the d”. to lan happened onwhat satisfactoryanswer a government, did the get their with local not despite at attempts communicating inhabitants the of events during these first days is somewhat unclear, a common element certainly is that the grow.While specific to started tensions areaand construction onthe gathered factory morepeople newsmoreand plotAsbrick (Abahlalithe onthe 2006a). spread, gathe general, in municipality KennedyRoadconflictual. and wasnot, betwe years, relationship these the Thus,during upgrade. settlement’s of their 137 136 135 134 six the nearby Roadfrom blockaded Kennedy publicity whennext gainedearly larger day 700- disappointment about ofend the settlement. back emergence dates to day the when bulldozers appeared onthe area bordering the lower March events ofnext themto settlement vacantland piece the a development. However,in for housing any warning or explanation, bulldozers began excavating the land on 18 March”. Committee had been participating in ongoing discussions about the development of this housing when, without t Cityyear in and that officials a meeting with February would be made available for the development of housing. The promise had been repeated as recently as 16 blockade: “Peopl

Nsibande interview, 27 May 2009). Cf. Bryant (2008) on the the connotations of phrase, the to the revoke religious intention with notes phone, butaccounts differ on whoex a “When government told people that they must provide ‘home in decision an participation informal for set boundaries settlement’s policy settlement’s Drop settlement’s 2009. Zama Ndlovu, longtime Abahlali (research mobilization the to its political communitypower for topenalize officials’ subject was largely particular projects well. very settlements other from people know to got they headed households. At various meetings a still flourishing own, obviously limited, resources when she could (interview, 12 October 2010).

Many times when th times when Many To the contrary, behaving, in the movement’s current phraseology, like “good girls and good boys” Most narratives mention that the local councilor, councilor, local that mention the Most narratives In ,

Pithouse’s Pithouse’s red there only to find out that the construction were works preparationin of a building April 2009), the com the 2009), April By early 2005, the KRDC managed to acquire government’s 2005,managedthe grant KRDC acquire local to By the to early promise notes, May 2009), until their final termination following the attack on the movement in September (2005b, 14) 14) (2005b, e had e consistentlyhad promisedbeen over some that years a small of piece in land nearby Road Elf [until September 2009] - unfolded otherwise. According to most historical accounts, the movement’smost the toaccounts, historical According unfolded otherwise. in Clinic, continued some continued its in fuof Clinic, e event of the first blockade is recounted, the land in theis toland is e event referred question recounted, the blockade of first munity during this period could be described as compliant with the institutional and 135 summary of KRDC members

Excited that the housing development was being started, people

ctly called him, whether the KRDC in demand of exp (Abahlali lanation - member and Kennedy Road resident who used to be responsible for the where they learnt to speak the language of the Worl community project providing visits and services to the sick and child Yacoob BaigYacoob nctions nctions he local councilor. The Kennedy Road Development - ” After the movement’s formation, the funding of these lane Umgeni road. ’

reconstruction reconstruction –

role of religion in the early years of the movement.

based’ care for their sick they dutifully developed such as providing porridge to sick people , ordered the police to arrest the protesters over as the “promised land” - from a few days after making. 134 136

137

The repercussions ofThe repercussions this As Pithouse ( Pithouse As

In response to the to first response In - 750 shack (e.g. Zodwa d Bank and USAID and USAID d Bank the road ) recalls: ) recalls: 2005b , apparently , apparently

chronology

(research dwellers – en theen

on her 133

CEU eTD Collection them. them. contac time based at the University of KwaZulu the Pithouse,at Richard 2010). (cf.Mzwake interview, 24October Mdlalose forming struggle was seeking legal aid, tha outsiders t get beginningto involvedwith shack were the Zikode S’bu hall, “We own2006a, concluded: onour now” (Abahlali 1). are community meeting, a After themarch was dispersed “with more beatings, dogs and teargas”, theKRDC called a not theare public then thewho public is we?” whoand are 2005b (Zikode in Pithouse , 15). (Abahlali entire community be arrested because ‘ against and c recalled since,cited demandedthe they “Kennedy the RoadwereArticulatingwhere 14” self held. a Sydenham marchstation police the to strong 1200 stageda and bail funds for the collect to the theay Mond community thesearrests: following decided to the KRDCaround reaction in people onchargesfourteen of public violence. fewa of hours s After money”. for housing Instead must allocateland us. giving itthey are property to developers make to Thecouncil walkingshit. and in of tired 2006a,living “We said: are 1) Abahlali in Mdletshe (Alfred ofprotestors promptedblockade,one what the the scene asking onthe journalist local councilor theand owner of the brickyard conducted later over the same year with those involved, the community decided on the road blockade after the local government about called themcouncilor criminals and thatdenied there anbeen had agreement between the settlement the and 2006a) or the people involved in the construction of the brick factory (Zikode 2005). Many recall that the

t with people at Kennedy Road, and beyond writing the first articles about these early theseearly about articles the first writing KennedyRoad,beyond and at witht people

It was around this time, after neither release nor bail was granted, and the community On the level of the settlement, organized collective action seems to have emerged them 2006a

as paradoxical: “Their demandwas either that the14 be released theor else , 1). , 1). we say “They c the land (Pithouse 2005b). Finally, as Bryant (2008) recollects from interviews nd to a large audience of large a intond to audience packed Kennedy inhabitants the Road tandstill, the riot policedispersed the blockade and arrested ommitted publicviolenceommitted but against public? which If we - to - be did notshow u - If they are criminal then we are all criminal’ Natal, was among thefirst academics to establish

aptives’ release by representing aptives’the release byrepresenting charges p at a meeting that the KRDC scheduled with with at p scheduled the a KRDC that meeting - identification hasthat often been - dwellers’ 134 ”

CEU eTD Collection name had a unifying function, as under its banners inhabitants of a 2008). AGM’s are open to everyone, and everyone can raise any point for discussion,only but for point any raise can everyone and open everyone, are to AGM’s 2008). Meeting General usually (AGM) inorganized November (cf.Bryant 2008,Nimmagudda processes of theKRDC, Abahlali has an executive committee that is elected at the Annual 2008). dropped (Bryant being charges zerotheir and reducedto being bail Road 14’s he alsoevents, arranged bono for pro lawyerswhoseintervention secured then the Kennedy 140 139 138 baseMjondolo” the shack dwellers’ struggle met to formally constitute themselves into a movement, Abahlali 15 women electe movement October until 2005,thatthe not wasformed: “ itself byinitiated Kennedy Road elected their own comm councilor”a (Ibid.). that declaring so along, mock a with government,they “burial” coffincarried councilor’s that local performedthe and counciloranot or “Memorandumcommunity’s the Demands” to of of these marches were local councilors’ offices, where they handed over the particular respect nearby settlements to demand housing, “land, basic services, democrati ones,by legal mobilizing occasionally over fivethousand frompeople KennedyRoad and the months,During following thesespontaneous and (therefore)illegal marchesreplaced were (interview, 2 November 2010) get involved in marches of settlements other than their own: “So, we wrote

to keep the spirit shack formarching themselves, they taking are their own it’s forgrievances, include everybody, is going to make everybody feel comfortable: that, now, this is for themselves. They are that wrote we and pamphlet

See See I return theto movement’s relationship with academics officialand academia in The name simply means ‘the people who live in the shacks’, that is, ‘shack- - dwellers of course. e.g. the the e.g. ” Whereas during thes Whereas (Abahlali photos ,

and weand felt, this is our name,permanent weand became an organization.”

(Abahlali 2006a, 1) 2006a, (Abahlali d as representatives from 12 settlements that now had committees supporting 14 September 2005). As the movement’s newspaper recounts, the endpoint the movement’s recounts, newspaper As the , 14September 2005).

of the march on Yacoob Baig, then councilorof Ward 25, where KennedyRoad islocated. 139

[…] And, from that day, the name never changed. […] [W]e had to keep our name up

same name the T on the councilor no longer has power over them: the ward “does not have have not “does ward them: over the power has the councilor nolonger recalls, recalls, e months every settlement that joined the stream of protest

beyond marking a major step in the movement’s official organizat . 140 -

shirts, and we were convinced that that name is going to Largely following the structure and the recruiting ittees on the pattern of the KRDC, it was ny

settlement in the area could wholeheartedly thewholeheartedly area could in settlement

their own they benefit because are the [Abahlali baseMjondolo] On dwellers’. 6 October 200517 6 October men and her representative of the her ofrepresentative the section section

c development and As Philani Zungu Zungu Philani As 4.4 below.

on the

ion, 135 this this 138

CEU eTD Collection particular promise the madeofparticular to inhabitants the Kennedy Road settlem “immediate” reason for their mobilization (Pithouse 2005b): the councilor’s breaching a brick factory will be built on the “promised land”. It is certainly here that we find the learntofhouses, that instead blockadestagedthey their a road after spontaneous day a the of therecounteddemonstration, course above events,weto need first return their to that is, Gauteng and theWestern Cape Anti theorganizations, Rural of Network KwaZulu- tworegional Abahlali’s beyond includes, 2008,and in thatwasfounded Alliance People’s ofPoor the part baseMjondolo is formedAbahlali Finally, both Youth League 2008. in level 2006b). (cf. Abahlali local committees in a similar manner, the democratic organizational struc own executive elect their to form and obliged join to With settlementwishing every vote. members previously elected on the settlement to represent level their branch allowedare to 143 142 141 4.2 The promise of “a better life” and political subjectification Cape Town. while aregional branch operatesinWestern around thesettlements and Ca in involving pe, Durban: several settlements in theprovince have joined the movement thepast over six years, – focuses on what such processes of collective political subjectification as theirs entails for thinking biopolitics. entails for thinking theirs as political subjectification collective of on what such processes focuses notimperative inthis work which,instead ofoffering a full overcome them were known to me. While discussing these processes in detail would certainly be of in November 2010), manymembers reflected on the difficulties of this period, and their significant efforts to

internal internal relations somewhat paranoiac. During my interv threatened members’ and leaders’ livelihoods and the uncertainty about who had been behind the attack rendered signifi but permanently unusual unity (research notes,(research October 2009; Mzwake Mdlalose, intervie groups, so that their local action is easier and individual members are not singled out for their mobilization

despite what, particularly during the first round of my field research (April themy round first of during research field what, particularly despite

While Lacking a discussion of Abahlali’s internal is that politics Abahlali’s internal a of Lacking discussion is available at Cape’s website Western Abahlali To account shack for the -

it is po – 142

the account above is perhaps incomplete. The 2009 September attack, to my perception, ssible for ssible

Within the movement, two subgroups operate: the Women’s the and theLeague operate: Within movement, twosubgroups the cantly weakened Abahlali’s cohesion, as the shock of the violence, the destabilization of

individual me

mbers to join, the movement encourages shack- 141 dwellers’ emergence aspolitical subjects throughout the - Eviction Campaign.Eviction

At present, Abahlali’s branches extend well beyond extend well beyond Abahlali’s branches At present, http://www.khayelitshastruggles.com/ iews iews secondof the round (late- w, 24 October 2010). October 24 w, Natal, the Landless People’s Movement in - fledged ethnography of Abahlali baseMjondolo, baseMjondolo, Abahlali of ethnography fledged

present in their operation as it as in their operation present 143

–

July 2009), seemed to be an

tureisreplicated on the September dwellers to join as to dwellers join . ent. As section this

is in every movement

–

early terest, it is terest, - 136

CEU eTD Collection disregarded humandisregarded as be criminalization subsequent their and – councilor’s (and all other concerned parties’) disregard of the KRDC’srequest for a meeting of translated betrayal into the shack experience this however, Second, pieceofonElf road. theirthe land agreementabout ignored Kennedy Road inhabitants’ history recounted shows,w movement’s the previously as This, done. being antreated as equal party to the promise, that is, the recognition that been has injustice re 4.2.1 that to I turn below. of these two aspec beingsspeaking be are to thisearly found at moment. already is to It the dynamics interrelated condemnation ongrounds of- the shack about betrayal its and the Thatboth outrage olved. is, inv reflections of eventthe and those this inception of the movement and their activism thereafter can be discerned from acloser look at will show, moreover, every aspect of the Abahlali’s political subjectification leading up to the

alization alization that a promise wasbreached entails the recognition of oneself wronged, as not as How doesthe breach of a promise trigger political subjectification? First, the “ when you ask him to keep his promises? He has still not comeWe here. not are manelected representyoucallsWhat doyouwhenhave to the youcriminal you do sendthey is po the Manager Mike] Sutcliffe to the talks isEverybody justrotting We here. no have ofland. Most no have us jobs. ” beformed to wasforced It ts, ts, articulating freedom the as “improperproperty” of surplus the people

ings; as as living inhumanspeaking humanings; beings under circumstances.

interpretation ofinterpretation the events: councilor them betrayed when he lice every time we ask to talk. It awar.is They are attacking us. - : betrayal and political subjectification andpolitical betrayal : dwellers’ they linked it to their recurrent experiences of being dwellers’ assertion of equality as and thinking Tribune Tribune politicalsubjectification when ’ doesn he but us about as clearly presentas in t speak to us. All All speakus. t to

– through the the through [ City …City 137

CEU eTD Collection Indeed, as the quote’s first sentence suggests, the shack order. governmental oflocal goodboys” and the girls “good ofas roles steppedout their forcefully process of generalizing their experience of betrayal, the shack conditions into a new perspective, as notwell to nineties, being Puttingyearsoflistened improve to. living to their efforts previousthe fiveyears) to cleanthe pit latrines byinstalled the Foundation Urban referred to as criminals to the absence of refuse collection, or the municipality’sfailure (for government’s contemptfrom of(local) lives, manifestations their the ranging for being to various it relating through generalized been had “promised over the betrayal land” road blockade, after fourteen of the protesters were arrested, the shack for and then us for andfor then and us and voted nowarrests which beats of post the blockadethe expanded scope ofthe for reference their betrayal beyond the local level to that

their betrayal (Ibid. day Oncriminal. the of blockade the road they entered the tunnelof the discovery of be not faith spurned is that their the forbecame momentdignity aspirations their They stillthem poor. because were revolted asked they and the they moment when andasked believed of had everything done becausethey not Theyrevolted books. of the asked them. were modelpoor […] They This As Pithouse’s ( As Pithouse’s Pithouse2005b in Zikode , 15) Wefighting. to want be liste - apartheid order: “Andgovernment this the then and is worked that we fought for, [sic] ofcitizens. faithful revolt and was a obedient [sic] These 2005b , 16). ) accountof) thesefirst days clearly shows, of bythe night the

through the todecision blockade the road and the parallel ned to. We someone want what us tell is to going on(S’bu . - – dwellers’ reflections on the events of straight out ofWorldBank textstraight the ” (Zikode (Zikode 15). ” in Ibid., - dwellers of KennedyRoad had done everything done had - dwellers

’ feeling of of ’ feeling in theearly

With their 138

CEU eTD Collection and, having become iconic, serves as the party’s election slogan the space between onourthe tworealizations: not own”: “[w]e own onour now”“weare and are becomethose too: has the–all poor, public,themuch people appearinpolitics broader the emerging ofAbahlali’s the referent the reverberated, was strongly formed” be “to force experience promise of better “a life foron all” one the hand, on and, other, the recognizing thatthe invisibility and With inaudibility. attributing sufferings their theto government’s breaking its brea of out the linking was formed genericby choosing the name- “shack gained explicit no part” an mobilization of thousandsofarea’s shack the Pi in (Zikode againstbut If public? wewhich are not public the “ themexactly: supposedbe to is whose subject own “We order: onour that are experiences of betrayal and criminalization thus universalized, they emerged as separate from 145 144 testify to their being denied as parties to the promise of “a better life for all”,

do not count”

To build “a better life for all” was one of the major objectives set out in the ANC’s in out set the ANC’s “afor all” was one the life of major better objectives To build i largely, This, Conversely, with theConversely, with surrounding settlements’ instant and sympathy, the consequent emphasis added and of democracy the formed because we realized wethat onour not Weare own. are suffering from the lies wa the movement afterwards work but byintellectual preceded It wasnot frustration. ofThe movementblockade; anger out spontaneous and a of radical our grew of this injustice is shared well beyond Kennedy Road, at the moment when the momentwhen the the shared KennedyRoad, beyond at is well injustice of this –

thouse 2005b thouse , 15). is to located. Cf. be s the context wherein the statement chosen as the title for this work this astitlework the for thechosen statement context the wherein s ).

l y

collective nature, which,collective few a inscription nature, monthslater, gained Abahlali (9 June 2008). June (9 Abahlali others sufferothers Zikode research (S’bu in too now” (Zikode in Abahlali 2006a in Abahlali (Zikode now” ch of promise this with the shack dwellers”. - dwellers, this articulation of “the part that has They say we have committed public violence committed have public we They say

144 , then whothen public is the whoand are we?

ever since ever Naming whose those conditions living .

, 1). Separate from the order order from Separate , 1). the – 1994 election manifesto election 1994

“We are the people who peoplethe who “We are - dwellers’ feeling of notes 145

the movementthe ,

May 2009 g in g in 139 , ” s ;

CEU eTD Collection of Abahlali, ordinary people from the settlement were speaking for themselves on the news, in the radio, in the politicia like…councilors, see experts, only interview, 29 June 2009): they documentary: “For that thing they done to me, I am not stopping to fight for government on Durban’s mayor, Obed Mlaba on 28 September 2007) declares in Jenny Morgan’s (2008, 4:12’’) 146 ability tothe heard seen, be and and movement the them involvementin lends accounts courage members’ in ofalso how their of technologies biopolitical suffering from conditions living in shantytown the the move the reversalbeyond strategic of yearold woman who was shotinher back the voice of silent victims […] we hadn’t been able to talk before.” Cf. Bryant (2008). Or, as Mariet Kikine (a 54

See, e.g. 2 SystemBryant See, (in Cele makeme brave. I’m not turning back anymore.” Cf. Mnikelo Ndabankulu ( into note. into individually we are just disregarded. Maybe, in the name of themasses we’ll be taken thatidea,we thinkingneed in our to raise came that voice together together because organization. knowing even are asforming they Abahlali KRDC,mobilized not automaticallyhappened because wh formed. be formbut to Nobody wasforced itformed. wanted organization It the I will say, and I always saidautomatically wasformed, it, when was organization it the Starting from the notion of the breached promise, then, we can see how speaking and and how speaking see we promise,can then, breached the of from notion Starting the November 2010) known. we Ifnot we are, being are takenusly. serio bythem mobilized weremobilized, also nearby areas the But when they by interviewed of promises from waitingforgovernment. the years the if you liveinshacks.We the promises waited for the 1994, upto from2004, that’s 10 ANC said “a better life for all We tomarch started after 10 years of empty promises governme from the […]nt. The

[ … W]e thatover felt so suchmany in living conditions,we are but not years “ I think when I started to stay full time here in Durban, when there is a shack fire, you Bryant . abandonment, political upto add and subjectification. Reflected , November 2005)

008, 41): “Now that we’re protesting, our voice is heard [...] our struggle is 146 with ns, saying that people have lost this and that, but after the inception ”

Abahlali’s Abahlali’s bedemonstrations (re can as understood

but Ibut don’t know, not it’s a better life for all,especially s duringbullet therubber six dispersion of Abahlali’s legalmarch en KennedyR en . oad saw a need to mobilize,a theysawoad (Philani Zungu interview, 2 spokesperson ofAbahlali, (Mnikel for my rights! Now o Ndabankulu […] […] So, we So, we

[…] […] 140 -

CEU eTD Collection do, that we must work hard to take our living to another level. dwellers get confidence and acceptance that we are staying in such conditions, that the only thing that we must become willing to same and, the at order, aware of the promises of thepost they humanare thinkingbeings, as speaking and that, abandonment byasserting allotted they are equal parts of the “all” that was promised a better life. arbitrariness of their status as “forgotten citizens” by articulately and visibly asserting that )staging their appearance asa collective political subject, asthe people who contest the 149 148 147 done comfortable with saying that I’m coming fromthe papers, on the television. So, it’s because of Abahlali that people have informalin settlements when officials cancel (or simply don’t show upat)a meeting onlike the day of first KennedyRoad’s blockade,road often times protest occurs spontaneous make breach beingandto. the not spoken membersand Just oflistened between link promises demonstrationstheir ofand equality, thus their subjectification,political letus theconsider 4.2.2 2006a, to in the7). living supposed be wayAbahlali we(Zikode do” wear it in Cape Town, itCape can in wear I Town, itwhere ever shirt I bought: “AbahlalibaseMjondolo” other, nor a pressure put upon him, but always simultaneously a proof given to oneself”. 4 (2007, havebeen promised demands: the rich. We can not and will not continue to suffer the way that we do and so we unit because of the theft of our land and because of our work in the farms,mines, factories, kitchens and people of Ward 25, democrats and loyal citizens of the Republic of South Africa, note that this country is rich

Abahlali was formed, there were quoted accounts of the transformational nature of their involvement in Abahlali invisible.treat us So, are we the cit forgotten we are treated invisible. The government is hundred percent aware that we are existing but he would just like health and dignity

It is exactly proving equality to oneself oneself to equality is exactly It proving On the notion of “forgottenthe citizens”, see Mazwi Nzimande (interview, July8 2009): Cf.

these miracles, which is called Abahlali baseMjondolo, it made people not to be worried. You see this T the first two paragraphs of the “Memorandum of Demands” addressed to councilor Yacoob Baig: 8), the meaning of ‘emancipation’: “a struggle for equality […] can never be merely a demand upon the speaking beings speaking beings human notare animals. We are “We To further explore explore emphasis placeof onspeakingTo further the Abahlali’s thinking and within For too long our communities have survi have communities our too long For ”

(Abahlali, 14 September 2005). land, land,

so demonstrate. only to be betrayed.

time, by proving to themselves to ever and time, byproving

uMjondolos – 148 ywhere. I don’t look at the look the at I don’t ywhere. -

– I can wear it in West street [main street in Central Durban], can in I Central street it Durban], street [main can wear in West apartheid order as well as their own equality within that

something that wetrace, can for instance, in members’ above izens izens “We have shown the world thatwe know world we“We shown the not have that are

[shack Therefore, we demand adequate land and housing to live in safety, of this country jondolos ved in substandard and informal

- dwellers], they were like… some people were not even even were not somelike… people they were dwellers],

[shacks].But whenthis organization,which have ”

– ”

: Asserting the equality equality the Asserting : for now. for jondolo

claimed a space. […] even Because before ”

as aas shame Thenow. shack

147 –

That is,That c they

that is, according to Rancière to Rancière thataccording is, yone thatelse they have 149 housing, and for too long we

e behind the following

“We are forgotten, forgotten, are “We ontest being of of laundries of of laundries - “ We the the We 141 -

CEU eTD Collection at Kennedy 2009attackmovement:at theRoad September onthe after Zama (interview, Ndlovu 12October 2010), longtime member Abahlali who continued stay to deniedpromise being and one’s humanity perhaps is even more em sameTheassociation between not being considered an equal party to adiscussion or a Hlengwa, who later bydissolved police, the Mamamunicipal (1:25’’) is to talking Nxumalo official Bongi settlement Giantbeings (Sleeping 2011). - the shack discussion, Kell and Christopher Nizza’s documentary exemplifies, when they are denied the chance of the set upwith community. previously 150

in the media previously. Cf. ODAC Cf. media(2007). ODAC the previously. in meeting the KRDC set up with him, so that they can discuss the low on the

Similarly, a Similarly,

grounds of the the of grounds ‘Cause you can’t lie to a human being and not come back to make an apology even if even make a comelie to not apology youcan’t and an human to ‘Cause being back that. like It’s went like project”. Theyjust…they your we’re not existing to them. “oka ever since. […] They have should come to lie back least at again and at to say, least they’dnever come back, what: […] Guess for built KennedyRoad. that are houses are Kennedythere to going movedmany that roadbe included which is ‘cause things, fter theSeptember[…A] attacks they came, like the City of Durban to thin notare even from here. We around ar them the built… getting people who being are The that are theirhouses in hearts. pain ofhave Siyanda Thepeople 21 years. for more here living than been have ofMany us after y, we have problem a and but there not there we know, about forgetting we’re s mentioned a protest Promotion of Access to Information Act that scene: eventuallyday agreedto the visit

dwellers understand this as the denial of their humanity as speaking as humanity speaking of denial understand their the dwellers this as in Chapter 2 Chapter

– triggered by the municipality cancelling their meeting

In In a scene shot for the movie , Abahlali decided to file a request of information to the Cityto to information of of Durban , a request file decided Abahlali

k about the peoplek about the of Siyanda. 150

As the following quote from following As the e not animals, we are human beings. We human would animals,beings. not e we are

after mayor Obed Mlaba’s staff cancelledMlaba’s a mayor staff Obed after they they - cost housing project the mayor announced announced mayor the project cost housing [i.e. the local ANC] promised s

in in

the the phatically expressed by , Dar Mandela Dear Siyanda

C informal – been had 142 o a

CEU eTD Collection 151 of Abahlali) replied: mid (younher in Nsibande g woman Zodwa“marginalized”, shack meantdescribing the again.she Askedwhat when ignored jondolos freque As they position onelections. Abahlali’s define

Cf. he you’regoing that oka you’re, even aboutcare you! That thecurrent is situation of theshack pretendingwhen personthatheseesYou a is she know, or you,whereasdoesn’t he Similar interpretations of the way governmental officials or politicians treat them language! your animal understand can’t yourself animals,know, the not or,just any… like, the animalswild you ‘cause bother can’t it’s like… I felt like, okay, me, likethat.So, to No,just come back: it? still doing youdon’t if you’re wrong, or went is anything that me happened,wrong,if went there comewhat even tell what to tha within the democratic era. Just because they are theo comes to elect it them. consulting Butwhen them,without with do to want they dowhatever they arrest them, them, shoot them;just they careabout they they don’t Afterthat, election. was shacks, livingabout people, when aboutthe poor it people in care They only r essay r

during the times of campaign, but after the votes are cast, their inhabitants are n we need them “Party politics vs. living politics” (Nsibande 2011). (Nsibande living politics” vs. “Party politics as a human being to talk to the wild animals ‘cause at the end of the day the the ofday end the the animalsat ‘cause towild the talk to human a being as y, you are not consideringy, youare yourself lying.

ions: that’s when they are able to practice all those systems that exist to (interview, 28May 2009) (interview,

en you just like… what the hell? Y hell? the like…what youjust en th and for me this we are not recognized as human beings, we’re just like, you like, we’re just recognizedhuman not as beings, we are

. 151 ntly note, politicians only set foot in the the foot in politiciansset ntly only note,

- twenties, then General Secretary nes who are needing you more needing you whones are You cannot tel You cannot - dwellers in country. in dwellers this - dwellers’ situation as l me something mel something ou don’t 143

CEU eTD Collection announce theannounce Slums asaway Act of Onetheypropaganda? day budgetbuild announce to the nextRDP day the houses, they future. foreseeable the shantytown in “ Clearance Program” or the andreinforces ordering(a)political, of(in)visible the even the the though “Slums splintered of the patience,temporality development people’s then, effectivelypoor urban the in Southsummed policy African up all the promisepreviously, patient; ofexpectationthat be the poor developmentthe and party. pushed be of theirout capa sight,with political position within the biopolitical order of dispersal rather clearly: inaudible and invisible or to at be topartyoutlinesandonly times to their whenvote the the delivered needs role block shackIgnoring - unequal (Ibid.). of practices locate rendering we can material” that massofignorant “voting normal:to “as if we never existed”. and oncecampaignover, but everything“everybody promises heaven the is us earth”, returns “election specialists”: the shack Mnikelo (inter Ndabankulu samesituation, To the define 152 the political character of the shack speaking. and the for on insistence equality are their such reasons Abahlali’s defining termsin of thinking distribution thatthesensible population’s ability surplus and a denies speak understand, to (cf. Harrison 2009 and Ferree 2010).

Which, being black and poor, they are presumed to do, according to the consensual science of voting behavior 152 I Such are Such are the waysthat segmentary the spatial orderof the globalcity is tied to a t ist precisely within these accounts of being completely neglected or treated as an

Working to Working to solidify position through the this temporal dimension is,we have as seen In turn, this insistence directs attention to further practices that cast practices on further that doubt attention to directs thisinsistence turn, In dwellers’ requests for conversation and information, heeding or the “Slums Act” hardly suggest that services will be delivered to the

- - dwellers’ existence matters only every five years, when dwellers’ struggles. To begin, thisseems the be effect to of

addressing the housing backlog” the 2008, housing addressing (Abahlali 1) Until when these be governmentUntil as will policies used - topos

of “service of Through “service delivery”. conditioning cities votingcities reduced to for the governing view , 29 June 2009) uses the term the term uses 2009) 29 June these requests . 144 nd nd

CEU eTD Collection resisting the “service deliver of and language language thatthey a politics, speak. example Yet, when Abahlali reject the “service delivery protest” discourse riots”of the and delivery violence. circ loop into the back can to easily listened is, being That not it. paradox Westernonthe chairperson of use Cape,reflects baseMjondolo ofto Abahlali having shack mobilized having thou of impact,experiencedsands hasbyAbahlali as significant a certainly of onthousands people the street under to whenus we speak them Zulu. in discussion and their public protests: “ Abahlali frame theimarches massr asdiscourse, thus creating continuity between attempts at whatever the protestors communicate gounnoticed. to wish can defianceIn of thislogic, uniformly mattresses) or occasionallytires burning condemned, (marching, chanting, depoliticization. With their deeming “service delivery” protests violent and destructive enables their criminalization and reconfiguredthe notion of violence mentioned inprevious the chapter. wasAs it stated there, 153

Cf. Poni Poni Cf. - st[an] dwellers Durbanin bythe time wrote Zikode S’bu quoted the Mzonke essay, Poni, However, this very phenomenon very – However, this and rage, t rage, and township forwardput people's the complaints, whoway, are, by the g like livin this animals in lostcount have ofI how many weto went offices times (municipal Cape in) Town, to

by revealing by revealing its depoliticizing proves logics, precisely thatdemonstration is valid a (2009). d Xhosa or Sothod Xhosaor either. The only language that understandwhenthey is we put

[…] […] hen they understand howhen understand they we feel The only government way the us notices is when weour express anger reason reason and objective predetermined bythe andlabel, form their y”

- categorization ” (Zikode 2005, 2) We thatour not to municipality does listen discovered We English. Now thatthey tried won’t we realize their public manifestations of political dissidence 153 –

seems activated to have a further mechanism (Poni in Saturday in (Poni Argus . - label in their public appearances, for While, onWhile, occasion, this language ular figure of“service 25 June 2009). , 25June 145

CEU eTD Collection dwellers havedwellers become to subject the of manipulation white intellectuals, are and as used the early months. It suggests that being ignorant and defenseless due to to due poverty, that beingtheir suggests ignorant defenseless months.It and early the activities of and conceptualize the to organize political able been have or wouldn’t situation, themselvesshack the the ANC’s visit, and prevalent in various forms eversince– – of the Force otherhand, Onaccusation Third the the subjectification: suffering and assertion the of their equality is central to process the of their political th point that previous affirms the shack Third Force the which is approaching the winter settlementsthat, in electricity, without means thisaccusation. about oneOn the S’bu hand, Zikode’s immed according response, to iate politicalmade of subjectification,to Abahlali’s the have be In context 17). twocomments demanded thethat protestors reveal “the Third Force behind the protest” (Pithouse 2005b, Baig,councilor a delegation of the ANC local called meeting a to the KennedyRoad halland dwellers’ first protest, more specifically, following their 3000 nati underwas used apartheid reference in “ to namely,of unequal, rendering of figure the the Force”.“Third notion Reinvigoratinga that

onalist attacks onANC defense supporters in of apartheid” - fires and deaths, as well as the elaboration of response this in his article “Third Force”, our communities the Third communitiesour the (Zikode 2005,1). Force we are, this whereis we are, and this how is live. The we life wengmakes that livi are saythings to Third about Force.the It is time for speak to us and out sayto thisis who th suffering the and allthe pain is Force myself.The Third Force Third am I the Well, at the poor are subjectedevery to second in our The lives. shack dwellers have many

- dwellers’ either wouldn’t have questioned the rightfulness of their e relationship between articulations of theshack security offering military agents support to Zulu the echoed by the local media soon after - people strong march on ward marchpeople onward strong , two months after the shack implies, by of course,that - dwellers’ shack 146 - -

CEU eTD Collection (25 November 2011)state: “ Affairs. As in a recent reply to various accusations against the movement, among them the Third Force, Abahlali two communication officers of the provincial Department of Local Government, Housing, and Traditional Although in c in Although 2011).(Neocosmos of democracy majority inception multiracial the and of black the the idea that the evils of the minority rule have been redeemed with the political emancipation to.supposed such limitations of their political action, and practices apolitics that shack the shack nowus extend theseconsiderations to formthe of democratic act failureshowed how the of “lobbying” triggered political the subjectification of Abahlali, let elected leaders of our people” a (M butgroup cannot act as if they have their ownleaders pseudo other than the democ presumed theshack suit to for stones” these“agents“stepping provocateur”advancing hidden agendas. 154 4.2.3 with assumptions about political capacities. contextpolitics,significance the ofdemonstratingin its in how their lies associated poverty is political rivalries everywhere, underlined by the ways which in defy Abahlali the accusation, through affiliatingopposition it with dubious andactors organizations are commonmeans of capable of political resistance. While, of course, similar strategies for undermining the ForceThird Mchunu 2006), published in KwaZulu published 2006), Mchunu

Both quoted terms fro quoted Both are previous chapter, a major pillar of post major a the As chapter, pillar was it argued in the previous t To , integration political Problematizing - dwellers’ interests and capacities. More exactly, let us seehow Abahlali questions ake a hint a ake from provocateur argumentation askind agent what to of the is activism - plot certainly not does is a entail, conception of shack the odifying the developmental mandate of the first Mandela offirst mandate the developmental the odifying There are many are There m the m the - dwellers: article

- Natal newspaper Natal newspaper

“Shack baso and Mchunu and baso 2006). tactics to keep us, as the organized poor in our place. “Abahlali have ademocratic right asalobby to exist - dwellers dwellers swaythe under agent of an provocateur” (Mabaso and

contesting unFreedom contesting Sunday Tribune Sunday

on 24September 2006,and authored by Whereas theprevious sections ion ion that supposedly match

- dw - apartheid order is apartheid orderis - ellers as subjects ellers - government, the dwellers not are 154 ”

What the What the ratically 147

CEU eTD Collection already complete already that is coherent, viable and has widespread support. […] actualan program of However, in 1994 we are about to assume the responsibilities of government and must go beyond the Charter to people and their organizations in articulating their needs and aspirations. Once again we have consulted widely. a market, Kliptown,carried out byBlue IQ Investment short lived if we cannot address our socioeconomic pr the of the ittradition on we are building taking forward, in and does not extend to to not does theand extend political perception,moved their in which, awayfromembraced one bythe the anti Day to stage theshack of first democratic the elections of 1994,since2006, the many, be to (Ntswayi2009, word” in out justa Perry “[f]reedomn. p.). turned Alex2005) and Davie – ander in quoted Holdings site”IQInvestment (Blue heritage rebranded as theWalter Sisulu Square of Dedication whereJohannesburg) in 1955the ofPeopleCongress the adopted the charter and was the Freedom Charter Monumentwas erected and ofthe part Kliptown (where, in turn, the legitimate state equals the prudent state). legitimatestate, the ofrule been celebration and have the law narrowed to down the to statistwith developmentalism fadingaway,the symbolismpolitical sethese documents of democratic Constitution and its Bill of Rights enshrined a vast array of socio 157 156 155 unFreedom”. “mourns 2008) 27 onApril order, liberal democratic state and the lived experiences of the poor majorit emphasis added) decelebrating” (Abahlali, 24 April 2009). April 24 (Abahlali, decelebrating” can tel politicians of the first democratic elections in South Africa. Once again the poor will be herded into stadiums so that the

As writing athe day As writing after A few sentences from Nelson Mandela’s ( Cf. the press release about the 2009 UnFreedom Day: “ Day: UnFreedom 2009 the about release press the Cf. Enacting institutions of discordance betweenthe theEnacting this very freedomwith identified the relocation of people in informal settlements ” inform reader the l the people l people the celebrateto their freedom.be Once again will AbahlaliMjondolo base .

Cf.

government. This RDP document is a vital step in that process. It represents a framework th – 213 (2007, Klein

every year, that is, on Freedom Day, Abahlali baseMjondoloAprilevery (21 that onFreedomAbahlali year, is, Day, - dwellers’ discursive deconstruction discursivedeconstruction notion ofof official dwellers’ freedom, the presidential presidential , the square is just one element is one the , square just 157

On the day marked day nationalOn a holiday the as commemorationin

inauguration of the Walter Sisulu Square Davie and Alexander (2005; 216). criticism population. comingfrom surplus the : ANC ANC

“Project areas include the upgrade of the Kliptown railway station,

1994) 1994) oblems within an expanding and growing economy.

Democracy will have little content, and indeed, will be will little Democracy have content, , newhouses, and a new 250 Preface

Freedom Freedom Charter Monday 27 April willmark the 15 – to the program: program: the to of

“a world

the massivethe redevelopment p movement its UnFreedom organizes 155 . In 1955, we acti we In 1955, .

Correspondingly, by the time - class tourist destination and “ In In preparing the [RDP], and y in postthe - bay taxi rank, which is rank, baywhich taxi - apartheid struggle apartheid struggle - economic rights, vely involved 156

roject of of roject (in Soweto, (in th

anniversary anniversary - apartheid ”

ems ems 148 for for

CEU eTD Collection freedom of mind that one can see the world and challenge it” (Abahlali 2008 May, 1– it is a that. Instead for allmore than life and it’s better but only delivery services basic about is not Freedom cansnakes? How say I I’m free if I can’t live myin house because reallyshould mean it the for poor people.”; “Zodwa Magwaza: can How I say I’m if livefree I sleepand with we free: freedomiswhere only want to make money out of us, they don’t want us to voice our opinions in the outside world, so where are there is no freedom for the poor, we are hidden, no one wants to help us, the rich are still oppressing us, they denied. Shacks themselves justify the lack of freedom in South Africa”; “Mr. James Pillay: The way I look requirements other than human basic needs. Freedom is not imposed by whatever means, but it can be easily capitalistic or systems whatso apartheid, suppression, forces, colonial preparation for that year’s UnFreedom Day. To quote a few: “Freedom is not only about independence from 158 freedom. livespeople’s is in contradiction to freedom” thatAbahlali 1) (2008, enact their excess paradox, a be preciselyby it is an building event around statement the that“so much of promisesbroken and appearance that they know difference this cannot be justified: “We living are the oftruth dingunderstan of freedom the and one aroundresources, country– financial the On UnFreedom Days, shack “improper property” (Rancière 1999,“improper property” 8). as citizens of thepost the responses the shack

The quote is from the introduction to the 2008 May issue of Abahlali’s newsletter, which publishes some of publishes which isto newsletter, Abahlali’s the Mayof 2008 fromissue quote The introduction the this freedomthis there but we see the contradictions in our country. It is true that we are told in SA that there is people the samat bythe When we have unFreedomDay as well as a new law like the Slums Act being pushed 13 2007).(Abahlali, July for them whospeak think can and people as houses – and decentlives, jobs and have country our in free be we can that so and for thisgovernment voted and died, We fought, and hunger continue when evictionshunger and 158

It indeed is through questioning the kind of - dwe llers gave as part of a movement a of part llersas gave betrayals ofbetrayals 12 thelast years ”

everyone should be seen equally and when the government says the word ‘free’ he - apartheid South Africa, that they appropriate freedom as their freedomtheir as they appropriate that apartheid Africa, South -

dwellers from settlements around the city

[are] e politicians, and all all innamelanguageof and the ‘freedom’, politicians, e

also evictions – also

celebrated by the state, and to prove by very their (Abahlali 2008, (Abahlali 1) gather to articulate thedifference between their - wide discussion about the notion of freedom, in

selves and who have the freedomso the have do to who and selves (Abahlali 2006c, 1). (Abahlali 1). seems 2006c, what Posing to they say we are free but it cannottrue but be free they we are say of assnakes of long as electricity poles?

freedom allowed are they to practice ever. It is about is about It ever. self but this government this but doesn’ . 2). 2). –

- contentment on daily and, depending on dependingand, on t treatus at it, 149

CEU eTD Collection promises negligence. and party, of governing and the dwellers reject their automatic inclusion into the political order as the guaranteed supporters the shack byrefusingparticipate, 2004to the elections, general fromat abstention voting no vote” of 2005 the municipal elections,Abahlali have regularlyannounced their no“No land, house, sincethe- run one’s voting right, practicing of freedom to thereduction as official interpret In accordance with the idea of the UnFreedom Day and the way it problem and reiterates theneed to expose the discourse that mutesmasks and over. it celebratory masses,the “unfreedomspeaks aboutAbahlali livedthe shacks”, [that] daily in is days when the ANC rallies nationwi articulate the shack contradictions,gives These as unjust towhose reconstruction rise Abahlali’s politics, 159

the“No land, no house, novote!” members are free to ifvote they decide so. To my somemembers knowledge, cast invalid affirmationvotes in of

While While Would they notWould they revisit their unrealis knew they PRACTICAL had EXPERIENCE out the wiped recognizing failure to de Why i for them? who poor voted on the ofauthoritie uestioning the [Q] last on last wasborn I into the ANC havefor I and voted the partyin every election exceptfor the W on t on - campaign. Adopting a strategy a ofLa the campaign. Adopting hen we formed Abahlali many wehen formed Abahlali ofdoing were as us so unsatisfied members of the he levelhe of the movement campaignthe wasin consistently announced every year,election e whenone “ decided the Abahlali - shack dwellers’ excess freedom as an obligation to debate dwellers’ excess On question. debate and the obligation freedoman to as liveronce theyare elected to 159 - dwellers? Will they

- campaign and in protes

work to disrupt mentionedthe disrupt previouslywork to five s will be crucial. What causes them to tu de, mobilizing thousandsform mobilizing de, to of people poor the tic policies afterwards? (Ibid.) continue to think that - think shack to continue t of No Lan No s there an obvious consistency in obvious terms an of there s

“party politics” (research notes, April 2009). notes, (research politics” “party ndless People’s Movement for called that power? Who really distracts them from d. No House. No Vote.” d. No House.

OF SHACKDWELLING? SHACKDWELLING? OF

dwellers are to be atizes what they whatatizes - year cycles of rn a blind eye eye blind a rn

campaign. campaign.

150 up -

CEU eTD Collection the imperative stay to close shack to dispersal that, in effect, materializes the abandonment, movement politics builds their around people away from themselves ( elected leaders of [the] people” can, and d democratically “the that fact the to due for Abahlali, inshacks is, the daily unfreedom lived 2006). Harris 2007and cf. 2010; Bryant Figlan interview, 5October Lindela 2009; July Abahlali’s discourse the (Abahlali, prevalent dofact,in 13 to in has quite is, pledged it what promises,unkept definition the of functi their Stemming from the interpretation of the shack 160 the notion offreedom at celebrated theself and spatial distancing that allows for the forgetfulness of politician order was meant to grant them. At same the time, itrefers to their aim to counter the temporal beings as dwellers thinking whoof are aware meaning democraticthe ofthat the equality - this ofshack affirms equality the definition politics”, the it to freedom“party of contrast the Freedom the was inscribedand as postthus the to Charter theJust like concept of th in explicitl in the approaches to the movement’s position in relation to the government, many times it is expressed and enacted cannot see, access what they cannot access” (S’bu Zikode interview, 2 June 2009). To be sure, this is only one of

the government”the aims but to the help government realize“to what they cannot realize, […]

As JessicaAs Harris (Mnikelo Ndabankulu in Ndabankulu M&G (Mnikelo remind them . […] Constitution the and Freedom the fightingin Charter for about the practicalitiesoftheory ANC… was the it y militant yterms. (2006, 7) rightly notes this formulation aims to underline that the movement is “not fighting

of the promises they made,them, whenof promises weget quote angry us. the they with

e UnFreedom day, which intends to recall the notion ofthat freedom notion the to recall intends which UnFreedome day,

Mabaso

The ANC has lobbied support for elections and when we forwhen electionsand support lobbied ANC has The - dwellers’ lives. , 16 April 2009). , 16April

and Mchunu 2006). To counter such dynamics such and To counter of 2006). Mchunu o, move awayfromrather, or, people move the - congratulatory rallies of FreedomDay and the - on thatof as “reminding” the government of dwellers’ living conditions as the evidence of of evidence the asdwellers’conditions living

- apartheid constitution, so as to to as so constitution, apartheid s: thediscrepancys: between

to see to what they 151 160

CEU eTD Collection sufferings of their everyday lives can of can attendedsufferings everyday lives Articulating recounted their be to. are one and of the construction of their politics torefer as Abahlali’s politics of proximity,thissection on focuses shack- the their lives. the central imperative of theshack – patient be theto poor thatteaches effect ofdevelopment doctrine the delaying the with as massifyingthat the technologiesof introduce intobiopower modern wellreason, as political apartheid political order discrepancy with the spatial and experiential distancing of politicians entailed in the post w and for democracystruggle freedom identified with the institutions of liberal democracy, and that which drove the appropriate excesstheir freedom discrepancy exposing the when between notion of the e effortsth incompleteness ofthe demonstrating to contain or deny their equality – disapproval their ofANC. voters Enacting positioning as the such order same at and superfluous the poor post time into included the automatically as invisible, inaudible, and politically illiterate; that they contest being disregarded as the this dynamics of emancipation that they reject their status within the sensible order of the city t seen the shack generalized in reference to the post councilor’s b emerged from theshack 4.3

hrough declaring such betrayal unjust and unjustified. It is in their persistent rearticulation of

Setting out to discuss the implications of this imperative, that is, to elaborate what I The sectionsgave above account an of political how the subjectivity of Abahlali Abahlali’s vocal politics of proximity

reaching ofreaching promise about his a pieceof land close wasby, but shortly - dwellers assertingtheir equality speaking as thinking and human beings – - dwellers’ experience of betrayal, which was prompted by the local a distancing inthat, fact, correlates with the perspectival superflui ty

as inscribed as inscribed in its fundamental texts. Since they associate this as a space of speaking and listening, as aspace where the - - dwellers’ militancy is, as I j apartheid order’s promise of “abetterWe life”. also have

ust mentioned,ust stay to close to - apartheid political –

dwellers’ and thus thus and Abahlali Abahlali 152 -

CEU eTD Collection population are indeed1.1 population pertinent(cf. Section mustby what singular mustdie ofbetween what lives liveand insisting thatthe the surplus into biopolitical governmental rationalities. That is, it challenges the perspectival divide of inscription abandonment enabledthe thathas general” notion in rejectsthe “life of listening intelligencesof equal and resisting mobility– forced the othertwoaspectscomplementing ofpolit the Thereby political. turn, rendered in are, grievances, these grievances by individual Thus, keeping the generalized experience of betrayal at the same time constantly actualized of shack life into discourse, politics as aspace for speaking suffering means that the specific concerns of major aspects of Abahlali’s politics and the way it disrupts the distancing and delaying effects 161 equally. concerns bydealing abandonment shack counter with - determinationto movement’s practical exhibiting politi Abahlali’s to other,it attends because, the listened everyoneis voiced where be and where to, can seriously. everyone’s Oniscry taken occurs. to attend Ndabankulu(Mnikelo interviewed by Bryant, 5 2006). August Due itsto polysemy, the verb connection, clos a the people”, the Abahlali’s politics, then, is built on the imperative tomaintain a direct butpolitics’ most often theas ‘living politics’, and defined as being “about what really hurts

The other two the “world class” city’s sensible order, by presenting a militant practice of putting everyday

Referred to as the ‘people’s politi On the hand, one space of the politicsis attentive entailing living in ethical an praxis - dwellers’ lives provide the sole and constant reference for the movement’s activism. well describes how this practice of filling the governmental gap of abandonment theof gap well ofgovernmental abandonment describes filling practice how this aspects of the politics of proximity are discussed further below and in the next chapter.

e - up perspective on the experiences of living in informal settlements

cs’, the ‘politics of the poor’, their ‘homemade ). 161 ics of proximity –

politics as the space for speaking and insisting onthe closeness cs, it signifies the dwellers’ specific

153

CEU eTD Collection response”. one else has given themselves the time to bother solving this problem, then the movement has to be the second sense in which which sense in politicssecond living to. attends practical contextsthisimplvarying issueraised, of every in aware equally ofbeing sufferingis unjust, the everyone’s the to convictionaddition that infrastructure supporting ofthreat eviction, the precariousrelations of owningor renting shack, a theand lac dwellers, backyard politics as a discursive space also implies that although there certainly are issues that shack 163 162 “somethingthat ear”; thatpeople are craving”, inthen, this meaning, second living politics cananyone anyraise point of concern at any gathering of the movement. shack primary sense, g livin politics this In simply refers to the practice according to which any “[ later I asked S’bu Zikode (25 October 2010), then chairperson of Abahlali, to comment on this scene, he said: starting to sing and someone went to get burst into tears and could not stop crying for several minutes. In their efforts to comfort her, other women to chase awaytrying her were ways they humiliating the and manifold her. Detailing threaten started to local councilor with the affiliated people move out, same land of piece to someone else; this time a with title deed. When she theresisted orders of the new toowner months she had been threatened with eviction and the demolition of her Farm (20 km West of Durban) where years ago she bought a plot to build her shack on, but for the past few the build of office Room’ tackle those issues, you cannot the use same techniques […] (Zod staying in Lindelani, is staying on a land that is being owned by another person or by Ingonyama Trust. So, to a Because person who’s staying So, that on its own, it’s a suffering, but it’s a different suffering from a person who’s staying in Foreman road. last general meeting there was this woman who was having a problem with the person who’s owning the land.

T]hat experience […] was actually corethe call movement:of the taketo care

“People are“People suffering in different inways different settlements. Take for example, you remember when at At oneoccasion, - dweller (whether member or not) can turn to the movement with her problem, and problem, movementher and the turn to can dweller with member not) (whether or 2009). June2 interview, Zikode (S’bu to” listened are views their respected, are thoughts all their frustrations. In many aspects, it’s a space where their dignity is restored. Their thein manner that our members are oppre [Living politicsis]a very-

a a middle - dwellers or those relocated to transit camps commonly face – ing where the movement now has its headquarters. She said she lived in Richmond - aged woman took the floor of a general meeting held in the fully packed ‘Board – in Foreman road is staying in the land of the municipality. And the person who’s here

everyone’s concern is received anew, in its singularity. In its anew,in concernis received everyone’s very very spaceimportant forhuman any being that oppressedis her some water –

such as throwing human at feces her shack

(research notes,(research October 2010) 163 ssed. It’s a spacessed.It’s a where they cough canout

Beyond the effectsof healing “providing wa Nsibande interview, 2 November 2010). ication at the same time points to the to same the ication at points time

home because the landowner sold the of of these tears, worries, so if no . a coupleWhen days 162

However, living –

suchas the she soon soon she k of life k of 154 our our

- -

CEU eTD Collection suffering life. D suffering life. blind to temporality ofsingular the rationality the target the by default, also thatis, they (2008Abahlali point, 1) only not at “obviousthe consistency in terms of failure to “We dying we(Philani wait!” crying Zunguwhile i are to in day, liveabetterone order life” (Mzwake Mdlalose always next to us, so we need to challenge weit, need to face them, need we to accomplish whereby politicsis ourdifficulties exposedbiopolitical abandonment. to of “A living lives are temporariness of relocation camps, Abahlali define their politics according to the immediacy emptymythof development.the Contesting urban ofdelivery or service the constant “division between advisable what it“division what is do” and done to 2008,must be not (Foucault 11). temporalities, living politics hence exposes the sensible order that materializes the biopolitical November 2010) life of shack seen Such theare ways living politics about (Zodwa Nsibande, interview (Zodwa interview about 2 November Nsibande, 2010). attends to

to be be to “distancing [themselves] (Nozuko Ibid.). fromHulushe, people” the interview, 11 2010)interview, October There is, however, another aspect of living politics and its imperative to stay close the [Abahlali don’t] even to you that “at least this person wilis So, when someone coming problem,leastat is your to [s] listen and it’s a better relief not to hear the views of the people: what [is] their pro thatarea, thatsettlement or givetimesgoto […] to their used Then Abahlali, they

in formulating a res to take their problem as theirs; - dwellers: dwellers: that oftemporality imposed the uponthem the splinteringwithin orde efinedas “thep , that is, as a political practice attentive precisely to these individual

choose which place to go– placeto which choose ponsibility to effectively deal with the problem that the cry is

aims olitics of thepresent tense” . to maketo negligence upforof the the politicians who are

they usedthey to advicehowdeal withproblem. to the ling ling to me”. help working So, it’s likethat. they blem? [go] anywhere… (Nozuko Hulushe [go] anywhere… interview n Abahlali

And they used to advice them to used And advice they (Philani Zungu, (Philani , 24 2010). When October , 13

August 2006), the 2006), August

interview 2 deliver”, 155 r ,

CEU eTD Collection inherent risks, suchinherent Abahlali’s aims approach to counter dynamics development to power by distancing.the While acknowledging (temporal) ofand knowledge expert effects power By to pointing this conflict,Zikode’s account clearly identifies the continuity between th the very concerns their participation is meant address: to 2010; emphasisOctober refersadded) the to danger of moving awayfrom of temporality the movement’s success in claimi makingthe ofdevelopment. urban potential Recounting the tension thatresults from the politics of the present tense is, accordingly, in conflict with temporality the that characterizes As Zikode’sexperiences S’bu of participating planning in development suggest,Abahlali’s

November 2010). politic living thetense: and present me, people, the how I’m suffering and these are the ideas, at least, that should help me. It’s all about and exposemewant is to it I that this is what howwa have I I this and our tenses: the shack politics, it’s an engagement to present the present tense, especially the poor’s tenses, real. In order to say the present tense. Yes! Ya! Ithink that’s the right word: living Ya on, this thing is really complicated…” say: be firstto one hang the or “but find architect engineer”. another an […]So, you’ll this technicality. “This compliunderstand thing is say: to Then youbegin patient” “comrades,on,be because no,hang to you tend understanding this protocol; youmayunderstanding this then - co be thatyou seem in sense to be co the dangerous very [I]t’s , living politics… living politics is politics that one speaks in order to reveal what’s reveal to order speaks thatone in is living politics politics politics… , living - dwellers. […] ng a say in the fatesettlements, the (interview,26 of in Zikode say their ng a

So, speaking that tenseSo, speakingthat orproblem, addressing that

cated, you know, we have to goand to cated, youknow, we have opted in this this inopted s (Philanis Zungu, - opted, and you seem to be be youseemto and opted, politics patience of nt it. Orit. thisnt is interview 156 , 2 e .

CEU eTD Collection Third Force accusation: Force Third between suffering and knowledge is clearlyresponse movement’s theesta the to in blished post andthe effectsofdistancing delaying theupon renderingcognition: as proces sufferingas efforts by implication, their maintain to thinking proximity development in conditional are emancipation configuresform a That is, of the knowledge. movement’s practiceand, political what follows, I argue that thus enabling the practice of a politics of proximity, thisprocess of In human demonstratingequalitythinkingbeings. as contemporaneously speaking and their recognition that their suffering is unjust, with the articulation of this recognition 4.4 - enables re this re

- rendering it according to the politics of proximity. The conception of conception knowl of proximity.The rendering politics according the to it

knowledge of “I am the professor of my own suffering”: living politics as a form these conditions. hasdawnthese a for the There been of democracy poor us a taught lot. We to begun have realizethatwe are not supposed be to under living We havefrom learnt past– the many so realized things. have goodteacher. People very a time been has […] us For jondolos the in leaders who concernedare peoples’ week about lives at one least must comestay and see, they have not felt what we feeling are every second, every day. My appeal that is we what seen they not have is This because suffering. our blind to are power in Those In parallel to the emergence of Abahlali’s political subjectivity, and as opposed to the th subjectification is political rootsof the Abahlali’s at shown above, have As I rendering thesubject is of chapter’s this final section. . They must feel the mud. They must share 6 toilets with 6 000 people. with 6000people. the mustshare 6toilets . Theymustfeel mud. They

we have suffered alone. Thatand sufferedpain we alone. suffering has have - apartheid city’s sensible order, the apartheid order,the city’sconnection sensible s ofknowledge.s acquiring

(Zikode 2005,2) edge that that edge 157 .

CEU eTD Collection baseMjondolo was“founded”. baseMjondolo Foreman etc., Road”, – until “University wasthat read: “University then of Road”,which followedbythe of Kennedy settlements was present already forThe call hipeople 165 164 thenwhich transforms into the to way living supposed be we do – listeningto”.worth be to peopl residents their and of places theysuffering, learning as are ofeven placesbe to

sustains the biopolitical order of dispersal. of dispersal. order the biopolitical sustains the experience of suffering and thinking radical politics: “ of families of apologists and their abettors in the medical world about the harsh conditions of labor and the routine breaking up such evacuation: “Though it was not only African Americans about whose homes and belongings they spoke with it”. must a radical because politics the seriously it take suffering But is to reality necessary is very of surprising. not This theorization of resistance by the dominated is far from fashionable in contemporary white metropolitan theory. pain, aren’t really affected by the rupture of ties to people or place or things”. Spelman (2008, 143) notes about Dennis Hastert’s and Barbara Bush’s comments on the post biohuman criteria.” Even further, citing Simon Pernick’ been thoroughly reshaped by a liberalism which refuses to recognize the suffering of lives which fail to live up to suffering of treatment liberal

with Rancière (2007) Rancière with Arguably, this quote also refers to the hierarchical distribution o the same the websiteof under title: thesection Abahlali special Cf.

Consider further the possible relations between this silence and what Julian Reid (2010, 394) says about the

arrogant facility, one can hear in such remarks echoes of nineteenth understand that it is a truth of this world, minister to it by acknowledging it and sharing it, and learnit fromandit, sharing it that is a thisitacknowledging truth ministerof world, to by understand in thatconditions.in So, one night, it that is obvious will he thatwe are experiencing.conditions And then ustell thathow can she long or he live theto senior inviting livecome and life shacks the to same experienceand the As Bryant (2007, 25) shows, these banners are equivalent to banners “ shows,these 25) (2007, As Bryant (Philani Zungu the or exposing grievances life of is]also Abahlali of of[The the passingonthe University part idea message and –

that some people just just do that some people gherup in the socialhierarchy directlyto experience life in the informal interview, 2 November 2010). , interview, 2November : “The perception of not just who suffers, but worthy versus unworthy suffering, has

– Hence, the connection to their emancipation understood understood emancipation their to connection the Hence, as the power to contest the sensible order

164 proving equality to oneself. T oneself. to equality proving n’t suffer as much as others, are barely susceptible to physical or emotional with movement’s the naming–

Abahlali’s first organizedmarch, in the form of ConsiderPithouse’s ( - ” entails an reflectionactive on suffering as cognition, conditions. Because was Abahlali what washappening: s study of the history of anesthesia, Elizabeth V. The suffering of the dominated as 2005b 165 f sensibilities that, paralleling all the above, all the above, paralleling that, sensibilities f

http://abahlali.org/node/237 , 16) related and pertinent concern about about concern pertinent and related , 16) - century attitudes among slavery’s he recognition “ recognition he

get get one up with lesson…big the University of Abahlali Abahlali of University the

( Abahlali 2006a,Abahlali This 7). declaring the settlements

a foundation for the the for foundation a - Katrina Katrina that we not are .

banner banner 158 e

CEU eTD Collection to With “participatory development”, “participatory ordecision plan that affects their homes. By appropriatingdiscourse way of the motto of theirs tove power “use the meant are– sufferings not be to space this entering whendefinition, to Ngongoma’s (inte Thembani“TJ” According es” (LindelaFiglan themselv onthedefine ground people “a doit”; as to certain or cornerpoor how want, govern theythe to […] they want where what polit of apparent descriptions living in transformation also is 166 struggles. Forstruggles. example, at one time, ideathe of ‘sustainable development’ seemed like quite idea a good that also in how language and words are used and abused

As an illustration of their their of an illustration As alter their experiencestheir rendered as knowledge e the same authority

the face of danger, despite the intimidations. That’s despiteintimidations. faceof is the Abahlali the danger, what (Ibid.). in shy without being say to have they what say and standbold so to be… for themto intimidated by Abahlali because they donot know dri what And ofbecome that being nowhere! why is the somebody,is also out government spaceyou space, and that political youautomatically youand reclaimup within that of Africa! South abiding citizen Thenyou law you look: youare as remindaAbahlali and community,educate a Abahlali youthat days to shell. femalethese of or come male […]whenAfrican that Nowyoujoin out this inferiority complex that we have inherite with living We are happens? […]what know the You in society. space political their I’ll put it this way: once a certain community joins Abahlali, they automatically claim the patternsthe ofmaterial urban biopolitics. of the often Under another banner sounded

– “Thos rbal resistance without any backing”. any without rbal resistance often e lead who it, feel should – it!” critical 166

shack they insist that stance on developmental discourse: “So this domest – - that is, again, created through the recognition that their dwellers assume thepower of “that normal resistance”; –

even the ideas that came originally from genuine

responsible authorities engage with rview, 3October 2010) rview, d from past. It is the quite for difficult an automatically… “uummff”that comes

they demand every parties be to to ics asaspace for people “to say , 2010). interview, 5October 2010). ves Abahlali them ves behind nables

account of such account the shack ication canication seen be them and, - dwellers

self 159 – -

CEU eTD Collection academic andNGO person as the su principle– own This suffering”. of their knowledge fromdistancing theperspective of everyday their struggles. functions thatparticipationimply guarantee planningdevelopmentunderstand to in not does Abahlali technologygovernmental of expe alluded I oftenas above, with success. 169 168 167 could accommodate some of the protests against bad development that different struggles have raised intellect. Instead, needs order it simplifiedimply be in to assumption an that office and impose something that you think talk a better language, you’ll tomorrow then it it’s you and to If it, come real. you, don’t believe and talking experience we’re what fact, “politics of patience”, a strategy of “slow learning cumulativeand change”. counters the “tyranny of emergency” entailed by the everyday concerns of the urban poor with a pragmatic

there…” (Lindela Figlan interview, 5 October 2010). Cf. Abahlali and Rural Network (2009, 62). Somebody will feel proud and is going to protect it,make sure that he maintained. But if somebody was not the house, already build that house, you see that house, you know that, “hey, I put all my eff seem to be at work: “It is important [for] the people to participate on their development because, even if you see Rural Network 2009, 37). At other times, as e.g. in the case of now, even the World Bank can use the words ‘sustainable development’ for their own projects” (Abahlali and Zungu,interview, 2 November 2010). at appears to be Septembera project in 2009, this standstill. Abahlali attack on target the was the of violent that settlement to this least particular At Road. regards with Kennedy between Abahlali baseMjondolo and the eThekwini Municipality to u B. agreement signed Siyanda one was the the in informalAnother the of settlement inhabitants to electricity) and

“Yeah, so I think the university is about that: in fact, it’s about factualizing the grievances that in the actual in that the the grievances about that: it’s fact, factualizing in is about think the university so I “Yeah, Cf. Appadurai(2001, 30) for a A

recent from the trust ofperson,from membersone trust our government never the hurt have the and and foundwe have that even we democratic though a gets organization are that itspower makes i that poor the sufferingof is it rich.We is that country know our We that know To sure be

or maintain to everyone as imperative living discourse a the that must politics example of such success , through rendering suffering as knowledge, Abahlali declare to be “the professors knowledge, “the sufferingas declarebe Abahlali to rendering through t rich. We know how we suffer and we know why we suffer. But in Abahlali Abahlali in weknow suffer. whyBut weWe and rich.howt we know suffer bject andbject object the of – knowledge , the principle that living politics must be accessible for everyone does not does for everyone accessible mustbe politics living principlethat the , because you know exactly you’re talking what about. Rather than strategizing from the - patronizing effects ntestingdefiantly co the practices and the hierarchical intellectual attitudes they entail. n account of a slum

isthe ongoing projectto provide basicservices (water, sanitation,roads,

rt knowledge, rt –

that you think it’s better or is going to improve our lives” (Philani lives” you to(Philani that our think it’s or improve better is going 167 that establishes equivalence between the suffering

In In the face of the“politics of patience” and the - dwellers’ Alliance in Mumbai that, unlike Abahlali, Mumbai Abahlali, unlike in Alliance that, dwellers’ 168

, conceptions suc , conceptions then defines themovement’s critical attitude to “owning development”, this reflection does not

pgrade fourteen settlements, among them 169

to to

“fit” the shack of expert or academic h as the University of of h asUniversity the ort onthat house”.

- – dwellers’

but by by but 160

CEU eTD Collection Abahlali met occasionally Abahlali and Bishop Rub in particular) Philip institutional churches, although, due to the attentiveness of the Anglican Church of KwaZulu work withwork this NGO it(CLP) uscreates and makes us feel as human beings. Education can sometimes destroy 170 groans of animality incomprehensible intellectual capacitiescorrelative to Abahlali’s self 4.4.1 2008. Pietermaritzburg during(CLP) in LandProgramme ofChurch office the the in place took and members and of leaders baseMjondoloAbahlali and Rural the that Network .learning The name “living learning” emerged at thefirst of a series of discussions between ofmovement’s approach, politics theof pedagogical proximity,that is, living Abahlali’s work with?’. We have to explain that we do not welcome those who you one that NGO there’s but always criticizing NGOs, ‘you are fromthis question outsiders: answering always Graham Philpott notes, which he then made “ session a particular during to the Introduction according Facilitation, facilitated the sessions, took notes, and put the booklet together” (Abahlali and Rural Network 2009, B). informs the reader

The Church Land P 170 Beyond demands of direct engagement (“Talk to us, noteffect engagementus, to forthe us!”), Beyond demandsof (“Talk direct of explanation of distance the eliminating learning: Living name 2007). (Hlongwa getting paidare talkto about us government in in or NGOs! isEverything done ourin must invisiblewhen be people even We we work. wewhere live and where invisible We thisSouth suffering. Butin must mustalways Africainvisible. poor be be the wanttosay clearly that I having havingrich conferences about moreaboutsuffering. our conferences […] I suffer thatsome silentlyso can get people richfrom rich others workand get our can even someNGOs cal

The ideaof thediscussions formed between the participants when they gained the

in Ibid. - , “David Ntseng coordinates the Livi representation asprofessors of their own suffering to disrupt the distribution of rogramme ( rogramme 6). 6). The relation of the movements came CLP to atup of theone “Wesessions: are

and then ordering them into and agenda. available to everyone in the group for checking and correction” (David Ntseng

worked with members of the Anglican Church. As the “Living Learning” booklet booklet Learning” “Living the As Church. Anglican the of with members worked

to Abahlali’s mobilization Abahlali’s to CLP l usl criminal when wefor speak ourselves. We supposed are to

) is an independent Christian NGO that is not affiliated any of with the that NGO affiliated Christian is not is an independent ) am aProfessor of my suffering. We are all Professors of our ,

comprised collecting the points that participants wanted a

sensible is most is tangiblein what interpret I asthesecond aspec ng Learning process within CLP, and Mark Butler

order that treats shantytowns diffusing only as , CLP, together with members

During the discussion the facilitator took took the facilitator the discussion During exploitusand use our name

andleaders of was facilitated by - Natal (and of of (and Natal –

but when we but when to discuss

and and 161 t

CEU eTD Collection Living Le Living fulfill or to reach our goal. But they don’t tell us how to reach that goal”. (Mnikelo did not participate in the protest, or want a workshop, and we ask for funding on that, so, the only thing they do, they give us resources to mandate on how do we do. We decide in organizations could work with communities in the way CLP is working. […] They never gave us a program or a (CEPD). KwaZulu chance (and were mandated by their respective movements) to study at the University of 171 2009, 60).Cf. Ibid. (2009, 61)and Mnikelo Ndaba ‘education’ that had happened because they will have destroyed our movement those who ‘do not understand’, those that we move away from. struggle our publication that speakers reflected on the process in terms of proximity: earlier meeting. participants met twice to work on discussiontheir an at which wasdecided publication, notes’ about my CLP that andat the later dayabout at the work UKZN CEPD told me that the university was about about to metold was the university that CEPD

other students (research notes, October 2010). operating), and graduates of that year will not be allowed to stand on the stage at the graduation ceremony with

In October 2010, a 2010, October In “education” own for our University asbenefit individuals. that understand”, those we “move awayfrom” ple thatof peo the they camefrom asthe“uneducated” ones, those who “do not struggle canour destroy sometimes Education them… Rur and encourage (Abahlali wi schoolthe or waspreciselyonthisIt in of occasion, roleand discussingsignificance the the the n only imaginecan only becausethere neverwe been receive have can before). How I How? ceremony I amgraduation (which about I the this year. thinking graduate of will us Sometimes when the people where w arning sessions.) 171 - ll give them wings to fly away”. Natal –

Living learning sessions were held roughly every month, except in August, when August, in month, except roughly every held were learning sessions Living when education makes leaders think of the people that they came from as the ‘uneducated’ ones

in round a a round

the program of Certificate for Education in Participatory Development that had happenedthat because they will destroyed movement.have our Two

University course, they think “ they think University course, Cf. CLP’s ( Cf. CLP’s year after the last of the published Living Lear Living yearthe after last the published of 2007 [the] [the] ) paper about “NGO practice and the possibility of freedom”.

organization that towe want a do picketing organization cancel the program time(at the it writing of to appears be nkulu (interview, 26 June 2009):

al Network Network al 2009, 58). Our bookletwill s e come from seeus as a leader and then going to CEPD Ja, he’s going to forget us. This education This us. forget to going he’s Ja, […] […] . Anne lecturerHarley, and coordinator of the ool or go weool donot sch Therefore to . – We w We We We would curse CLP if this was the when education makes think leaders when education ould curse CLP if curse thiswastheould ning sessions, invited to I sessions, was talk ning howdifferentit is and it will ”

(Abahlali and Rural Network “We would all be “We allif be glad all would

or want to run a

162 ,

CEU eTD Collection impetrative of stands ourimpetrative that the “professors own trope for. suffering” proximity possible equivalence – in closest at production the if not ofsubject knowledge living politics (Ibid., 59). Accordingly, it refers to the imperat and isthephysical linked to previously symbolicelement described distantiation cognitive of of expresses, the effort discursivepractice succinctly suchlearning impede living its and to Thus, as the phrase of the“two universities” farms forge the avoid within theacquire framework of the CEPD (cf. the aimsmovements’and experiencesand between their of struggles the knowledge that they Indeed, aimthe very discus the of

when integrated into official when into integrated official education then that is thatis stealingthen from people the the certificate? Is it in the name of those who sent us? Or is it for me? If it is for me, kind of participation, one where outsiders can be invited to participate in participate being in canto is oneinvited what be of outsiders kind where participation, enough” eruptionan thismodel, against erupt an movements [are] struggles of way, a the our In the participationmodelwe want. all at true that you have can of kind a “participati we in seethis the way manythat outsidersand elites treat us and our issues. also is It to” are “done thatthings and you work“fromoutside”, the much biggerapproach to about, thinking and acting see that the ideasbehind modelthis have some similarities with the ideas behind a this and partis of thatmodel t Some writers on research separate the researcher from the tful distancing of those who leave behind the world of the shantytownsor rural theof world behind the distancingwhotful of leave those . Only the space created bye space created . Onlythe this sions was to establish and maintain adirect relationship hatsays that itisobjective, “neutral” (Ibid., 60) (Ibid., (cf. (cf. Gibson, Harley,PithouseGibson, and 2009), ruption creates the possibility of a really new – ion thatstarts withion declaring “Enoughis on” those of Abahlali ofand Abahlali those KwaZulu- Abahlali and Rural Network 2009, Network Rural and Abahlali .

that fits into this model – . It. world is the the ideain, that ive ive keepto the object and the . As movements. As ofpoor, the material being researched , scientific. We can butnot itis and so to so and Natal 7–9). 163 the the – –

CEU eTD Collection of shack arecent with dynamics politicians communicating local of in civil and organizations society wake the bynotneeds listeni actual their thatsidelines to operation of the contrast order 22). an Connecting up this (Ibid., and placegirls’ take our in the system benefits questioning that the it”powerful without 59), they the define “education (Ibid., former as 172 34). (Ibid., education of education lives, in their participants draw between “domesticating” and “liberating” 46). This effort is most vividly articulated as a distinction that, w ( politicians and workers interacting NGOs,public with living educated”, learning against works the “imposed” education that experience when they permeate Abahlali’s politicsliving and “[w]e through through, by declaring that are all 1991). is,linewithclaims(Rancière That in the intelligence ofthatwe haveto equal seen pedagogi community- 42 (Ibid., for the ownrelevant be community can student’s theylearned what have how each and about that to Together with orgiven presentations the second reports is, learning, eleme that living of nt planned it planned kind of domestication teaches us to accept that how things are in the world is somehow natural, or how God

Beyond civil society organizatio civil Beyond appreciate itappreciate did if Zikode something educate to on his community fire insteadsafety “We saying: [provincial] governmentLennox Mabaso quoted spokesperson would After thefire Kennedy at Road, there was astory News in the Daily 65) made through and thateruption in – – cal practiceof proximity: pedagogya thateliminates the distance of explanation

so that the people feel they cannot act change to ( things” . - fire: ng, understandingtheyby apparentlywhat not say, recall the speakers

172

Aiming for the latter byAiming the latter “bringing twouniversities together” for the ns, they speakers attribute “domesticating education” to Churches too: “This too: to “This education” Churches attribute “domesticating speakers they ns,

43), in my understanding, the discussion sessions add up to a my addin a the upto discussion understanding, sessions and so we so and bywalkingmake paths the [that] is about learning to be ‘good boys and and toboys about ‘good [that] learning be is Abahlali and Rural Network 2009, 35). Abahlali and Rural Network 2009, Network Rural and Abahlali hen wonderinghen about the role

newspaper which (Ibid., 64 (Ibid.,

164 –

CEU eTD Collection practicing members learning, living practicing e ofRural th and Abahlali Network contest precisely this separates the ‘explicator of thesocial’ from theworker “The same temporal and spatial distance separates the pedagogue from thestudent as effects of the trope of explication in her introduction to mo the tutelage the development correlative supposedlyestablishes; to “pedagogical fiction”of time educate of to withall the ofNGOs.us working ofhave lots developmen is themwant Most t that is attached to discursive such dynamics only is one link away: “ hierarchy, intellectual the of kind development enforcement the certain a of From registering

dernity and its fetish of progress (Rancière 1991, 119). As Kristin Ross (1991, xix) argues 1991,xix) Ross (1991, (Rancière As Kristin fetish 119). andof its progress dernity ” (Ibid., 46) (Ibid., ” have said clearly havethe said themused lives! all their Why is this the thing th something also thisothereducation is Butthere liberating. thatweof want, education kind learningthe that we do here and elsewhere and education?”! things that were actuall which a seemed good a like But start. church, eThekweni Church.local the Community “ Theyasked, After the fires Kennedy at Road, others alwaysthat to want us impose on ofthe time” talking whole ( how to werepeople basicallytellingteach us to use aparaffin stove i . that suitsthat them and that we almost are forced to have. Of course, this theis very essence of theeducative trusteeship that So there are al The The I gnorant gnorant problem i y needed, then they said: “ said: they then y needed, ,

is supposed to ensurethat “[t]he poor stay in their place”: ways education.two sidesto one On the hand is there the Daily News Daily S s not something I need to teachpeople who to the have somethingneed to not I s choolmaster s that s that we excluded are

different people ca different the different fter we had discussed different with them the (Ibid., 44) (Ibid.,

, 17July).So there thiskind is ofcation edu people how use to paraffinstovea properly – , the pedagogical fiction, delaying pedagogical the , the with that others wanthat . youthink Don’t ” ey thinkey taughtmust be when we me to us offering help. One was a a help. One was offering me us to . identifying, and In formulating from getting electricity? Part of theexperience we t us to to us which t have is How c How

[…] […] these people needthese people an we help?”, After the fire,

t hat is is hat 165

CEU eTD Collection Dillon 2005 Dillon intellig ofrevolutionarythe starts practice pedagogy teaching; that from presumptionof the equal dilemmathe of egalitarian pedagogy, challenge a for allwho to wish follow Joseph Jacotot’s needs. non- mostly crystallizes governmentality the for which, them, of thatis, development rationale, 175 174 173 “ they toencounter: whatever approach in critical is, a questioning,in that appropriatingThrough of the notion “lifelong learning”, tostudents” knowledge (Rancière the 1991,14)? lifelong learning is is learninglifelong a learning thathelpsbecome us people – questioning ema 63 (2010, Biesta 2009, 42). 2009, in schools and universi Figlan Lindela interviews: April 2009; notes, (research mindset”

S’bu Zikode Lindela Figlan (interview Figlan Lindela external actor. Talking about how some shack- giving you the light’ money because they say they’re giving the people the light know; […] but it’s the way we think, maybe it’s not too fast, maybe slow. But don’t think I know.” think I don’t don’t maybetoo But slow. not maybe the fast, it’s […] way it’s we but think, know;

See alsoSee “The idea“The of lifelong learning that,shows as arepeople, we alllearning the time in all and parts of livesour Similar questions occasionally appeared in Abahlali’s discourse as the challenge of “changing people’s ncipatory pedagogy. development

ences instead ofences equality instead positing as to the goal attain (cf.Bingham 2010; Biesta and To be sure, in aiming in to To sure, be not to think like us, but tobut us, like think to not 60; original emphasis) original 60; be, itmeant to how we Godare meant that suffer. to How we enlighten can allothers from eyes? So many others’ people things see in thisway – membrane removeto How that the differently. Becausereallyworld I see darkness? thewher oppression escape I did How

the references of the living learning discussions to the thought of Paulo Freire and Bingham and ,

6 June 20 June 6 b). – 72) on the possible commonalities and differences between Rancière 173 : –

redundant and patronizing and educationredundant instead of addressing their realvery ties, in homes and communities, in marches and struggle” (Abahlali and Rural Network I really hate that, I really hate, just because all the time just know: I that, I because I know reallyI hate hate, really 09 and 25 October 2010). This challenge is, however, opposed to “enlightenment” by an How teach to without resorting to the “transmission ofmaster’s the

5 October 2010) argues: “You see, some other people, they are getting some few 174

share “liberating education”, living learners consequently face learnersconsequently “liberating education”, living share

think dwellers (outside Abahlali) collect money for legal expenses, legal money for collect Abahlali) (outside dwellers , world? seeto the e so many so e people stillare living a in kind of

–

that is what I hate! When somebody say ‘I’m ,

30 June 2009, Zodwa Nsibande Zodwa 2009, June 30 175

(Abahlali Network(Abahlali Rural and 2009,

participants find apossible answer

that how the world is, is - Jacotot’sand Freire’s

to theto powerful, we And –

no one ,

27 May 2009, 2009, May 27 this

[doesn’t] [doesn’t] kind ofkind

166 – –

CEU eTD Collection space created bythe “erup presumed distribution of intellectual capacities. Let us therefore see how litigation fits into the forceddevelopment materializesthe population mobilityof surplus as – the Slums aroundAc the much ofstruggle shows, the aspect politicsnext the ofchapter arrivingthird the at Abahlali’s as of proximity Indeed, decidethey organize to discussions over the preceding weeks the holiday. whatfreedom, Freedom about standsfor, Day whe and communitiesabout participants’ peoplehave in ideas what see to order in unFreedomDay: no is so people areand to encouraged this thing that the interrog allowed we thepeople given!Andtoo, informationinterrogate whenthe we are workwith mustdo stance such others: ofin “ provoke learning living task becomes to we becomebecome suspicious, trouble 176 crucial element of theshack emphasistheir on “the ourcontradictions in country” locating which, argued above,as is a

outcomes of these discussions.

The UnFreedom Day pamphlet ‘generally accepted’‘generally version” 64). (Ibid., Hence, their agenda for the approaching freedom? they can get away with presenting something thelike SlumsAct in the name of – We also are saying that dispossession notis just some only can from it 24) outside, somethingfrom(Ibid., be learned within must question this.Real freedom is not something that can be onaimposed person with ‘Freedom Day’: thepeople are told, “celebrate, you are free” whatbut accept presentedus to wei is mustquestion We just donot it continues into the present. How else can we understand that the p (Ibid., 28) (Ibid.,

tion” of intellectual emancipation.

- dwellers’ p (Abahlali 2008)

olitical subjectification. - makers…” quoted above in sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 is one of the

(Ibid., (Ibid., original22; emphas t – ther they consider themselves free, a tangible instance of theways [thing]

ate everything too everything ate

that happened that history in – Wemust always but is ittrue? We . is definedis bythe

176 t. It is the sameis thet. It oliticians think is). Thus, the Thus,the is).

Hence, also, – there 167

CEU eTD Collection challenge against the Slu account of consensus regime exposed can be as incomplete, present Abahlali’shere I legal 5.1 5 Chapter coincide in a newly emergent political subjectivity.is, emergent newly That underscoring a the in coincide pointreference for argument throughthe that, the of ofsubject from distance right subject liberation. the litigation political reduces state to ins regimesensible and the ofconsensus, reconciliatory the governance of the rainbow nationthat neoliberal show thatthe to policing ofurban space the thatmaterializes the homogeneous ofpost the context the in process of theexploring operation this legitimate so state, articulating a process that called I the factualization of law. In turn, milieu interact with postdemocratic juridical practices that work to equate democracy and the market requirements supposed the the of norms adaptation of to legal increasing the and bodies, and goods there argued thatI the circulatory imperative of governmentality neoliberal ofpractices physically distancing those who presumably obstruct the ideal circulation of population(re is surplus mobility the of forced of how account the an as so give to city, global government the of sentence 3 Chapter (CCT [2009]eradication ZACCIn 12/09 31). of settlement informal policies for otherprovinces’ blueprint the be to supposed was also the invalidated so thus and -

In this chapter, the Constitutional Court’s invalidation of the Slums Act features as the 14 On October Introduction – I discussed I the

dispersal of order biopolitical the of disruption litigious The th

2009, ms Act – Act ms - )codified in this regime. Beyond presenting some of the major major )codified presenting some this regime.ofin Beyond the called “Slum

Slums among Act other juridical techniques of the neoliberal the South African Constitutional Court judged unconstitutional Constitutional judged Court African South the

and thus against the revanchistpolicing the against class thus ofworld and the titutions and political wrong to victimhood, ultimately s Act”, a provincial legislation of provincial a Act”, s KwaZulu- litigation, these twosubjects becan made to

– - that I started I that with the same apartheidmetropolis, I aimed

claim the that Natal that 168

CEU eTD Collection constructed by and for liberal governmentality hand, one in freedomas onthe and appearing forconstructed by and liberal mobilization of thesamearsenal? it. navigate then possible How conceptualize disruption it ofto the is thisorderthrough the ofto interests those ofthroughable to the the rights circulation and nurture space of freedoms was discussed in neoliberalism, enhancing ethos thus ofthe the self technologies of subjectifying tandem in the are working with considered be rights to enable to the most economic ruleof governingtheirnduct co at distance. a Likewise, human as constructed,so governed is freedomthe of primarythe meanswhich the by are they power: politicalmodern of the as instruments function ofsubject liberal rights the scholarship, the As Ialluded in literature thathas been uponit,built an such effort raises a number of conceptual problems. bearing citizens. rights supposed act as not to who of are emancipatory those the politics to may rise give effectiveness of thismode of challenging power, but onhow the text and the spacesof law Sarat 2011), thefocus here notis so much aas potentialmeans of people’spoor politics (e.g. Bussiere 1997, Piven and Cloward 1977, Whereas, of course, in the literature on social movements litigation has been widely discussed ofbiopol the disruption the freedom thus enactmentofand the excess andthat law the inscribed intorights order the democracyof may liberal appropriated be for proxim movementdwellers’ city

– - ofshack litigation the the assessing through otherwords, In of politics. act an as ity features in its literal, physical sense of claiming a place in the city, In exploringrelationship In between the freedom subjectification and through rights Certai nly, incontext understanding of the of liberalism Foucauldian a critical the and

, according to the vast the to ofbiopolitics/gomajority vernmentality 1,according the Chapter Chapter 3, Chapter neoliberal u , and thereby thereby and the third of aspect their politicsof proximity which in

rban governance indeed mobilizes theliberal arsenal

on what we couldon what understand traditionally the as - governing, subject. entrepreneurial As it itical order of dispersal. I wishI to prove 169 -

CEU eTD Collection subjects’ voluntarily compliance with the objectives of (neo as the and presented both products instruments ofas out government, the means of teasing citizens of ofinterpretations of critical subject government.account an Through of “technologies the biopolitical criticism of (human) rights as the primary means offabricating the liberal iscommunity of very equals the a oflitigation appearancescene through whichthat demonstrate part to they are of the introduction thethe to present part of thesis, the thatis, with onhow view renders Abahlali answering for thisgovernmentalityonthe other, excess captured bycaptured sovereign a over power the oflife on built conception, is which the ofidea that, instead being merely illusionary fully or as inscript ofconception rights political and law subjectification, here which is unde between the the rethink relation to toward need sucha point shortcomings argue, goonto As I Fitzpatrick and 2009), basedthird, problemon the exce of and er technologiesof(Gold government thebiopolitical relationship and law between power of liberalism (C first, their reductive and at the same time counter criticism: the potential shortcomings of the biopolitical criticism on, based of human rights r posed problemspreviously conceptual political subjectification, thus linking sensible order, discussI theAbahlali’s legal struggle and its role in theshack emancipator

ationalities. In thesection to follow, assessavailableI and possible points of counter hip” humanfreedom and subjectivity rights, political the and of governed are the y struggles ofmateriality thepasthave a and are therefore availably present in the handler 2009; handler ions of the community as free and equal. Having outlined this equal.outlined and Having free as ions of community the task chapter. ofpresent the Asfirst a step, I briefly recount

2010), second, based on based second, 2010), . the potentiallessons struggl the of this the people - rtaken throughrtaken Rancière’s (2007; intuitively that question along the lines set out in in out along set lines that question the , declared and inscribed as rights, ss freedom outlined in this thesis. their problematic account of the affirmat - )liberal governmental ive

approach to the the to approach e back to the backe the to - dwellers’

2010) 2010) 170 -

CEU eTD Collection freedom account this that entails. of conception the and of rights paradigmatic subjectifying arguments consideringforce the full a of providing rights can, in fact, give rise to the political disruption of the biopolitical order . Thus, instead claimthe posing citizenship liberal technologies of government 5.2 177 and economy, (of ofthe operation autonomoupopulation the “necessary processes to s other aspects, such as interests and needs. Thus, rights and liberties are interpreted as of aspect one governed the subject thatefficient government has placeto in interaction with governmentality(Ivison 1999); as 2008,Rose1996; liberal subsumedunder these as posits renowned2003) the claimreceding about role of power sovereign rejectionpoststructuralist ofautonomous the of subject enlightenment, Foucault’s and (1978, the significance of individual rights and the rule of law within liberalism, in line with the Gordon1993, Burchell, Miller1991).and Although, of course,such viewpoint a recognizes governable ways of object particular rule ofthe problems implies rendering modeof this posing state” protectionthe of individua political reason, approachesit liberalism ontheof ‘rule notphilosophybased law’ as“a literaturewithgenealogyof that,in Foucault’s modernbiopolitics/governmentality is line

Fitzpatrick (2009) whose work is discussed below, see e.g. Cadman (2010) and Patton (2005). Zanotti (2008; 2011). For alternative readings from within the Foucauldian thought, beyond Golder and and Rose (1996), (2003), Jung Jabri (2007), 2008), (1998; Ivison Elbe (2009), (2007), see Braun subjectification,

For further pertinent takes pertinent further For

, but but a wayparticular of posing problems and, Without attempting to give a complete account of the biopolitical criticism of liberal Doubtless, one ofm Doubtless, one the Freedom that is “near impossible to resist”

, as well as the active reflection on the practice of (Dean rule 1999, 49; cf. Burchell and rights,and this section aims address to the concerns that could emerge when – from within the conceptual– within frameworkbiopolitics from of - fledged survey of the literature, below I focus on a handful of its handfulof ona fledged belowits focus surveyI ofliterature, the

on the problematic of law and (human) rights as liberal technologies of l rightsl and freedom against theunnecessary encroachments of the

177

ost characteristic starting points of the

consequently, an art of since government, : law and rights as rights and law :

and legalits means, it

that citizenship and that

and and 171

CEU eTD Collection in termsfree of choice, subjection to power seems “extremely difficult to resist” (Bondi and ourselves, between subject and power that “appears to emanate from our autonomous for quest self subjects’happy in results which element of synchronicity, programs of interve and societal interests without having tomore to resort direct forms control ofstate or costly mobilized to justify practices of self American self Thus, (1996) analysis in Cruikshank’s be ownof as their interest. the objectives will so amended autonomousthatcomplying molding governmental with subjects, through citizensfree onthe one and hand, the needs and law Hence,307). the limitations on the spacegovernment’s of maneuver by drawn the of rights adjustment” is civil society, while its primary vehicle is and311) those taking up his work emphasize Dean(e.g. the1999), te l wieldedpower over “shepherd –citizen of“city rules the divergent reconcilethe game” to governmentality attempts andthe empowerment and self “ through 1999, 4). citizens […] both are the effects and the instruments of governance” liberal (Cruikshank conceived of asnecessar andfrom rights Moreover, liberties notionsof50). derived citizenship liberal only are not (Dean necessary itsends” 1999, and politicalto to whichboth authority external society) are

In Cruikshank’s (1996, 1999) famous terms, subjects of (1996,terms,fabricated famous Cruikshank’s subjects government 1999) In are technologies of such citizenship”, as ethos ofthe active orcitizenship notions of –flock game”,is, ofpower legal that “political and wielded over subjects pastoral it as appears matterof 1990,a freedom” (Rose our Indeed, when 260). constructed - esteemmovement 1990 ofearly the s aptly illustrates, citizenship and rights are ntion. The danger of such technologies of citizenship is precisely is ntion.this of technologiesof such Thedanger citizenship ive 2000e (Foucault individuals” - esteem. by is meansIt of these technologies, then, that liberal y for governingsubjects,as but productive of “Democratic these: - renewal, about bringing the synchronicity of personal s ofs economic dynamics onthe other, are , 307). As both Foucault (2008,, 307).295– Foucault As both

self - governance (Foucault 2000e (Foucault governance - alignment by creating a link rrain of this “tricky 172 ,

CEU eTD Collection while before governmentalizationwhile the ofnorms theas state per - of (neo “can be“can free” only through “the ontogenesis of indigenous the rights holder” demands toextent dignity, subjects’ foror the groups morefreedom,that indigenous equality ontologicalprimacy over lent mental rationalities.govern freedom Obviously,a such thus is freedom; producing themselves of kind conducive a freedom is (neo to that previously discussedthe technologiesof citizenship, then, human are revealed rights as that allows freedom particular a as governor reconfigured between the is relationship the and governed freedom” Hence,thethat 753). subjectifying through technology (Ibid., ofrights, human ofom,freed conditions well the as as creating “the ontogenesis of the subject able to exercise neoliberal ideal of the entrepreneurial homo creating the self rights promoted by international institutions and global civil society actors are instrumental in technologiesof shouldas approached be That poverty,they and is, subjectification. means counterweight accusationsabout to liberalism’s implication in economic inequalities rights a comply made to 1996,235). are choose (Cruikshank to reveal “the extent to which we are already self critical 2005,ofbiopolitics/governmentalit turn,call the In the Laurie 399). self must andindeed […] produce, produce globally and free understood the sovereignas (here free given, sovereignand individual” an have intimate with relationship freedom not but of “ontogenesis”,notion Odysseos 749;(Ibid., original emphasis) shows that “l

- governing) subject In a similar vein, as Louiza Odysseos (2010, 747) argues, of Louiza argues, instead similar as Odysseosviewing a 747) human In vein, (2010, s “attempt[s] to concretize liberalism’s commitment to individual freedom” or as for and, in fact, demands “the rule of maximum economy” (Ibid., 772). demands rule As withmaximum “the (Ibid., fact, offor in and, economy” - governing subject homo as juridicus ” (Ibid., 750). Thus, government is understood as dependentupon 750). as ” understood Thus,government is (Ibid., . “ Rather œ conomicus , - governing”, and point to to specificwayswe liberal governmental practice requires –

because it is predicated upon prethe

, which, turn, in the complements shaped b y other means. the Through y literature is to iberalism

(Ibid., 763), - )liberal )liberal human does and and 173 -

CEU eTD Collection equally. freedomthat asarelationship of subjectification can be power the have too over terms of conduct – their resisting liberal subjectification, they do not seem to consider the possibility that the governed section.this both Although Cruikshankmention (1999) Odysseosand (2010) problem the of technologies’governmental subjectifying force that emerges from accounts the litigation to presented be below, is the unidirectional or, in fact, universal character especially however, considering the problem freedom of excess outlined Abahlali’s and above into, needinquired What be does to subject. natural freedom the of liberal reinstate to the not of constructednature the democratic the – the citizen or rights holder 758; (Ibid., 2005).cf. Patton discourse of the governance, humanconstructsthem rights “rights as holder[s] in waiting” 178 the from,hand, one emanates onthe of agency political that evasionofquestions the about point (cf. his 2007), Foucault Selby “upscaling” at ofcriticismattempts his the validity questioned. And, althoughit is not focuswithin the of the discpresent IR, the totalizing presentation of liberal governmentality in this literature indeed needs to be 5.3

altogether. altogether. resistant subject, Cruikshank (e.g. 1999, 118 identitarian approach to the political subject she talks about the everyday struggles around definitions of the society, thatof between subjection and resistance is untenable too (see centers on the argument that, as this division, from a Foucauldian understanding o targeted against “critical democraticand distinction theorists’” thebetween political private the and realm, and among the many techniques of neoliberal rule”. Crui liberal technologies of subjectification, she nevertheless concludes that human rights “belong firmly and fully power as conditional

While Odysseos

Of course, what has to has Of what ed question course, be in light of the central claim of this chapter is not According According to Chandler’s David (2009, 2010) assessment ofFoucauldian the stream of The “strategic reversibility of law 178

But such is a total account of (neo (2010, 772) doeslend attention to the conceptualimplications ofFoucault’s understanding of

upon its parties’ freedom, and ponders the potential of an ethics of the self in contesting

– 121)ends up dismissingthe questionof kshank’s (1999, 118) discussion of resistance is primarily primarily is resistance of discussion 118) (1999, kshank’s - )liberal governmentality justified? ese th be “citizenship” or “human – rights” ”

Chapter 1 instrumentalized ). And although countering an f power dispersed on all levels the aim hereis certainly political ussion judgeussion to the

by both parties,

subjectification subjectification

discussed in 174 or or of

CEU eTD Collection large arelarge unaware of thetechniques construct that their freedom relationship as a between rationalities of Beyond government. these accounts’ implicit assumption thatthe governed at rights construct the to scholars areby poststructuralist conceived section, previous the shown in fr mass participation,letus approach the assumption of- (neo spheredistinct of politicsthatsupposedlyemerged theand with modernthe forms state of his (2010) in Chandler for present effortsto practicescontest of biopower.of Nevertheless,instead following andequality emancipation which reflected this 2010, (Chandler ” 140) ofgrowthreflection the mass of popularpolitical politics and demand engagement the and for the individual subject was asocial construction or anarrative framing wasbut it also a dividual in autonomous facethe at of value.of modernontologyontology ofprimacy the “The critical and significancepolitical acknowledging does which not require us to take the liberal originated– reigningof rights discourse human presently withinthe which struggles historical literature is unable to conceive of the continuing critical cosmopolitanism1990s’ literature. readings reiterate “the elitist dismissal of the masses” that Chandler (2008, 9) attributes to the as 2010, Of 135). (Chandler particular importance for the aim of this section is his argument that dominant narratives ultimately “reproduce they toturn, in which, thanks operationgovernance, ofglobal liberal nation (i.e.the frameworks of politics of conventional deconstructionpoststructuralist ofrights the

om another angle. Technologies of angle. Technologies om discourse another citizenship of the wasor humanas rights, it a political rationalities technologiesof ofand bio power, prioritization global ofresult their - bearing subject and its freedommanner in athat renders it conduci As we will shortly see, have strugglesrelevance ofindeed shortly such might As emancipation we will

of the operation of power and politics”, nevertheless seems nevertheless politics”, and relevantof operation of the power

attempt to reorient conceptualizing political community within the Having made this move, he suggests, the biopolitical madeHaving thismove,the suggests, he biopolitical - bearing debasement and, other,the subject onthe - state) due to their assertion of the )liberal governmentality’s totality and political significance political ofand the . ve to (neo- to ve )liberal )liberal 175

CEU eTD Collection econ character of law that allows for its factualization “capacityIn this itsaidthe otherwise”. linewith couldbe thatit very be is even to idea, the anddimension, Golder , 79) (Ibid. Fitzpatrick derive conceptiona of Foucault’s thatbearslaw follow,second to (Ibid.). Crucially discussion this from its being” forits content, the position, challenge its that constantly resistances receptive ofbecoming itselfthrough disrupting power asconditional upon its reversibility, law appears as “respons of conception Foucault’s to corresponds which dimension, second 71). its in Yet, (Ibid., which expresses adefinite content” and, as such, “a law to be resisted and transgressed” distinct work.but dimension, his one asdimensions itdetermi in In is “a featured 3), governed (seeChapter it efforts wayswe are Foucault’s think the gains to two interrelated Golder1994), withemergencereceded of the biopower (“the expulsion thesis”;cf. Huntand Wickham technologysovereignty power, the political of as privileged accordinglaw which classical to freedom. the of give to appropriation technologies can rise excess Golder Fitzpatrick’s and furthering point tur be indeed ourselves as asociety, as of apart a social entity, as apart of anation or of astate” – liberal subject recognize to led of been “wehave bywhich many righttechniques –among the re (2009) irreversible. To the contrary, as Iwould like to extrapolate from Golder and Fitzpatrick’s is “political of technology suggestthatthe individuals” to ofconception governmentality is, of course there who govern, those and themselves

omic andsocial dynamics –which leaves it open, which lets be otherwise:it Contrary to mostinterp - ding of law, the juridical means of constructing theding means understan of of ofjuridical reading constructing Foucault’s the law, ned back against What backned those 404). who2000a, more,in against rule(Foucault is

and Fitzpatrick (2009) argue onlythat not has law continuing relevance for retations ofretations thelaw role conceptionmodern Foucault’s of in , I show in the last part of this section – in in the sense of its increasing adaptation to , nothing in in (2000a) Foucault’s , nothing

ive”, as “self

how - resistant, nate law

these these can 176

CEU eTD Collection happens not only through uniformly creating the the of notsubject through self uniformlycreating happens only manner the thatsuits of ideal the world class city. However, underline, to thisassimilation fit the as to so very notion the of fact, in of referent public realm, reconfigured, theof the the subject is right Souththe example African of redefiningthe idea of “peoplespace” and people”or,“business population made massesthe upof of process, flawed consumers.the In as we have seen on introduces juridical freedomthat aimConsequently, it practices the contain to surplus the of rationality advisableencourage. topolitical not to according maximum the ofis economy, its limit figure in the failed entrepreneur, in the flawed consumer, whose self reaches Asurban earlier. Ineoliberal governance freedom outlined Chapter argued I in 3, that counterposedthe byother technologies or to freedomof incited citizenship. with a universal referent, the freedom that they construct can be appropriated and resignified politicalof techniques individuals other suggest,like to want I Instead, 2010,772). (Odysseos power” a resignification and renewal that eludes the determination of a sovereign or a given regime of thatwhatfact makes it to open appropriation ofrationality “[T] power. itAs such, amaintains certain “vacuity”, due to which it cannot be by contained a particular

ossibility should indeed be considered considered be in context should possibility indeed the Such a ofproblem the excess of for relate must constantly to ever the effectively and the secure certainty requisite and predictability in world the beyond, or to necessitates a constant responsiveness to that which lies beyond the law’s positioning Even the maintenance of a determinate position or the calibration of a juridical rule (Ibid., 84) th (Ibid., 80) (Ibid.,

that which the rule cannot presently comprise. Put crudely, law, if it is to rule homo . Thus, human rights cannot “belong firmly and fully” to neoliberal firmlyneoliberal to cannot “belong fully” rule Thus, human rights and œ . conomicus he ‘strategic reversibility’ of Foucault’s law consists precisely in the

wh o is presumed to practice its freedom to enterprise in a - changing nature of the society, economy, so and and domination simultaneously makes it open to - governance, but also through also but governance, - go vernance, 177

CEU eTD Collection of freedom.ordering was bent on controlling it” – political object was in a sense taken faceat value and was turned back against the system that “weformulatedthat re through affirmations and rights”, through concerning “life which as a refers 145) to in famousthe last chapter of TheofSexuality History I. Foucault process that (1978, of thereal struggle” inscriptions of “very that be, the might even (e.g.literature and oftenof 2003,39) Foucault’s of own depiction rights of biopolitics tomajority order” the the state Contrary (Agamben the 1998,121). within the inescapable trap of biopolitics, “a tacit but increasing inscription of the individuals’ lives own for their use. subject inscribed freedom the legal appropriating ofthe theof freedom” “fields by restructure ofsubject fr non- expose abandoned, the but they articulatedis precisely emergingwhere, as the part thathas nopart, as those who are liberated at not all abstract(Odysseos 2010,767). Indeed, excessfreedomthe population surplus of the have to register the political nature of the claims that the freedom inscribed by human rights is “structured fields of freedom” effe bythectuated neoliberal rendering we of human rights, 2010, cf.(Odysseos 764; Chandler 2009). Therefore, instead of asser same of works, the practice deployment dividing at a of referents rights collective as time, minimal and often abstract legal entitlements being the subject of self “[h]uman subject’s argue that call Thus,to fromrights intounfit realmthis referents. of the removing

In this light, we might want to consider modern struggles for rights modernstruggles consider in to light,mightterms wewant this In other than – y means of discursive – means delaying and physicalof discursive and by of techniques distancing eedom, they where thus resignify the subject of and, right the at same time,

- government and provide claimd to an exercise frameworkwhich provide a and in government can give rise to the emancipatory disruption o equivalence of the reconfigured subject of right of theequivalence subject and of reconfigured right the ” risks overlooking how the neoliberal neoliberal how overlooking the risks ”

ting totality the of the –

“political struggles” - struggles, then, it then, struggles, f the f neoliberal 178 the the

CEU eTD Collection such affirmationssuch utteredthe in past, wouldbe through Rancière’s idea of literariness. aff “through emancipatory wayabout the disruptionorderof ofneoliberal think freedom to the possible 5.4 179 2004c): (cf. Rancière andfrom city poets the banishedsophists why Plato speakingprecisely,is This, every being. according to which written words have amateriality and, as such itself to the sense experience (see technologiesmeans that textual liberal Beyond discursivebywhich underlining and the the community thethe sensibleitsequali orderwhere sharewith demonstration partofcommunity of that theythe the of are equals; rest people’s surplus within the function andof process litigation ofthe inscription rights in terms of literariness and the excess of words also allows u emancipatory of the appropriation of vacuity–thinking technologies the of these suggests law subjectification work are strategically reversible –

Or Or

literarity In line with the account of political subjectification offered in the present work, a Corresponding to his understanding his orderingpresents to an which Corresponding of as of aesthetics that (Rancière and2000,(Rancière Panagia 115) The “silent” requires legitimateequally interlocutor interrupts Plato’s logic of “the proper” of The series not. lacking wordsalegitimate availabilityofa are speaker and an what The excess of words irmations concerning rights” (Foucault 1978, 145), or through the invocation of invocation through the or rights”1978,145), concerning (Foucault irmations

– in making itself equally other translations, see e.g. Rancière and Panagia (2000).

everyone to be be everyone to

word of

writing, according to Plato, is that which will swayma will which no that according Plato, is to writing,

in their properplace, partaking in their proper affairs

available to both those entitledto it and use those whoto Chapter 1),Chapter Rancière works with an idea of writing . ty is inscribed. is ty as Golder and Fitzpatrick’s (2009) notion Fitzpatrick’s and Golder as

s to understand how the the how understand to s , are equally are available, to – a logic that 179 tter tter

179 of of

CEU eTD Collection returns, and with it, and it, returns, consequently, with the imperative of depoliticization: – ofequality the the idea represents, orderofthatthisexcess by thediscourse words to proper wayClearly, ofthreat the the capacitywhich, materiality allows for. turn, bywords’ ofin given writing for circulation, referring to their free availability to any potential reader’s interpr with excess disruptive“excess(Ibid.), potentially of denotesthis words” Literariness, then, participatory development, or interpret legal texts (Rancière 2007, 48). writetalkabout demonstrating reason, poetry, equalthrough capacity speak, to one’s of irrationality t actsthatproveemancipation the through treatment. Equality that is “enshrined as a potentiality in legal/political texts” is turned into them deny equal that those with ofgiven same the sharethe configuration they about”, written demand treated be equally to share the verywithin world equalitywhich is “spoken of and proving demonstrationsthatthoseappropriation is,who through through acts ofthat equality, ofone “for their somewhere; spoken it is ofabout” (Rancière written and 2007, gives Thiswhat 47). is rights as rights declarations, renders them equally accessible to all. Equality, therefore, “exists of disruption because inscribed theequality ofwords materiality including words, of written Literariness, thus, names the sensible existence of equality. In turn, it implies the potentiality

to putintoto circulationmore words, “useles Humans are political animals, then, for two reasons: first, because we have retai status n their power,and flat that who contestedclaim“speak bythose to correctly” unceasingly is proliferate words exceed the function of designation; rigid secondly, becausethisfundamental ability

is, is, by themasters of designation and class ms 2010a, and,existence” (Rancière the 67) ofpossibility hence, of their a nd thus the equal politicity – politicity equal the nd thus - out this capacity speak deny to (Ibid.). s” ificati and unnecessary words, words unnecessary and on who, by virtue of wanting to to wanting on who,of byvirtue he reality of social inequality etation; availability that is

of every speaking being speakingof every being

the power

that 180 to to

CEU eTD Collection the community of those achievements’, it reiterated the “forced visibilityacts and made their demands audible, since, strikingreference theof workers’ 1833to achievements 1830lenttheirthe 1789and here: in “document”, emerges strugglesindeed, and, ofexactly of their previous Now, relevance the inducing “bibliotherapy”inducing technology”.literary ofHowever, ininterpretation Steinmen’s her Gloria self citizen’s self Illustrating the role of “sp technologies. to in these relation governed subjects’ inequality the off presumptionof a by claims technologies’ subjectifyingdiscussed seemclosed force governmental unduly be of to the “strategic reversibility” of rights as the process of political subjectification, the previously their rights, but also to build cases to verify the power of the inscription”. inscripti make of out that rightssomething who the of those are inscription’s appearing Rights through this verification.“In ofother place,the the Man second ofone them being inscription, as the of “writing the community freeas equal”, and the with according to Rancière (2010a, 68): instead of beingmere abstractions, they exist twoin forms, continue have to reality way rights order.the is of Thus,too, disruption sensible given a ofm emancipationstruggles revolutions realized (Ibid.). Thus is the way that declaration of rights borne out by earlier the process of reception complete control process the - ofbiblio the seemsof under be the reception to

prove their case and prove the necessity for the other to recognize otherto necessity caseprovefor and the their the prove can thattheycommon to a they right participate in where it, world perfect a have women’s emancipation Whence the proliferation in the literature of workers’ emancipati on Viewed in Viewed in the of light thisconceptualization, arguably, which, unfolds account an of - formation, Cruikshank (1996, 233) refers 233) Cruikshankformation, (1996, the refers to technology of self – due to which “[a] ‘self’ emerges out of confrontation with texts” – texts” with of confrontation emerges “[a] out ‘self’ which to due ecialized knowledge” within the process of theself ight give rise to new political subjectivities and, therefore, to the – of arguments aiming to prove that those demanding equality demanding thatthose aiming prove to of arguments

by way of declaring that they are partof on, deciding not only ‘use’ not on, deciding to - entry” of equality thatthe it (Ibid., 49).

– as also in that ofin as also therapist (Ibid.). - esteem as“a - governing - esteem 181

CEU eTD Collection “irrevocabl[e]” (Odysseos 2010,747). “irrevocabl[e]” (Odysseos that over, once proving of freedom” “recastmeaning the to very the theliberty governed inscriptions, mighttake of indeed these the as subjects themselves recognizing words, government policing. other of In participatory political order, and construct a “self” that is differen lives” theisin of personal to freedomenshrined their equalitythe and that founding texts their capacity to interpret the inscription of their freedom otherwise, to compare “the details of Rancière’s concept of literariness here suggests is in these that instances, thegoverned en 1991,way” (Foucault What144). strategic rendering the reversibility of law through questioned”; forms channels, “ill becomes different institutions” and thebodythrough extremely issocial “exercisedwithin that power whengoverned; the detbetween link when however,the instances rare”. are, is There specificity, in its “[p]olitics, words, 139) justified? inextricably whatlinked to goodis for allof so the social good: “Narratives bring people to see that the details of their personal lives are development to betweenpersonal their aslink so inevitablyestablish a therapy” to “liberation it seemsIndeed, theof subjects’freedom field the that governed being st is 180 ontheback presumptionof freedom” essential “an 1982,790). (Foucault As the next quote the success of liberal ontogenesis rights, asweprotll as statementaccording “[t]to which

conduct of conduct, and irrevocably recast the very meaning of freedomand the possibilities for agonism”.

Here Here I cite Odysseos’ To be sure, “overt is To sure, resistance rare” be “overt (Cruikshank – 1996,249)

ails ofails lives personal and whole the of the community is reassessed bythe

when, that is, it becomes “no longer acceptable to be ‘governed’ in a certain

(2010, 747) (2010, estations about their abusefor better or enforcement may well

claim that he incidence of resistance ” ” 2010, and(Odysseos 771), without doso having fall to

“huma 180 the governing regime’s interpretation is not at all

Correspondingly, it is possible to question isto Correspondingly, possible it the n rights assist in the evolution of government as the ciety” (Ibid.,ciety” 233 Butis–234). such a certainty t fromt up taking the one self the

in the form of claims for (more) - tolerated continuously and in Rancière’s in (1999, ructured through

signify

182 act act -

CEU eTD Collection order the and neoliberal equality grounds the basic at of order. any contradiction unjustified between the enactthe surface to uponwhich providethe well and have been used being been to placehave a thedenied in city groundsreasoning: of onthe technical to (Abahlali,it” 21March2010) because the Hall repairedCity is being it‘dangerous’ and wouldbe for us come to close too the court that they could not allow us to march through the main streets and to the City Hall City was the wonand which able the tocase thus the forbid demonstration: “[The Durbanthe Hall forCity scheduled next day.the What it was prompted the argument with on “HumanDay”,published Rights following thatprohibited their courtdecision a march on 5.5

the section to follow suggest, the sensibly ofavailable record freedom equality and may “From shack to Constitutional Court” Abahlali’s politics questions can only be answered byexperts. cananswered be only questions Technical people will govern” people people from any chance to debate these questions. Interestingly enough, the passage above is taken from apress statement Abahlali that will be de theyexperts s bymaking problems questions social byimportant into resolved so be and to payroll businesses for the richonthe quickly for s the businesses are built soil is “not right” When we evicted are we always are told mocracy if the managers city decide to allow it arguments are always used against us because it is assumed technicalthat eize the right to answer these questions on their own

and on. so Of courseonc . It didn’t say that the experts will govern. It didn’t say that there

. As thepress statement that it because is the land “toois steep”, the

The has their state own experts on their e our shacks are demolished flats or –

The role of litigation in The Freedom Charter said that “the makes clear, it the shack ame land wethat were told was (Abahlali, 21March2010)

–

they expel the

City] - dwellers

told told 183 .

CEU eTD Collection 182 181 that is terrain, governmental by On this agencies”. controlled various and lookedboth after within t people: the “Aspopulations these society, of upontheto the recognized govern civil necessity beyond boundaries falling the delineatessociety”, a realm bya defined relation thatemerges between the state thoseand unproblematically. Theother,which fairly citizenship Chatte and small section of thepeople” who navigate the institutions and practices of popular sovereignty se whosetho status as rights- he calls “civil society”, driven is by classical ideas of liberal constitutionalism includes and one, of action: governmental which two spheres consideration, distinguishes Chatterjee(Ibid.) rights contextually, citizenship, “are most only inhabitants andtenuously, then even ambiguously and “most (and ofworld”), ofstate the the Indian context tradictory con similarly the governed”bydescribing the status ofmarginal populations in the people governedto is, thesemarg that whoins, populate people citizenship, of variegateddeployment of understand technologies wewhat could as Revealing of rather a getmoremuddledlegality margins around ofrealm the the through freedom. governed Abahlali’sencounters various However, as withl the references to safety and security are the staple of contemporary governmental practices. substantially explored,have literature biopolitics/governmentality the as sure, be To enmeshed in a complex bundle of relations ofenmeshed and complex a ofexclusion in inclusion. bundle relations world

Chatterjee’s (2004) book is book (2004) entitled Chatterjee’s criticism, L a and, for (2008) Stenson (2003), Packer Merry (2001), (1991), Donzelot e.g. See .

To recall, ParthaChatterjee To 38) recall, (2004, elaboratehis begins to of thenotion of “politics “ police “unsafe” need time t for When us. we are denied bailwe are always told - bearing citize o complete their investigations”, or bearing citizens seems to fit theseideas, that is, that “relatively

The politics of the governed: Reflections on popular politics in most of the mostthe on in of politics popular Reflections governed: the The of politics ns ns the in sense constitution”.imagined Based bythe onthis erritorial jurisdiction of the state, they have to be aw also suggest, relations to law and and law to relations alsosuggest, aw 182

where, despite universally granted universally despite where, even even documents.”to “type rjee (Ibid.) terms“political

that is it because the

a distance, are ever (2011).

184 181

CEU eTD Collection the pattern ofprovisionthe or the of service allocation housing. who those often Ashave Abahlali COHRE stated, at 2008). the where level local the partyaffiliations of Pithouse2007,municipalities and Southtoo in (cf.Butler African ofbiopolitics infrastructure services) are eventually, but certainly not always, met. survival through illegal means as orsquatting (such illegal connection to infrastructural electoral needs o bythe interplayshaped between the state’sassumedto care obligation poorfor the the and 184 183 diagram: context the ofin rights urbaneThekwini, land in exposesdarkerof a Chatterjee’s side basedfindings ona study of the “lived experience of formally granted socio manifestations of state criminality and the trivial assumptions that enable them. In fact, their different from Chatterjee’s, Butler and Pithouse (2007) approach this terrain through the illegality construct a different kind of “society” within thes (Chatterjee Accordingly,2004, 60). provided it is meaningfulto conceive of such, ofrelations poor” the “obligationto after the look in absence offormed governmental a precisely instances, nevertheless, asearlier chapters suggest, spaces of abandonment ar

See e.g. See For a reworking of Chatterjee’s concept as “civil” versus “uncivil society”, see Neocosmos (2011). Of course, such dynamics of dynamics ne such Of course, abstract principle sh count. institutions that elite That consensus is in that rights guaranteed formally within the norms asharedconsensussocial of amongst thesocial forces and criminal ma The evidence permits only one interpretation: the local state acts in a systematically Pithouse 2007, Pithouse 2).

the cas the are desperatelyare in need easilyare exposed, “party politics” can indeed determine e of the Joe Slovo settlement in Lamontville, KZN KZN settlement Lamontville, the Slovo e of Joe in f the political local elite, then, demands who of those oftensecure their nner towards poorest its residents on ould not, in concrete practice, apply to the poor ould practice,applythe to concrete in not,

gotiation are frequently at play on the fringes of fringes the onthe at play frequently are gotiation 183

here the assumption thatthisbehavio the e spaces. Sketching a picture quite 184 .

Despite theof frequency theseDespite - economic rights”

(Butler and e generally

185 r is is r

CEU eTD Collection unjustified arrestshack ofunjustified dissenting concerning intimidation recounts, informal regular report and As the the settlements, beyond 185 transgressing thethrough distribution of capacities; and behaviors in these particular politics of proximity,thatis, their demand litigious place a fori Abahlali’s constitutional challenge to the Slums Act – the shack such contest populations to law discusmake following the assumptions.As the of use marginal of examples how to now to turn urbanism,wish rationality I of neoliberal more governmental how the see with explicit interact to and, they particular, in politics meshes of marginalpopulations against through local the actions permissibility of illegal the assumptionsabout trace worthwhileto wouldbe However,althoughit adequate. rather seems asof consensus” condition a possibility “elite the about quoted point previously (Ibid.) remains (Butler ofsettlement onfire Pithouse2007,29). and the dwelli destroying that includestear - arewith violence”right removal.out legal they “casual a oppose Finally, to most oftencarried notif and consult theyto fail because by executed usually the police and/or muncipality’sthe Land Invasions Unit are illegal orderevictions Beyonda the evictions. court justifying process, prohibiting arbitrary lacking the secure enforcement to s turn,of supposed in is, privateowned or land, in manner a thatviolates regulationsthe ofPIE the (1998), Act which of illegal evictions, that is, the forced removal of who people occupyillegally piece a of state (2007, 29) notes, “ notes, 29) (2007,

not allowed to provide support for people arrested on criminal charges

Beyond Beyond In light of such a routine of evidently illegal municipal practices, Butler and Pithouse’s Pithouse’s Butler and municipalpractices, ofillegal ofroutine a evidently such light In Abahlali’s mentioned problematization of this charge, it is significant, that, as Butler and Pithouse andButler Pithouse that, as itcharge, is significant, this of problematization mentioned Abahlali’s - dwellers’ “legal” resistance – legal NGOs are not allowed not are NGOs legal ngs while people’s possessions are still inside and, frequently, setting the setting inside frequently, still and, whilengs people’sare possessions gassing unwilling people who are to move awayfrom homes, their

y inhabitants in advance, or to advise them that they have themthat advise to advance, or in y inhabitants - dwellers,

to provide services for criminal cases and that most donors are the direct resistance to forced removals and 185

state criminality most often tak illustrates, the thirdaspect oftheir ection ection 26 (3) of the Constitution ” .

city is lent power power lent is n the city es the formes the sion of of sion

cases, 186 -

CEU eTD Collection to to be these technologies’ subjects. From theperspective of the deployment of- the technologiesof neoliberal shack subjectification, segmentary the to due argued asabove, have I ontogenesis” although, (Odysseos 2010,771), of success l the the “signify or PIEAct in Constitution enshrined the rights their could, It perhaps, even be said that the shack stop managedto have way Abahlali the nothingabout complex is as there apt definition rather a fact, in is, (TJ any without backing” citizens. assumptionthe thatlinks form people’s to oftheir dwelling capacity to act as rights the city shack majorgiven quitedetailed and attention thein twoattempted later, weeks despite the judgment (cf.Abahlali, 11December 2006 successfully stopped the evicting them, reference with to the judgment and through massmobilization, Abahlali against eThekwinithe fro interdict Municipality,prevented City the thus and legally fourteenPithouse (2007, recall, after Heights 19) families fromsettlement Motala won an the materializes of course thesealso play role,but a subjectifying the force that simply knowing municipality, actual the successes the or provincial legal against City much bytheir although, realizedthrough t ofdisruption political defying the most direct form oppression – of their spacesthat of abandonment represent, however, we could aswell interpret such of acts

To begin, then, is “that then,To is begin, norm

in bringing in about - the shack - dwellers, not including those organized were Abahlali, in gainingthe or prevent evictions the in of province KwaZulu-

Ngongoma, “ armed,violent and illegal in al resistance”al against evictions, the “verbal resistance interview, 3 October 2010). normal “[T]hat 3October resistance”, interview, echnologies of citizenship. This is suggested not so not Thissuggested is ofechnologies citizenship. dwellers’ resistant mobilization. As Butler and - dwellers’ litigation and the verbal references to isiZulu the imposition of mobility forced

media and becameit clear that across - progress eviction

obscure terrain of citizenship Natal sinceDecember 2006. dwellers are not supposed dwellers supposed are not ” that the city ). “ ). their rights This was was This – - bearing bearing as acts iberal 187 m

CEU eTD Collection Heights branch explains:Heights ShamithaOr, as Naidoo andon (Butler Pithouse 2007,19) and willknowledge the to resist evictions 186 rightrelocation, refuse the community to could has mean the difference: all where he h League recalls, the municipality’s attempt theinhabitants to evict of theJoe Slovo settlement,

See theSee it out, and it then there is force nopolice that can you, assist ere is th nobody thatcan and stuffs your is, even youthen and, how they take it o.!” that’s know, then throw and youthey out.they to out, somedon’t get Andlandlords, justsay f. get “you to then say no civilization for us. If a landlord has to say: “Get out from here” it’s lik Motala Heights: people lived in the dark ages, it’s we like were covered, [was] there and stuffsthings that.It wastotally blank to like here because myin us community power that power we we had: thisrighthave voice to opinion, our we have this right used. And it’s like as if I’ve been illiterate all this time, I didn’t know […] about this back schoolgoing because to wasI my learning all about howand rights, can be it [Getting to know Abahlali] was actually a learning phase forme: itwas like I justdoit, just butwe should werights! alsolike that, have nowthat we know before”, knowpeople unlike something, youknow. Before,anything, when they said they didthen return. not […] not did come Butthey know becausethey now:“those we knew tha cameSo, when they second fortime the it us, was for late them threaten too to because Indeed, as Indeed, NzimandeMazwi 8Julychairpersonof 2009), Abahlali’s Youth (interview, movement’s imself lives, knowing what the conditions of conditions a arethe and the lawfuleviction imself that knowingwhat lives, press t no, they can’t evict notice, no,they aresisting t can’t such we so start in short and us

statement “Victory in Motala Heights” Motala in Heights” “Victory statement

(interview, 30 September 2010), a prominent member ofMotala the

. 186

” –

which have, they f here .

rom theMotala Heights event

e, youhavee,

to doto was was 188

CEU eTD Collection - shack the and Unit orderthat the LandInvasion the sensible within common entity of 26 (3) the African South Constitution or the servesPIE Act, in these casespreciselyas a themselves astheknowledgeable subjects of the Republic’s laws. Law, in the form ofsect dwellers under thethreat of eviction face the agent local of power, state and articulate technologies of successfuloperation merely the considered be to is if this even Yet, they which dwell. in ofambiguous relations exclusion and inclusion characterizing the marginal societal position shack to - attends and way it the politics understand Abahlali’s counteras what school”,refers to “goingto we to back could thecomparison movement of joining been int Nozukohaving “educated”Hulushe (e.g. abiding is law assumption that bythe imperative not whenwith dealing shack- and is which acquiring articulating knowledge, through relocation or being rendered homeless is linked to a process of claiming political space us”focus evict […] (Motala Heights 22 cannot 2010). group, they Thus, October resisting resistance is described in terms of oflearning, education: “We becam ‘look,citizen lawof a – Africa!’” South that abiding you are explanation automatically claim their political space in the society”. Again, resonating TJ’s (Ibid effects of the joining movement:“once a certain community Abahlali, they joins about 2010) the opinion 3October echoing (interview, TJNgongoma’s members, largely Similar experiences were recounted in almost every interview that conductedI with Abahlali

living in these tin shanty youdon’t have It’s thesetin saya in houses. like, living ! assist you… Like, we were being mocked because we were poor, In In a sense, member’s references to theprocess of becoming aware of rights their as –

of citizenship, there certainly anis emancipatory element in theway shack “when you join Abahlali as a community, Abahlali educate you and remind you you remind youand community,educate a Abahlali as Abahlali join “when you - conduct that, corresponding the to practical aspect of living wellers’ concerns, works to fill in the gaps left by the left ingaps bythe fill the to dwellers’ works concerns, erview, 11 October 2010), theerview, or 11October

set against the local politicians’ typically, the sourceof typically, the their e wise through Abahlali wise e

[because] dwellers. dwellers we’re we’re 189 ion ion .) .) -

CEU eTD Collection participation exercise to the called Kennedy Road settlement’s community offices”(Scott of Although publicization2009, 83). ofpublic constituency the the [or] use the sittings, petitions,publiceducation, house and committee proceedings hearings, participation among affectedcommunities, the the in form outreach, public “public of legislation”, provincial legislatures are required to provide space for the exercise of public as an element o “logic of the proper” is well illustrated by the antecedents of theSlums Act case. Famously, and citizenship. mobility inarticulate (Ibid., thus and allocatisounds” disrupts 49) the Constitution’s section 26 (3) and the PIE Act that “[tears] them from the nether world of It is the sensible availability of equality enshrined as the illegal occupiers’ rights in the stay to rights the “social obligation,thus an and inscription effect”(Ibid.).give through the inscribed ofreferent the projection of render equality, respectthey forthe their back to a point anterior to their platform, demand sharedsensible this Thus,on (Ibid.). as the“forced 2007, 86). Asserting themselves subjects, aslegal the shack therefore,share and,

traces of its actual effectsd., 87). (Ibi occasionally finds the wherewithal to imprint the surface of the social body with the of replayed, the equals movement community of textrestaged, ofevent the the The The The extent to- the which shack The extent there is - entries” of equality; they demand rightful treatment projecting by their equality f SouthAfrica’s attempt at realizing a regulatory framework for “participatory

of theeven as the which inscription anmobilizes “obliga

t brings t theout facticity of being- dwellers’ litigation works as a disruption of a certain

on of voice and speech, speech, and ofon of forced voice - dwellers put these texts to work tion to hear” (Rancière there - together

hall was was hall . In the . In 190

CEU eTD Collection that the Bill would prescribe, by impos by wouldprescribe, Bill the that attendees’ questions concerning housing and services orthe circumstances of theevictions meeting, noting that “ outread in its entirety publicat the hearing, neither microphone. some Soon, however, introduced:althoughwere Bill restrictions the was not thewhich was floor up opened public for the poseto questions commentsand at a Thepublic hearingstarted with thelegislators reading alou of (Chanceallocation 2007). houses misinformedpurpose were the out, of the about meeting:theytold itabout were wouldbe the police presence, accompanied by members of local ANC emergence of Slums Bill”. Members of theprovincial government arr publicstage a hearing about the Slums thatis, Elimination“The Bill, and Prevention of Re insufficient, apparently 187

exception isexception that a member saw at Road Kennedy hlali sign of Aba posted a single announce or advertise the exercise in advance, but instead notified S’bu Zikode (President of Abahlali). The one

A s a

report about the exercise registers: “ theregisters: exercise about report Bill about which they intended to make a comment. When subsequent speakers could speakers aboutmakecomment. they a which to Whenintended Bill subsequent at speak first microphone could a could unlessthey cite o one the ofsection the [N] before the “discussion” the before BWM) takingpositions around the settlement maketo it clea (and police riot Elimination Bill. It started with a police helicopter circling low over the settlement and Slum present fancy carsto [convoy]their their Road in came of Kennedy to Abahlali had a tre [Glen] [Glen] 187 too few speakers were addressing theBill mendous day on Friday ([4] May 2007). The provincial government Theprovincial 2007). May ([4]mendous onFriday day

on 4May 2007, the provincial of KwaZululegislature -

Na started yager yager

Members of Abahlali […] noted that the legislators not did the publicly legislators that noted Members […] Abahlali of (Abahlali, 11May 2007) ing a rule, a ing to according which [senior superintendent of the Sydenham inPolice] his was it distributed in advance or at the - branches, whom, as it later turned d a summary of the Bill, after . ” (Chance 2007) ”, legislators impeded r whor charge was in ived in substantial substantial in ived .

Natal did 191 -

CEU eTD Collection slum conditions. This Court can not strike the Court can This Ac strike not slum conditions. province and the Act must be given a chance to show off its potential to help deal with problem of slums and province t must be applauded for attempting to deal with the problem of slums and slum conditions. This is the first Abahlali’s victory beginning, 29 (cf.Abahlali, 2009).Abahlali’s however,the That, October wasneither movement received, HighCourt, Durban the 13 2007).(Abahlali, July and legislation invited everyone who wished to comment onit to subsequent a public meeting Task Tea by m”, organized andline reading common“line a discussion” ofproposed the responded to, questions reaction In to they what was unduethought their silencing, and order in to have silencedtheir 193 192 191 190 189 188 proceededand Constitutional fromto Court”, “shack their interlocutors completely by surprise and leaving them nonplussed striking tailors of 1833, enabled them, by playing the others’ game, to create a quite new polemical space, taking make good laws as bad ones. […] This ‘naivety’ of the students of 1986, pronounced it a law.bad They the addressed politicians as if they were people who could, after all, just as easily created totalwhich disarray in the ranks of expressed: the submission of the university to capitalist power. […] This time, though, something took place it. In it, it, and discussed read students bought The the universities. throughout massively were distributed legislation entailed byongoing colonization. discussing the “unrelated” utterances of aboriginal people involved in a justice inquiry about the dispossession managing the relationship between Aboriginal people and the Canadian society. In particul Applied Legal Studies ( Studies Legal Applied

for the Constitutional Court hearing. See a short a short Court See hearing. the Constitutional for equality”. syllogism of reinvented things, Bill. cite the other a section of Among to speakers first by requiring participation restricted misinformed and had been told that houses were to heard a summary of the Bill only moments before they were asked to respond; and it excluded those who were commenting on housing and services as they saw fit; it did not give due consideration to the fact that people had made speaking a ‘legal language’

“Shack to Constitutional Court” to Constitutional “Shack In comparison, see Again, Abahlali’s reactions from Chance’s (2007) report: “ inSee, this context, Sherene Razack’s (2011, 87) remarkable work “howon law operates as a site” for Both at the Durban High Court and the Constitutional Court, the movement was represented by the Center for As President Judge VukaShabalala our day, we did not read the proposed text of the legislation on the universities. We knew what they As it knownAs it is bynow, the long journey that started around beto seated not first cite a section of the Bill, they were asked to r o have adopted legislation such as the Slums Act. The Slums Actmakes things more orderly in this Rancière (2007, 57) on the 1986 student strike in Paris: “Copies of the proposed proposed the of “Copies in Paris: strike student 1986 the on 57) (2007, Rancière

(Chance 2007)(Chance CALS 193

ended with the constitutional 189 190 ) basedin Johannesburg,at the Wits University. 192

after the exercise, Abahlali formulated a “Slums Bill Elimination

prerequisitefor voicingquestions orconcerns; it prevented people from and thanks also to the high level pro bono legal help thatthe help bonolegal pro thelevel to high thanksand also

was

(in Abahlali, 27 January 2009) 2009) January 27 Abahlali, (in

the motto embroidered on the T . 188 the government and the majority: the students evaluated the law and

video t down beforeit haseven being (sic) properlyimplemented”. be allocatedbe at the exercise”

of the journey by Sleeping Giant (2009). Giant Sleeping by journey Abahlali members also noted tha also noted members Abahlali 191

invalidation of the Slums and Act, thus

through the rejectionthrough the of appealat their argues:“The provinceof KwaZulu – - shirts that the movement have had made

whose reasoning resembled that of the caught, in fact, in the trap of the efrain fromefrain further comment and

the time of this meeting ar the passages ar t the legislators legislators t the

they said, it said, they - Natal Natal 192

CEU eTD Collection starting points of the chapter in the final section. In terms of the beginnings, that is, Abahlali’s political subjectification, let us return to the municipality either fromacting illegally, or from introducing the Slums Actina new form: Abahlal Road settlement, memberswhich mostly attributed to the publicity that the casehas received, movement Kennedy attackthe in onthe 2009violent the devastation of September the besides cel movement’s announcing the thenor end of political their struggle. termsIn of the outcomes, their as pressstatement 194 of liberal subjectification found in the biopolitics/governmentality literature, I turned to the- top To question ofgoverned. political the the subjectification to rise give can, citizenship” 1999), (Cruikshank on occasion, as appropriated be m excessfreedo thus and of “technologies call or governmentalityscholars what rights, offramework liberal 5.6

strong”

S’bu Zikode (interview, 2 June 2009). 2 June (interview, Zikode S’bu

through a way a through forward. break to usethe or law, the buriedSlums We Act. will caution communities and think becausewe know continue municipalities private and especially landownerswill that in the shack settlements, as well as therural areas, and provide a way forward, from meaning the livingof peoplejudgment about directly who its the and are people We,of it. there at the celebration, can collectively put together the thoughts and ideas discussed andanalyz c judgment thatthe so is rally havingof this wecelebration are The reason As mentioned I at its outset, the main goal of this chapter was to demonstrate that the “So i (Ibid.) were aware that the invalidation of the SlumsAct will not impede the 194 ,

with that knowledge, which, think,we is power, we will stand ed, ed, meaning wayas a forwardcan the effectand given to be

ebratory event on the occasion of the judgment makes onclear,ebratory occasion event it the ofjudgment the

down accounts an be re be an

193 ad, ad,

CEU eTD Collection unjustified terms of their allotment: shack earlier, the momentthe shack of apply (Butler not, ” concrete Pithouse2007,2). and describedshould in practice, Thus,as co freedom governedrights be bythe the to ofsense equal “in imagined and citizenship bythe henceis taking shape in acting as rights- know to are thoughsupposed not even they andis know th are, they they relocation because they have come to know that they are not supposed to be relocated theway (Abahlalido” 2006a, Citing section7). 26 (3) of the Constitution, they resist forceful inquoted the chapter: previous “we know t ofinstrumentalization the law ais rearticulation of statement early an by the movement judgment, namely, occasions were onthe of they not speakingas supposedIndeed, their to. political subjectification can be located at points anteriorto the ConstitutionalCourt’s of Abahlali’s disruption the accountaimed previous show, the to However,as from city. the population’sremoval of facilitation the surplus the in legal attempt,succeed onthis not, did ofspa the disruption effective their lives? Certainly, we can regard the constitutional invalidation of the SlumsAct as the appropriatio of of the Slumsrealized thedisruption dispersal. government’s biopolitical political order Act, famous of instance whic words.of Thetask, written see thereafter, wasto or not whether Abahlali’s litigation, the most which I then reread through Rancière’s notion of literariness, that is, the sensible availability of interpretation Foucaul Fitzpatrick’s(2009) and Golder

nstitution” (Chatterjee “ 2004,38); where - dwellers’ self To rephrase thequestion: can we understand Abahlali’s activism legal asthe n of excessfreedom their expose to the contingency of the orderthat governs - declarations asintelligent, speaking beings who awareare ofthe h is their successful constitutional challenge to the provincial tial politics of Durban’s “face - dwellers’ disruptive emancipation is to b bearing citizens within spaces that not are supposed hat wehat are not supposed be to living the way we rights formally guaranteed in abstract principle t’s law as strategically reversible, lift”: the provincial government . Their excess. Their freedom e traced back to 194

CEU eTD Collection highest Court in the land (Abahlali,” 29October in Court 2009). highest the law: “ was, in large part, precisely to guarantee theshack becausethe during – night affordfor pay accommodation place not the movementto could orderthat, in to make the it to hearing scheduled morningfor the of Court” Constitutional “from to shack – significance In 2004). the presumedfact, operatejourney to oflong are (cf.Chatterjee the and rights sovereignty citizenship of popular realminstitutions where the people, the name of the law: the shack sensible governmental functions asmaterial the basis– As the close reading of this quote suggests, the text of the law, in this case the SlumsBill, 195 2010). recognizing articulatingthemselvesand as legal (TJsubjects Ngongoma 3 interview, October force faceof the when, in ofpeople”ispower appropriated the thisphysical before even “invasion,” at the moment directly” (Zodwa directly” interview,(Zodwa Nsibande, 2 November 2011). numbers in the court so that even when he’s talking, he’s talking to the people; he’s pointing to the people […] Normally, as Abahlali, if is athere case happening, we d weight. That’s even when the legal representative is talking about people that are visible to the presenting judge. impo ]t “[I is very Court: Constitutional

The

importance of is actuallyis the disciplined, democrat create and courts what the which numbersthey“chaos” but our fill call mobilize in to meet in court if this Bill becomes a law. If our challenge comes to court, we will ignorant and haven’t read this Bill – The Premier of KZN [KwaZulu to seeand to witness the will of front offorwardin the being brought people the

shack - dwellers fill the atcourtrooms and, the same by appropriating time,the

- order. At once physically and symbolically, they the Atoncethey space ofinvade physicallysymbolically, and order. dwellers’ d relocation, they “claim their political space in the society” by

physical presence presence physical rtant for the people to be behind the legal representative, so that it carries in Rancière’s (2007) sense – literally a bus literally long - Natal] hasNatal] us rubbished publicsayingin we are ic power of the people 13Julyic ofpeople 2007). power (Abahlali, the well, we will turn the tide and show him when we the showtide and himwhen turn we we will well, is emphasized in cases more minor than that at the

- on’t just send a lawyer to represent us but but we put us to represent send lawyer a just on’t dwellers’ physical presence at the placeof 195

- Again, “the disciplined, democratic ride Johannesburg to from Durban for Abahlali to disrupt the

14 May 2009,had to take 195

CEU eTD Collection the construction of shantytowns asspaces of learning, as well astheimplied self ed of 196 to or Abahlali, what with involvement and encounter - through ofshack knowledge comingto process formulations referthe moreto these Constitutionillegaloccupiers’ rights, and the about learning” sessions “living organize even the In thinking though movemenoccasionally, sense, as one does, speakingbeings. and t name of the public interest, that is, the shack collective referent of the law – violence, it asunjustifiedbetweenexposes theypublic what the see the contradiction emancipatory intellect the law, and their encounters with its text add further aspects to such processes of towards what I alluded to as the movement’s counter ofg.Yet, thiskind another learnin linked to in certainly but related and sense, pointing because you are a South African citizen!” Arguably, the direct resistance against eviction is that you being ofidea back, “if youfight justifiedcitizenship, the are reminded their of everyone contributes” (research notes, October 2010). October notes, (research contributes” everyone learning should have been to have many people frommany backgrounds; there is “no te which the then chairperson S’bu Zikode expressed his disappointment about the low turnout, as the point of

Theone I haveattended on 10 October ucation, which, in turn, links the discussion back to the University of Abahlali, that is, is, turn,of links the in that which, discussionto University Abahlali, ucation, back As we have seen above, Abahlali interpret these moments asan experience orprocess that Forthat end. example rather we [disappear] The Bill reinforces our experiences that the state does not care about would and us of the public? Do count our not interests of public? the when evictions in “are the public interest”, ual self . In fact, that it would like to legalize its use of violence to ensure to violence of itsuse to legalize wouldlike it that fact, . In -

, the proposed Bill would Municipalitiesallow to peopl evict construction. For one, as in the case of arrests on the charge of chargeof onthe of the For arrests construction. in case as one, the public– the 2010 was called a “Popular Education Workshop”, at the outset of -

and and who areevicted supposedbe thethose to in dwellers. ( Abahlali

and we would like to ask: are ask: part and to we not we wouldlike

TJ Ngongoma (Ibid.) expresses as being expressesbeing as (Ibid.) TJ Ngongoma

- conduct, Abahlali’s engagement with , 21 June 2007), 21June ? acher, no student student no acher,

- affirmation dwellers’ –

196 196 e

CEU eTD Collection So, we’ve got enough resources in the country, so we are not worried.” this of right’. realization the progressive to achieve its available resources, within measures, and other legislative think to listen and that is to madenot againrole our it clear Once was consideration. taken into not were communities just because the law requires them to vet the Bill in the communities, but the concerns and analysis of were supposed to be coming for a discussion. […] The legislature that came to Kennedy R came with heavily armed and intimidating police […]. It was like they were going to a war when in fact they the egalitarian syllogism asthat of theParisian students, reinventionof naïve in 49), similarly (Ibid., a adversary” samegame play the “can the as they demon 2007,strating So 86). hear”(Rancière “obligationto ofthat entity the law, shared the – interview,2009) 27May understand” (ZodwaNsibande ef legislature’s public participation exercise, Abahlali’s engagement with the Slums renders Bill space ofprovincial the discursive constrained the to contrast At thein sametime, part. politica into the inclusion of self triggering thatinstead one good”, of“details betweenthe and problematization thetheir“social lives” link personal As such, collectivethis engagement im 198 197 althougheveryoneI by spatiotemporality of the unFreedom. Correspondingly, structured - becausemostshack say, the I 2009,occasion, of OnPerry n.p.). in just be “[f]reedomto (Ntswayi word” out a defy 2007), that they July on occasion, turned 13 (Abahlali, NewPolicy’” ‘Breaking Ground the and Freedom the documents Charter like textual int through shack government’s mocked exercise. participation” Constitution

fective their declarations of equal intelligence –

“ Cf. Mnikelo Ndabankulu (in Sleeping Giant 2009, 1:20 When theWhen legislature came Kennedy Roadto ” ( - Abahlali, 29 October 2009) dwellers’ articulationof the freedom otherwise. be to By “[putting…] into effect”, Such are, then, the ways rights that and the law provide asensiblesurface for the :

“‘Everyone has right tothe toaccess have adequate housing […] The state literally erpretation and litigation, “what is true and not contentious from existing existing from contentious not trueand erpretation litigation,is and “what , thusand expose the patronizing of“logic the driving proper” the l order, and thus marks the subjectification of the part no subjectification ofpart thathas order,andthe marks the l thus .

198

- , it, thewas first time had we seen them shacks. the in They alignment, questions the ambiguous relations of their plies theshackplies - 1:36’’) commenting on Section 26 of the “we are able to read, we are able to

by mobilizing, through claims for mobilizing, claims for through by - 197 dwellers’ assessment and

Abahlali takes “public takes Abahlali dwellers’ days remain must reasonable take oad were doing this 197

CEU eTD Collection thing that thing arewe clearvery is on that democratically, wh But irrespective of the outcome that of legal process we will marching be tomorrow. The marchers will decide, We have asked our lawyers to explore the option of launching an urgent appeal first thing tomorrow morning. talked to hailed the Constitutional Courts’ Constitutional the Courts’ judgment, hailed to talked 201 200 199 They certainly are questions that political thought critical of biopolitics must take on. have are terms,questions to hope addressed t that I Rancière’s other, in onthe fairly tangible relations of shack the what and hand, one politicsagainst onthe biopolitics, onment impliesfor thinking aband of fromspaces rights Whatsuch within enactmentof not” have (Rancièrethe 67). 2010a, they that rights the have thattheyand rights have the whonot of have those rights the of are Man (2004)terms the “civil society” Chatterjee instance, between supposedfor what, boundary the transgress Abahlali vehicle, restructure the sensible order of biopolitical dispersal. With the inscription of equality as their liberal rights constructs governor between theand governe framework of the relationship freedomof that the for enough taking seems just be to But that and rights are neither uniform,necessarily nor optimistic. one of, you know, the best countries [...]. But in [practice], they don’t follow it, they only talk about it. yeah it’s rights, a Bill think that of I the good Rights, know. but that’s not what’s happening. I’m totallyexcluded. Maybe because I’m living in an informal settlement, you having an equal right to the resources and I a have right to benefit in everything that happens in South Africa 2010) illegally, eve communitiesevicted, are evicted. Unorganized not are communities way to win new rights, is through the power of the organized poor. For example everyone can see that organized have been won in prior struggles but we are very

according to law news that Abahlali have ever heard [laughs] from South Africa. The judges were so… I think they acted Constitutional Rights Constitutional

Cf. e.g. Zama Ndlovu (interview, 12 October 2010): “ But, cf. Zama Ndlovu (Ibid.) again: “To be a rightful citizen of South Africa […] I thought it meant[…] thought I’m I citizen South that “To a of Africa be Zamarightful cf. (Ibid.) again: Ndlovu But, Unfortunately the judge allowed the City to use a technical argument to take away a away the basi to City a argument take to allowed technical judge use the Unfortunately .

and they are the only people who acted according to the Constitution, the Bill of the en we are all together, how to respond to this attack on our basic political rights. But one But one to political rights. basic thisour toattack en on how are respond we all together, ” .

amandla and “political society”. the prove that“theThus, they Rights - dwellers’ exclusion implies for thinking politics in

[power] remains with us. We go to court to confirm the rights that

clear that onlythe real defense for these and rights, the only “ I think that the Constitutional Court was the very best when you read it, you feel like, yeah, South isAfrica 199

their views of power their onthe litigation 200 d and (Odysseos 2010), it touse

They are, mostly, strategic. mostly, They are, ” (Abahlali, 21 March 21 March (Abahlali, ” day ry c democratic right. his dissertation.

198 – 201

CEU eTD Collection order order the problem of thepolitically surplus? While they certainly reinforce a segmentary spatial (potentially) correspondingly, and, ever morevigilantthe of and policing those who incarceration infrastructural networks, are ever stricter frameworks for regulating the usage of urban spaces themselves into the circulat ofmeans the presence movement those eliminating who and the of cannot buy containing the contain movement who of a people With the equalizing measures of urban development discarded, how the “world can city class” freedomspolitical the establishment when of an educative trusteeship is no longerpertinent? cities deploy to reconcile the obstructive uselessness of neoliberalism toglobalized and create the ideal milieu ofmeans what competition, do global question that therefore emerges is this: in their effort to observe the circulatory imperative of problem their this unemployed, to samepolitical the refers time at superfluousne out economicpermanently beyondand absolute pointed redundancyofpoor the that the empl termsthe in of question currenthow order the of urbanism neoliberal the contains population.surplus Framing the interfere with the prin meant secure to that the grievances, aspirations or of interests the marginalized do not the trusteeship of development, which, in earlier versions of liberal political rationalities, was realizes processes of unprecedentedestablishing social and marginalization without economic Conclusion

oys to conceptualize the conceptualize relationship to betweenoys liberalism, development and biopolitics – – Based on Based the observation that urban restructuringunder globalized neoliberalism Certainly, as critical geographers’ notion of the “revanchist city” suggests, the primary especially in such ofcases asthat African South cities where the neolibe violate these regulations. But do these measures suffice, in themselves, to solve

ciple ofciple economic government,began I the present inquiry by asking excess freedom ion of goods, and the increasingly of the customizedion and goods, privatized and re, albeit re, free mobile as be the poor, to as rest? of the surplus people of surplus the

the surplus population and their their and population surplus the

– a notiona thatDuffield (2007) ral tendency

ss. The 199

CEU eTD Collection resistance. Inresistance. the resultant rendering, the element of freedom uponwhich power arerelations otherthe hand, the works distance to spatiotemporality corresponding notion of the defines.and the Onpublic it city’s concerning class” andthe questions whose presence “world along speech abandonment entailed, onthepolitical ha one be what thatdefines and to of audible isconsidered what is visible, disruption order sensible a self Abahlali’spolitical and intellectual practice centeringo point for the process of their interpretation. More specifically, the parallels between set the conceptual vantage research, the conversation with in and, biopolitical abandonment substantially fieldworkchoice to and,conduct to consequently, engage with movement more the take to intended thethat perspective Foucauldian suited, first, research at involvedin being approachto their incity, and the baseMjondolo’s forplace a movement struggle Abahlali biopower the to with that life.Southdisallows encounter My the shantytown African initial concern of the research project, namely, the effort to think possible forms of resis defined waslargely bya questions and politicalmethodological (thus) choice regarding the butliberated people? poor of for re conditions possibility spatialmore than containmentthe What mobility? disciplinary theand of excess are in theagain, African South struggle against racial o planning falls provision into splinter the patternsurban to networksof ofdirectly the apartheid service

- assertion as thinking speakingbeings, and Rancière’s and notion of politicsas the As menti I – can they fully capture the political force that the freedommovement of carried,

have, ofhave, moldedcourse, my ofmea the understanding – i.e., an ascending analysis of power relations – oned atoned the of outset the thesis, the directionmy of to response these se parallels fostered a re

- inscribing into the political order the forcedmobility of nd, a re nd, a - reading of neoliberal urban technologies of urban technologies ofreading neoliberal - articulation ofFoucauldian the notion of ppression? Or does excess freedom require n the shack but but then further. The pushed - dwellers’ demonstrative ns and effects of

I originally tance 200

CEU eTD Collection subjectification, i positions appearance for political unequally.spatiotemporal capacities and conceptualiz theoretical scheme thisdissertation, in built disruptionthe of the biopolitical orderis accounting for less explicit practices that divert or subvert rationalities of government, in the thereby and the ofexpose inequaorder and community think, say thatdefinespart the should do,claimbe one what to oforder equals politics occurswhen those who reverse the ofrelations their conduct, thus and disrupt the distinction. Whereas the strategic reversal of power relations power as ubiquitous itself, is as incorporatesmost commonly is ofwhat understood as “politics”,meant was to facilitate this sensible order – of politics, which refers to the litigious formation of a political subject that disrupts given the conception work,Rancière’s In this adopting occurrence of the and politics. relations power sovereign community to politicaldiscourses associated with institutions and the relationship tying the political Foucauldian literature that ontologically privileges power relations over practices and subjectification. toward political termsresistance in of move a from worktriggered thinking Rancière’s and both to Abahlali’s politics actofequality and through central the of the speak notion speech Foucault’s freedom understood as the capacity to diverge from theway expose the contingency of theorder to which s/he subjected.is Hence, re to speakingbeing of capacity every equal the synonymous according is with Foucault, rests to conditional, uponwhichand strategictheir reversibility and, thus, the possibility of resis

Outlining aOutlining potential of second import moving from resistance political to ofmajority opposed the as manifold. to mov To begin, of The significance this is e ed as the exposure, by a collective political subject, of practices that distribute n relation ofdisruption, conceptualizing as to the abandonment order its and the police – ty, it requiresty, weof conceptuallydistinguishbetween it that reversal the

which, turn,visible sayable, in and is what and defines lity as unjustified. While affirming the importance of

we are madewe are to think, - interpreting tance 201

CEU eTD Collection 2004). Rationalizing the of world the from politics Rationalizing distantiation ofpoor the 2004). both the institutions of liberal constitutionalism – thatpolitics con and cluding ofconception emancipation, Instead, the danger lies in stopping theseshort at tactics and strategies for thelack of a hidden discourses and unconscious ofacts theabject, work of thespecialist necessary.) is hierarchy between ways of knowing that this research pro manage and contest lot byday to moldday their (although might one consider to wish the of account tactics and bystrategies people which in marginal social doubtless positions in not taking is Theofrse, change. cou political risk, formajor effecting or aspirations social dispersal when assumes it their that precarious limits status capacities poor people’s or and acts hidden discourses mayitself reproduce thepolitico “everyday forms ofresistance” that traces thepractices of dissentin abject groups’ disguised people’s resistance. frequentlydirect accounts that of poor onpresumptions sheds new This,light 2007). third, appearance speech,and as mobilizationthe of obligation an see to and hear to (Rancière shape as take to has of dispersal ofbiopolitics the disruption the depoliticizing. Therefore, eff homogenizing, distancingdelaying and theand urban the of governmentalitycan as biopolitics approached dispersal, be neoliberal 1999;spatiotemporal is (Rancière 2004c).thatthe of Thusit by abandonment order entailed distancing from thecenter those who are as free asthe rest but theby thatis, people, bydispersing and ruled between ruler difference contingency the of attempts of political philosophy at constructing the ideal order of the city; efforts to efface the the arewith ancient continuous that productof efforts the governmental as perspective 2 Chapters

As I have shown in the second part of this thesis, the of thisthesis, conceptual part approach of second the shown in have As I and and 3 explored, the sensible distribution of the global city from distribution ofglobal emerges sensible this the the explored,

is both irrelevant and illusionary (cf. Chatterjee ects accompanyingects abandonment revealed as – gram establishes: decodegramto establishes: the understood as the norms and norms the as and understood

have nohave qualification rule to - philosophical rationale ofphilosophical rationale understood in 202

CEU eTD Collection and the movement’s the and against litigation the legal facilitation ofshack marginalized people economically intosub and a hear, scholars of “the weapons of the weak” risk the enclosure of politically obligation mobilizean to orderand sharedvisible the capacityappearin to equal everyone’s its traditio force. Hence, in the moment oftheshack fact, by assuming the name of thecollect whereorder political the principles in supposedbe equalityto ofand are freedomIn force. - shack the disposable, althoughrendered demonstrate that technologies ofthe aim abandonment, that and of politic such politicsworkspeople’s the against distancingdelaying and effects with thatcoincide offeredthat I the in seconddissertation wasmeant partof this show to poor fact, that, in that to that continues thecarry task depoliticizing. Indeed, withoutconception a of politicsthatis referentcollective of equality, how and reconfi such the and keep reconfiguring rationalities mobilizing how ourselvesthese see unable to render canfreedom equality give and todisruptionrise biopolitical the rationalities may of rule, we biopolitics, freedom theorder. political and possibilityDismissing the that principles of emancipatory struggle, amongmany calls others, fornew a ontake the relationship between and political deeper intodeeper the order Abahlali’s (Agamben 1998,177–178), articulates the biopolitical fracture”,division “fundamental rights which resistance falls in line with the claim that the People (political existence)/people (bare life) biopolitics/governmentality literature. Whereas thinking the hidden tactics of everyday “the people” coincide.

The account of Abahlali baseMjondolo’s living politics, living practiceofThe accountofthe livingbaseMjondolo’s Abahlali learning, To be sure, at thispoint theTo sure, be at argumentation the leaves of comfort zone the nal institutional sense and political their capacities understood, with Rancière, as

- ive referent of these principles, they put them in dwellers’ assertion of equality, “the People” and - political terrain. gurations reinforce a spatiotemporal order dwellers still sharethe sensible s of proximity is precisely to

dwellers’ -

struggles i equal but socially “ruralization” nscribe 203

CEU eTD Collection thesis could contribute is, to begin, could is,begin, to the thesis contribute abandonment. work. is,one present help however, politics It thatcould thein faceof thinking biopolitical formuch coulmorestruggles is endeavorthatI service an a delivery, than prominent intellectuals on the South Left African questioning the movement’s claim it that more much than that and, finally, inquiring into the discursive offensive onAbahlali by discourse withdeliveryto Abahlali’s and regards service appear in demanding people are gaugeddisplaced deemed and pre discourse the and specific conceptionsmarginalized protests ofpoliticalonwhich the based as irrational and (yet) instrumental. Tracing within the struggles around the service delivery they certainly today, struggles urban be completely disjointed from ideasoffreedo alternatively, as absolutely indistinguishable from thenecessities ofmaterial existencemight African topos of “service delivery” exemplifies, while such ideasof the political as pure or, of social the that lends modernits biopolitics shape (cf. 2010a).Rancière As the South of a particular idea of the political; one that is implicitly counterposed to the presumed reign mobil literature does, the of totality biopolitics from fact the that much of popular contemporary radically tightens the scope of its care. However, inferring, as the majority of the respective amenities doubtless signals th furthering these of risks rationalities. relations, power networks very through diffused shapeconduct our rationalities howmuch biopolitical forosing exp so done distinct from the constant agonism of power relations (Foucault 1982), the literature that has

ization centers on issues of life necessities, arguably suggests the conceptual operation Among the questions with whichAmong with questions the accountof the Abahlali’s presented politics thisin That millions of people around the globe engage in struggles for accessing urban engagestruggles millionsthefor in accessing That globe around of people e operation of biopower that, under globalized neoliberalism, neoliberalism, globalized operatione ofthat,under biopower seemactivated when to be such struggles dismissed are

question of temporality. As I have shown, a crucial have As I question shown,crucial a of temporality. - political, followingpolitical, uponthe contradictions that m and equality motivating those who engage in in who engage those motivating equalityand m

d not take upd not the in aiming for 204

CEU eTD Collection underdeveloped. reinforces endlesslyand suspends the intellectual hierarchy of the developed and not does reproducedistance of it the not expl is transmitted.Consequently, shared, actualized absolutely and is itsknower. knowledge a to connected it that,while As such, bas 1984), theCerteau form whosemetaphor is ofthe knowledge University of Abahlali practical intelligence deployed thethroughout tactical ofresistance the powerless (e.g. de m notion of educative the to opposed truste development.eship As of liberal reflections of theliving learners have shown, firmly placeevenat in the absence of the rationalitygovernmental itsapotheosis and of economic expertise thatare, as the quoted of forfurth thinking thepath disruption er patronizingpedagogy the of neoliberal with Abahlali’s self resort theto of power the moment. Relatedly, the conception of that knowledge I associated detthethinking disruption of order that the at the rightmoment crack to through the spatial strategies of the powerful stops short of resistance of theweak in terms of formulated tactics by a practical intelligence to be deployed approac everydayresistance previous the the criticismof of lines the the tactics of powerless the too (e.g. Certeau de cf.1984; Dillon 2005b on building notion ofthe kairos (e.g.against wouldcaution overcomingmessianic I 1998), Agambenof the biopolitics of temporalityidea than the resonant this to more wouldseem be it to Although concerns. their politics“the ofpr the - proximateshack temporally the as to politics ofconstruction living of aspect torationality ofAbahlali’s challenge the is biopolitical abandonment their

eMjondolo is,eMjondolo I suggest,an empty knowledge more or, exactly, knowledgea that is - declaration as the professors of their own suffering promises a fruitful fruitful a promises owndeclaration thesuffering as professorsof their esent tense” that articulates apractice which reflects theimmediacy of

(the opportunemoment) or right the as appropriate time for ermines who has power over space and who is to and to space who is ermines over whopower has dwellers’ suffering; as h. Conceptualizingthe ). would I do along so ē tis , that is, the is, , that anation that that anation 205

CEU eTD Collection reveals beautifullydocumentary is shot, socially relevantstill and manages offer to humo asitr added): emphasis “ 2011; Facebook30July post, Mandela, jury (Dear the atAccording to the InternationalFilmDocumentary” Durban prize Festival. Constitutional Court case against the SlumsAct, was awarded the “Best South African Abahlali’sdocumentary about struggle for a place in withthe particularcity, focus onthe ject sub disrupting political the the order of biopolitical abandonment could be (re demonstrate, the presupposition and assertion of equality outlines aperspective from which direct the practice of equality either. Nevertheless, as this dissertation intended to learning sessions could serve as apotential point of departure, in itself, it does not suffice to politics. Although the critical approach that Abahlali members articulated during the living in doesdiscussion thisthesis, not it for thinkingallow the sustained practice of emancipatory most of theideas above are informed, problems without not is presupposition. everyone’s not certainly is Equality

In JulyIn 2011 DearMandela Doubtless, Rancière’s adaptation of ofby Jacotot’spresupposition equality, which

a growing grassroots politicala growing literacy grassroots

(Sleeping 2011), Giant Dara Kell Christopher and Nizza’s

* in South Africa’s informal settlements ”. A movie about courage,t movie about A . Most importantly for the. Most - )thought. 206 his his

CEU eTD Collection . 21 March 2010.————. 21March Sutcliffe’s dirty nottricks keep will from us marching tomorrow. fromgunpoint disconnections in at electricity the————. 15February2008.Mass ————. 13September 2007. “We were taken from Egypt”. to Canaan Online: 2007.————. 22May G meetingsSlum the discuss forBill. Abahlali to 2007.Notes Elimination ————. 2May illegal threatenedi 2006. More evictions December 11 ————. ————. 13August person in2006. Another Durban another dies fire. shack Online: Ward YacoobBaig. 25Press march oncouncillor 2005.Thousands ————. 14September ————. 2008.UnFreedom ————. 2006b.Constitution of Abahlalithe baseMjondolo movement baseMjondolo.Abahlali Izwi 2006a. Labampofu – . 29 October 2009. Celebrating our victory against the against Sl victory our ————. 29October 2009.Celebrating ————. 27 January2009. Amandla stillis awethu: Statementon the Slums judgment. Act in cities ofthe participatory upgrades support consensus in a Building 2008. ————. 9June n the 2007. build coalitio against Slumsa Bill.————. 13July to Online: Meeting from SlumsBill 2007.Commentonthe ————. 21June Online: nobill! nohouse, 2007.No————. 11May land,

Online: Online: settlement. Kennedy Road relationship with movement.the Online: Online: Settlement tomorrow. Online: Release. Online: baseMjondolo. Abahlali Durban. November 2006in Movement baseMjondolo Abahlali Accessed: 9 2011. March http://abahlali.org/node/881 http://abahlali.org/node/5959 Online: http://abahlali.org/node/3627 Online: forced dumping against grounds. and rural removals to 2011. http://ab http://abahlali.org/node/1703 Online: activists and the International Labor Research and Information Group (ILRIG). Accessed: 9 2011. March ht http://abahlali.org/node/4764 http://abahlali.org/node/1632 http://abahlali.org/node/1236 ahlali.org/node/2422 tp://abahlali.org/node/6403 http://abahlali.org/node/693 uide for NGOs, academics, activists and churches seeking a

Day: News from Abahlali baseMjondolo movement Abahlali NewsDay: from

List of Referen . Accessed: 9March 2011. Accessed: 9March 2011. . Accessed: . Accessed: 10March 201 9March 2011. . Accessed: 9March 2011. . Accessed: http://abahlali.org/node/448 1, no.1. http://abahlali.org/node/3342 . Accessed: 9 March2011. . Accessed: 9 March2011. . Accessed: 9 March2011. . Accessed: 9 March2011. . Acce Voice theof Poor: Newspaper of the ces http://www.abahlali.org/node/1391 ssed: 9Marchssed: 2011.

http://abahlali.org/node/1293 Cape Town by Community byCommunity Cape Town . Accessed: 9 2011. March n the Motala Heights

. Accessed: 9 March ums Act. Online: ums Online: Act. . Adopted on26 . Durban: . Durban: 207

. .

CEU eTD Collection Barchiesi, Franco. 2002.Barchiesi, nation: Exploding the collapse of between Africa South the wage ————. Richard. Ballard 2005.Bunkers Marcello.Balbo, 1993. planning Urban and the fragmented cityof developing countries. Baiocchi, Gianpaolo Brian and T. Connor.2008.Theethnos Bailey, Richard. 2009. Up against the wall: Bare life and resistance in Australian immigration of of An ————. 2011b.Patients the ethnographic waiting.account state: people’s poor Researching————. 2011a. margins:What the Unitedurban the can learn States from Politics 2006.Introductory to Javier. Auyero, note under the Microscope: Special Issue on . London: Penguin————. 1990.OnBooks. revolution ————. 1976.The Origins of Totalitarianism Hannah.Arendt, 1958. Thehuman. condition Chicago and London: TheUniversity of of the and Urbanhorizon politics. governmentality 2001.Deepdemocracy: Appadurai, Arjun. ————. 2005. sovereign life 1998. powerandbare Giorgio. HomoAgamben, sacer: Mayor to letter open Second 21September 2011. Western Cape. baseMjondolo Abahlali baseMjondolo Abahlali laying Abahlali sheet: rumorsOnline: rest. false 2011.Fact to ————. 25November Reconstruction Congress (ANC). 1994.Reconstruction andDevelopment Programme National African

Online: biopolitical and insurgency. crisis, paradigm, sovereignty Forthcoming ProgressGeography andHuman in Series, no.24. Institute. CapeTown: Isandla privatization of apartheid in democratic South Africa. Review WorldPlanning Third SociologicalCompass mode a as ethnography inquiry. of Lawdetention. andCritique Latin American Research Review Latin America andvice Community & versa? City EthnographyPolitical I Chicago Press. 13, no. andUrbanization 24–43. Environment 2: ofUniversity Heller Roazen. California: Stanford University Press. Patricia de Lille. Online: Land Programme. 2011. http://abahlali.org/node/7599 December 1, 2011. December 1, Online: 2011. Geographies of2011. Geographies development: Without theUnpublished poor. m http://multitudes.samizdat.net/Exploding http://www.polity.org.za/polity/govdocs/rdp/rdp.html State of exception State of Chicago Press.

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10 (October). 10 (October). : 9 : March . Accessed: : Political Political : anuscript.

208 .

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Work, consumerism, andthe new poor

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