From Ibn Al- Muqaffa to Antoine Galland

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Postgraduate Program of Studies

Language Education for Refugees and Migrants (L.R.M.)

Hellenic Open University (HOU)

Non- Arab influences in the Arabic fairy tale; from Ibn Al- Muqaffa to Antoine Galland

Chrysi Lykaki, 502128

Supervisor: Kourgiotis Panagiotis

Co-supervisor: Theodora Zampaki

Patras, February 2021

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Η παρούσα εργασία αποτελεί πνευματική ιδιοκτησία του φοιτητή

(«συγγραφέας/δημιουργός») που την εκπόνησε. Στο πλαίσιο της πολιτικής ανοικτής πρόσβασης ο συγγραφέας/δημιουργός εκχωρεί στο ΕΑΠ, μη αποκλειστική άδεια χρήσης του δικαιώματος αναπαραγωγής, προσαρμογής, δημόσιου δανεισμού, παρουσίασης στο κοινό και ψηφιακής διάχυσής τους διεθνώς, σε ηλεκτρονική μορφή και σε οποιοδήποτε μέσο, για διδακτικούς και ερευνητικούς σκοπούς, άνευ ανταλλάγματος και για όλο το χρόνο διάρκειας των δικαιωμάτων πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας. Η ανοικτή πρόσβαση στο πλήρες κείμενο για μελέτη και ανάγνωση δεν σημαίνει καθ’ οιονδήποτε τρόπο παραχώρηση δικαιωμάτων διανοητικής ιδιοκτησίας του συγγραφέα/δημιουργού ούτε επιτρέπει την αναπαραγωγή, αναδημοσίευση, αντιγραφή, αποθήκευση, πώληση, εμπορική χρήση, μετάδοση, διανομή, έκδοση, εκτέλεση, «μεταφόρτωση» (downloading), «ανάρτηση» (uploading), μετάφραση, τροποποίηση με οποιονδήποτε τρόπο, τμηματικά ή περιληπτικά της εργασίας, χωρίς τη ρητή προηγούμενη έγγραφη συναίνεση του συγγραφέα/δημιουργού. Ο συγγραφέας/δημιουργός διατηρεί το σύνολο των ηθικών και περιουσιακών του δικαιωμάτων.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Supervising tutors

Supervisor: Co-supervisor:

Kourgiotis Panagiotis Zampaki Theodora Dr. in Political Science Dr. in “Graeco-Arabic Studies” University of Thessaloniki Tutor of HOU Tutor of HOU

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

For Marina and Maria…

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Table of contents Abstract ...... i Περίληψη ...... iii 1st Chapter: Methodology ...... 1 1.1. Method ...... 1 1.2. Sample and research questions ...... 2 2nd Chapter: The multicultural Abbasid caliphate and the Arabic Literature ...... 3 2.1. Historical background: the foundation of the Abbasid caliphate ...... 3 2.2. The flowering of the Arabic Literature...... 6 2.3. Translation movement ...... 8 2.4. A pioneer of the Arabic Prose: Ibn al-Muqaffa ...... 9 2.5. The special characteristics of Persian Literature ...... 10 3rd Chapter: Multiculturalism and the origins of the Arabic fairy tale ...... 14 3.1. Panchatantra ...... 14 3.2. A global literary circulation: From Panchatantra to Kalila wa-Dimna ...... 16 3.3. Arabic literature and Panchatantra ...... 19 3.4. From India to universality; the role of the Arabic version ...... 22 4th Chapter: From Hazar Afsan and Alf Laylah wa-Laylah to the Arabian Nights ...... 25 4.1. A small review ...... 25 4.2. The frame-story ...... 30 4.3. Literary genres and techniques ...... 31 4.4. Multiculturalism: The silent and powerful contributor ...... 36 4.5. Antoine Galland: The common link between the past and the present of the Arabic Literature ...... 39 4.6. Orientalism: the real protagonist of the “One Thousand and One Nights” ...... 42 4.7. The “Orientalist” Antoine Galland ...... 43 Conclusions ...... 46 References ...... 49

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Abstract

Between 661CE and 750CE the Arab world was dominated by a powerful but oppressive regime, the Umayyad family (Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012). In 743CE, a civil war started with the Umayyad family as the pioneer of the battles. In the middle of 8th century, the Umayyads had totally lost their power and another family took charge of the Arabic world (Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012). More specifically, the Abbasids deposed the Umayyads, and ushered in a new age that is believed to be the Golden Age of the Arabic society (8th- 12th centuries) (ibid). With regard to its multicultural traits, the Abbasid Caliphate became a world of remarkable diversity, since many Persians and Indians lived there. At the same time, a library was established in the new capital of the Caliphate, Baghdad, which was eventually become the center of the academics, literature and culture of the Arabic world (Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Against such backdrop, we single out two people-reference points, Harun al-Rashid (766CE- 809CE) from the political world and Ibn al-Muqaffa (724CE-759CE) from the academic world (al-Din Yousefi, 2015; “See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954).

The dynamic diverse and academic background of the Abbasid Caliphate led to the flowering of literature, which was constituted by techniques and influences of the mixed nationalities, that existed, acted and interacted during the time of the Abbasids (ibid.). An important achievement of the global literature that arose was the “One Thousand and One Nights” (Albarak, 2017). Although the fairytale was composed during the early years of the Abbasid dynasty, the written and formal publications of the work began in in the early 18th century after the research of a French academic, Antoine Galland (ibid.). In fact his contribution to the globalization of the Arabic literature was that active, that he decided to add two stories to the original work. In particular, the story of Aladdin and Ali-Baba is not originated in the Arabic literature (ibid.). Of course, these stories were products of Orientalism, a term that describes the way that the Western countries receives or even imagines the Eastern countries, and especially the Islamic world (Said, 1978).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Another key point, that proves the evolution of the Arabic literature during the Abbasids’ dynasty and the impact of multiculturalism, is the story of Kalila and Demna (Kalila wa-Dimna) (Allen, 2003; al-Din Yousefi, 2015; “See EBN AL- MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). To explain, “Kalila and Demna” is a collection of stories with Indian origins and shares the same name with the main characters of the book, two jackals (“See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Despite the fact that the work is a result of Indian influences, today the book is considered as another masterpiece of the Arabic literature, courtesy of the scholar Ibn al-Muqaffa (“See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020). Specifically, he was responsible for the translation of many non-Arabic stories, but he had a particular characteristic that made his translation unique and outstanding (al-Din Yousefi, 2015). To illustrate, Ibn al-Muqaffa was adding his own writing style to the work and he was actually evolving the initial text to a work of literature (Allen, 2003)

Summarizing, it becomes evident that the cultural debates within the Arab world during the Abbasid Dynasty were important factors that determined the evolution of the society and contributed to the global reputation of the Arabic Literature.

Key-words: Abassid Caliphate, Indian Literature, Arabic Literature, Kalila & Dimna, One Thousand and One Nights, Ibn al-Muqqafa, Antoine Galland, Orientalism.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Περίληψη

Από το 661 μ. Χ. μέχρι το 750 μ. Χ. ο Αραβικός κόσμος εξουσιαζόταν από ένα καταπιεστικό καθεστώς, τους Ομεϋάδες (Conrad, 1987; Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012).. Το 743 μ. Χ., ένας εμφύλιος πόλεμος ξεκίνησε με πρωτεργάτες την οικογένεια των Ομεϋάδων. Στα μέσα του 8ου αιώνα, έχασαν ολοκληρωτικά τη δύναμή τους και μία άλλη οικογένεια ανέλαβε τη διακυβέρνηση του Αραβικού κόσμου (Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012). Πιο συγκεκριμένα, οι Αββασίδες διαδέχθηκαν του Ομεϋάδες και η περίοδος διακυβέρνησής τους θεωρείται η Χρυσή Εποχή της Αραβικής κοινωνίας (8ος-12ος αιώνας) (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Αναφορικά με τα στοιχεία πολυπολιτισμικότητας, το Χαλιφάτο των Αββασίδων μετατράπηκε σε έναν κόσμο αξιοσημείωτης διαφορετικότητας, μιας και εκεί ζούσαν πολλοί Πέρσες και Ινδοί. Ταυτόχρονα, στη Βαγδάτη, στην πρωτεύουσα του Χαλιφάτου, ιδρύθηκε μία δημόσια βιβλιοθήκη, η οποία σταδιακά έγινε το κέντρο των ακαδημαϊκών, της λογοτεχνίας και του πολιτισμού του Αραβικού κόσμου(Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Μέσα σε αυτή την εξέλιξη, μπορούμε να ξεχωρίζουμε δύο ανθρώπους-σημεία αναφοράς, τον Χαρούν αλ Ρασίντ (766 μ. Χ.- 809 μ. Χ.) από τον χώρο της πολιτικής και τον Ιμπν αλ Μουκάφα (724 μ. Χ.- 759 μ. Χ.) από τον ακαδημαϊκό χώρο (al-Din Yousefi, 2015; “See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954).

H δυναμική παρουσία της διαφορετικότητας και το ακαδημαϊκό υπόβαθρο του Χαλιφάτου των Αββασίδων οδήγησε σε λογοτεχνική άνθηση, η οποία διαμορφώθηκε με τεχνικές και επιρροές από τις εθνότητες, που υπήρχαν, δρούσαν και αλληλεπιδρούσαν στην κοινωνία των Αββασίδων. Μάλιστα, ένα από τα επιτεύγματα της παγκόσμιας ιστορίας που προέκυψε ήταν οι «Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες» (Albarak, 2017). Βέβαια, παρ’όλο που το έργο διαμορφώθηκε κατά τη διάρκεια των πρώτων χρόνων διακυβέρνησης των Αββασίδων, η πρώτη γραπτή και επίσημη έκδοση του έργου ξεκίνησε στις αρχές του 18ου αιώνα, μετά από έρευνα ενός Γάλλου ακαδημαϊκού, του Αντουάν Γκαλάντ (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Συγκεκριμένα, η προσφορά του στην γνωστοποίηση της Αραβικής λογοτεχνίας στο παγκόσμιο κοινό ήταν τόσο αξιοσημειώτη, που πρόσθεσε τρεις ιστορίες δικής του επινόησης (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2000). Φυσικά, οι ιστορίες αυτές είναι προϊόντα Οριενταλισμού, ενός όρου που περιγράφει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο ο δυτικός

iii

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

πολιτισμός προσλαμβάνει ή και φαντάζεται τις Χώρες της Ανατολής, και συγκεκριμένα τον Ισλαμικό κόσμο (Said, 1978).

Μία ακόμα χαρακτηριστική περίπτωση, που αποδεικνύει την εξέλιξη της Αραβική λογοτεχνίας κατά τη διάρκεια της δυναστείας των Αβασσίδων και την επίδραση της πολυπολιτισμικότητας, είναι η ιστορίας της «Καλίλας και Ντίμνας» (Allen, 2003; al- Din Yousefi, 2015; “See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD- ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Αναλυτικά, η «Καλίλα και Ντίμνα» είναι μία συλλογή ιστοριών με Ινδικές ρίζες, του οποίου πρωταγωνιστές είναι δύο τσακάλια με ονόματα ίδια με εκείνα του τίτλου (“See EBN AL- MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Παρά το γεγονός ότι το έργο είναι αποτέλεσμα Ινδικών επιρροών, σήμερα το βιβλίο θεωρείται ακόμα ένα αριστούργημα της Αραβικής λογοτεχνίας, κτήμα του συγγραφέα Ιμπν αλ Μουκάφα (“See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020). Στην πραγματικότητα, ήταν υπεύθυνος για την μετάφραση πολλών μη Αραβικών ιστοριών, αλλά είχε το ιδιαίτερο χαρακτηριστικό να κάνει τις μεταφράσεις του μοναδικές και εξέχουσες (al-Din Yousefi, 2015). Δηλαδή, ο Ιμπν αλ Μουκάφα προσέθετε στη μετάφραση τον δικό του τρόπο γραφής και, ουσιαστικά, παρέδιδε ένα κείμενο υψηλότερης αξίας από το αρχικό (Allen, 2003).

Συνοψίζοντας, έγινε κατανοητό ότι οι πολιτιστικές συγκρούσεις μετά Αράβων κατά τη διάρκεια της Δυναστείας των Αββασίδων αποτέλεσαν σημαντικούς παράγοντες που καθόρισαν την εξέλιξη της κοινωνίας και συνεισέφεραν στην παγκόσμια φήμη της Αραβικής Λογοτεχνίας.

Λέξεις-κλειδιά: Χαλιφάτο των Αββασίδων, Ινδική λογοτεχνία, Αραβική Λογοτεχνία, Καλίλα και Ντίμνα, Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες, Ιμπν αλ Μουκάφα, Αντουάν Γκαλάντ, Οριενταλισμός

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

1st Chapter: Methodology

1.1. Method

For the purposes of the research that refers to literary works, a method of social research is considered necessary. Specifically, it needs a combination and coordination of processes and techniques that will handle, analyze and interpret the symbolic role of texts and literature (Kόλλιας, 2014). This is the reason why, the present paper was developed according to the principles of a qualitative method, the analysis of content, since it can provide an objective point of view on the text according to the sociopolitical and historical context of the circumstances, under which the work was produced (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In a few words, it helps the researcher to interpret the hypertext of the story and make the necessary connections with the background of the historical period that was written.

So, the procedure of the research was designed according to the steps of Qualitative analysis of content. Analytically (Kόλλιας, 2014):

 Determination of the researching material  Analysis of the circumstances under which the material was produced  Typical characteristics of the material  Orientation of the analysis  Researching questions  Analysis of the material  Interpretation of the data

As it was mentioned, the literary works are closely linked with the sociopolitical and historical context that leads to their creation. That way, it is unavoidable not to research the background of the stories that will be referred through the literature review. Specifically, the aforementioned method gives to the researcher the opportunity to investigate and examine critically secondary sources that are relevant to the main subject of his/her work (Cooper, 1998; Creswell, 2013). It is the basis of

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation the whole procedure, since it provides the initial knowledge about the subject as a first step to the final anwers (Cooper, 1998).

1.2. Sample and research questions

As it was mentioned in the introductory chapter the present paper aims to highlight the importance of diversity and multiculturalism at the evolution of the society and their contribution to the cultural heritage of any country. Additionally, the research tries to negotiate this issue by examining two literary works that belong to an ethnicity, which is responsible for a significant part of the global literature, the Arabs. Of course, the Islamic world was not chosen by luck. It was chosen due to the fact that nowadays, the media try to promote “Islamophobia” and demonize the culture of the Eastern. Accordingly, the researcher used two popular books of the Arabic culture:  Kalila and Dimna  One Thousand and One Nights These works will help to answer to the following questions:  Was the Arabic Literature a product of multiculturalism?  Is multiculturalism capable to promote social, political, historical and academic evolution?  Are the Western superstitions about the East a temporal issue or did it exist since many years ago?

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

2nd Chapter: The multicultural Abbasid caliphate and the Arabic Literature

2.1. Historical background: the foundation of the Abbasid caliphate

After the death of the founder of Islam, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allah, in 632 AD (571- 632 AD), the Islamic world was threatened by the breakdown of religious, social and political cohesion (Conrad, 1987; Peters, 2003; Μακρής, 2012). Before his death, he had managed to unite all the Arabs of the Hejaz and the Peninsula mostly by initiating them to the same religious system. As a matter of fact, the main problem of the Prophet’s loss was the selection of a person equally ambitious and capable in order to rule the Islamic world and administrate any crisis that would arise. In effect, one of the most reliable partners of the Prophet, Umar ibn al-Khattab, suggested an idea that would give birth to the notion of “caliphate”, which refers to the state that is ruled by a caliph and is concerned by political and religious principles (Bernaby, 1901; Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Hoyland, 2015; Lewis, 1994).

Specifically, he minded that the most suitable candidate that was characterized by the skills that were mentioned was Abu Bakr (Conrad, 1987; Hourani, 1991; Lewis, 2002; Μακρής, 2012). After this selection, the Islamic world was about to become an empire by the caliphates that arose. More specifically, the three main caliphates that determined the evolution of the Arab world were (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Hoyland, 2015; Μακρής, 2012):

 Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD)  Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 AD)  Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD).

Analytically, until the decadence of Rashidun Caliphate, the Empire had been ruled by four caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and ‘Ali ibn Abu Talib, in chronological order (Bernaby, 1901; Lewis, 1997). The borders of the Islamic world were expanded and the Arabs were called to administrate an area that was constituted by Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Persia and Egypt (Hourani, 1991; Lewis, 1999). It becomes obvious that the first Caliphate began its dominance with plenty ambitions and hopes (Conrad, 1987; Hoyland, 2015; Lewis, 1994). Unfortunately, the tension

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation that was caused between ‘Ali and Uthman’s family, created a civil war (al-fitna al- kubra) that gave prominence to the army ruler, Mu ‘awiya, who became the founder of the second Caliphate, the Umayyad Caliphate (Bernaby, 1901; Lewis, 1994).

To illustrate, the second Caliphate was constituted by politicians who were aiming to highlight and utilize the power of military to the extreme (Hourani, 1991; Lewis, 2002). It would not be pointless to say that the Umayyad Caliphate was functioning similarly to a dynasty (Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012). The Umayyads, actually, aimed to the creation of a Caliphate by Arab aristocrats with military power (Mακρής, 2012). This is the reason why Damascus became the capital of the State, since it was a rich and fertile city that could offer privileges to the dominant social class and the military (Hourani, 1991; Moshe, 1983). At the same time, its location was suitable for the administration of the Caliphate on its whole (Hoyland, 2015; Moshe, 1983). The Umayyads expanded the Empire of Islam, but, simultaneously, they imported several non-Arab nations, which brought their habits and traditions (Hourani, 1991; Lewis, 1997; Μακρής, 2012). For the Umayyad Caliphate these unique characteristics were considered as obstacles that were threatening the cohesion of the state (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Lewis, 1999; Μακρής, 2012). As a result, during the Umayyad Period, the science of Law was developed. But, as it will become obvious later, it was not enough to keep the balance at the caliphate due to the lack of objectivity of the Umayyad Court, since the members of the government were considering themselves as the most powerful judges among the rest of the citizens (Lewis, 2002).

Under the circumstances of social and political injustice, several disappointed groups were created, which opposed to the Umayyad regime (Lewis, 1994). To be precise, in 743 AD the non-Arabs of Persia started a war against the Arab-centered Caliphate (Moshe, 1983). Soon, it turned into a civil war that led to the total breakdown of the Second Caliphate of the Islamic Empire (Lewis, 1999). At that point, Abu al-Abbas, whose name baptized the new regime, became the Caliph of the Third Caliphate with the support of Arabs, settlers of Mecca and Medina, Mawalis1 (non-Arabs) and Shiites (Shia Arabs) (Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012). The Abbasids were representing a new

were non-Arab Muslims thatbecame part of the caliphate after the (موالي) The Mawalis or mawala 1 annexation of new regions by the Abbasids. During their governing, they had obtained one of the most significant positions among the society. They managed to preserve their identity but they converted to Islam (Gibb & Bearman, 1954).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation era of hope for the Islamic Empire, the family was accepted by the society, due to the fact that they had indirect relativity with the Prophet al- Abbas, since the caliph, Abu al- Abbas, was a descendant of Prophet’s uncle (Μακρής, 2012).

In the first place, the Abbasids transferred the center of the government from Damascus to Kufa (Iraq) and later to Baghdad (Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Lewis, 2002). Of course, this choice was not random, but it was a strategic and cultural decision. More specifically, by that time, Bagdad was the largest and wealthiest city in the known world. Simultaneously, it was 30 miles away from the old Persian capital, Ctesiphon (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Hourani, 1991). In other words, it was a perfect cultural and administration spot for the de-Mediterranization the Islamic Empire and the creation of state, that is more open to Eastern –not just Arabic- influence, such us influences of Persia, India, Afghanistan and in what is present day Pakistan (Bernaby, 1901; Conrad, 1987). Keeping in mind such developments, it becomes evident that Abbasids contrary to the Umayyads did not want to promote Arabs exclusively, but rather to create a diverse and fair state, totally free of policies that were aiming to the ethnic division (Hourani, 1991; Μακρής, 2012).

So time after time, the Abbasid caliphate was becoming more and more multicultural. The Persian bureaucracy proved necessary for the government and replaced the Arab aristocracy that was created during the previous Caliphate. So, as opposed to the politics of Umayyads, the Abbasids were, also, choosing non-Arabs as workers for the government (Hourani, 1991; Lewis, 1994). Meanwhile, there were not any criteria for the categorization of the taxes according to the origin or religion and the intermarriages between Arabs and non-Arabs became an ordinary habit (Bernaby, 1901). Sooner or later, the Arabs started to dress like Persians, or the opposite, and the two languages influenced each other (Lewis, 1997). It becomes obvious that the ethnic barriers had totally gone. In brief, the Umayyads’ Arab-based regime was replaced by a multicultural Muslim regime that showed tolerance towards the Jews and Christians, as well (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Hourani, 1991).

As a result, the “golden age” of the Islamic world started, being marked by achievements in several fields (Bernaby, 1901; Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Peters, 2003). For example, regarding politics, it is important to mention that the Abbasids had developed their own system, in order to administrate the state more

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation successfully (Lewis, 1997). For example, the hierarchy in the palace was not strict and the people that were surrounding the Caliph had not been hired only because of the customer relationships (Gillani & Tahir, 2014). In other words, the caliph was not an absolute dictator, but he was taking into consideration the ideas of his capable employees (Ahmed 2015). Additionally, the territorial achievements were plenty and the Empire ended up with Arabia, Persia, Tunisia, Egypt, Uzbekistan, Syria and the frontiers of India inside its borders (Conrad, 1987; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Furthermore, the theoretical and practical knowledge bloomed with important achievements that refer to sciences, architecture, politics, philosophy and literature (Bernaby, 1901; Conrad, 1987). Of course, important to understand this scientific and artistic progress is to mention the discovery of the technique of the paper making by the Chinese, which facilitated the preservation of the scientific and artistic efforts (Bernaby, 1901).

Additionally, it must be acknowledged that the evolution and the improvement at several fields witnessed during the Abbasid Caliphate –such as political, economic, social and artistic improvement- was, also, the result of the efforts of a capable and skilled politician, Harun al-Rashid (766-809 AD) (Lewis, 1999). More specifically, he was the son of al-Khayzuran and the 3rd Caliph, al-Mahdi. When he was young, he studied the art of war with a Persian instructor outside Anatolia (Bernaby, 1901). At the same time, he studied music, poetry, history, geography and the Quran (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). In 786 AD at an early age, he became the 5th Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (Moshe, 1983). He was interested in the improvement of the city and people’s every-day life. To be precise, Harun al- Rashid used plenty of funds in order to improve the architecture of the city, the arts and the level of life of his citizens (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). For example, Harun offered many working positions to people, who wanted to become servants of his. At the same time, his military skills led the Abbasid Caliphate to many winning battles such as battles against Byzantium, which raised the glory of the State (Lewis, 1994). In a few words, he was a skilled, educated and ambitious young man, that was about to make the Abbasid Caliphate on of the greatest of all time.

2.2. The flowering of the Arabic Literature

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Under the aforementioned circumstances, the academic world of the Abbasid Caliphate started to show its interest to the classical and scientific texts of Greeks, Persians and Indians. In fact, during the 9th century, it was established a place in Baghdad that was functioning as a library and a research institute, the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-hikmah) (Allen, 2003; Rozenthal, 1975). It was a project that aimed to the sponsoring of translations and research activities. With this in mind, the interest in the translation gave rise to what is better known as the “Translation Movement” and it lasted more than two centuries (Gutas, 1998; Lyons, 2009; Rozenthal, 1975). During this period, the scholars managed to translate non-Arab scientists or philosophers including Greeks, such as Aristotle (writer, philosopher, physician, and biologist) Plato (writer, philosopher), Hippocrates (scientist, phycisian), Euclid (Mathematician), Pythagoras (Mathematician) and Latin philosopher, such as Plotinus (Alle, 2003). Plus, they managed to translate texts about agriculture, medicine, engineering and finance (Lewis, 2002; 1999). In other words, the academic world that until then was only interested in religious texts changed its interests in total (Allen, 2003; Weidner, 2017). It becomes clear that the Abbasid academic world was not only interested in texts that would improve practically their every-day life, but in texts that would change their way of thinking, as well (Lewis, 1994).

Despite the fact that Greeks had evolved the field of drama and poetry, the Arabs did not seem to pay attention to them, since they had developed their own literary form with the contribution of Persians (Weidner, 2017) The aforementioned fact should not lead to a wrong interpretation that would refer to an opinion that the Arabic world had devalued poetry and literature in general. On the contrary, the Abbasid society significantly valued literature (Lewis, 2002; 1997). In fact, poets were the best paid and most respected artists, who had developed different styles of poetry (e.g. wine poetry, melancholy poetry, love poetry, hunting poetry, praise poetry etc.) (Bernaby, 1901). Furthermore, the harems with the singing women were significant contributors to the formation of the Arabic written culture, since they used to recite poems or narrate stories for entertainment (Bernaby, 1901; Lewis, 1999). In a few words, the way for the evolution of poetry had been widely open for the Arabs and non-Arabs played a major role in this evolution as well.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

2.3. Translation movement

According to the aforementioned, the flowering of the Arabic literature was associated with the evolution of a new scientific and literary movement. Specifically, it became obvious that during the governing of the Abbasids the orientation of interests of the Islamic world had radically changed (Allen, 2003; Shamma, 2009). Identically, the Abbasid society was a demanding system that was looking for social justice and high standards of living. In simple words, the members of the Empire were not only interested in surviving, but in living a delicate life oriented to the spiritual cultivation (Gutas, 1998).

Coupled with the radical social, political, cultural and ideological changes of the Islamic world, the Translation –or Revivalist- Movement arose (Shamma, 2009). It appeared during the governing of al-Mansur (754 AD-775 AD) and al-Ma ‘mun (786 AD-833 AD), who is considered as the pillar of the aforementioned movement in literature (Garcia-Arenal, 2008). To be precise, al Ma ‘mun was the politician who led the movement to its peak through the financial aid that was providing as a privilege and a motivation to the translators (Allen, 2003; Shamma, 2009). In fact, the Muslim scholars evolved their skills at a level that they approached literary and scientific texts from Greece, Roman Empire, Persia, Syria and India (Garcia-Arenal, 2008; Shamma, 2009). Of course, it would be a fault not to mention the contribution of al –Mansur to the Translation Movement with the transposition of the Abbasid capital from Damascus to Baghdad (Gutas, 1998). In particular, the aforementioned decision could be described below in view of the influence of political and cultural aims, since it seems that the Emperor was positive to the influence of the different cultures that were located around the city (e.g. Sassanids, Babylonians, Accadians etc.) (Shamma, 2009).

In like manner, Persians were equally important to the evolution of the Revivalist Movement (ibid.). In detail, Persia was a country with a great tradition to the culture of written speech (ibid.). Due to the fact that many Persians co-existed with the Arabs in the Empire and some of them had obtained exceptional posts next to the government, soon, they managed to incorporate many elements of the Persian wisdom and their literature into the Arabic texts (ibid.). Besides, the Abbasid society gave

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation prominence to a specific Persian scholar, who was involved into the Translation Movement and he is considered as a main factor of the Arabic literary heritage.

2.4. A pioneer of the Arabic Prose: Ibn al-Muqaffa

A significant person that made an outstanding contribution to the evolution of the Arabic literature was Ibn al-Muqaffa (724-759 AD), with his multicultural and multidimensioned identity and personality. Analytically, Ibn al-Muqaffa was a Persian noble and scholar that was specialized in the Arabic Letters (al-Din Yousefi, 2015; Latham, 2020; Mery, 2006). He studied in Basra and during 743 AD he became secretary of the Umayyads (Grigore, 2018). After the rise of the Abbasids he returned to the city that he studied (751-757 AD), but, soon the Abbasids asked him to come back and work with them (Latham, 2020). Due to the fact that he could speak Farsi and Arabic, he became a pioneer to the translations of several Indian and Persian literary works. But, his contribution does not stop there (Mery, 2006). His translations were not just a mechanic and objective code-switching. On the contrary, he added his personal writing style, in a way that he created new literature genres (al-Din Yousefi, 2015; Grigore, 2018)

In particular, Ibn al-Muqaffa -or Abu Muhammad ‘Abd-Allah or Rozbeh pur-e Dadoe or “the cripple handed” (translation of his Persian name) - was interested in creating a literary genre that could be clear and understandable by the whole society (al-Din Yousefi, 2015). This is the reason why he was not hesitating to add or eliminate specific parts of an original work, in order to create a whole-new text that could be read by people of different level of education (“See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020). For instance, one of his most famous translations in Arabic, Kalila wa-Dimna, included 4 new stories and a prologue written by Ibn al-Muqaffa (Grigore, 2018). Simultaneously, his personal writing style was unique, since he could express his thoughts very clear with simple syntax and diction (“See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD- ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020). So, it is not a strange fact that his work for the aforementioned tale was so impressive that the posterior Syrian, Persian, Hebrew, Castilian, Greek and Latin versions were based on the Arabic text of al-Muqaffa

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

(ibid.). Nevertheless, the conservative academic and political world did not support his progressive literature style (al-Din Yousefi, 2015).

Of course, apart from the translations, he was the writer of two original literary works: Kitab al-adab al-Kabir and Kitab al- adab al-sagir (“The Major Work on Secretary Etiquette” and “The Minor Work on Secretary Etiquette”) (Bernaby, 1901). They are both works that refer to principles of the court as regards the manners, and, mainly, the Minor project was written as an advising text for the princes (Grigore, 2018). Influenced by Islamic and Iranian sources, he opposed to the traditional regime of the Umayyads and reformed the literature of the Empire without excluding the traditional texts such as, the Quran (al-Din Yousefi, 2015). As a result of his adaptations, the new literature genre that arose was the genre of “adab” (i.e. literature, in Modern Arabic) (Allen, 2003; al-Din Yousefi, 2015; “See EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH”, 2020; Mery, 2006). Additionally, “Risala fi l-sahaba” (The Letter of the Companions) belong to his original texts and its context corresponded to the administrative needs of the Abassid Caliphate (Grigore, 2018).

To emphasize, Ibn al-Muqaffa was mainly inspired in the aforementioned texts by the wisdom of Persian and Greek written culture (Allen, 2003; al-Din Yousefi, 2015). Simultaneously, he integrated principles of the Islamic morality and political life and introduced them with an artistic and indirect way (al-Din Yousefi, 2015). In a few words, he was trying to raise reader’s political awareness and offer the opportunity of cultural cultivation.

2.5. The special characteristics of Persian Literature

The impact of Persians on the Arabic literature was the determining factor for its inclusion into the global heritage, that sometimes it is almost impossible to separate the two groups of cultural elements, i.e. the Arabic and the Persian from one another. There are several examples that will be analyzed in the next chapters and prove the beneficial interrelation of the cultures, which led to the enrichment and the recognition of their unique literary characteristics (Spuler, 2003). At this point, it is important to make a separate mention to the language and type of literary texts that contributed to the formation of the Arabic and global literature.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

To start with, the Arabs borrowed several Persian language forms (Shakib, 2011). Analytically, the alternations mostly referred to small structures of the linguistic code, such as letters, syllable and a few grammatical rules (ibid.). To illustrate briefly, the alternation refers to:

 Omission  Adding of letters of the words of the original Persian vocabulary (ibid.).  Changing  Replacement of letters, such as n,rl, g, khh (ibid.)  Conjugation of Persian words according to the Arabic grammatical rules (ibid.).  Musical/Philosophical/Scientific terms (ibid.).

It becomes obvious that the linguistic alternation was more or less subtle. On the contrary, the Persian contribution to the Arabic literature was more determining (Javandel, 2015). Specifically, Persians could use in a significantly skilled way the form of prose and poetry (Javandel, 2015; Spuler, 2003). The sub-categories that the Persians managed to show off are:

 Biographies: Information about historical personalities (kings, politicians) (Javandel, 2015).  Storytelling/Fiction: Stories about imaginary protagonists that are facing several problems that they are asked to solve (ibid.).  History and myths: Indirect references to existing historical personalities that are going through adventures (Ibid.).  Ethics and Wisdom (adab): Works that negotiate subjects of morality and try to change reader’s point of view and feeling upon a controversial issue (Shakib, 2011).  Mysticism: Stories with religious context that analyzes the relationship between the people and the God either symbolically or literally (Javandel, 2015).  Praise/Court poetry: Poems that refer to kings, princes or other politicians or courtiers (ibid.).  Elegy Poetry, Panegyric Poetry: The written expression of grief or happiness upon an incident (ibid.).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

 Didactic poetry: Similar to “Ethics and Wisdom” but written according to the poetic meter (ibid.).  Romantic poetry: Love poems (ibid.).  Religious poetry (Shakib, 2011).

In the same fashion, Persians had been pioneers of the narrative techniques (Javandel, 2015). Nowadays such techniques are considered self-evident, but, in fact, during the Medieval Period, they were considered innovative. In detail, Persian authors used to apply the principle of the intended audience that was underlining the directness of the text (ibid.). Specifically, the intended audience is a literary technique that defines the special characteristics of a specific person or group of people that are about to listen to the story (ibid.). Of course, the construction of the story is designed according to the special needs and interest of every audience (ibid). Moreover, every text was referring to a specific space-time with its own social and political background (ibid.). That way the works were always informative and more interesting for the people of the age who were experiencing the social and political changes (ibid.). Additionally, the author could express his/her personal opinion in an indirect and a less offending way (Javandel, 2015; Shakib, 2011). Thereby, the Persian texts had always the personal signature of the writer; the categories of the Persian literature in tune with the Persian narrative techniques created a unique and classic literary culture (Shakib, 2011).

2.6. A crucial debate: Al shu ‘biyya

The dominance of Arabs at the field of literature and the poetic tradition was outstanding before the Abbasid Caliphate, since the rise of their culture begins with a poetic text, the Quran (Allen, 2003). As it was mentioned before, when the Islamic world began to empower its influence during the period of the Abbasid Caliphate many different ethnicities became members of the Empire (Allen, 2003; Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Middleton & Rassam, 1995). Although the ethnicities were exchanging their linguistic codes, their traditions and culture, the superiority of the Arabic language led to an intense contest that is called “al shu’ubiyya” (Ali-Mir & Farahmand, 2017). It was a literary debate that started by scholars and concerned the merit of the contribution of each race that formed the Arabic Literature (Allen, 2003;

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Middleton & Rassam, 1995). Understanding the roots and implications of such a debate is of crucial importance for our discussion of the non- Arab influences in the Arabic fairy tale.

In particular, it was a movement that tried to reduce the beneficial position of the Arabs in society, politics, economy, language, literature and arts and promote the equality among the Muslims (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). To be precise, there were three groups with different points of view and different purposes. The first, tried to promote co-existence with different nations and diversity, but the second and the third group expressed ideas of ethnic superiority (Ali-Mir & Farahmand, 2017; Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Analytically, the groups were separated according to their belief in the:

 Equality between Arabs and non-ArabsExchanges of equally important cultures created a whole new culture (Albarak, 2017). This interaction should be considered as a neutral procedure without devaluing the importance of any cultural background (ibid.)  Superiority of ArabsArabiyya (as it was mentioned in the beginning of the chapter) (Ali-Mir & Farahmand, 2017; Allen, 2003; Middleton & Rassam, 1995)  Superiority of non-ArabsThey claimed that the origins of Arabs were inferior because of their nomadic past in contrast to their origins that were considered more modern and cosmopolitan (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Furthermore, they were questioning the reason why the non-Arabs could not hold superior working positions in the court and the administration, which had an impact on the determination of the social class that they belonged to (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Middleton & Rassam, 1995).

The “shu’ubiyya”movement ended with no essential changes. Nevertheless, the writers were inspired by the social topicality and offered many new works to the global literature that equally contributed to the evolution of the movement (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). What did not fade out after the aforementioned movement is the scientific and literary works that influenced the evolution of the Arabic letters. One of the most significant examples that prove Arab’s devotion and interest in the global literature is the Indian tale “Panchatantra”. The Arab academic world worked intensively in the production of a descent translation, that even today the work in not connected to the Indian culture, but to the Arabic one (Spuler, 2003).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

3rd Chapter: Multiculturalism and the origins of the Arabic fairy tale

3.1. Panchatantra

The previous chapter made clear that the cultural heritage of nations is not a result of interactions into a mono-ethnic society. On the contrary, it is based on historical multiculturalism and pluralism which lead to the enrichment of many fields, such as politics, economy, society, letters and arts (Grigore, 2018). As a matter of fact, Arabic literature is such a great example of multiculturalism, since the most popular literary works of the Arabic world, are a product of cultural clashes among the various nations that were in constant interaction with the Arabs (Spuler, 2003). To be more precise, one of the most famous fables that is considered as a part of Arabic heritage and a :ودمنة كليلة ,work of global recognition is Kalila wa-Dimna (English: Kalila & Dimna Arabic). But, in reality, the roots of the aforementioned work do not belong to the Arabs (von Ruymbeke, 2017). Despite the fact that the final form of the fairytale is a result of global influences and translations, the birthplace of the initial text is rooted in India and it was entitled with the name “Panchantatra” (Abdelsadek, 2010; Ghazoul, 1983; van Ruymbeke, 2017).

To begin with, Panchatantra contains animal stories that were firstly found in the oral tradition of India (van Ruymbeke, 2017). The “writers” were the ancient storytellers that were considered as important factors of the society during the ancient times (Shamma, 2009). Generation after generation spread the adventures of Karataka and Damanaka in the Pali language2 (Abdelsadek, 2010; Marroum, 2011). The oral tradition was transferred into the written one, between 3rd and 5th century (ibid.). But, the language that was utilized was not the same. On the contrary, the written form of the fables was expressed in Sanskrit (Abdelsadek, 2010; Ghazoul, 1983). Thus, there are sources that support that the fairytales were firstly written in 200 B.C. by a Hindu academic, Pandit Vishnu Sharma or by the philosopher Baydapa (Grigore, 2018; van Ruymbeke, 2017).

Analytically, Panchatantra is a collection of stories with fictional people and animals with human characteristics (Grigore, 2018). Indeed, Karakata and Damanaka are two

2 Pali is a language that is originated in the areas between India and Iran (Müller, 2003).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation jackals that represent the good and the bad (Abdelsadek, 2010). They are armed with human virtues in order to guide the political person, who reads it, to become a capable member of society and politics (Abdesadek, 2010; Aktas & Beldag, 2017). The collection is constituted by five chapters-subjects (Grigore, 2018):  Mitra Bhedha: On Causing Dissension among Allies (Subject: Friendship)  Mitra Labha/ Mitra Samprati: On Securing Allies (Subject: Friendship)  Kakolukiyam: On War and Peace: The story of the crows and the owls (Subject: War and Peace)  Ladhaprasanam: On Losing What You have Gained (Subject: The uniqueness of somebody’s personality and its importance)  Apariksitakarakam: On Hasty Actions (Subject: Importance of realism and modesy)

The inspiration that lead to the creation of the book originates in two main versions. In the first place, one aspect of the Indian tradition supports that after the invasion of Alexander the Great in India and the battles between the two fields, Alexander left and set two generals to be in charge (Marroum, 2011). After a while, one of them was substituted by a violent Indian king (van Ruymbeke, 2017). Sooner or later, he realized that he had to change his attitude and become a friendlier governor (Ghazoul, 1983; Marroum, 2011). Then, he asked from his assistants to create a manual with the virtues of the king. Although this may be true, there is another version that is based on the period that Alexander the Great invaded India, as well. Specifically, after he left India, the king of the country was Armour a Shakti, who had three lazy and ignorant sons (Blois, 1990; Shamm, 2009). Under those circumstances, some experts offered the king a manual with instructions for the management of the kingdom. But, the sons did not find it useful. At that point, Vishnu Sharma appears and offers his services by suggesting that the animal fables could be a more entertaining and intelligent way to educate and alert the young men (Shamm, 2009). In a few words, it could be said that it is one of the first books that refer to the political science and the art of governing (Aktas & Beldag, 2017; Grigore, 2018).

Summarizing, it is obvious that there are still doubts about the origin of the Panchatantra. Despite that, what is indisputable to consider is the journey that these Indian fairytales made among the world and the way that they influenced the global literary heritage (Blois, 1990). In this chapter we will trace the continuation of their

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation journey up to their translation by Ibn al-Muqaffa and their acquisition by the Arabic- Islamic cultural heritage, which is this dissertation’s field of research.

3.2. A global literary circulation: From Panchatantra to Kalila wa- Dimna

In the history of humanity, people have been trying to express themselves with animal stories from the beginning of the world (Grigore, 2018; Shamma, 2009). As an illustration, during the Paleolithic era the Neanderthals started to paint images from their every-day life, which were strongly connected to the animals. These painting in the caves became the first stories that were ever found in the pre-historical era of the world. From time to time the paintings were substituted by written works and animal stories and the personification of the beasts, in general, became a fundamental part of the global literature. As it was mentioned above, some of the first animal stories of the global literature were found in India under the title Panchatantra. Sooner or later, Karakata and Damanaka left their country of origin and started to make a long journey among the countries and their languages (Ghazoul, 1983).

Analytically, after the first compilation of the oral tradition the work was translated into all the Indian dialects (Grigore, 2018; Marroum, 2011; Shamma, 2009). After a long time, in 6th century, the book found in Persia under the demand of the king Khosru I Anushiravan. To be precise, the king asked from Burzuy, who was a member of his court, to travel to India in order to find the famous book that was encouraging politicians to develop their virtues (Ahmed 2015; van Ruymbeke, 2017). Before Burzuy left Persia, he gave a code name at his mission. He claimed that he was travelling to India in order to find an “herb”. When he arrived in India, he realized with disappointment that he could not have easy access to the king’s documents (Bloi, 1990). Thereby, he turned to his friends Pandits (Indian scholars) in order to express his sorrow about the rare “herb” that he was looking for. After that, the scholars felt sorry about him and they found a way to please the traveler (Ahmed 2015). Specifically, they reveal him the context of a rare book with great importance: Panchatantra. So, the courtier accomplished his mission and return to his country in order to translate the stories in Pahlavi language with the contribution of some Pandits (Aktas & Beldag, 2017). At that point, Karakata and Damanaka became Karikak and

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Damanak. Apart from the original Panchatantra stories, the new book contained 5 new fables originated in India (Grigore, 2018). Nevertheless, the initial Pahlavi version is now lost, just like the first compilation of Panchatantra (Ahmed, 2015).

The Pahlavi Karikak and Damanak became the basis for Kalilag and Damanag and Kalila and Dimna, the Syrian and the Arabic version of Panchatantra respectively (Grigore, 2018; van Ruymbeke, 2017). Τhe Syrian version was created in 570 AD by Bud the Periodeuyes, who was a Christian preacher and it was found in Turkey in 1870 AD (van Ruymbeke, 2017). Under those circumstances, the Syrian text became the pattern for an English version, which was published in 1885 AD in Cambridge (Riedel, 2010). The new version was entitled as “Kalila wa-Dimna” or “Fables of Bidpai” and it was translated by Keith Falconer (Shamma, 2009). The Arabic version was translated in the 8th century by the famous Ibn al-Muqaffa, whose worked influenced many other nationalities to adjust Kalila wa-Dimna into their culture (Abdelsadek, 2010).

To analyze, in 1080 AD Simeon Seth used al-Muqaffa’s work in order to publish a Greek version of Panchatantra under the name “Stefanites kai Ihnilates”, which refer to the Greek words wreath (stefanos, στέφανος) and trace (ihnos, ίχνος), due to the fact Kalila and Dimna are rooted in the Arabic words iklil (wreath) and dimna (trace) (Grigore, 2018; Pellecchia, 2012). It is important to mention that the Seth’s version became the basis for further translation and inspiration. For example, in 1583 AD Giulio Nuti published his own point of view in Italy using the Greek version as the model-text. Additionally, the Greek text was utilized by scholars and writers in order to compose the first Slavic and a German version and two Latin ones (Abdelsadek, 2010; Marroum, 2009). One of the Latin texts was published in 1666 under the title “Specimen sapientiae Indorum veterum” (A model of wisdom of the old Indians) (Grigore, 2018).

What is more, Ibn al-Muqaffa’s work seems that inspired Abu-I-Ma ‘ali Nasrullah (Riedel, 2010; van Ruymbeke, 2017). He translated his work in 1121 in the Persian language and he named it “Kitab Kalila wa-Dimna” (Riedel, 2010). In 1500 AD his book was used by Hysaybin Ali al Wa ‘iz, who entitled it as “Anwar-I Syhayli” (The light of Conopus) and dedicated to the Sultan of Hurasan (Grigore, 2018). Before that, in 1252 AD the old Castilan version was published as “Calyla e Dumna”, which

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation became the basis for the Latin Version of Raimundus de Biterris “Liber de Dina et Kalila” (The Book of Kalila and Dimna) (Pelliecchia, 2012).

In a similar attitude, Ali bin Salih, who created the Turkish version “Humayunname” (The Royal Book) between 1512 and 1520 AD, dedicated it to the Sultan Sulayman (Grigore, 2018). Similarly, scholars in Czech Republic, Georgia and Iceland used Ali bin Salih’s work in order to create their own versions. It is worth to be mentioned that after 1578 AD, Panchatantra went back to its country of origin, as long as it was translated in Hindu, in Urdu and in other Indian dialects (Marroum, 2009). Equally important is the Hebrew translation by Rabbi Yo el in 1250 AD by the name “Seper Kalilah w-Dimnah” and the Hebrew rhymed version in 1283 AD by Ya ‘qov ben El ‘azar (Grigore, 2018).

Additionally, before Nasrullah’s translation, another Latin version was published between 1262 and 1279 AD by Giovanni da Capua, who gave it the name “Liber Kalilae et Dimane. Directorium Humanae Vitae dias parabola antiquorum sapientum “(The Book of Kalila and Dimna. A guide of Human Lives. The Old Wise Men’s Parables) (Grigore, 2018). This translation inspired several scholars to add their own perspective to the old text. Specifically, in 1483 AD Anton Pforr from Germany readjusted the book and gave the title “Das Buch de Beispiel der alten Elders” (The book of parables of the Wise Elders) (ibid.). His text motivated academics to create versions in Denmark, Iceland, Holland and a new version in Castilian with the title “Exeplarro contra los enganos y peligros del mundo” (The Ideal Path to follow in order to avoid the world temptations and dangers) (Abdelsadek, 2010). In 1548 AD Agnolo Firenzuola published another Italian version of Panchatantra that referred to “Discorsi degli animali ragionant tra loro” (Speechless animal who quarrel among themselves) (Grigore, 2018; Pellecchia, 2012).

Later, in the same country in 1552 AD “La moral filosophia del Doni” was presented to the public and in 1570 became the basis for Thomas North and his English version (ibid.). Finally, France obtained its own “Panchatantra” firstly, in 1676 AD and then in 1698 by Gilbert Gaulmin (pseudonym: David Sahid) with the name “Le Livre des lumieres ou la conduit des rois, compose par le sage Pilpay Indien, traduite en francais par David Sahid, d’ Ispahan, ville capital de Perse” (The Book of lights of the King’s conduct, composed by the Indian Sage Pilpay and translated into French by David Sahid from Ispahan, a capital city of Persia) (Abdesadek, 2010; Grigore, 2018). His

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation version became the pattern-text for further investigation and translation in Swedish, English and German (Grigore, 2018).

After all, as it has been argued, the initial work travelled from one country to another and connected many cultures. Each of them contributed to the creation of a final complex text that carries context from all the cultural environments that approached it during different historical periods (e.g. the crocodiles of the Indian text become tortoises in the Persian version, since there are no such animal in Iraq) (van Ruymbeke, 2017). It could be said that it became a remarkable example of the global history as long as it managed to eliminate temporal, territorial, cultural and, even, political boundaries (Grigore, 2018). To put it differently, Panchatantra became able to attract the attention of the many cultures due to the fact that the moral actions of its context are timeless and refer to every single political creature that wishes to interact fruitfully in his/her sociopolitical and private environment (van Ruymbeke, 2017).

3.3. Arabic literature and Panchatantra

As shown above, the influence of the Indian Panchatantra was huge. In the beginning, king after king started to hear about the book and wanted to have their own manuscript (Abdelsadek, 2010). After a while, the text became known to the academic circles which spread the text among independent readers and the folklore culture, which raised the book and transformed it into one of the most significant works of the global literature (Majeed Nadwi, 2013; van Ruymbeke, 2017).

Similarly, when the book travelled to Persia, it was a matter of time to be adapted to the Islamic world, as well. As it was mentioned in the first chapter, during the governance of the Abbasids, Persians had a great influence in the Arabic culture and, especially, in the Arabic literature (Majeed Nadwi, 2013). Thereupon, after the demand of the Persian king Kushru and the translation of Panchatantra, the famous Persian academic, Ibn al-Muqaffa, undertook the translation of the text into the Arabic language and its passing to the Arabic context (Abdelsadek; 2010; Grigore, 2018). His version is considered as a reference point of the formation of the final text and its global recognition and it is believed that it was written between the end of the Umayyad caliphate and the early Abbasid Caliphate (Aktas & Beldag, 2017; Grigore, 2018). To illustrate, his translation was so unique that, even at the present, the work is

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation considered as a part of Arabic literature, despite the fact that its starting point was in India (van Ruymbeke, 2017). What is more, the present paper tries to highlight those imperceptible lines that exist between the numerous current cultures, since none of it was a result of interactions between mono-ethnic factors.

To begin with, before Ibn al-Muqaffa translated “Kalila and Dimna” from Pahlavi into Arabic, he had developed a remarkable experience at the field of translations and adaptations (Majeed Nadwi, 2013). Specifically, he had translated many Pahlavi and Sassanian political and didactic texts and his unique personal style, that is constituted by a classical antiquity and modern innovative prose style, led him to an outstanding position among the academics of the Abbasid Caliphate (Shamma, 2009; van Ruymbeke, 2017). Under those circumstances, Ibn al-Muqaffa could be considered as the pioneer of the Translation Movement that influenced a significant amount of scholars to devote to the translation of plenty literary works (Grigore, 2018; Shamma, 2009).

With this in mind, it is important to understand the reason why al-Muqaffa’s translation made the difference among the attempts of the other scholars. First of all, his translation is considered innovative, since the prose style that he chose for “Kalila and Dimna” resulted to the flowering of Arabic literature (Ahmed, 2015; Majeed Nadwi, 2013). Additionally, his authorial invisibility, which is one of this narrative methodology, leads the leader to the conclusion that the context of the work is universal and diachronic (van Ruymbeke, 2017). For example, he tended to start Kalila and Dimna’s stories with the phrase “Za ‘amu anna…”, which means “They believed that...” (Ahmed, 2015).

Moreover, Ibn al-Muqaffa did not hesitate to add his own and new stories, such as “The Dove”, “The Monk and The Guest” and “The Fox and The Heron” (Grigore, 2018). Equally important is the addition of a final chapter that overthrew the end of Panchatantra and highlighted the importance of the moral principles (ibid.). In detail, in the Indian Panchatantra, Karataka, the heart-warming jackals, is the one who loses the struggle against Damanak, the evil jackal, who wins the victory in front of the right on survival and life (ibid.). So, taking into consideration, that al-Muqqafa was interested in the raising of political awareness and the cultivation of a moral culture among the people, he added a new chapter (“Dimna’s judgement) where the instigator jackal, Damanaka, is judged and executed (Grigore, 2018). All in all, it was, also, an

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation attempt of the writer not to provoke reactions among the Islamic law (ibid.). To put it differently, the Islamic Law is a religious-based system that defines the relationship between the Court and the citizens since many years ago (Lewis, 1999). Especially, when the Islamic world was still a Caliphate, the law was totally based on the lines of the Qu’ran and as a result the Law system had become that strict that the Court had the power to set boundaries on the works of the academics of the Islamic world (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Indeed, even al-Muqaffa had adjusted his text according to the religious principles, in order to avoid the criticism.

At the same time, Ibn al- Muqaffa indicated an exceptional respect to the cultures that influenced the text that was called to translate. Analytically, the Arabic version of Panchatantra is, actually, a mixture of three cultures: the Indian, the Persian and the Arabic (Abdelsadek, 2010; Shamma, 2009). In particular, the chapters of the Arabic version are the following (Knatchbull, 1819):  Introduction of Ibn al-Muqaffa  The Biography and Mission of Borzoe (This is reference point- chapter of al- Muqaffa’s work since it was a unique addition to the Arabic “Panchatantra”. Of course, it was not an incidental choice (van Ruymbeke, 2017). On the contrary, the author wanted to capture audience’s attention and activate their cognitive sources in order to understand the text in the highest possible level (ibid.). It could be said, that Ibn al-Muqaffa tried to direct the readers in order to perceive the text in the way that he wanted (ibid.). What is more, the aforementioned technique was clearly influenced by the Eastern literature, in which the author had a great academic experience (Abdelsadek, 2010).)  The Lion and the Ox (or Two friends between whom a crafty interloper sows dissension or The Defense of Dimna)  The Ring-dove (or The love of Sincere Friends)  The Owls and the Crows (or An Enemy of Whom One Should Beware)  The Monkey and the Tortoise (or The Man Who, Having Grasped Something Lets It Slip)  The Ascetic and the Weasel (or The Hasty Man)  The Mouse and the Cat (or The Man Who Has Many Enemies)  The King and the Bird (or The Vindictive Man Whom One Should Not Trust).

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 The Lion and the Jackal (or The man Who Seeks To Be Reconciled With One Whom He has Ill-treated).  The Wise Bilar and Queen Ilar  The Lioness and the Horseman (or The Man Who Refrains From Hurting Another Because Of The Harm He Would Thereby Bring Upon Himself).  The Ascetic and his Guest (or The Man Who Abandons His Craft For Another And Forgets The first Without Learning The Second).  The Traveler and the Goldsmith (or The Man Who Does Good To Those Who Are Unworthy).  The King’s Son and his Companions  The Dove, the Fox and the Heron (or The Man Who Can Give Good Advice To Others But Not To Himself).

Nevertheless, some of these chapters are strongly connected to the Indian and the Persian culture (van Ruymbeke, 2017). More specifically, “The Lion and the Ox”, “The Mouse and the Cat”, “The Ascetic and the Weasel” and “The Monkey and the Tortoise”, The Lion and the Jackal”, “The Wise Bilar and Queen Ilar”, “The Lioness and the Horseman”, “The King’s Son and his Companions” and “The Traveler and the Goldsmith” are stories that are found in Indian and in Buddhist tradition, as well (Grigore, 2018). Similarly, the chapter-reference to Borzoe was only found in the Persian version of Kalila and Dimna (ibid.). In other words, the Arabic version of Panchatantra, which is the most popular one, is a result of intercourse of several civilizations (van Ruymbeke, 2017). Different cultures collaborated mutually for the final form of the tales and they contributed to the creation of a global and multicultural literary work (Grigore, 2018). As a result, “Kalila wa Dimna” promotes and support diversity and pluralism in literature and, by extension, in culture (Shamma, 2009).

3.4. From India to universality; the role of the Arabic version

Important to realize the reason why some traditional tales became universal and timeless is the evaluation of the hypertext of Panchatantra. In fact, there were elements that made the stories unique and led them to stand out among innumerable oral stories that existed in the culture of any country.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

To begin with, the literary techniques that the author utilized in order to highlight the moral context of the stories were innovative and they influenced the evolution of the global literature (van Ruymbeke, 2017). Analytically, the text is one of the first global examples that could be characterized as a narrative allegory and more specifically, as a fable (Mohammadzadeh & Mahmoudi, 2017). To be precise, a fable that belongs to the general category of the narrative allegories refers to stories that the characters are inhuman (ibid.). So, instead of people the protagonists are animals or objects, which are sounding boards of the morality of the human societies (ibid.). It is a type of text that is influenced by Persian and Greek culture and it was popular, since allegories have been always helping people to explain complicated issues by simple words (ibid.). In the case of Panchatantra, the animals have taken the place of people and have acquired human characteristics and habits (personification) (Aktas & Beldag, 2017). For example, in the stories of Panchatantra animal can talk with human voice and express human concerns (ibid.). In fact, each animal has unique and specific characteristics that are preserved until the end of the story (Abdelsadek, 2010). Under those circumstances in which the author was using “innocent” main heroes, he was able to express an indirect criticism to the authorities or to specific politicians (Aktas & Beldag, 2017; van Ruymbeke, 2017).

What is more, it would be a fault not to mention the attempt of the text to create a moral world (Ahmed, 2015). Through the first reading, the reader can understand that the initial purpose of the fables was to create capable and active politicians who care about the social evolution and not the personal one (Grigore, 2018; van Ruymbeke, 2017). It is possible that the author had specific people in his mind when he was giving the human characteristics to every animal, but he chose to make his criticism indirectly (Aktas & Beldag, 2017). In other words, in the beginning the text could be considered as a political manual (Ahmed, 2015). But, a deeper re-reading could offer to the reader the opportunity to expand his knowledge and opinion on the contexts of Panchatantra stories. Specifically, the moral values that the text promotes refer to every member of any social group and they could be acquired by any community in order to improve the human conduct and the spirituality of the society (Grigore, 2018; Shamma, 2009).

As a matter of fact, story-tellers and writers were the “reporters” of the early ages, due to the fact that they were observing the reality and transmitting it into their stories in

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation order to problematize the listeners or the readers and raise their awareness about specific social problems (Mohammadzadeh & Mahmoudi, 2017). This is the reason why the book tries to highlight moral and immoral practices and emphasize on the eternal winning of the “good” against the “bad” (Ahmed, 2015; Grigore, 2018). In short, the virtues that they are promoted by the text are wisdom, friendship, justice, respect, politeness, courage, empathy and patience which all lead to happiness (Aktas & Beldag, 2017; van Ruymbeke, 2017).

Summarizing, it became evident the evolution of the Arabic Letters became the starting point a general and global recognition of the Eastern studies (Allen 2003). The work of the Arab academics was the connecting line among the several countries that for many years were evolving their oral tradition and folk literature. By the time, the oral stories acquired their own position into the libraries, the boundaries between the cultures became so fine that they can barely be seen. Another example, similar to “Panchatantra” is the well- known “One Thousand and One Nights”.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

4th Chapter: From Hazar Afsan and Alf Laylah wa-Laylah to the Arabian Nights

4.1. A small review

Once upon a time a great collection of books was published. This remarkable collection was meant to be one of the most influential literary works of the global literature. With unique structure elements, such as numerous heroes, unprecedented narrative techniques and influences from different parts of the world, it managed to seduce the listeners and the readers that were enjoying the multi-dimensioned stories (Fudge, 2016). In the beginning only people of the Eastern world could enjoy this literary magic. But, everything changed in 1704 (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). During that year and after a long time of work, Antoine Galland managed to introduce the oral stories to the French readership and later to the global one (Marzolph, 2014). Nevertheless, there are only a few readers among the world that are informed about the entire background of the collection until its introduction to the universal readership. Of course, the aforementioned references describe the book of “One ,ʾAlf Laylah wa-Laylah), hhah َو َل ْي َلةُ َل ْي َل ةُ أَ ْل فُ :Thousand and One Nights” (Arabic ‎s nw mw‎nay‎am w‎oh‎as“The Arabian Nights” or “Nights” as well (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009).

Antoine Galland’s translation (Les Mille et une Nuits) is the most popular version of the stories and is constituted by the following volumes and chapters (Les Mille et Une Nuits, 2020):

Volume 1  "L'Ane, le Boeuf et le Laboureur" ("The Fable of the Ass, the Ox, and the Labourer")  "Fable de Chien et du Boeuf" ("The Fable of the Dog and the Ox")  "Le Marchand et le Génie" ("The Merchant and the Genie")  "Histoire du premier Vieillard-Baron et de la Biche" ("The History of the first Old Man and the Doe")  "Histoire du second Vieillard et des deux Chiens noirs" ("The Story of the second Old Man and the two black Dogs")  "Histoire du Pècheur" ("The Story of the Fisherman")

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 "Histoire du Roi grec et du Medecin Douban" ("The Story of the Grecian King and the Physician Douban")  "Histoire du Mari et du Perroquet" ("History of the Husband and the Parrot")  "Histoire du Vizir puni" ("History of the Vizier that was punished")  "Histoire du jeune Roi des iles Noires" ("The Story of the young King of the Black Isles")  "Histoire de trois Calenders, fils de Roi, et de cinq dames de Bagdad" ("History of three Calenders, Sons of King, and Five Ladies of Bagdad")

Volume 2  "Histoire du premier Calender, fils de Roi" ("History of the First Calender, son of King")  "Histoire du second Calender, fils de Roi" ("The Story of the Second Calender, son of King")  "Histoire de l'Envieux et de l'Envie" ("History of the envious Man, and of him that he envied")  "Histoire du troisième Calender, fils de Roi" ("The Story of the Third Calender, son of King")  "Histoire de Zobéide" ("The Story of Zobeide")  "Histoire d'Amine" ("The Story of Amine")

Volume 3  "Histoire de Sindbad le Marin" ("The Story of Sindbad the Sailor") o "Premier voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("His First Voyage") o "Deuxieme voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Second Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor") o "Troisième voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Third Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor") o "Quatrième voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Fourth Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor") o "Cinquième voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Fifth Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor") o "Sixième voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Sixth Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor")

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o "Septième et dernier voyage de Sindbad le marin" ("The Seventh and last Voyage of Sindbad the Sailor")  "Les Trois Pommes" ("The Three Apples")  "Histoire de la dame massacree et du jeune homme son mari" ("The Story of the Lady that was murdered, and of the young Man her Husband")  "Histoire de Noureddin Ali, et de Bedreddin Hassan" ("The Story of Noureddin Ali and Bedreddin Hassan")

Volume 4  "Suite de l'Histoire de Noureddin Ali, et de Bedreddin Hassan" ("Continuation of the Story of Noureddin Ali and of Bedreddin Hassan")  "Histoire du petit Bossu" ("History of the Little Hunchback")  "Histoire que raconta le Marchand chretien" ("The Story told by the Christian Merchant")  "Histoire racontée par le pourvoyeur du sultan de Casgar" ("The Story told by the Sultan of Casgar's Purveyor")  "Histoire racontée par le médecin juif" ("The Story told by the Jewish Physician")  "Histoire que raconta le Tailleur" ("The Story told by the Tailor")

Volume 5  "Suite de l'Histoire que raconta le Tailleur" ("Continuation of the Story told by the Tailor")  "Histoire du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber") o "Histoire du premier Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber's Eldest Brother") o "Histoire du second Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barrber's Second Brother") o "Histoire du troisieme Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber's Third Brother") o "Histoire du quatrieme Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber's Fourth Brother") o "Histoire du cinquieme Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber's Fifth Brother")

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o "Histoire du sixieme Frere du Barbier" ("The Story of the Barber's Sixth Brother")  "Histoire d'Aboulhassan Ali Ebn Becar et de Schemselnihar, favorite du calife Harun-al-Rashid" ("History of Aboulhassan Ali Ebn Becar and Schemselnihar, Favourite of Caliph Harun-Al-Rashid")

Volume 6  "Histoire des amours de Camaralzaman Prince de l'Isle des enfant de Khalendan, et de Badoure Princesse de la Chine" ("The Story of the Amours of Camaralzaman, Prince of the Isles of the Children of Khaleden, and of Badoura, Princess of China")  "Suite de l'Histoire de Camaralzaman" ("Continuation of the Story of Camaralzaman")  "Suite de l'histoire de la Princesse de la Chine" ("Continuation of the story of the Princess of China")  "Histoire de Marzavan avec la suite de celle de Camaralzaman" ("History of Marzavan with the continuation of that of Camaralzaman")  "Séparation du Prince Camaralzaman d'avec la Princesse Badoure" ("Separation of Prince Camaralzaman from Princess Badoure")  "Histoire de la Princesse Badoure apres la separation du Prince Camaralzaman" ("Story of Princess Badoure after the separation of Prince Camaralzaman")  "Suite de l'histoire du Prince Camaralzaman, depuis sa separation d'avec la Princesse Badoure" ("Continuation of the story of Prince Camaralzaman, since his separation from Princess Badoure")  "Histoire des Princes Amgiad et Assad" ("History of Princes Amgrad and Assad")  "Le Prince Assad arrete en entrant dans la ville des Mages" ("Prince Assad arrests upon entering the city of the Magi")  "Histoire du Prince Amgiad & d'une dame de la ville des Mages" ("Story of Prince Amgiad & a Lady from the City of the Magi")  "Suite de l'Histoire du Prince Assad" ("Continuation of the Story of Prince Assad")

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Volume 7  "Histoire de Noureddin et de la belle Persienne" ("The Story of Noureddin and the Fair Persian")  "Histoire de Beder, prince de Perse, et de Giauhare, princesse du royaume du Samandal" ("The Story of Beder, Prince of Persia, and Giahaurre, Princess of the Kingdom of Samandal")

Volume 8  "Histoire de Ganem, Fils d'Abou Ayoub, surmomme l'Esclave d'Amour" ("The Story of Ganem, Son of Abou Ayoub, and known by the Surname of Love's Slave")  "Histoire du prince Zein Alasnam et du roi des Génies" ("The Story of Prince Zeyn Alasnam, and the King of the Geniuses")  "Histoire de Codadad et de ses frères" ("History of Codadad and his Brothers")  "Histoire de la princesse Deryabar" ("The Story of the Princess of Deryabar")

Volume 9  "Histoire du dormeur éveillé" ("The Story of the Sleeper Awakened")  "Histoire d'Aladdin ou la Lampe merveilleuse" ("The Story of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp")

Volume 10  "Suite de l'Histoire d'Aladdin ou la Lampe merveilleuse" ("End of the Tale of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp")  "Les avantures de Calife Harun AlRashid" (The Adventures of Caliph Harun- Al-Rashid)  "Histoire de l'Aveugle Baba-Alidalla" (The Story of the Blind Baba-Alidalla)  "Histoire de Sidi Nouman" (History of Sidi Nouman)  "Histoire de Cogia Hassan Alhababbal" (The Story of Cogia Hassan Alhababbal)

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Volume 11  "Suite de l'Histoire de Cogia Hassan Alhababbal" (Continuation of the Story of Cogia Hassan Alhababbal)  "Histoire d'Ali-Baba et de quarante voleurs exterminés par une esclave" ("Tale of Ali Baba and Forty Thieves Exterminated by a Slave")  "Histoire d'Ali Cogia, Marchand de Bagdad" (The Story of Ali Cogia, Merchant of Baghdad)  "Histoire du Cheval enchanté" (History of the Enchanted Horse)

Volume 12  "Histoire du prince Ahmed et de la fee Pari-Banou" (History of Prince Ahmed and the Pari-Banou fairy)  "Histoire des deux Soeurs jalouses de leur cadette" (The Story of the two sisters jealous of their younger daughter)

4.2. The frame-story

Somewhere between China and India, there was a Sassanian king, named Shahryar (al-Musawi, 2009). The king had a younger brother, whose name was King Shah Zaman (Nayebpour, 2017). One day, the youngest king discovers that his wife has been deceiving him. In a heat of rage, he decided to kill her and her lover (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006). After that, he visits his brother, Shahryar, without telling him the incident. Unfortunately, the circumstances did not help Shah Zaman to forget his wife’s unfaithfulness (Marzolph, 2004). More specifically, during a night that his brother was out for hunting, he saw the queen trying to seduce a slave of the palace. At that moment, he was so overloaded by anger and bitterness that he was not able to hide the truth from the king (Weidner, 2017). So, he reveals to his brother what he witnessed and Shahryar decides to execute his espouse and the slave while he is full of grief and anger (Rastegar, 2005).

After the killings, the two brothers have a serious talk, by which they come to the conclusion that there are no faithful women and they all deserve to be killed in the most humiliating way (Bibb & Bearman, 1954). As Shahryar promises to his self that he will not marry any woman again, he, also, designs a cruel plan, since he was

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation seeking to fulfill his need for revenge (Marzolph, 2014; Fudge, 2016). Specifically, he decided to marry one virgin woman every day in order to kill her the next morning. This had been happening for three years, until Scheherazade took the situation in her own hands (Yanamaka & Nishio, 2006).

Analytically, the king’s favorite vizier was in charge for finding the virgin women that the king needed in order to achieve his goal (Marzolph, 2004). Day by day, the number of virgins in their region was being reduced, until he could not find any other virgins (al-Musawi, 2009). So, one of his two daughters, Scheherazade, offers herself voluntarily to marry the king. Before the wedding, she informs her sister, Dunyazad, about the plan that he has designed in order to beat the king’s desire for female blood (Ratsegar, 2005). To explain, during the first night of their marriage, Scheherazade asks from the king to satisfy her last wish before her execution. Specifically, she asks to see for the last time her sister, who expresses her own request: She wants to listen to her sister telling a story for the last time. The king agrees and the first night of the “One Thousand and One Nights” begins (Weidner, 2017).

After a large number of stories, peculiar heroes and strange incidents, Scheherazade manages to seduce the king by her creativity and wisdom (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006). He re-constructed his faithfulness to women and his anger and pain had totally gone. In fact, he had really loved her and they had three sons together. From the other side, his brother, Shah Zaman, married Dunyazad and their father was upgraded in a higher position regarding the duties of the palace (Marzolph, 2014; Gibb & Bearman, 1954).

4.3. Literary genres and techniques

It is a matter of fact, that the “Nights” cannot be categorized into one and altitude literary genre Nayebpour, 2017). As it became obvious at the previous chapters, the story contains multi-dimensioned references that could justify the subcategories of the literary genres that the story belongs to.

Briefly and holistically, the frame-story between the king Shahryar and Schezerazade could justifiably be characterized as:

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

 Fairy-tale: The frame-story is fictional with elements such as kings, queens, palaces, servants which often surround the fairytales around the world (Fudge, 2016).  Romance story: The story begins with two traumatized kings and ends up with the same people, who have restored their faith to women and to the power of love (Marzolph, 2004).  Novel: Taking into consideration that a novel is a fictional story with some elements of realism, it would be easy to say with the “Nights” are suitable with this definition (Weidner, 2017). Despite the fact that the frame-story of the belongs to a fantasy world, the identity of each character, such as kings, queens, servants etc., corresponds to the political people that were always the center of the conversation during the period of the genesis of the tales (al- Musawi, 2009).  Didactic story: In the first place, the incidents between the kings and the queens show off the issue of justice through the punishment and the conviction of the offender (Yamanka & Nishio, 2009). Identically, the end of the story highlights the importance of patience, love and respect. It is, also, problematizes the reader with questions about the abuse of death penalty, power, gender equality and feminism (Marzolph, 2004).

Of course, the numerous sub-stories, which Scheherazade narrated to the king, have their own characteristics independent from the frame-story that enrich the context of the volumes and offers pleasure to the readers, no matter which his/her taste in literature is. More specifically, the sub-categories are the following:

 Legend stories/ Folk tales: Some of the heroes of the stories are real historical personalities such as Harun al-Rashid in the “History of Aboulhassan Ali Ebn Becar and Schemselnihar, Favourite of Caliph Harun- Al-Rashid” (Gib & Bearman, 1954).  Humorous tales: “The Story of the Fisherman” (Nayebpour, 2017).  Animal fables: “The Fable of the Dog and the Ox” (Fudge, 2016)  Crime fiction: “The Story of the Lady that was murdered, and of the young Man her Husband” (al-Musawi, 2009).  Humorous sexual stories: The Fable of the Ass, the Ox, and the Labourer (Yamanka & Nishio, 2009).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

 Horror stories: “The Story of Ali Cogia, Merchant of Baghdad” (Marzolph, 2004).  Poetry: The narrator frequently speaks in poetic meter, in order to emphasize virtues, such as religion, fate or intense feelings (Weidner, 2017).  Science fiction/Fantasy: “End of the Tale of Aladdin or the Wonderful Lamp” (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006)

Furthermore, the multi-dimensioned hyper-text of the “Nights” is not only revealed by the variety of influences that corresponds to general area of the literary genres (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). On the contrary, other important points that highlight the multilateral approach and the value of the tale are the innovative narrative techniques that Scheherazade uses in order to captivate her audience’s attention and expand the story as much as needed for her survival (Fudge, 2016). It would not be pointless to say that for the protagonist narration is equal to hope. Analytically, heroine’s narrativity is plenty of:

 Frame story: The introduction to the story between the King and Scheherazade differentiates the collection from every other fairy tale, since it rationalizes the existence of literature (Yamanak & Nishio, 2006). According to the story, literature/art is not only an amusing and educating, but it is, also, a human need for expression, an inspiration for problem-solving and element of quality of life and mental alertness (Rastegar, 2005). In a few words, it underlines the value of the literature among the societies.  Simple plot structure: The main body of the tales corresponds to the basic norms of the narrations (specific place and time, heroes, problem, solution, feelings, thoughts, end). What make the tales unique are the innovative narrative techniques that are analyzed at the current chapter (Marzolph, 2004).  Set of stories: The enormous variety among the stories does not lead the listener/reader to lose his/her interest in the story-teller (Nayebpour, 2017). Additionally, every story gives the baton to the next one, in a way that the whole construction of tale could be compared with the construction of a stable and safe house. In other words, each story is an entire line of bricks, which become the wall mount for the upper one, until they reach the pick of the construction and the builder can look up the final result.

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 Prologues: The narrator usually uses a small introductory speech before the beginning of the story, in order to captivate her audience’s attention and provoke their thoughts in order to guess the context of the story (Rastegar, 2005). In other words, she makes a great use of her audience’s cognitive sources, for the purpose of capturing their imagination (Marzolph, 2014; Weidnerr, 2017).  Nested/Embedded narrative: During the basic narration, the story-teller inserts another sub-story in order to explain the circumstances more analytically (al- Musawi, 2009). This technique does not only provides better understanding on the context, but it, also, delays the blooming of the plot, so that the readers/ listeners raise their interest in the story and look forward in become aware of the continuation ( Rastegar, 2005).  Dramatic visualization and slowness: Scheherazade often describes the heroes and the places or the peculiar objects in extreme detail in order to activate her audience’s imagination and slow the narration down (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006). It is a technique that makes the listener/reader inpatient about the end and makes him/her looking forward to reaching the end of the story (Fudge, 2016). Representing an object or character with abundant descriptive detail, or mimetically rendering gestures and dialogue to make a scene more visual or imaginatively present to an audience (Nayebpour, 2017).  Rhymed prose: The text is written in a light poetic meter, which gives to the audience the impression that the story has an organized structure and flow (Rastegar, 2005). That way, the context does not seem dull and monotonous and the audience does not get bored or tired very easily (ibid.).  Motif of story teller- listener and realism: The connection between the participants of the process of storytelling makes the tale convincing and realistic and it shows that the act of story-telling is only meaningful when the audience exists and perceives the information (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006).  Flexible characters: Some of the heroes of the “Nights” do not belong to an exceptional social group. Some of them are workers, others are poor etc. So, the narrator uses people like everyone else, due to the fact that his/her aim is to make the audience identify him-/herself and find something personal into the story (Nayebpour, 2017).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

 Fate and destiny/ God’s intervention/ Magical interventions/ Human’s responsibility: Fate, destiny and God are some of the techniques that insert magic and “irregular” factors more smoothly. Additionally, the Middle Eastern world, from where the story comes from, was a profoundly religious society, that had a strong belief in the power of destiny or the intervention of supernatural factors (Marzolph, 2014; Gib & Bearman, 1954). Nevertheless, fate cannot function without the human actions, since the story highlights that someone’s option specific reactions that are connected to his/her destiny.  Repetition: It is narrative technique that highlights variety of problems that a person is called to solve in his every-day life (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006). These problems sometimes seem to be similar, but the solution is always different and adjustable. Additionally, some of the repetitions are functioning as revisions for important incidents that the audience should remember (ibid.). o Repetition in characters and names: Harun al-Rashid is a protagonist in more than one tale (ibid.). o Repetition in expression: Every story starts as soon as the sky is getting darker, but every time the night comes in a different way (ibid.). o Repetitions in contents: Motifs and techniques (ibid.).  Personification: Not only people, but, also, animal can be the heroes in a narration. They share the same characteristics with the human (logical thinking, speech, feelings) and they carry the meaning of the text in a more direct and smooth way (Fudge, 2016).  Climax until the end/Happy endings: Just before the end of the story the narration reaches its peak, in order to satisfy more the audience with the happy ending (Marzolph, 2004).

The things considered, “One Thousand and One Nights” could be characterized as the rose of the global literature. With this in mind, the stem is the main body and frame-story of the work and the petals are the sub-stories that lead to the pollen in the end of the story, which carries all the virtues and precepts that the reader/listener should transfer to his/her life and to the rest of the humans, just like bees carry the pollen in order to help the flowers grow and evolve.

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

4.4. Multiculturalism: The silent and powerful contributor

One of the most important Greek litterateurs, Yorgos Seferis, had once said that in art there is not parthenogenesis. His popular quote is a direct reference to the complexity between the source of inspiration and the production of the work itself. The stimuli among the interaction of the artist and his/her environment are so enormous, that it is sometimes difficult to clarify the initial element that leads the artist to the production of a work. Of course, the aforementioned condition becomes more complicated as it comes to artistic works that belong to the ancient or early history, when the written sources are quite few (Marzolph, 2014; Weidner, 2017).

As regards, the work that the present paper analyzes, the initial source of inspiration, it is not easy to be found, due to the fact that during the basic period of formation and spread of the “One Thousand and One Nights”, the Islamic world was constituted by several ethnicities, which influenced the Abbasid literature in their own unique way (Gutas, 1998). Specifically, there are various sources that prove the impact of different cultures and the contribution of multiculturalism to the Abbasid literature (Grunenbaum, 1942). Correspondingly, despite the fact that the majority of readers believe that the “Nights” is originated in the Arabic culture, the nationalities that are strongly present at the text are Arabs, Persians, Indians, Greeks, Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Babylonians, Turks and Jewish (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Pinault, 1992).

To begin with, as the Persian nation was constituent element of the Abbasid society, their cultured influenced the formation of the final text of “The Arabian Nights” and the already formed Persian oral literature offered significant borrows to the Arabic one (Bahrawi, 2016). Analytically, as it was showed off at the first chapter, Persians had developed several literary genres, that someone can identify into the Arabic text of the “Nights” such as biography, fiction, myths, texts about ethics and wisdom, mysticism, romance, religious texts and didactic poetry (Javandel, 2015; Spuler, 2003; Shakib, 2011). In addition, techniques that refer to the invented audience and to the indirect references to specific political people and situations are some of the Persian motives that someone can find in the Arabic text, as well (Gaborieau, Kramer, Nawas, Rowson, 2007). Moreover, there are plenty words and names of heroes that are rooted in the Persian language culture, such as Scheherazade, Shahryar, Shah Zaman and

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Dinyazad (Marzolph, 2004). Also, kings, queens, princes and servants and supernatural elements, such as demons, ghosts and fairies were often used by the Persian story-tellers as protagonists (Gaborieau, et al., 2007).

Nevertheless, there are sources that prove that the Persian contribution was much more significant than a few literary references. More specifically, during the Golden Age of the Islamic world when the Abbasid had reached the social, economic and cultural peak of the Empire, many foreign texts had been translated (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). The academic world had created a translation movement through which Persian, Greek and Latin texts were transferred into the Arabic Letters (Bahrawi, 2016). One of those texts was “Hazar Afsan” (The Thousand Stories) and it was originated in Persia. Despite the fact that nowadays there are no manuscripts of the text, the translation of the title can easily make clear its relation with the “Alf wa- laylah wa-laylah” (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). In fact, there were 200 stories written in Pahlavi and constituted by the same frame-story regarding king Shahryar and Scheherazade (Pinault, 1992). It was translated into Arabic in the 8th century and it is, actually became an integral part of the Arabic culture. In a few words, what the Arab integrated into their folklore, it was, firstly, filtered by the Persian tradition (Kobzosova, 2012).

In the light of the aforementioned, it is useful to mention some of the “Arabic” stories that are considered part of “Hazar Afsan” (Gaborieau, et al., 2007; Weidner, 2017):  The Merchant and the Genie.  The Story told by the Christian Merchant.  The Story of Ali Cogia, Merchant of Baghdad.  History of the Enchanted Horse.  The Story of the two sisters jealous of their younger daughter.  The Story of the Amours of Camaralzaman, Prince of the Isles of the Children of Khaleden, and of Badoura, Princess of China.  History of Prince Ahmed and the Pari-Banou fairy.

Equally important was the contribution of the Indian culture (Gaborieau, et al. 2007; Weidenr, 2017). Specifically, Panchatantra stories have lent several characteristics to the Arabic texts (Bibb & Bearman, 1954). Analytically, the personification of the animal and the fables that protagonists are animals are two of the major Indian motifs

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(Gaborieau, et al., 2007). Additionally, the existence of a wise young woman is, also, an element that dominates into the Indian written tradition (Weidner, 2017; Jullien, 2009). In addition, the motif of the faithful woman, which is determining for the evolution of the story, is, also, an Indian element (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). Moreover, names such as Sindbad, are originated in India, as well (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). What is more, the presence of the narrator along with the heroes, it can be spotted in many old Indian literary works (ibid.). In fact, the stories of the “Nights” that are influenced basically by the Indian culture are the following (Gaborieau, et al., 2007):

 The Merchant and the Genie.  The Story of the Fisherman.  History of three Calenders, Sons of King, and Five Ladies of Bagdad.  History of the Enchanted Horse.  The Story of the Amours of Camaralzaman, Prince of the Isles of the Children of Khaleden, and of Badoura, Princess of China.  History of the Little Hunchback.

Similarly, Greek classical works have influenced the final formation of the “Nights” (Grunebaum, 1942). In detail, Greek texts that have an impact on the “Nights” are novels, psalms, prophetical texts, animal fables of Aesop, odes of Solomon, hymns and mythology (Pinault, 1992). To emphasize, the bonds between Byzantium and the Islamic Empire were pretty string during the Golden age of the Arabic World (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). To begin with, the basic role of the fate and the small contribution of chance that rule the heroes’ lives with the simultaneous designation of the human strength are two basic motifs of the ancient Greek novel (Grunenbaum, 1942). The texts are focused on love and the faith of the lovers that sometimes is self- deconstructive (ibid.). Of course, Greek texts and the “Nights” highlight the importance of literature, dreams and magic in the context of the relationship between the two lovers. In fact, the female heroine is always described as bolder than the male (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). Moreover, the lovers are never alone. They have a special person that contributes to the evolution of the hypothesis, such as siblings or friends (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Equally important is the fact that the analytical description of the protagonist is an essential element of the frame-story both in Greek novel and in the “Nights”. Finally, story-tellers were highly influenced by the first Greek fairytale composer, Aesop, who was utilizing animals as protagonists instead of human

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(Grunenbaum, 1942; Pinault, 1992). To demonstrate, some of the stories that contain Greek influences are (Grunenbaum, 1942; Gaborieau, et al. 2007):

. The Fable of the Dog and the Ox. . History of the Husband and the Parrot. . The Story of the Grecian King and the Physician Douban. . The Story of the second Old Man and the two black Dogs.

On balance, it is important to refer briefly to the rest of the ethnicities that seem to have influenced the final stories of the “Nights”. For example, the Egyptian folklore was usually referring to magical objects (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). So, “the Story of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp” could have been started from Egyptians sources. Additionally, the romance that dominates in the “Arabian Nights” is a genre that really flowered at the area of Mesopotamia (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Moreover, it seems that Turkey has contributed, as well, since there are used Turkish names, such as Ali-Baba, Khatum, etc. (ibid.). Additionally, the expression “One thousand and one” it is used in the Turkish language in order to express something innumerable, countless and long (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). Just to note, there is a thought that the Nights were entitled that way by the Arabs, due to their superstition as regards the round numbers, since they are considered as fortunate numbers (ibid.). Finally, there is a tale that indicates Jewish influences named “The Story told by the Jewish Physician” (ibid.).

In conclusion, it became clear that the identity of the “One Thousand and One Nights” is quite fluid due to the fact that the sources or the cultural centers that it was based were more than one (Sallis, 1999). According to the aforementioned it could be categorized into a new literary genre entitled as a “cross-cultural fairytale for adults”, which describes the nature of the text and its textual history in a more accurate way (Bahrawi, 2016; Marzolph, 1998; Thorn, 2002).

4.5. Antoine Galland: The common link between the past and the present of the Arabic Literature

The circumstances, under which the “One Thousand and One Nights” was born, were not the only ones that lead the academics to name it as a multicultural literary work. It is a fact that the fairytale had been “reborn” from a non-Arab and a great Orientalist,

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation linguist, archeologist and diplomat, who introduced the “Nights” to the global readership, Antoine Galland (1646-1715 AD) (al-Musawi, 2009; Gibb & Bearman, 1954).

To start with, Antoine Galland had a great interest in the Eastern cultures and he was visiting Syria and Egypt very frequently (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). In fact he was in charge to enrich the French royal collection with antiquities and manuscripts from the East (Marzolph, 2004). Additionally, he was the first academic that created the first Encyclopedia of Islam in French (Barthelemy d’ Herbelot’s Biblioteque) (Marzolph, 1998). Of course, after so close contact with the Eastern world, it would unavoidable not to become familiar with its oral tradition, including the dissemination of the “Nights” (Thorn, 2002). Specifically, during around 1690, Antoine Galland had been travelled to the Near East. It was the first time that he contacted with the “Arabian Nights” by the tale of Sindbad (Makdisi & Nussbaum, 2008). He started to transcript the stories that he was hearing in order to translate them into his first language (Fudge, 2016). After Sindbad, the local people informed him that the story did not come alone, but it is accompanied with several tales. So, in 1704 he published the Tale of Sindbad translated into French and became familiar with a huge success (Kobzosova, 2012). After that, he decided to search for the rest of the stories. The material that he had collected made him able to publish the first four volumes (al- Musawi, 2009). Then, four more came to complete his goal. At that point, he had a small break regarding his publications that lasted 3 years, due to the fact that his sources had been saturated (Gaborieau, et al., 2007).

In general, it could be said that Galland was extremely lucky, since he met the right people at the right place (Marzolph, 2004). Analytically, in 1709 he met one of the greatest oral sources that he could have ever asked for: A Syrian female Maronite from Aleppo named Hanna Diab (Gibb & Beraman, 1954). She narrated the stories of Scheherazade from her memory and Galland did what he knew better: transcription, translation, adaptation-adjustment, publication (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2006). In addition, he had the opportunity to have access into a 15th century Syrian manuscript of the “Nights” (Fudge, 2016). That way, the final 4 volumes were added to the 8 previous ones and the collection of the “Les Mille et une Nuits; contes arabes traduits en francais” was completed in 1717, two years after Galland died (Gaborieau, et al., 2007).

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According to the aforementioned, the European academic was the link that connected the Eastern world with the Western (Makdisi & Nussbaum, 2008). The French readership accepted his challenge and showed enthusiasm for Galland’s venture. In fact Galland’s manuscript is the oldest completed archive that still exists in the global library (Fudge, 2016). Before that, there is only one manuscript in Arabic that pre- existed Galland’s version (Marzolph, 1998). It could be stated that the Arabs realized the value of their publication, after the success of the “Nights” in Europe, since they began to print the tales many years after the acceptance of the Islamic culture from France, firstly in 1775 and then, around 1814-1818 in Egypt (Gaborieau, et al., 2007). So, the “One Thousand and One Nights” came back to its countries of origin, in order to influence the current literature, again (Kobzosova, 2012). Additionally, many other scholars imitated the example of the French academic and many foreign versions of the tale came up. For example (Gaborieau, et al., 2007; Gibb & Bearman, 1954):  Chavis Denis, 1788: He translated other Arabic fairytales.  William Beloe, 1795: He published Arabic stories named “ Miscellaines”.  William Ouseley, 1797  Jonathan Scott, 1800  Caussin de Perceval, 1806: He added two stories at Galland’s version.  Edward Gauttier, 1822  Habicht, 1825: Whole new translation of the “Nights”.  Edward Burton, 1885-88: New translation.

Under those circumstances, during 19th the European academics began to doubt about the origin of the tales and the fidelity of Galland’s version (Gibb & Bearman, 1954). In fact, Silvestre de Sacy, one of the founders of the Oriental philology was the first academic that did not only highlight the possibility of non-Arab influences to the tale, but he, also, arose the issue regarding Galland’s interventions to the initial text (Gaborieau, et al., 2007).

Specifically, taking into consideration that one of the main goals of the literature is to make the reader identify him-/herself with the protagonists and find pieces of his/her personality and point of view into the story, it would unavoidable to understand that Galland did not only translated the fairytale, but he, also, created them (Ζερβού, 1992). Analytically, due to the difference between the cultures of born and reborn of the stories, Galland adjusted the tale to the demands of the target group in order to

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation correspond to their literature taste (al-Musawi, 2009). In other words, he changed the details that were unfamiliar to the European public and transformed them into stereotypical images about the East in response to the audience’s entertainment (Gibb & Bearman, 1954; Sabouri & Karimzadeh, 2011). He, actually, tried to create a bridge between the two worlds, but as a result he managed to produce prejudices and stereotypes about the Islamic world and reproduce real existing power relations, between the dominant Europe and the dominated East (Arabs, Persia, India etc.), which is described through the term Orientalism (Marzolph, 2004; Sabouri & Karimzadeh, 2011 Said, 1978).

4.6. Orientalism: the real protagonist of the “One Thousand and One Nights”

Generally speaking, Orientalism is not a new-comer field of research. There is a historical evolution of the term, since someone can find orientalist speech into Aesculus’ play “The Persians” and into Plato’s, Hugo’s, Dante’s, Voltaire’s, Leibniz’s, Montesqieu’s, Hegel’s and Karls Marx’s work, as well (Hebberd, 1877; Said, 1978). Nevertheless, Orientalism can be interpreted by two definitions. Firstly, it can refer to the field of studies that its subject is the Culture, History and Language of the Eastern world (Said, 1978). That way, when a scholar is called “orientalist”, a person can understand that it is not a defensive or humiliating characteristic. On the contrary, it is an academic title that refers to the success of a researcher into the aforementioned subject (Volait, 2014).

Of course, the binary context of Orientalism does not always allow the researcher to be honored by this characteristic (Campell, 1991). Specifically, Orientalism is the way that the Western world had defined the Eastern, with no scientific and tangible criteria (Yang, 2014). It was invented by the Europeans in order to define the Islamic world through their background, so that they could self-define as a superior, more educated and delicate race (Xypolia, 2011). In fact, it is a dangerous theory, since it can be only detected into the discourse of oral and written speech and other ways of expression (e. g. cinema, theater etc.). In a few words, it hides between the words and actions and it judges the Islamic world in order to highlight the importance, superiority and dominance of the Europeans. (Bosworth, 2001)

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According to the aforementioned, the orientalist practices underline a difference between the Europe and the Orient (Roger, 2000). The first is a rich source of civilization and culture, but the second one is a source primitive lifestyle and way of thinking, which promotes racism and Islamophobia. In fact, the colonialist hypertext refers to an imaginary world and it expresses points of view that constitute sociopolitical, scientific, ideological and economic ideas (Baghdiantz McCabe, 2008). This is the reason why, the Orientalist practices are that strong that make the audience pre-think of how a person from the Eastern world may look like or think. Of course, these early judgments derive from European’s attempt to define their culture in relation to another one (Richardson, 2014).

All things considered, the imperialistic discourse of Orientalism can be easily spotted in contemporary art or public political speeches (Said, 1978). Specifically, when works of art, such as novels, dramas, films or even paintings and sculptures, refer to the Eastern world as an imaginative and mysterious place, which is full of secrets, exoticism, magic, wealth and eroticism, it is a conscious or unconscious attempt of the artist to make the audience to believe on their superiority through the pre-creation of the ideal other (Yamanaki &Nishio, 2000).

4.7. The “Orientalist” Antoine Galland

Generally speaking, no-one can deny Galland’s contribution to the global literature. His translation is quite valuable even nowadays and full of his respect to the literature and the Arabic culture, as well (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009). In fact, his translation was so influential that sometimes when people think of the East/Orient, they think about the images of the “Nights”, as they were adapted by the French scholar (Makdisi & Nussbaum, 2008). As a result, it is unquestionable that the “Arabian Nights” have played a significant role to the formation of the image of the Eastern world by the Western one (Fudge, 2016).

Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that Galland was not a person that was raised and lived in an Islamic country (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009). He was constantly interacted with the Islamic world, but he, also, had his own cultural and cognitive background which was leading him to subjective conclusions as regards the culture of the Eastern countries (Thorn, 2002). This characteristic can be easily spotted into his

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation translation, which can be more accurately characterized as an adaptation (Kobzosova, 2012). In other words, Galland did not only transfer some words from one language to another, but he, also, added and created elements, which they would be more attractive to the French audience (Bahrawi, 2016). In other words, he blunt sharp edges of the stories in order to create an imaginative “other/orient/occident” in response to the demands of the “normal/european”. In fact, in Galland ’s book there are stories that still look for their root, such as “o”, “The Story of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp” and “Tale of Ali Baba and Forty Thieves Exterminated by a Slave” (al-Musawi, 2009; Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009). The aforementioned stories lack of origin, since the French scholar created them from scratch according to his point of view as regards the culture of the Arabs (Fudge, 2016). Despite the fact that the stories contain some ethnographic observations and elements of the countries that Galland had visited through his contacts with the Eastern world, the scholar has added elements of exoticism, wealth, magic and mystery, in order to create a special place for the European audience. What is more, the creation of the “perfect” different culture makes the other side to feel superior about their cultural dominance (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009).

It must, also, be acknowledged that during Galland’s attempt to translate the “Nights”, Europe’s power had risen contrast with the power of Islamic world. The East was unaware of the decision of Europe to invade and colonize the land of Arabs, Persians, Indians etc. (Hourani, 1991; Said, 1978).

In other words, there was a power relationship between Galland and Arabs or the Arabic culture. Specifically, the French scholar was exploring the Orient and discussing it, writing and translating its oral traditions from a position of power and through the lens of European colonialism (Fudge, 2016). Europeans by that period had already started penetrating the Islamic world seeking to control its resources (Yamanaka & Nishio, 2009). Perhaps, that was one of the reasons why Galland did not hesitate to comment on the stories by a more orientalist point of view. For example, he drew countries and places with plenty of essential women, who were obeying to the richness of their “owner” and were satisfying all of his desires (Bahrawi, 2016). Additionally, the background of the tales was, usually, luxurious and full of crystals and gold or magic objects that were, always, satisfying the greed of the

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation protagonist. One of these objects is the famous Aladdin’s “wonderful lamp” (Marzolph, 2004).

Chrysi Lykaki LRM 60 Postgraduate Dissertation

Conclusions

To summarize, it became clear that the interaction between many different cultures is a fruitful procedure that offers the society many new opportunities. The people become familiar with new habits and states of mind that motivates the society for seeking evolution, which is not a unilateral procedure. It encloses all the fields that determine the quality of life in any country. In detail, when a society evolves, there is not only social evolution, but political, economic, artistic, scientific and ideological alternation, as well.

As it was mentioned, the changes among the Islamic world began when the Abbasids took over the power of the Empire. They were politicians with open-minded points of view, which lead to the acceptance of diversity. It would be an omission not to mention, the absence of discrimination among the citizens regarding the employment, since non-Arabs had, also, the opportunity to offer their services for the palace. That way the Abbasid society became receptive to new ideas and habits, especially from ethnicities such as Persians and Indians. Correspondingly, due to the fact that these countries had a rich history and tradition to the oral and written literature, they, also, influenced the scholars to expand their researching interests and start to handle texts that were produced in foreign lands.

Courtesy of the aforementioned openness, the Arabs became familiar with works of art or science that started to create a more critical and demanding audience. The academic circles and the citizens were increasingly asking for artistic blooming and entertainment. This desire was satisfied by works of art that were, firstly, found in non-Arab countries. Specifically, due to al-Muqqafa’s activeness the Persian “Hezar Afsan” and the Indian “Panchatantra” were translated and “Arabized” in such effective way that they are still considered that the initial versions are “Alf laylah wa- laylah” and “Kalila wa-Demna”.

To sum up, the close relationship between the Arab world and multiculturalism did not stop there. After many years, a French scholar, Antoine Galland, transcript the “Arabian Nights” that were about to become one of the greatest and global best- sellers. He found the most suitable sources to collect the material that he need, but, simultaneously, he added his own contribution to the work with 3 more tales based on

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Orientalist theories. So, even though his translation is still a model-text for further research and adaptations, it is unquestionable that he reproduced stereotypes regarding the Eastern world, which are still, influence Western’s opinion about the Islamic world.

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Υπεύθυνη Δήλωση Συγγραφέα: Δηλώνω ρητά ότι, σύμφωνα με το άρθρο 8 του Ν.1599/1986, η παρούσα εργασία αποτελεί αποκλειστικά προϊόν προσωπικής μου εργασίας, δεν προσβάλλει κάθε μορφής δικαιώματα διανοητικής ιδιοκτησίας, προσωπικότητας και προσωπικών δεδομένων τρίτων, δεν περιέχει έργα/εισφορές τρίτων για τα οποία απαιτείται άδεια των δημιουργών/δικαιούχων και δεν είναι προϊόν μερικής ή ολικής αντιγραφής, οι πηγές δε που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν περιορίζονται στις βιβλιογραφικές αναφορές και μόνον και πληρούν τους κανόνες της επιστημονικής παράθεσης.

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