CHAPTER V ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND TO THE SCULPTURE Surveys of the archaeology of Cornwall have appeared the period, the absence of a monetary economy gives very recently in Cornish Archaeology (volume 50, 2011, Cornwall the appearance of a less affluent society updating a survey in volume 25), and the present than some parts of Britain. This may be deceptive, summary is partly based on these. The sections of however, for the indications are that Cornwall’s Cornish Archaeology volumes 25 and 50 which have economy was nonetheless buoyant and the fact that been drawn on most extensively in constructing this the area did not rely on coinage enabled it to remain narrative are Preston-Jones and Rose 986; Herring stable in the face of the changes brought about by the 2011a; Herring 2011b; Nowakowski 2011; Preston- Roman occupation and withdrawal (Quinnell 2004, Jones 2011a; Thorpe and Wood 2011; Tyacke, A. xii; Nowakowski 2011, 25–2, 256–8). The glimpses 2011. we have from archaeological investigation suggest that It is still the case that the early medieval period in Cornish society adopted and adapted certain elements Cornwall remains a ‘Dark Age’. Although the two of Roman culture, but was not transformed by it in centuries immediately following the Roman with- the way that parts of England were. drawal are increasingly well documented archaeolog- ically, the following four are very poorly understood. In settlement this, the archaeological evidence is in marked contrast with the documentary evidence described above, The principal (or most visible) settlement types which starts in the eighth century. This summary of Roman-period Cornwall appear to have been begins by describing the landscape of Cornwall around enclosed farming hamlets known as ‘rounds’ with, in two millennia ago, as a framework for understanding West Penwith, the courtyard houses. Although un- the context of the monuments in this volume, for it enclosed settlements are likely to have existed in the is becoming increasingly clear that the end of Roman same areas as rounds, they do not show so clearly in occupation in Britain does not appear as a break in the the archaeological record. The rounds and courtyard archaeological record in Cornwall. The way of life in houses for the most part occupy the same general areas Roman-period Cornwall appears to have continued as medieval settlement: the better drained, more fertile for at least two centuries beyond the traditional and sheltered slopes and valley sides, some edging end of Roman Britain, side by side with some new on to higher plateaux. Like their medieval counter- developments, the most conspicuous of which are parts these were, for the most part, farming hamlets the introduction of Christianity with its associated dispersed through the anciently enclosed land, their monuments and sites and an intensification of trading inhabitants cultivating enclosed fields nearby and contact with the Mediterranean, focussed on certain grazing stock on the unenclosed rough ground be- key sites. yond. Encouraged by the economic expansion of the Roman period, the population of Roman Britain as a whole is considered to have expanded rapidly ROMANO-BRITISH CORNWALL and the number of rounds in Cornwall may have increased, being matched by a similar increase in The evidence suggests a confident and self-sufficient courtyard house settlements in the far west (Quinnell society in Roman-period Cornwall, dependent on 987, 24–6). The sheer numbers of rounds that are arable and stock farming, but increasingly in contact now known are thought to ‘provide the impression with the rest of Britain and the continent through of an increasingly utilised landscape with expanding trade and exchange, particularly of metals. Throughout populations’ (Nowakowski 2011, 25) and Herring 37 38 CHAPTER V suggests that in the Roman period much the same settlements in post-Roman centuries. In summary, area of Cornwall was under productive agriculture the increasing evidence for a diversity of enclosures as it was in the eighteenth century (Herring 2011a, and a range of specialist sites points to considerable 67). There is an indication of socio-economic links social and economic complexity at the time. between enclosed settlement and significant metal resources in relation to some sites, while coastal and ritual and burial estuarine sites emerge as key contact places during this period (Nowakowski 2011, 248). Examples are St Based on the evidence available to date, burial rite Georges or Looe Island, where Dressel 2-4 amphorae in pre-Roman Cornwall appears to have involved have been recovered from the sea bed and Roman crouched inhumation, with or without cists. The pottery and coins from a ditched enclosure underlying cist cemetery at Harlyn Bay was extensive (Whimster a later medieval chapel on the summit of the island 977, 73–7), and at Trethellan, near Newquay, burials ((——) 2009), and St Michael’s Mount where there were placed in unlined grave pits (Nowakowski 99, is limited but increasingly persuasive evidence for its 20–32). There is little evidence for burial in Roman- continuing importance throughout prehistoric and period Cornwall, but that which exists is significant through to medieval times (Herring et al. 2000, 22–3, in showing Roman influence on burial practice, with 33, 95–8, 03, 2–4; Sturgess 200, 20–3). an enclosed individual cremation at Tregony (Taylor, Although a variety of shape and size is known in S. forthcoming) and east–west oriented, extended the enclosed farming settlements or rounds (Johnson inhumation at Scarcewater, with one of the two or and Rose 982, figs. 2 and 3), these are generally uni- possibly three burials in a cist (Jones and Taylor, S. vallate, with an oval or occasionally rectilinear form. 200, 55–9, 89–92). At both sites, the burials appear The type site is Trethurgy, fully excavated in the 970s to have been located close to, but beyond, settlements. (Quinnell 2004). Behind heavy wooden gates, oval Significantly for later developments, a new class of stone-walled buildings included dwellings, a byre, enclosed Iron Age ceremonial site has recently been a barn, storehouses, workshops and a possible small identified at Hay Close, Newlyn East and Camelford shrine. Of particular importance, Quinnell argues, is School (Jones forthcoming; Taylor, S. 200, 23–4; that Trethurgy Round shows a strong continuance of Nowakowski 2011, 25). At Hay Close, the early Iron Iron Age cultural traditions and a selective approach Age site was re-used in the early medieval period for to Roman influence and trends. She argues that the apparently pagan ritual activities (Jones forthcoming). site’s occupants used Roman trends to ‘reinforce their own social framework which appears to have roman activity and influence remained basically solid throughout the Roman centuries’ (Quinnell 2004, 236). Although gradually Evidence is also emerging for a greater Roman military declining, settlement at Trethurgy Round continued presence in Cornwall than was hitherto suspected, into the late sixth or possibly early seventh century with the discovery of forts at Restormel and Calstock, (Quinnell 2004, 240–3). Other rounds with evidence both potentially linked to the exploitation of mineral of occupation into the post-Roman period include resources (Nowakowski 2011, 256). Roman roads, Grambla (Saunders, C. 972, 52) and Goldherring which may have had an influence on the distribution (Guthrie 969, 25). Some rounds were specialist sites, of early medieval sculpture in some areas (Cramp 2006, focusing on industrial or other activity (Quinnell 2004, 26), remain elusive in Cornwall. Some key routes, not 234; Nowakowski 2011, 254). Examples include Little necessarily metalled, may be indicated by the presence Quoit Farm, specialising in iron working (Lawson- of honorific pillars or milestones (Haverfield 924, Jones and Kirkham 2009–0, 27–8, 222) and 27–32; Collingwood, R. and Wright 965, 694–7, Nancemere, just outside Truro, which appears to have nos. 2230–2234; Todd 987, 28–9) and perhaps by housed workshops associated with iron working, textile places where certain of the inscribed stones, like the and leather working, food processing and possibly Long Cross at St Endellion, were positioned a couple brewing: there was no sign of domestic occupation of centuries later (Okasha 993, 232–5; Thomas, A. C. (Nowakowski 2011, 253–4). In the future, a further 994, 264). Further Romanising influence is likely to range of specialist sites might be expected to emerge, have arisen through regular contact with representatives including perhaps further sites like Hay Close (below) of the Roman regional administration based at Exeter. with a religious specialism, which might be seen to Although Quinnell has questioned the degree to foreshadow the emergence of enclosed Christian which areas west of Bodmin Moor were integrated ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND TO THE SCULPTURE 39 in the Civitas Dumnoniorum (Quinnell 2004, 25–6), a low walled or un-walled platter (Thorpe and Wood discoveries of Roman coins reported to the Portable 2011, 276–7). Antiquities Scheme are giving indications of particular In summary, there is strong continuity evident from areas even in west Cornwall that may have seen Roman into post-Roman periods in Cornwall with greater Roman influence than was hitherto suspected features which emerge as characteristic of the early (Tyacke, A. 2011, 72–5; see also Penhallurick 2009). medieval period already in evidence, like distributions The distribution, although inevitably skewed by land of Roman coins and trading sites (Tyacke, A. 2011, use and the activities of detectorists, is notably coastal 74–5), which might be seen to foreshadow the coastal and estuarine. Thus gradual changes are apparent in distribution of early medieval religious and high status most aspects of life in Roman Cornwall, and changes, sites. Enclosed sites continue as the main settlement for example of house shape, in dining habits and in type but some sites are more specialised in function the occasional appearance of personal items like toilet and there is a hint that some religious sites might exist kits, can probably be attributed to Roman influence.