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A Gendered Approach to Democratic Development Theory

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A Gendered Approach to Democratic Development Theory Centre for International Health A Gendered Approach to Democratic Development Theory Paula Wyndow This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University July 2013 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. _________________ Paula Wyndow 26/07/2013 i Copyright Statement I warrant that I have obtained, where necessary, permission from the copyright owners to use any third-party copyright material reproduced in the thesis (e.g. questionnaires, artwork, unpublished letters), or to use any of my own published work (e.g. journal articles) in which the copyright is held by another party (e.g. publisher, co-author) _________________ Paula Wyndow 26/07/2013 ii Acknowledgements There are many people I would like to acknowledge and thank for the support they have provided to me through what has been an exhilarating and times very challenging PhD journey. First, I am extremely fortunate to have been guided academically by Associate Professor Jianghong Li, Associate Professor Jaya Earnest, Associate Professor Siobhan Austen and Dr Eugen Mattes. As my primary supervisor, Jianghong has been unfailingly responsive, thoughtful and patient. She has taught me to keep asking questions and to really explore a topic in great depth. Siobhan and I have had some wonderful conversations over the course of my thesis and she has really influenced the narrative and storytelling of my work. Jaya has been a strong and steady hand throughout this journey and has been instrumental in ensuring that completion was a reality, not a dream. Thank you to Eugen who initially took me on and helped me fulfil my dream of working at the Telethon Insitute for Child Health Research. A big thank you must also go out to an amazing group of statistical gurus, Peter Jacoby, Dr Felix Chan, Dr Vasilis Sarafidis, and Professor Max Bulsara who were very generous with their time and knowledge, and were able to guide me through the very tricky maze that is longitudinal data analysis. This research has also benefited from the anonymous reviewers along the way who peer-reviewed my manuscript for publication. I also could not have undertaken this PhD without the financial support of Curtin University, the the Stan Perron Charitable Trust and the Telethon Institute for Child Health Research (TICHR). I have also been fortunate enough to receive the inaugural bursary for research that benefits women from the Australian Federation Graduate Women (WA) and Curtin University. Many thanks must go to the staff in the Centre for Population Health Research at Curtin University, Peter Bloor, in particular, for assisting me with everything that was needed to ensure my conference presentation in South Africa was a success and to Dean Newman for his administrative assistance. The financial and practical support from Curtin University and TICHR has been invaluable and greatly appreciated. iii My gratitude also goes to everyone that has shared this journey with me – in particular my PhD buddies and cheerleaders who have made this marathon achievable, wonderful, bearable; Katrina Hopkins, for buying me coffee, sharing her experiences and always making me feel better, Dr Sarah Johnson — for inspiring me with her own completion and sharing her referencing tips and knowledge, Dr Carrington Shepherd – for lunch, for laughs and technical support, and to everyone else at TICHR (particularly the Population Sciences crew) who have provided cake, coffee, respite and inspiration. You are all doing amazing and worthwhile research that will make a difference. I also wish to acknowledge the incredible and inspiring women that I am fortunate enough to have in my life; Dr Lucy Morris for her extraordinary thinking, wisdom, trust, and belief in my work; but mostly her friendship; the women at ISHAR who walk the path of gender (in)equality every day, and Sister Anne Tormey whose grace and wisdom taught me when to go about my business quietly and when to make a noise. Thank you too to all my beautiful friends and family members who continued to show interest in my work and ask how my thesis was going long after they were bored with it. I look forward to spending more time with you. Finally, I could not have achieved this body of work without the love and support of my incredible husband, Nathan and my two gorgeous daughters Olivia and Sarah. Nathan has been my rock, my safe haven during stormy seas, and has taken on a large bulk of the domestic duties in order for me to finish this thesis in a timely fashion. Your belief, patience, and support have made all the difference. I honour you. iv Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my two extraordinary daughters: Olivia Jayne and Sarah Mackenzie May they grow up in a world where every woman has the right to reach her full potential and the choice to exercise her freedoms, free from violence. v Publications and Presentations Arising from this Research • Wyndow, P., Li, J., Mattes, E. (2013). Female empowerment as a core driver of democratic development: A dynamic panel model from 1980 to 2005. World Development. 52(0) 34-54. • Translation of gender research into a “Gender Policy” for ISHAR, a multi- cultural women’s health centre, Mirrabooka, WA. • Presentation at International Conference – South African Political Studies Association Biennial Conference – Boundaries, Citizenship and Political Constestation in the 21st Century – August 2012 • Presentation at Higher Degree by Research Review Seminar (Curtin) – 2013 • Presentation at Health Sciences - Mark Liveris Symposium (Curtin) – 2012 • Presentation at Population Sciences Symposium (TICHR) – 2009, 2011 • Presentation at Student Symposium (TICHR) – 2009, 2011, 2012 • Presentation at Child Health Research Series (TICHR) – 2012 vi Abstract With many countries moving away from autocracy toward more democratic regimes in the latter half of the twentieth century, many scholars have sought to understand the preconditions required for democracy to emerge and to be sustained. The empirical research in the democratisation literature has focussed predominantly on the social and economic improvements within nations, including mass education, income growth, and urbanisation, using the modernisation theory proposed by Lipset in 1959 as the main theoretical framework. While other scholars have examined other factors such as the impact of neighbouring nations’ political status, colonial history, and natural resources, very little empirical research has focussed on the role of women in this process. Gender and politics has become a legitimate field of research, however the relationship between gender equality and democracy remains less well understood. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to make a significant contribution to the fields of both democracy research and gender studies by addressing the gender gap in comparative politics, and taking a gendered approach to democratic development theory. Specifically, this comparative, cross-national study investigates whether gender equality and women’s empowerment played a role in the democratic development of nations over the last thirty years. A theoretical argument and framework was developed to underpin the analyses and discussion. The scope of this study is limited to the period from 1980 to 2009 as during this period many nations moved away from autocracy toward more democratic regimes, particular near the end of the twentieth century. The focus is primarily on developing countries and countries that began the period as non-democratic. Consequently, 155 sovereign countries from every region in the world were included in the study for which data were available. A macro-level research design was employed using aggregated data. In each of the analysis chapters the dependent variable is a measure of political regime status, the Polity2 variable from the Polity IV dataset. Each analysis chapter investigates varying dimensions of gender equality and its effect on political regime status using both cross-sectional and longitudinal vii data. The gender equality measures were accessed from the World Bank, Barro and Lee datasets, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). They include broad measures of gender equality and women’s empowerment, such as female educational attainment, female employment, fertility rates, and sex ratio. The analyses also included measures of gender equality at a social institutional level, such as family code, civil liberties, physical integrity, and ownership rights. Cross-sectional and longitudinal data were analysed using generalised linear multivariate regressions and dynamic panel models with a System GMM estimator. The main findings from this study demonstrate that improvements in women’s empowerment were associated with democratic development over this period, with female education and female labour force participation having a positive and causal effect on these transitions. While countries which did not transition to democracy by 2005 also made some progress in empowering women during the period, it seemed that such progress did not reach a threshold level or did not take place in all three domains of empowerment in order for democratic development to occur. Nations with low levels of gender equality and where there was a shortage of women at population
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