The electronic version of book is created by http://www.enverhoxha.ru ALBANIA

GENERAL INFORMATION

«8 NËNTORI» PUBLISHING HOUSE 1984 Prepared by the editorial board of the magazine «NEW ALBANIA»

THE NATIONAL FLAG OF THE PSR OF ALBANIA THE EMBLEM OF THE PSR OF ALBANIA The map of the View of the centre of Tirana, the capital of the PSR of Albania In the foreground, the Museum of National History THE COUNTRY AND THE POPULATION THE COUNTRY AND THE POPULATION

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION

The People’ Socialist Republic of Albania lies on the West side of the Balkan Peninsula. It is situated between latitude 39°38’ — 42°39’ North and longitude 19°16’ — 21°4’ East. To the North and Northeast Albania is bounded by Yugoslavia, and to the South and Southeast by Greece. To the West and Southwest it is bordered by the Adriatic and Ionian seas. The PSRA extends over an area of 28,748 square kilometres, while its population is 2,594,600 (January 1979). The Karaburun Peninsula in the Albanian territory lies at the shortest distance from the Appenine Peninsula (Strait of Otranto, 72 km in width). series of valleys, which lie across the country, link its coasts not only with the in­ terior of the country, but also with the interior of the Balkan Peninsula. All these have led to the country being traversed from ancient times by several roads, including some of an interna­ tional character, such as Via Egnatia which connected with Byzantium. Albania a wide opening into two seas of the Mediterranean, which was the cradle of

7 the birth and development of European civiliza­ tion. Albania’s sea border is 470 km long. From ancient times a number of important cities flou­ rished along the sea coast of Albania.

RELIEF

Albania is mainly a mountainous country in which 76.6 per cent of the territory is mountains and hills, while the plains above 200 metres above sea-level occupy only 23.4 per cent of it. The average altitude of Albania (708 ) is about twice the average altitude of . The mountains are not very high; the ma­ jority of them do not exceed 2,000 metres. The hills lie mainly in the western part of the terri­ tory. Their average height does not exceed 400 metres. The plains below 200 metres above sea- level are also in the western part of Albania. However, there are also some plains in the interior of the country, either in the form of valleys (the plains of and Dropull), or in the form of depressions formed during the Quaternary (the Korça Plain). On the basis of the geological features of the territory and the structure of its relief, we distinguish four well-characterized natural re­ gions, namely, the Alps of Albania, the Central Mountain Region, the Southern Mountain Region and the Western Lowlands. Most of the Alps of Albania exceed 2,000 metres above sea-level (the highest mountain being that of Jezerca, 2,694 m). There is a stri­ king contrast between the pyramid-shaped moun­ tains and the deep valleys between them, which have the form of narrow gorges or deep hollows (the Theth gorge, the Boga hollow, and so on). Roads have been opened along the principal View of the Alps in Northern Albania 8 Landscape of Northern Albania

Theth, situated in the region of the Northern Alps, is one of the most attractive tourist centres of Albania

Sunset on the artificial lake Big navigable lakes were formed of the «Karl Marx» Hydropower station with the construction of hydro-power stations on the Mat river on the Drin river valleys leading to the heart of the Alps. From the point of view of nature, the Alps make up an important scenic region with typical alpine landscapes. Tall forests and alpine pasture lands make up the principal surface resources of this region. The Central Mountain Region, which lies between the valley of the Drin River in the North and the central and the lower Osum valleys in the South, is quite different. Its relief is less rugged. Like the Alps, the mountains of the Central Mountain Region, the highest being Mount (2751 m), are also covered with dense forests, but because of some wider valleys, here agriculture is of greater importance than in Alpine region. It is characterized by its great underground riches with minerals like chromium, iron-nickel and copper. The Central Mountain Region is rich in larger lakes of tectonic origin (the Ohri and Prespa lakes) and in smaller glacial lakes (Lura, Martanesh and other lakes, etc.), as well as in impetuous streams which impart spe­ cial beauty to this region. The Southern Mountain Region, lying south of the Central Mountain Region, has a more regular tectonic form. Most of the ranges rise over 2,000 metres above sea-level, with some of them nearly 2,500 m high (the Paping Peak 2,489 m), but there are also valleys coming down to sea-level (the Delvina basin). Towards the West, the ranges of the Southern Mountain Region run right down to the Ionian coast, for­ ming the . In the western part of the territory, along the Adriatic seaboard, lie the Western Lowlands. This area extends over a distance of nearly 200 km from north to south and eastward up to 50 kilometres into the interior of the country. It is characterized by a slight slope. For this

9 reason the subsoil waters are near the surface The hills are now being increasingly covered and the rivers meander widely along shallow with olives, vineyards, citrus and fruit trees. courses. Along the seaboard there are many Thanks to the great work carried out under lagoons, sand belts and dunes. The sand belts the people’s state power, the Western Lowlands form beaches which extend for many kilometres region is now the granary of our country and the along the coast and are frequented more and most important region for industrial plants like more by the country’s working people (Durrës, cotton, sunflower and tobacco. Minerals, like ­ Shëngjin, Velipoja, Vlora, Saranda, Seman, Di- troleum, bitumen and coal, as well as the geogra­ vjaka, Patok). Extensive pine forests have been phical position and communications, have favou­ planted along the sandy coastal strips which red industrial activity here. For these reasons the not only hinder the movement of sand, but have Western Lowlands is the most densely populated also formed big national parks of rare beauty. region in Albania. Before Liberation the lowlands of the Adria­ tic seaboard were covered with marshes and swamps and were little used for cultivation. THE CLIMATE Now they have been turned into arable land. The following comparisons will give a clear idea Albania is situated in the Mediterranean of the great work carried out in Albania for land climatic belt, with a hot dry summer, strong reclamation: the amount of earth shifted for this sunshine, a generally mild winter and abundant reclamation would have been sufficient for the rainfall. But because of the mountainous cha­ construction of a railway bed which would racter of the territory and especially of its many encircle the whole Albanian borders five times, divisions, the climate varies from region to re­ whereas the concrete used would have been suf­ gion. It is warmer in the western part of the ficient to build a wall 3 m high and 1 m wide territory which is mainly under the influence of which would encircle all the coastline of Albania the warm air masses from the sea. Here the (470 km). The construction of an extensive net­ winter is moderate with the temperature rarely work of irrigation canals and reservoirs has falling below zero. The summer is hot and, on some occasions, very hot (the maximum July solved the problem of irrigating the land under temperature recorded is 44°). Whereas in the cultivation. Four hundred kilometres of protective eastern part of Albania, which is mainly under fences and dams have been built along the lower the influence of continental air masses, the winter section of the riverbeds, putting rivers under is cold. Minus temperatures in winter are fre­ control and avoiding floods. Lands have been quent and the minimum recorded is —26°C. The completely systematized, and to a person flying in summer is hot in the valleys, where the maxi­ a plane over the Albanian territory they give the mum July temperature is up to 35°C. impression of a colourful carpet in which the arti­ Rainfall in Albania is abundant (1,300 mm ficial reservoirs look like dazzling mirrors, while a year), 40 per cent of the yearly precipitation the many terraces on hillsides look like stairs falls in winter. Summer droughts are more pro­ which climb towards the sky. nounced towards the South-west. Most of the

10 11 the Mat and Bistrica rivers. The rivers of our precipitation is in the form of rain. As a rule, country are also of major importance for irriga­ snow falls in the interior of the territory and tion purposes. At present 55 per cent of the in the mountains. Because of the division of the land under cultivation is irrigated mainly with territory, the geographical distribution of rainfall the water from rivers and reservoirs. is unequal. Average annual rainfall is over 2,000 mm in the Alps in Northern Albania and 650-700 mm in the valleys of the interior. Typical THE LAKES of Albania is the small amount of clouds for most of the year, with the sky almost always clear. In the territory of Albania there are a number of lakes of varying origin: lakes of glacial THE RIVERS origin in the highlands, karst lakes in the hills, and tectonic lakes (the Shkodra, Ohri and Pres­ pa lakes), which are the largest and most impor­ The territory of Albania is rich in rivers and tant for fishing, and lakes of the lagoon type, streams. Rivers spring from the high mountain which make up large fishing reserves. The lakes regions and run down through narrow gorges of the highlands and hills are used for irrigation and sloping beds, open out into the plains and purposes, too. flow into the . Because of the irregu­ In addition to these natural lakes, hundreds lar rainfall and the very rugged relief, they are of artificial lakes have been built for irrigation torrential with high erosive power. The normal ri­ and hydro-power purposes, such as those of ver flow is an average of 36 litres per second per Ulza, Shkopet, Vau Dejës, Gjanç, Thana and sq. km. The longest rivers are the Drin River, others. With the building of the «Light of the on the eastern coast of the Adriatic (285 km long), Party» Hydro-power Plant on the Drin River, the Buna, Mat, , Seman, Vjosa and a new artificial lake, the largest artificial lake in other rivers. The rivers of Albania constitute our country, was formed. an important source of hydro-electric power. Du­ ring the years of the people’s state power they In addition to their economic importance, began to utilized with the construction of a the lakes of Albania are also important tourist number of hydro-power plants of varying capa­ attractions. cities. On the Drin River two hydro-power sta­ tions have been built, and work is under way for the construction of another even bigger THE FLORA AND FAUNA hydro-power plant. Its first two turbines will be commissioned in 1985. In the future, the The variable conditions of the relief, climate, whole Drin River will be turned into a series of hydrography and soil of Albania account for the lakes which will supply water to the hydro­ variety of its plant and animal life. power plants which have already been con­ More than 3,221 kinds of plants grow in the structed, or which will be constructed on it. territory of Albania, representing most of the flora Hydro-power plants have also been built on 13 12 of the Balkan Peninsula. In the book «Survey of position in the structure of the country’s indus­ the Flora of Albania», published in 1983, there are try. In chromium mining, Albania holds third descriptions of these kinds of plants, classified place in the world. in 894 genres and 148 families. In our country there are 32 kinds of endemic and 160 kinds of subendemic plants. HISTORICAL SURVEY The flora of Albania is made up of two main groups of plants: first, typically evergreen Albania is a country with a very ancient Mediterranean plants which are grown in the civilization. The beginnings of human life in western part of the country and constitute about the territories of present-day Albania belong to 35 per cent of all the flora. The second group the period of the Middle Paleolithic Age, a fact consists of plants which grow further north than which is proved by a wealth of archaeological Europe’s Mediterranean belt. They constitute 65 material which has been found in the regions of per cent of the country’s flora. In the inland the Ionian coast (Xara, Finiq, in the Sa- regions broad-leaved trees predominate. randa district), Nepravisht in the Gjirokastra Forests cover nearly 40 per cent of the district, at the foot of the Dajti Mountain in the surface of the territory. This great wealth began , in Gruemira and Dukagjin in the to be utilized rationally after Liberation, and Shkodra district, etc. The artifacts discovered feeds one of the most important branches of the during excavations in the pre-historic centre of country’s industry — the timber and paper habitation at in the Korça district are ­ industry. pecially enlightening. This centre, which was The fauna of Albania is rich and varied. It found some years ago, has provided materials includes wild animals (the hare, fox, lynx, otter, the significance of which goes beyond the bor­ bear, wolf, jackal, boar, wild goat, deer, and ders of Albania. others); wild birds (the partridge, grouse, eagle, The ancestors of the were the snipe, woodcock, pheasant, and others); and who were an autochthonous population. water birds (ducks, geese, divers, pelicans, and This opinion is based on the continuity seen others). The many waters of the territory abound between the civilization of the Bronze Age and in waterfowl. that of the Iron Age, a continuity which is evi­ dent in the artifacts discovered at pre-historic and Illyrian centres. This very numerous au­ UNDERGROUND RICHES tochthonous people spread over a very wide ­ rritory, from the Danube River in the North There is a wide range of metallic and non- down to the Gulf of Arta in the South, from metallic minerals. Among them, the principal the Adriatic Sea in the West to Morava, Vardar ones are the reserves of oil, natural gas, bitumen, and the Varnos mountains in the East. Illyrian lignite, iron-nickel, chromium and copper. Thanks tribes also inhabited some parts of the Appenine to these riches, the mineral extraction and pro­ Peninsula and Asia Minor. They played a signi­ cessing industry occupies an ever more important ficant role in the main political events which

14 15 took place in the Mediterranean world of Anti­ When the Roman Empire was split into two quity. The earliest traces of the Illyrian civili­ parts in 395 of our era, remained in the zation go back to the beginning of the second Eastern Empire. The oppression and exploitation millennium before our era. continued as before. However, the fact that it The frequent wars forced the Illyrian tribes «moved» from the centre of the Roman Empire to establish alliances with one another and these to its periphery, certainly had some positive in­ alliances later turned into tribal federations. The fluence in regard to the economic and social ­ most important was the federation of the - velopment of the country. Its coastal cities, which lants, or Illyrians, which became a powerful linked the East with the West, became important state in the 5th century before our era. The trading centres. This advantage was only tempo­ rapid increase in the strength of the Illyrian rary, however, because later the Illyrian provin­ kingdom aroused the concern of the Greek states ces, which were the Western extremity of the and Rome. Rome aimed to have the Adriatic Sea Byzantine Empire, were the first to suffer the under its control. Thus, the Illyrian-Roman furious onslaught of the barbarian tribes which wars broke out in the year 229 and ended in came from the Appennine Peninsula and down 167 before our era with the triumph for the Ro­ the Dalmatian coast. mans. Those wars brought catastrophic conse­ The barbarian invasions came in in several quences for the Illyrians. Whole cities and villa­ waves. In the year 395 the hordes of Visigoths, ges were plundered and destroyed. Hundreds and headed by Alaric, descended upon Illyria, Ma­ thousands of people were enslaved. For the cedonia and Greece, which they plundered and Illyrians a long period of more than five and a devastated. Later, Dardania (Kosova today) was half centuries of heavy Roman bondage began. overrun by the Huns, while the Ostrogoths came Faithful to its traditional policy of «divide in 461. The barbarian invasions continued during and rule», Rome broke up the country into the late 5th century and early 6th century. One small administrative units to avoid possible century later, another danger threatened the Illy­ unification of the Illyrian tribes against it. To­ rian tribes — the Slav migrations. The Slav in­ gether with this it started a whole process for vasions continued until the mid-7th century and their Romanization, but without success, because brought grave consequences. Like the barbarians, the Illyrians, who were always outstanding as figh­ the Slavs attacked and wiped out the big slave­ ters for freedom, put up active armed resistance owning estates together with their owners. This to the regime of oppression and exploitation which Rome imposed on them. Especially famous period marked the beginning of the decline of is the uprising of the years 6-9 of our era, which the slave-owning system in Illyria. These results had a great echo at that time. The mountain of historic importance cost the local population tribes, in particular, successfully withstood the dear, because, despite their great resistance, the influence of Romanization. They preserved the people were massacred, driven from their land traditions and priceless spiritual values of the and reduced in numbers. This had ethnic reper- people with stubborn resistance which is men­ cusions. Alongside the indigenous papulation, the­ tioned by many ancient historians. re was now a considerable Slav population which

16 17 accelerated the Slav take-over of Illyrian regions, not hesitate to come out openly against the po­ especially in the North. In the South, in New wer of the Byzantines and Slavs. and Old , in Prevalitania and Dardania, Taking advantage of the weakening of the where the Slavs were unable to establish them­ Byzantine Empire, which was immersed in a selves as they did in the North, this phenomenon deep political crisis at that time, the Arbëresh 1 did not develop in the same way and with the feudal chiefs broke away from dependence on same consequences. While the Illyrians of the Byzantium and set up the first Albanian me­ North disappeared from the stage of history, the diaeval feudal state known in history as the Prin­ Illyrians of the South successfully weathered cipality of the Arbëri. Initially the Principality the storms of the times. Several centuries later, included almost half the northern part of present- this population appeared in the history of the day Albania. Later its borders were extended to Middle Ages with a new name, . A series include all the territory between the Drin and of arguments of historical, linguistic and ethno­ the Shkumbin rivers. Kruja was its capital. graphical character prove that the Albanians The first mediaeval feudal state in Albania are the direct descendants of the Illyrians and — the Principality of the Arbëri — could not are autochthonous on their territory. be consolidated. Caught up in the violent poli­ During the 10th and 11th centuries the tical events which took place in the Balkan Penin­ slave-owning system was in complete collapse. sula during the first half of the 13th century, it In its place, elements characteristic of the period became partly or wholly dependent, sometimes on of feudalism appeared. Without doubt, this pro­ the of the Byzantine Empire cess would have developed normally had it not of Nikea, and sometimes on the kingdom of Bul­ been hampered by a series of factors. At the garia, which were in fierce contention with each end of the 10th century and the beginning of the other over the heritage of the lands of the Byzan­ 11th century the Albanian territories became the tine Empire. arena of wars between Byzantines and Bulga­ At the end of the 13th century and the begin­ rians. On the other hand, the increased taxes, the ning of the 14th century Arbëria fell under the despotism of local functionaries and the whole domination of the Anjauins who created the conservative policy of the Byzantine Empire «Kingdom of the Arbëria» in Albania. The Anja- constituted a second impeding factor. The cea­ uin occupation continued in Albania with some seless invasions of foreigners must be added to interruption, unitil the second half of the 14th the above factors. At that time, the Bulgarians, century, when Arbëria was occupied by the the Normans and the armies of the First Crusade Serbian Empire of Stephan Dušan. descended upon the Albanian territories. Despite Only in the second half of the 14th century, the great difficulties, the feudal system became when the Anjouins had been ousted from Arbëria, established in Albania. In the 12th century, a and Stephan Dušan’s Serbian Empire had col- crystallized feudal system existed in the remote mountainous regions. A feudal nobility of Alba­ nian origin was created in these zones and, when it felt sufficiently strong and consolidated, it did 1 The root of the word is linked with the name Arbër, Arbëri.

18 19 lapsed after the death of its ruler (1355), were stitutions, etc., which gave them the appearance the Albanian feudal chiefs able to break away of republics of the mediaeval type. completely from foreign domination and to The economic and political development of create their independent feudal states. Starting the country was interrupted at the end of the from the middle of the 14th century, several 14th century, when the protracted war of the Albanian feudal principalities were set up, such Albanian people against Ottoman invasion began, as that of the Balshajs in the North of Albania a war which lasted nearly 100 years. with Shkodra as its centre, that of the Topiajs Starting in 1388, the gra­ in Central Albania with Durrës as its centre, dually occupied all the Albanian territory. Its that of the Muzakajs centered on and that advance was facilitated by the divisions among of the Shpatajs in the South with Arta as its the feudal class which was engaged in internal centre. wars and did not properly appreciate the new The creation of Albanian feudal principali­ danger. Meanwhile the Republic of seized ties came about through subjugation of the less the opportunity to occupy some of the main cities powerful feudal families. However, their rulers of Albania such as Ulqin, Tivar, , Shko­ frequently fought one another to secure absolu­ dra, Lezha and Durrës. te domination over the whole country. At this In the first stage of the occupation the Ot­ period, the normal process of overcoming the tomans turned the Albanian feudal lords into feudal fragmentation for the creation of a single vassals of the Sultan, compelling them to pay a centralized state was taking place in Albania, fixed tribute and imposing other obligations of but this was interrupted by the Ottoman occu­ a military character. Later, in the years 1419- pation. -1421 and 1431-1432, the Ottoman occupiers Each principality had its own court, an ad­ carried out a general registration of the Albanian ministrative apparatus and its own seal and lands and established there their detested mili­ emblem. Thus, the seal of the Balshajs presented tary feudal regime known as the «timar regime». the head of a wolf, the emblem of the Topiajs a All arable and other lands were proclaimed the lion wearing the royal crown, the emblem of the property of the Ottoman Empire and distributed feudal family of the Dukagjinis presented the to its feudal owners. single-headed eagle, while the emblem of the With the establishment of the timar regime, Kastriotis the double-headed eagle. the Albanan feudal nobility was deprived of the Albania ranked with the other countries of the right to ownership of the land which it formerly Adriatic and Balkan zone during the 14th cen­ possessed. However, the timar regime was a tury, from the viewpoint of its socio-economic heavier burden on the broad masses of the peo­ development. The mediaeval Albanian cities such ple, especially the peasantry, which was liable as Ulqin, Tivar, Shkodra, Lezha, Durrës, Berat, to be mercilessly hunted down, plundered and etc., developed markedly at that period. For a killed by an occupier alien in language, religion time some of them won the right to independent and customs, and subjected to exploitation of administration as free urban communes (comuna unprecedented savagery. Therefore, during that civitatis), with elected organs, their own Con­ period, a series of uprisings of the masses of the

20 21 people, led by the Albanian feudal chiefs such derbeg, and a common fund was created to co­ as Kastrioti, Gjergj Araniti and others, pe with the war expenditure. The principality broke out all over Albania. of the Kastriotis bore the main economic and Outstanding among the feudal families of military weight. the 15th century was the feudal family of the The first battle of the Albanians with the Kastriotis. Gjergj Kastrioti — , the Ottoman occupiers after the return of Skander­ National Hero of Albania, came from this fa­ beg was waged on the Torvioll Plain, between mily. He was taken hostage by the Ottomans present-day Librazhd and . The Otto­ when he was a child. For a time he was kept man army of 25,000 was completely routed by in their army where he distinguished himself an Albanian army of 10,000 men under the for his outstanding ability in the military field, leadership of Skanderbeg. The victory at Tor­ won rank and the title bey, and was given the violl increased the confidence of the Albanian Muslim name Skander. In 1443, taking advantage fighters in their own strength and in their of the defeat of the Ottoman army by the Hun­ outstanding leader Skanderbeg. The Torvioll garians in the battle of Nish in which he took battle caused a sensation abroad, too. Feudal part, Skanderbeg at the head of 300 Albanians Europe, which up till that time had experienced returned to Albania, where he gave the signal only defeat at the hands of the Ottoman army for the armed uprising against Ottoman rule. hopefully hailed the Albanian resistance which The masses of the people, who had been living directly assisted its defence. under the terror of this occupation, immediately Skanderbeg led the great wars of the Al­ joined him and within a short time ousted the banians against the Ottomans for 25 years on Turkish armies and liberated the greater part end, until his death in 1468. Twice a year regu­ of the country. As a result of the triumph of the larly throughout this period, the Ottoman Empi­ general uprising the former feudal principalities re sent huge powerful armies equipped with were created as independent state formations. the most modern weapons of the time and led The principality of the Kastriotis, headed by by its most outstanding pashas. All those armies Gjergj Kastrioti — Skanderbeg, occupied the were smashed, one after another, by the heroic main place among them. resistance of the Albanian people. Following the temporary liberation of Alba­ Of all the victories of the epoch of Skander­ nia from the Ottomans, Skanderbeg organized a beg, undoubtedly the most brilliant were the national convention of the Albanian princes in routing of three sieges of Kruja, in which the Lezha (1444). This meeting is known in history main forces of the army of the Ottoman Empire, as the Covenant of Lezha. It decided to unite led by the two most renowned sultans of Turkey, the political-military and economic forces of the Sultan Murat II and Mehmet II, called «Fatih» whole country in struggle against the Ottoman — the conquerer of Constantinople, were con­ Empire. To this end the Albanian League of centrated against a single city. In this was Skan­ Lezha was set up as a political-military alliance derbeg relied on the broad masses of the people of the Albanian feudal lords, headed by Skan­ who were interested more than anyone else in derbeg; the joint Albanian army of the League defending the country against the Ottoman was set up under the general command of Skan- occupation. 22 23 During the great wars of the Albanians its outstanding leader Gjergj Kastrioti-Skanderbeg against the Ottomans in the 15th century, the was kept alive in the consciousness of the Alba­ process of the creation of a single centralized nian people for centuries and served as an Albanian state under the leadership of Skander- inspiration for the continual uprisings which beg began, but could not be completed. Feudal never ceased throughout the long Ottoman oc­ separatism, as well as the vacillating and some­ cupation of our country. The name of Skander­ times treacherous stand of some Albanian feudal beg was remembered not only by the Albanians, lords, damaged the interests of the liberation but also by the other peoples of the Balkans and war and unification, despite this Skanderbeg Central Europe, and found a place in their succeeded in uniting some of the feudal families folklore, too. He was the symbol of resistance around his own principality, thus creating a to and victory over the foreign occupier. The single centralized state. The territory of this brilliant deeds of the Albanians and Skanderbeg state was more or less that of the Principality in the 15th century have inspired many writers, of Arbëria, with Kruja as its capital. The flag artists, historians, and others through the centu­ of the Kastriotis, with the black double-headed ries, who have embodied them in painting, sculp­ eagle on a red background, became the flag ture and literary and scientific works. of the centralized Albanian state. With the pas­ The occupation of Albania by the Ottomans sage of time this became the national flag of after a war lasting nearly 100 years brought about Albania. the economic ruin of the country and the decline of its culture. The cities and fine architectural The heroic fight of the Albanian people works, such as the castles, churches, the palaces against the Ottoman occupation continued even after the death of Skanderbeg (1468), until of the nobles, as well as the public buildings of Kruja and Shkodra fell in 1478 and 1479 res­ the past, paintings and sculptures, documents and manuscripts, etc. of irreplaceable value were pectively. But even after that, the resistance of the Albanian people continued in the mountains destroyed. in the from of uprisings which shook this occupa­ After the Ottomans occupied the whole tion time after time. Such were the uprising led country, they finally established their military by Skanderbeg’s son Gjon Kastrioti during the feudal regime — the timar regime. In this way years 1481-1485, and the uprising led by Skan­ Albania became a source of income for the Ot­ derbeg’s grandson Gjergj Kastrioti in the years toman Empire and of manpower for its army. 1494-1506. Besides this, it pursued the policy of the Isla- After the fall of the last fortresses, a great mization of the Albanian population through number of Albanians emigrated to Greece, and force or through economic pressure in order to especially to , where they have preserved bind it to the Ottoman Empire politically and the customs and traditions of their ancestors, as ideologically. However, this process could not well as the ancient name Arbëresh, through the be carried through to the end and in many cases centuries. the conversion to was only formal for the The memory of the great war of the Alba­ broad masses of the people. nian people against the Ottoman occupation and Some , such as ,

24 25 Dukagjin, Malësia e Madhe, Mirdita, etc., thanks time, ensured a bigger feudal rent. The extension to the resolute resistance to the occupiers, won of the estates led to the strengthening of sepa­ the right to self-administration, on the basis of ratist tendencies, the weakening of the central traditional canon law, and paid the Ottoman administration and more severe exploitation of occupiers only a symbolic tribute. the population. The weakening of the central administra­ The resistance of the Albanian people to the Ottoman occupation was never completely ex­ tion created possibilities for the Albanian feudal class in the service of the Sultan to further tinguished. During the 16th and 17th centuries strengthen themselves economically, politically a series of uprisings of a local character broke and militarily. In time they became semi-auto­ out in Albania. In order to organize the resistance nomous rulers of their feudal estates which were against the enemy better, in the 17th century, called pashalics. Amongst the big Albanian pa- Albanian assemblies of a regional and inter- shalics created at the end of the 18th century -regional character were held on several oc­ and the beginning of the 19th century, two are casions, while later Balkan assemblies were or­ outstanding; the Shkodra pashalic under the ganized with the aim of uniting and co-ordinat­ rule of the Bushatllis and the Janina pashalic ing the struggle of the Albanian people against under the rule of Ali Pasha Tepelena. the Ottoman occupation with the struggle of the other peoples of the Balkans and Europe. The Shkodra pashalic included Central and The Ottoman occupation plunged Albania Northern Albania. Its creation marks the tran­ into great cultural backwardness. Right from the sition from feudal separation to the domination start, along with the conversion of the popula­ of a single feudal lord and the organization of a tion to Islam, the Islamic culture began to be semi-autonomous state within the framework of spread, with mosques and religious schools being the Ottoman Empire. The state structure within built to train cadres for the Muslim religion. the pashalic remained unchanged, but the state But the influence of this reactionary religious apparatus served the feudal class of the pashalic culture in the service of the occupier was res­ and not the central administration in' Constan­ tricted. It was alien to the broad masses of the tinople. Thus, the Shkodra pashalic came into people who remained illiterate. conflic with the central government of the From the first centuries of Ottoman bondage, Sultan. the Albanian people resisted the foreign occupa­ The Janina pashalic, with Ali Pasha Tepe­ tion in the field of culture, too. To avoid the lena as its ruler, included Southern Albania and danger of Ottoman assimilation, efforts were part of Greece. He was in conflict with the made for the publication of Albanian books. Sultan for about 20 years. The aim of Ali Pasha In the 17th and 18th centuries the Ottoman Tepelena was to create a state independent from Empire began to decline, and the timar system the Sublime Porte in that part of the Empire. fell to pieces. The feudal class, which until then Neither the Bushatllis in the North nor Ali was linked with the timar and military service, Pasha Tepelena in the South were able to create began to expand its estates which were not linked an independent Albanian state. However, they with any military obligation and, at the same ensured the rule of the Albanian feudal class,

26 27 autonomous or semi-autonomous, from the Ot­ by the entire former development of events in toman Empire. In 1822 the central government of Albania and abroad. There were three main Constantinople overthrew the Janina pashalic by factors which, acting together, created the con­ force and in 1831 it finally suppressed the ditions for its founding: the anti-Ottoman mo­ Shkodra pashalic, too. vement of the Tanzimat period, the new After their suppression, the Sublime Porte ideology of our National Renaissance and the undertook the implementation of some centralist Eastern crisis of the 70’s, which once again reforms, such as the Tanzimat reform, in Al­ raised the question of the future of the Alba­ bania. In 1831 the Ottoman Empire abolished by nian nation, of its territorial integrity and li­ law the Ottoman military feudal system (the beration from centuries of Ottoman bondage, timar regime), which had prevailed in Albania with special force. for four centuries (1432-1831), and sent functio­ Shaken by the Balkan crisis of 1875-1876, naries. who were directly dependent on the cen­ the Ottoman Empire had accepted the formation tre, to Albania. The Tanzimat reform encounter­ of autonomous regions and vilayets within its ed the resolute opposition of the broad masses imperial territories in the Balkans. Later, after of the people in Albania, because it made the its defeat in the war with Russia, under the burden of taxes and levies on them even heavier, terms of the Treaty of St. Stephan (March 3, opened the way to numerous corrupt practices 1878), it was forced to agree to hand over many by the rotten Ottoman bureaucratic administra­ regions inhabited by the Albanian population to tion and established the system of long-term the Slav states of the Balkans. According to the military conscription. For this reason, through­ St. Stephan Treaty, Montenegro was to annex out Albania, from North to South, a series of Gucia, Plava, Vermosh, Kelmend, Kraja, Anamal, people’s uprisings against this reform broke Hot, Gruda, Tivar, Ulqin; was to take a out. part of the Sandjak of Prishtina up to the vicinity From the 1840’s a qualitative change can of Gjilan and Mitrovica; Bulgaria was given be seen in the Albanian national movement: the Kumanova, Kaçanik, Tetova, Kërçova, Gostivar, masses of the people began to come out with Dibra, Struga, Pogradec, Korça, etc. This deci­ more and more new demands for political and sion, which jeopardized the very existence of cultural rights and, later, with demands for the the Albanian nation, aroused great indignation national liberation of Albania. From that time which was expressed in the powerful protest until the proclamation of independence in 1912, manifestations throughout the country. Quite that great democratic revolutionary movement, spontaneously the people mobilized themselves which has gone down in history as the Albanian for self-defence. Now the Albanian national mo­ National Renaissance, developed in Albania. vement had to fight in two fronts: against the At the second half of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire, which remained the ancient movement of the Albanian people for freedom enemy of the Albanian people, and against po­ and independence marked another success — the werful new enemies, and this could not be done Albanian League of was founded. The successfully without the organizing of the forces brith of the League was a necessity prepared 29 28 hand on the Albanian territories. Through a of the people and without a single national lea­ series of concrete actions, the League demonstrat­ dership which would unite and co-ordinate the ed that the Albanian people were the indispu­ political-military actions of the administration, table masters of those territories. The struggle a leadership which would be able and worthy for the defence of the Albanian territories, both to represent the will of the entire Albanian na­ in the South and the North, showed Europe the tion in the international arena. To this end, on determination of the Albanians to defend their June 10, 1878, the Albanian League was founded Homeland. in Prizren with representatives from all over Albania. This organization was founded The League carried an energetic activity for on the initiative of the «Central Committe for the autonomy for the Albanian regions. Auto­ the Defence of the Rights of the Albanian Natio- nomy was to be an essential condition for the nality», which had been founded in Constanti­ successful waging of the struggle for the defence nople in 1877 by outstanding patriots, such as of territorial integrity and for national unifica­ Abdyl Frashëri, , Sami Frashëri, Ja- tion. The concept of the League on autonomy ni Vreto, Zija Prishtina and others. Very soon was expressed clearly and fully in the Assembly it was transformed into an independent politi­ of Gjirokastra of July 23, 1880. The program it cal and military organization which, in the name approved, presented by Abdyl Frashëri, de­ of the Albanian nation, presented three funda­ manded the creation of an autonomous Albanian mental demands: a) recognition of the Albanian state with its own provisional government, with nation as one and indivisible and respect for the capital a city in Central Albania, with an the principle of nationality towards it in all direc­ entirely Albanian administration made up of Al­ tions; ) the preservation of the inviolability of banian officials without religious discrimination, the territorial integrity of the Albanian territo­ and which would have the task of using the ries; c) the unification of the territories of Alba­ national assets and income for the needs of nia in a single unit with an Albanian adminis­ the country. The League strove to have these tration using the official decisions widely applied in the life of the country. and its own capital. Acting «in the name of the Albanian people», These demands were made known through its organs were transformed into organs of go­ decisions and memorandums addressed not only vernment which, in fact, replaced the Ottoman to the Sublime Porte, but also to the imperialist administration in the internal and external planes. Great Powers, which at that time had convened It started to discharge the Ottoman officials and in Berlin to revise the Treaty of St. Stephan. replace them with Albanians, created voluntary However, the Congress of Berlin ignored the military formations and detachments of the gen­ demands of the Albanian people. It denied the darmerie, dispersed the Ottoman courts and set existence of the Albanian nation and decided up Albanian courts, with members of different to partition its territories in favour of the neigh­ religious beliefs. The League proclaimed military bouring states. The Albanian conscription for the defence of the country. It rejected the decisions of the Congress of Berlin implemented an economic policy in keeping with and declared that no one had the right to lay a the conditions of war. The Albanian League also

30 31 acted as an organ representing the interests of the Albanian nation in the international arena. It formulated and pursued its own foreign policy in compliance with the interests of the Albanian people. The self-governing activity developed very vigorously and in January 1881 the «Pro- visional Government» was proclaimed. This re­ presented the beginning of the formation of the autonomous Albanian national state. This all-round activity of the League turned the tense situation in the relations with the Ot­ toman Empire to an open military conflict. The Ottoman army tried to suppress the Albanian resistance by force of arms. The people fought valiantly. The heroism of the forces of the League in their resistance to the big Ottoman armies, which were sent to crush Albania, was outstanding. , and many other popular commanders were distinguish­ ed for their great abilities as leaders and or­ ganizers, as well as for their valour and daring. Although the League was suppressed by the oc­ cupiers, it had considerable consequences in the international arena. A new factor, the Albanian factor, which was to make the Eastern crisis more grave and profound, came on the scene of the Balkan and European policy. As such it could not fail to be taken into consideration in the policy of the European powers. The cultural movement, one of the main elements of the Albanian National Renaissance in the stormy years of the Albanian League of Prizren, assumed vigorous development which The helm of the National Hero, continued in the subsequent decades. Books in Gjergj Kastrioti-Skanderbeg (1405-1468). the Albanian language were printed abroad in The original is displayed in the Museum of Vienna Rumania, Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy and elsewhere. The publication and illegal distribution of newspapers and magazines, which dealt with Albanian problems, commenced. On March 7,

32 The Monument of Independence in Vlo- ra symbolizes the struggle and efforts of the Albanian peo­ ple for freedom and independence The Communist Party of Albania, today the Party of Labour of Albania, was founded in complete illegality in this simple house in a back-street of Tirana, on No­ vember 8, 1941 Painting represent­ ing the formation of the Communist Party of Albania by Com­ rade on November 8, 1941 1877, the first Albanian school was opened in the city of Korça. In this important activity such patriots as , Kostandin Kristo- foridhi, , , Jeronim De Rada, Zef Jubani, Pashko Vasa, the brothers Abdyl, Naim and Sami Frashëri, Andon Zako Çajupi and others were prominent. The broad patriotic and cultural movement of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries brought the fresh, living echo of the wars of the Albanian people for freedom and independence through the centuries. Evoking the past, and espe­ cially the period of Skanderbeg and the Albanian League of Prizren, it revived the sense of national pride among the masses of the people. The appeal to the consciousness of the nation, which at the end of the 19th century found itself once again facing new dangers (the «Macedonian question»), undoubtedly played a part in giving a fresh impul­ se to the national movement. A wave of uprisings spread all over Albania. Among the demands they raised was the idea of autonomy, which had to be achieved through an organization like the Al­ banian League of Prizren. To realize these aspi­ rations, the League of Peja was formed in 1899 in the town of Peja. In the following years it spread the idea of autonomy which was expressed in armed revolts and uprisings which occurred in Albania, and especially in Kosova, and were aimed both against the chauvinistic acts of the neighbouring states and against the Ottoman occupier. In the heat of these struggles, a new generation of revolutionaires grew up. New pa­ triotic figures began to emerge. Under the lea­ dership of one of these patriots, Bajo Topulli, the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Al­ bania was formed in Manastir (Bitolje) in No­ vember 1905. Its branches or sub-committees in many towns and regions carried out a great deal

33 of propaganda work to mobilize the people to was forced to dispatch other troops, this time undertake military activities to win independen­ under the command of its minister of war in ce. Meanwhile, the «Young Turks» movement person. The Ottoman army overran Kosova, broke out within the Ottoman Empire, and this Shkodra and Central Albania, spreading death compelled the Sultan to draft and proclaim a and destruction everywhere. Faced with the de­ new Constitution in great haste. The «Young termination of the Young Turks to put down the Turks’» movement and the proclamation of the Albanian national movement at any cost, the Constitution by Sultan Abdyl Hamid was ex­ patriotic circles considered it necessary to unite ploited by the Albanian patriotic circles to their forces in a single national movement and extend the movement for the opening of Al­ seize the initiative by launching an offensive. banian clubs and schools. Precisely at that time, However the attack started prematurely. For his in November 1908, the National Congress to own expansionist aims King Nicholas of Mon­ decide on a common for the whole tenegro forced the highlanders, who had sought country was convened in Manastir. On Novem­ refuge from the terror in his kingdom, to attack ber 21, the Congress endorsed the alphabet which the Young Turk forces. Thus, on April 6, on is used in Albania to this day, while on De­ the call of Dedë Gjo Luli, an insurgent leader cember 1, 1909, the first teacher training school, from the Shkodra Highlands, the revolt was the Normal School, was opened in Elbasan. The­ launched. The highlanders fought heroically and se were important victories in the field of Al­ forced the Young Turk government to change banian culture and education. its tactics. The Sultan made the insurgents a The proclamation of the Constitution created series of promises. In response, the Albanian pa­ some illusions among many Albanian patriots. It triots, headed by and Luigj Gu- was regarded as the end of the age-old autocracy rakuqi, gathered in Gërçe of Montenegro and of the Sultans and the beginning of the epoch on June 23, 1911 sent the Sultan and the Great of freedom, equality and civilization. But very Powers of Europe a memorandum in which they soon the reprisals and police terror started and to demanded the territorial and administrative au­ these Albanian people responded with weapons. tonomy of Albania. The Ottoman Empire accepted The revolt started in Prishtina in March 1910 only some of the demands of the memorandum and rapidly spread to Peja and the whole of and only for the vilayet of Shkodra. This aroused Kosova. To put down the uprising the Ottoman discontent and revolts, especially in the South of Empire dispatched a special expeditionary force Albania. During 1912 the insurgent movement under the command of Shefqet Turgut Pasha. burst out with fresh vigour. This force, 16,000 strong, clashed with the in­ Meanwhile another danger was threatening surgent forces led by Idriz Seferi at the Kaçanik the Albanian people, the partitioning and anne­ Pass, in April 1910. On this occasion, too, the xation of Albanian territories by the chauvinist insurgent forces fought with rare heroism, though Balkan monarchies. The danger became extre­ much outnumbered by the enemy and badly mely acute at the time of the Balkan wars. In armed. Even later the insurgent movement ne­ October 1912 the armies of the Balkan coalition ver ceased for a moment. The Ottoman Empire crossed the borders of the Albanian territories

34 35 and continued their incursions into the country. 7, 1914 a German feudal aristocrat, Wilhelm Faced with this situation the Albanian patriots Wied, came to Albania in this role. acted with wisdom and determination. They sum­ In order to run the affairs of the country, moned the National Assembly in the city of the Great Powers forcibly imposed on our people, Vlora, at which they decided to separate Alba­ as a kind of «xenocratia», an international me­ nia completely from the Ottoman Empire and chanism called the International Control Com­ proclaim its independance. On November 28, mission (ICC), designed and set up by the same 1912 the patriot Ismail Qemali, who presided Great Powers. Meanwhile, the Government of over the assembly, raised the national flag and Ismail Qemali, which had undertaken a series of publicly proclaimed the decision of the Assembly. actions in both international and foreign policy After nearly five centuries of protracted strug­ and which, among numerous difficulties, was gles and bloody battles the Albanian people shook striving to consolidate the position of the coun­ off the Ottoman yoke once and for all and try, was obliged to withdraw, leaving its place emerged on the international arena as an inde­ to this commission and the government of Tur- pendant state. The Assembly of Vlora formed the han Pasha set up by Wied. This government first Albanian national government and elected composed of feudal elements did nothing to re­ Ismail Qemali, the great Albanian patriot and gulate the life of the country or to liberate and diplomat, Prime Minister. regain the territories left outside the borders The proclamation of Albania’s independence, of the Albanian state, and thus it was hated by the majestic deed of the Albanian people and the masses of the people who rose in revolt patriots, foiled the plans of the Great Powers against Wied. and the neighbouring chauvinist states. There­ On top of all this, at that time the Greek fore, they ignored all that had been achieved by chauvinists, with disguised acts of occupation, the internal forces and dealt with the Albanian in the name of the movement for the autonomy problem at the Ambassadors’ Conference (De­ of Vorio Epirus, had seized control of some re­ cember 1912 — August 1913) in their own in­ gions of Southern Albania. terest. The Conference, which became an arena Meanwhile, Esat Pasha Toptani, an ambitious of inter-imperialist rivalries and clashes, defined and unscrupulous feudal lord from Central Al­ the status of Albania as an independent state, bania, who dreamt of coming to the head of the undertook and carried out its internal organiza­ Albanian state, provoked disturbances. The mas­ tion and defined its borders, arbitrarily ampu­ ses of the people, who hated the anti-national, tating about half its territories and population. anti-people regime of Wied’s, launched a powerful The partitioning of Albania by the imperialist uprising against him, the feudal class and Esat powers and the subjection of half the population Pasha. Moreover, the hatred of the people forced to the Serbian-Montenegrin yoke, was a great Esat Toptani to depart to Italy. A little later, Wied injustice imposed on the Albanian people. and his government also left Albania. The Ambassadors’ Conference also took the The outbreak of the First World War brought decision to place a foreign prince at the head new complications. Esat Pasha returned to Albania, of the mutilated Albanian state and on March and this aroused dissatisfaction and revolts against

36 37 him. A great number of peasants, especially from in political and social life. The masses of the Central Albania, joined in the anti-feudal, anti- peasantry and the urban population, including imperialist movement which scored great succes- the workers, took part in that struggle. From ses. At these critical moments Serbia came to the all over the country, protests were sent to the aid of Esat Pasha, and its armies saved him from Parliament and the government demanding the the drive of the insurgents. abolition of the payment of tithes and the high Taking advantage of this chaos, Greece and tariffs on grain imports. In March 1923 thou­ Italy occupied the southern regions of Albania. The sands of citizens and peasants in Korça demanded Austro-Hungarian armies invaded the North. The­ bread for the people and the distribution of se operations and those which were undertaken grain held in merchants’ stores. Likewise, about in the course of the First World War, were the three thousand people from the city of Vlora concrete outcome of the Secret Treaty of London and the surrounding district protested against of April 26, 1915, which violated the neutrality the anti-people policy of the government, at­ of Albania decided at the Ambassadors’ Confe­ tacked the grain stores of the speculators, seized rence in London about two years earlier, and turn­ the grain and distributed it free to the people. ed Albania into a token for barter. In this The struggle for land became very fierce Treaty, the Entente Powers partitioned Albania and, on many occasions, took the form of open and divided its territories between Greece, Ita­ attacks to seize it from the landowners and the ly, Serbia and Montenegro. state by force. However, the fundamental de­ After the First World Wap the big imperia­ mand of the peasants for the abolition of the list powers were for partitioning Albania. The big estates and the distribution of their lands to Peace Conference in Versailles did not solve the the landless peasants was not supported by the Albanian problem. Therefore, at the beginning bourgeois political groups. These groups gave of 1920 the Albanian patriots organized a Con- the land reform a narrower meaning. Their aim genesis in the town of Lushnja. The Congress form­ was to reconcile the interests of the working ed a government which, among other things, peasants with those of the landowners and im­ demanded the withdrawal of foreign troops from prove the situation of the peasants without hur­ Albania. But Italy deployed its armies in the ting the landowning class. Some members of the region of Vlora, seeking to annex it. In these Albanian bourgeoisie were also landowners. As a circumstances, thousands of armed volunteers class the bourgeoisie was not for radical changes. from all over Albania attacked the Italians oc­ In inciting and! organizing the democratic move­ cupying Vlora. The war of Vlora went on through­ ment, the revolutionary democrats, united in the out the summer of 1920, until the Italians were «Bashkimi» society, played the most important ro­ thrown into the sea by the freedom fighters. le. «Bashkimi» gathered in its ranks and organized After the foreign troops of the imperialist the youth, especially the school youth, who were and chauvinist neighbours had been driven out, especially prominent in the democratic move­ the struggle for the establishment of the demo­ ment. cratic order, and especially for the solution of The growth of the movement led to the the agrarian problem, became the burning issue creation of a revolutionary situation in the spring

38 39 of 1924. The assassination of , one the neighbouring states, made preparations to of the leaders of the Albanian democratic mo­ crush the revolution. On December 24, 1924, the vement, by the landowner reaction served as Albanian counter-revolutionary forces, led by the signal for armed uprising. Ahmet Zog, coming mainly from Yugoslavia and The bourgeois-democratic revolution which with the direct support of the imperialists and burst out in May 1924, ended with the triumph reactionary Serb and White Russian emigrant of the revolutionary forces on June 10 of the troops, entered Tirana and overthrew the Fan same year. A bourgeois-democratic government, Noli government. The Zog regime came to power headed by , came to power. in Albania. Later Zog declared himself a king. The program proclaimed by the govern­ From start to finish the Zog regime remained ment was intended to put Albania on the road a savage antidemocratic dictatorship of the of bourgeois-democratic development. In the po­ landowners and the reactionary bourgeoisie. The litical field, it envisaged the establishment of internal support for this regime came from the democracy through free elections. In the socio­ reactionary forces of the country, the big lan­ economic field it envisaged the eradication of downers and merchants, the rural bourgeoisie feudalism and the economic liberation of the and the chiefs of the Highland clans. These peasants, the establishment of a new system of forces served as the social basis of this regime taxes, the repair of roads and bridges, the crea­ during the 15 years of its existence. The Zog tion of facilities for the penetration of foreign dictatorship preserved the remnants of feudal capital and for the development of local capital. relations, intensified the landowners’ and capi­ Education would be placed on new bases. The talist exploitation and created a whole system government would pursue a policy of friendly for plundering the masses of the people. relations with all the states, especially with the Zog did away with all democratic institu­ neighbouring states. tions and freedoms. Feeling itself insecurely in The masses of the people supported this pro­ power, the Zog clique sought the help of the gram and demanded its full implementation. imperialist powers. First, it repaid the Yugoslav But it encountered the frenzied opposition of government for the aid it had given by ceding the local landowners and imperialist reaction, it parts of the Albanian territory. Then, it linked while the revolutionary drive of the masses ter­ itself with Italy and Britain, two of the big rified the chiefs of the local bourgeoisie. In imperialist powers most interested in the Bal­ these circumstances the bourgeois-democratic go­ kans in general, and in the exploitation of the vernment, headed by Fan Noli, vacillated and underground riches of Albania, in particular. proved incapable of carrying the revolution Towards the foreign capitalist powers Zog through to the end, because it did not base pursued the policy of «open doors». Gradually itself on the masses of the people who brought this policy was centred on the close economic it to power. and political links with fascist Italy which made In these circumstances the Albanian land- many efforts to get Albania completely under owners and reactionaries, supported by the its influence. These links opened the way to the imperialists and the reactionary governments of fascist occupation. The Italian financial groups

40 41 created the «National » and cent of the population was illiterate. The number SVEA (the Association for the Economic De­ of schools was very limited, while there were velopment of Albania) as powerful means for no higher education and scientific-cultural insti­ the economic and political enslavement of the tution at all. No care was shown for the health country. They took over those few existing mines, of the people. Various diseases wrought havoc the bulk of the construction of public works, among the population. The average life ex­ the customs service and almost all the country’s pectancy did not exceed 38 years. foreign trade. Italian capital also penetrated The anti-popular and anti-national policy into light industry. The high interest-rate loans, of the Zog regime aroused general dissatisfaction which the government in Rome granted the Zog among the masses of the people. The struggle clique and which were used primarily for the for the attainment of anti-imperialist democratic personal enrichment of the King and his family, objectives became an immediate task. The re­ also served the predatory aims of the Italians. sistance of the democratic forces was expressed, Thus, Italian capital became the real master of especially, in the revolutionary actions of pea­ the . It transformed the sants and workers. The peasants of many regions country into a market for the sale of Italian fought back against the violence of the big industrial goods and a source of raw materials. landowners who wanted to drive them off the The economic agreements, which paved the estates or to seize the lands, as well as against way to the penetration of Italian capital, were the heavy taxes imposed on them. In some cases accompanied with agreements such as those of this struggle assumed the character of bloody Tirana in 1926 and 1927, which gave Italy the clashes with the gendarmerie of Zog. Although right to defend the Zog regime from any inter­ the working class was small in numbers and nal and external attack with arms. These agree­ unorganized, its revolutionary actions were par­ ments harnessed the Zog clique to the chariot ticularly important. The workers protested about of fascist Italy. Thus, Albania was being trans­ their grave economic situation, demanded higher formed into a semi-colony of Italian imperialism. pay and the regular payment of wages, which During the Zog regime Albania remained were often delayed for months on end. Strikes the most backward country in Europe. In 1938 over such issues took place against the Italian about 87 per cent of the population that engaged employers (1925), and the British employers (1927) in material production were engaged in agricul­ in the oil industry, at the Selenica mine, etc. ture, while only 13 per cent of the population During the years 1925-1927 some worker worked in industry and the other branches of the organizations were set up. Such were the «Wor- national economy. Industrial and artisan produc­ kers’ League» in Gjirokastra, the «Përparimi» tion made up only 9.8 per cent of the total association of the tailors in Tirana and the «League production, while the income created in indus­ of Tailor Workers» in Korça. These organizations try represented only 4.5 per cent of the total were unable to play an important role in the national income. organization of the workers’ movement, because The economic backwardness also brought their main aim was the organization of mutual pronounced cultural backwardness. About 90 per aid among workers.

42 43 of the «Labour» association, other workers’ as­ The revolutionary actions of peasants and sociations were set up in the Korça district, workers, and the hatred of the masses of the such as that of the shoemakers, the drivers, the people for the Zog regime created conditions tailors, cafe-owners, etc. The influence of the for the emergence and development of the or­ Communist Group of Korça also extended to the ganized Albanian communist movement. A signi­ secondary school students of Korça. ficant role in this direction was played by the Marxist publications which circulated among the In 1934, the Government in Rome, without workers, artisans and intellectuals. These pu­ warning, sent some of its naval units to Durrës blications were brought into the country by to force Zog to capitulate and accept the dictate Albanians who were at school or working abroad, of Rome. Zog’s surrender to this pressure gave who had embraced communist ideas and tried an impetus to the anti-Zogite movement. In to disseminate them in our country. The first these circumstances, the task of organizing an communist cell was formed in the city of Korça armed uprising against the Zog regime was in 1928. Within a short time other communist placed on the agenda. To this end, a secret or­ cells were formed in Korça. In June 1929, the ganization made up of anti-Zogite elements meeting of the representatives of the communist was set up in Tirana. The branch of the Co­ cells was held. This event marked the creation mmunist Group of Korça in Tirana joined this of the Communist Group of Korça, with a leading conspiracy. Pursued by the Zog government, the committee, with the craftsman Miha Lako elected heads of this movement were forced to start at its head. The creation of this group, as the the uprising in on August 14, 1935, but the first revolutionary political organization of the government forces very quickly overran it, be­ Albanian working class, marked the beginning cause the insurgents lacked a revolutionary leadership. Nevertheless, this uprising was the of the organized communist movement in Al­ baptism of fire and a touch-stone to prove the bania. mettle of the Albanian communists. The work of the Communist Group of Kor- During the years 1935-1936 further steps ça entered a new phase of development thanks were taken for the organization of the working to the great assistance of the outstanding Alba­ class, to involve it and the masses of the people nian communist militant who in the struggle against capitalist exploitation returned to Albania in 1930, sent by the Co­ and the fascist danger. In 1935, the «Labour» mintern to develop revolutionary work and as­ association was formed in Kuçova (today the sist the communist movement here. Stalin City). It was transformed into a revolu­ The «Labour» association, was formed in tionary anti-Zogite and anti-fascist workers’ or­ 1933 under the leadership of the Communist ganization which was led by the communists. Group of Korça, composed mainly of building On February 11, 1936 the «Labour» associa­ workers. Its aim was to defend the rights of tion organized a strike which was brutally sup­ the workers and fight against the Zog regime pressed after three days, through the interven­ for freedom and democracy. During 1934, on the tion of big forces of government troops and initiative of the communists and the example police, under the personal command of the Mi­

44 45 nister of the Interior. Ten days after the general would facilitate the landing and movement of strike of the «Labour» association in Kuçova, the fascist army. the people of Korça staged an anti-Zogite de­ The concentration of fascist military troops monstration, known as the «demonstration for on the Western shores of the Adriatic continued, bread», in which the secondary school students at the beginning of 1939 their numbers reached also took part. The demonstrators clashed with over 100,000. the forces of the Zogite gendarmerie who opened The preparations for the fascist aggression fire on them. The demonstration for bread in against Albania were an integral part of the Korça was the first anti-Zogite people’s action general plan which the fascist states had started organized and led by the communists. to apply to establish their domination over the At that time, in Shkodra, another important world. centre of the Albanian communist movement — The Zog clique tried to come to terms with the Communist Group of Shkodra, was formed. the Italian fascist government by making one This group lacked a clear political like and a concession after another. It used every means definite organizational platform. to hinder the organization of national unity and Proceeding on its course of capitulating to the resistance of the masses of the people against fascism, the reactionary Zog government took the fascist aggression. Likewise, Zog strove in stem measures to prevent Albanian volunteers every way to conceal the tense situation from going to Spain. Right from 1936 the Al­ between Albania and Italy. banian communist groups sent their members However, the Albanian people became aware to assist the Spanish people, who fought he­ of the aggressive fascist plans in the first days roically, shoulder to shoulder with the commu­ of April 1939, and a wave of anger swept the nists and anti-fascists of Spain and other coun­ country. The Albanian communists became the tries. Many of them laid down their lives on organizers of powerful anti-fascist demonstra­ the battlefield. tions which burst out all over Albania. For days Beginning from November 1938, the fascist on end, the voice of the Albanian people roared Government in Rome took a series of measures its opposition to the imminent aggression, con­ in preparation for the military occupation of demning the betrayal, expressing readiness to Albania. The Italian Legation in Tirana stepped defend the Homeland and demanding weapons up its efforts to set in motion its «Fifth Co- for this purpose. A large number of men set lumn» made up of ministers, deputies, senior out for the main ports, where the fascist ag­ officers of the Albanian army and gendarmerie, gressor troops were expected to land. But the big landowners, clan chiefs and clergy, all of people were unarmed, betrayed by the ruling them sold out to fascism, with the aim of pa­ classes, the government and the King, and ralysing any resistance by the Albanian people without external aid or support. Zog personally, to the fascist aggressor. with part of his clique, fled the country after Likewise, the Italian enterprises in Albania plundering the state treasury. were stepping up construction work of a military On April, 7, 1939 the Italian fascist troops character such as airfields, ports, roads, which attacked Albania. The Albanian army, paralysed

46 47 by the Italian military instructors and pro-fascist were merged with the Italian armed forces and officers, disintegrated. But the people, although placed directly under the Italian command. betrayed by the Zog clique, put up a courageous The Italian fascists gave great importance stand against the fascist aggression. Groups of to converting the country to fascism. To this Albanian patriots fought heroically against the end they founded «the Albanian fascist party» aggressors at Durrës, Saranda, Shkodra, Vlora as a branch of the Italian fascist party and di­ etc. But the enemy forces, superior in numbers rectly subordinate to it. The occupiers took and armaments, suppressed this resistance and control of the press, radio, etc., introduced fas­ overran the whole country in a short time. cist education and the Italian language as com­ Right after their occupation of the country pulsory subjects in the schools. Thousands of the Italian fascists took a series of measures of Italian skilled workers, teachers and merchants a political, military, economic and administrative were brought to Albania for the Italianization character. Their aim was to perpetuate this of the country. The government leaders in Rome occupation, to make Albania completely Italian envisaged that the number of the Italians settled and fascist, to plunder its wealth above and below the ground and to turn Albania into a base in Albania would be double the number of the from which they could launch further aggres­ Albanian population. sions in the Balkans and towards the countries Every facility was provided to enable the of the East. Italian capitalists to freely exploit all the riches To conceal their real intentions, the fascist of Albania and take complete control of the occupiers immediately after their landing in Al­ economic life of the country. Customs barriers bania, gathered together in Tirana the most reac­ between Italy and Albania were lifted. In fact, tionary elements, the representatives of the big Albania was transformed into a province of the landowners, clan chiefs and reactionary bour­ Italian Empire under the fascist dictatorship. geoisie, all of them tools of fascism, and formed The consequences of the establishment of the Constituent Assembly. The Assembly pro­ the fascist occupation regime very quickly made claimed the «unification» of Albania with Italy themselves felt. The people lost their freedom and «offered» the crown of Albania to the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. The Albanian and national independence. Hundreds of patriots puppet government approved by the assembly, were imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. obediently carried out the orders of the go­ The economic situation became worse. Albanian vernment in Rome. workers were compelled by law to work in very The Italian government abolished the Mi­ difficult conditions, more than 10 hours a day, nistry of Foreign Affairs of Albania and trans­ and were paid only one tenth of the wages of the ferred its rights to the Italian Ministry of Fo­ Italians for the same work. The fascist occupa­ reign Affairs. The other ministries were, in tion weighed heavily also on the peasantry who fact, run by Italian «advisers». were being robbed of their land for the construc­ Under a special law promulgated by the tion of barracks, airfield and other military occupation organs, the objects. The interests of the Albanian handi­

48 49 craftsmen were also hard hit by the fascist who, in May 1941 fired shots at Victor Emma­ occupation and they started to close down their nuel III in one of the main streets of Tirana. businesses masse due to the competition of Vasil Laçi was hanged in prison by the Italian goods made in Italy. The constant price rises, the fascists. increase in speculation, the many shortages, es­ The more the anti-fascist resistance extended pecially in food-stuffs greatly worsened the life and deepened, the more the uniting of the co­ of the broad masses of the people. mmunist groups and the forming of a single In implementing their occupation plans, the communist party became a necessity. The Tirana Italian fascists encountered the resistance of the branch of the Communist Group of Korça, headed Albanian people, who never accepted the fascist by Comrade Enver Hoxha, became the real or­ occupation regime and fought against it. The ganizing centre of the whole communist and factories and big work sites became hot-beds anti-fascist movement in Albania. In August 1941 of the struggle against the fascist occupiers and an agreement was reached between the com­ the capitalist exploiters. The communists, though munist groups on their merging into a single not yet organized in a single party, placed them­ communist party. selves at the head of the movement. During the The meeting of representatives of the com­ second half of 1939 there were about 700 con­ munist groups of Albania for the founding of flicts between workers and capitalist employers. the Party was held in Tirana, from 8th to 14th To sabotage production, the workers in Kuçova of November 1941, in profound illegality. Fifteen left the oil valves open, destroyed drilling rigs representatives of the communist groups, inclu­ and oil wells, while at Rubik the haulage way ding Enver Hoxha, , , in the mine was destroyed, etc. The workers Pilo Peristeri and others, took part in the meet­ organized powerful strikes and demonstrations ing. On the first day, November 8, 1941, the against the fascist regime. meeting took the historic decision to merge the The school youth gave the anti-fascist mo­ communist groups and found the Communist vement assistance by writing anti-fascist slogans, Party of Albania (CPA) — the only revolutio­ tearing down Italian flags and participating ac­ nary party of the working class of Albania tively in the anti-fascist demonstrations. (today the Party of Labour of Albania). The peasantry also took an active part in At the Founding meeting of the Party it was the anti-fascist resistance, opposing the payment decided that the ideological and organizational ba­ of taxes, the expropriation of lands, etc. Armed ses for the construction of the Party would be the groups existed all over Albania. Outstanding Marxist-Leninist norms and principles. The among them was the Çeta of Peza, commanded Founding meeting of the Party clearly defined by the great patriot (1897-1984), the principal aim of the program of the Party which carried out armed actions against the for the Anti-fascist National Liberation War. fascist occupiers. which was: «To fight for the national indepen­ The deep hatred of the Albanian people for dence of the Albanian people and for a people’s the fascist occupiers was expressed in the democratic government in an Albania free from courageous act of the young worker Vasil Laçi fascism».

50 51 The meeting of the communist groups for 25, 1942, played a significant role in the the founding of the Party elected the Provisional political clarification of the people and mobilizing Central Committee composed of seven persons. them to fight in the Anti-fascist National Li­ Comrade Enver Hoxha, the founder of the Party, beration War. was appointed head of the Central Committee. The fascist occupiers and traitors continued The founding meeting took the decision to the mass arrests, the killings, the death senten­ found the organization of the Communist Youth ces, the internments of the families of comra­ of Albania. On November 1941, at a special des working underground and partisans, etc. with meeting organized by the Central Committee even greater ferocity. But neither terror nor of the Party and chaired by Comrade any other measure could stop the vigorous Enver Hoxha personally, the organization of upsurge of the anti-fascist struggle led by the the Communist Youth of Albania was founded Communist Party of Albania. in illegality in Tirana. Qemal Stafa was appointed At a meeting held in July 1942, the Central its political secretary. Committee of the Party analysed the existing Immediately after the founding of the Party situation and decided to convene e nation-wide the Central Committee issued an appeal to the national liberation conference. people, in which it pointed out that the only This conference was held at Peza (a village road of victory was that of uniting the broad near Tirana) on September 16, 1942. It adopted masses in uncompromising armed struggle against the platform worked out by the Communist Party the Italian occupiers and the local traitors. At of Albania for the National Liberation War of the beginning of 1942, on the instructions of the the Albanian people. This platform included the Central Committee of the Party, guerrilla units following main issues: to fight for a free, inde­ were set up in almost every town, while by July pendent and democratic Albania, to strengthen 1942 the partisan detachments had carried out the basis for a real fighting unity of the Albanian many fighting operations against the fascist people through armed struggle against the oc­ occupiers and the traitors. One of the more im­ cupiers and traitors, to organize all the patriotic portant operations of that time was the nation- forces of the country in a joint national liberation -wide action to cut the enemy’s telephone and front without distinction as to class, political telegraph communications during the night of conviction, religion or region, to set up every­ July 24, 1942. At that time there were many where national liberation councils which would demonstrations, protests and acts of sabotage. be organs to unite and mobilize the people in the Many enemy ammunition dumps were blown war, as well as representative organs of the up, enemy offices and other buildings were set people’s state power. This platform also envi­ on fire, scores of fascist officers and spies were saged the preparation of the general armed upri­ killed, and some regions were liberated. sing of the people. The newspaper «Zëri i popullit», central or­ By the end of 1942, national liberation gan of the CPA headed by Comrade Enver Hoxha councils had been set up in the majority of the the first issue of which appeared on August , and the number of freedom fighters in the partisan detachments amounted 52 53 to 2,000, besides several thousands fighting in on the setting up of the National Liberation the guerrilla units in the towns. Army as a genuinely revolutionary army of the In the circumstances of the extension of the Albanian people. Anti-fascist War and the ever greater recogni­ The intense political activity of the commu­ tion of the Communist Party as the sole leader nists for the preparation of the general armed of this war, Albanian reaction, urged by the uprising of the people found a wide response occupiers, tried to find a means to destroy the among the people and especially the Albanian unity of the people in the National Liberation youth. Workers, peasants and students joined the Front under the leadership of the CPA, to elimi­ partisan detachments. During April, May, June nate the Communist Party as the leader of the and at the beginning of July 1943 the partisan for­ National Liberation War, so that the bourgeoisie ces struck powerful blows at the Italian occupa­ and the big landowners could remain on top, tion troops in the vicinity of Selenica of Vlora, sabotage the war and keep state power in their Leskovik, along the Struga-Dibra road, at Për- hands. For these purposes, the reactionary met-Kuqar, on Këlcyra Pass and at Pojska of bourgeoisie and the big landowners, in connivance Pogradec. In the battle of Përmet the enemy with the occupier, formed the reactionary poli­ lost more than 500 men killed. On July 6, 1943 tical organization, the Balli Kombëtar, in No­ the partisan forces carried out their first attack vember 1942. All the dregs of Albanian society on the German army at Barmash of Kolonja. gathered around it. By means of demagogy and In such a situation the National Liberation force, the Balli Kombëtar managed for a time General Council meeting at Labinot of Elbasan to win to its side some politically backward on July 4, 1943, took the decision to form the peasants. To attain its goal, the Balli Kombëtar General Staff of the Albanian National Libera­ chose the road of collaboration with the occupier. tion Army (ANLA). Comrade Enver Hoxha was In these conditions, the Communist Party acted appointed political commissar of the General with great wisdom and foresight. First of all, it Staff. strove to expose the traitorous character of this On the basis of the instructions of the ­ organization. The political line followed by the neral Staff, the brigades would initially be the National Liberation Front, under the leadership biggest formations of the National Liberation of the Communist Party, in regard to the war Army and gradually incorporate most of the par­ enabled misled people to see the pseudo-patrio­ tisan çetas, battalions and groups operating in tic and reactionary character of the Balli Kom- the regions. The brigades would be under the bëtar. When that organization came out openly direct command of the General Staff. The 1st as a tool of the Italian and German occupiers the Brigade of the ANLA was formed on August insurgent people fought and destroyed it. 15, 1943 at Vithkuq of Korça. The First National Conference of the CPA The main source of supplies of weapons and was held at Labinot of Elbasan from 17 to 22 ammunition for the partisans remained the March, 1943. It took important decisions on the enemy, from whom they were captured. preparation and organization of the general Supplies of food and clothing came from people’s uprising and, in connection with this, the population of towns and, especially, country­

54 55 side, and the partisans were housed in the homes can Mediterranean Command were sent to the of the peasants and townspeople. General Staff of the ANLA allegedly to assist When fascist Italy capitulated on September the fight against fascism, but in fact they tried 8, 1943, the General Staff called on the com­ to eliminate the leading role of the Communist mand of the Italian army in Albania to sur­ Party of Albania, to prevent the victory of the render its weapons or join in the fight of the revolutionary people’s forces, and to assist the ANLA against the Germans. The Italian co- strengthening of the reactionary forces with the mand did not respond to this call but surren­ aim of establishing Anglo-American control in dered to the Germans. However, 15,000 Italian Albania after the war. officers and soldiers surrendered to the National The Anglo-Americans also sent liaison of­ Liberation Army, of whom only 1,500 fought in ficers to the traitor organizations which colla­ the ranks of the partisan detachments. The borated with the German nazis, such as Balli peasants of the liberated zones gave the remain­ Kombëtar, Legaliteti and the reactionary clan der refuge till the end of the war, despite the chiefs in the North. very great economic difficulties they were ex- During the winter of 1943-1944 the German periencing. occupiers, together with the local reaction, After the capitulation of fascist Italy, the carried out a large-scale military operation with German nazis replaced the Italian occupiers in the objective of wiping out the National Libe­ Albania. About 70,000 German soldiers were ration Army and hindering the anti-fascist war stationed in Albania. The aim of the Hitlerite in Albania. In this operation 45,000 German and regime was to put down the Anti-fascist Na­ traitor troops, with the best of equipment were tional Liberation War of the Albanian people employed. At that time the National Liberation by force, to secure men as cannon-fodder and Army had in its ranks 20.000 partisans, organi­ as labour force, and to plunder the wealth of zed in battalions and brigades, and another 15,000 our country. organized in territorial çetas and battalions. The The German occupiers were met with bullets occupiers and the local traitors created a very everywhere. In the autumn of 1943, bloody bat­ grave situation. They employed savage terror all tles were waged between the forces of the ANLA over the country. On February 4, 1944, in one and the German occupiers and the reactionary night they killed 84 people and imprisoned over forces united with them, as a result of which 500 others in Tirana. During this operation the the occupiers sustained considerable losses. ANLA, the people and the Party went through The Zogites joined the nazis and put them­ the most difficult test and came out victorious selves in their service. In November 1943 they over the enemies and reaction. The partisan formed their organization, Legaliteti, with the forces continued their attacks against the enemy. agent of the British imperialists, Abaz Kupi, at They were not destroyed but, on the contrary, its head. Legaliteti was a traitor organization grew in strength and numbers. During the ope­ with the same anti-popular and anti-national ration another 3 partisan brigades were added character as Balli Kombëtar. to the 3 existing ones. In the fierce fighting against the enemy during this operation more In 1943 representatives of the Anglo-Ameri­ than 1,000 partisans gave their lives, while the 56 57 ANLA and the people killed 3,000 of the enemy vernment, as agreements which ran counter to and captured 2,000 others. the interests of the Albanian people. In the spring of 1944, the National Libera­ The Commander-in-chief of the ANLA, tion Army, on orders from the General Staff, Comrade Enver Hoxha, basing himself on the went over to the general offensive against the decision of the Congress of Përmet to continue German fascist occupiers and the local traitors the war even more fiercely until the complete and liberated almost all the regions south of liberation of Albania, issued the order for the the Shkumbin River, while in Central and Nor­ newly created 1st Shock Division to start the thern Albania the partisan liberation war was offensive for the liberation of Central and further stepped up. The ANLA, which then Northern Albania. Already at the same time, the numbered 35,000 fighters, was in a position to Hitlerites and the local traitors, who had placed continue the general offensive until the whole themselves in their service, launched a new country was liberated. largescale operation against the National Libe­ In these conditions on May 24, 1944, the ration Army, which was called the June Opera­ First Antifascist National Liberation Congress tion. The Germans hurled into fighting the for­ was held in, the liberated town of Përmet. The ces of four divisions of the Army Corps 21 and Congress took decisions of exceptional importan­ 22. With this operation, the occupiers aimed to ce for the future of Albania. It solved the pro­ hinder the convening of the Anti-fascist Congress blem of the political power in the interests of of Përmet, to liquidate the Albanian National the insurgent people and founded the new Al­ Liberation Army and the Communist Party of banian state of people’s democracy. The Congress Albania. elected the Anti-fascist National Liberation The June Operation of the German army Council (ANLC) composed of 121 members as caused great suffering to the Albanian people. the supreme legislative and executive organ and Entire regions were put to the torch and ravaged. formed the Anti-fascist National Liberation Co- Old people, children and women were killed. mittee made up of 13 members, with all the Fire was set to harvests and livestock was robbed. attributes of a provisional democratic people’s Despite heavy losses the people resisted bravely government. Comrade Enver Hoxha was elected and faced up to the enemy. President of the Committee. The Congress decided According to the plan of the General Staff, «to build the new people’s democratic Albania after foiling the enemy operation, the National according to the will of the people...», «to ban Liberation Army launched a general offensive the return of Zog to Albania», «to recognize no for the complete liberation of Albania. On Ju­ other government which might be formed inside ne 26. the 1st Shock Division crossed the Shkum­ or outside Albania», «to continue the struggle bin River and thrust into Central and Northern against the German occupiers and their lackeys Albania. By the middle of July the forces of more fiercely». The Congress decided to review this division powerfully supported by the people all the agreements reached with foreign states who swelled its ranks with thousands of vo­ and to cancel the economic and political agree­ lunteers liberated the regions according to the ments entered into with them by the Zog go- order of the Commander-in-chief, Comrade Enver Hoxha. 58 59 beration Committee, was further extended. This Precisely at that time the Anglo-Ame­ activity found the full support of the broad mas­ rican Mediterranean Command tried by all man­ ses of the people all over the country, who ex­ ner of means to hinder this offensive. The pressed their trust in the Anti-fascist National Anglo-Americans also strove to land their troops Liberation Committee and demanded that it in Albania with the aim of backing the reaction­ should be turned into the Democratic Government ary forces. These hostile plans failed to be of Albania. From 20 to 23 October 1944, the Anti­ carried out thanks to the determined and far­ fascist National Liberation Council held its second sighted policy of the Communist Party of Al­ meeting in the liberated town of Berat and de­ bania and the General Staff of the National cided to transform the Anti-fascist National Li­ Liberation Army, with Comrade Enver Hoxha at beration Committee into the Democratic Go­ the head. The Communist Party described the vernment of Albania. Comrade Enver Hoxha was Anglo-American interference as a threat to the appointed Chairman of the Democratic Govern­ victory, revolution and the national independen­ ment of Albania. ce of Albania. While the second meeting of the Anti-fascist As a result of the general offensive of the National Liberation Council was being held in ANLA, by the end of October 1944 the whole Berat, the ANLA, which had now been transfor­ of Southern Albania was liberated, while north med info the regular army of the new Albanian of the Shkumbin only the towns of Elbasan, state and numbered about 70,000 fighters orga­ Tirana, Durrës, Kukës and Shkodra were still nized in brigades, divisions and army corps, was occupied by the enemy. Even within these towns, waging the final battles with the German occu­ the enemies were under the constant attacks of piers and the remnants of reaction on Albanian the ANLA. territory. At the beginning of October, two brigades The most important battle of the general of the ANLA, the 3rd and the 5th, crossed the offensive of the ANLA for the complete libera­ Albanian state border to fight the German fas­ tion of Albania was that for the liberation of cists in the region of Kosova. Tirana, which raged for 19 days, until Novem­ During the general offensive of the ANLA, ber 17, when the banner of victory was hoisted apart from the liberation of most of the territory in liberated Tirana. of the Homeland and the heavy casualties inflic­ On November 28, 1944, the Democratic Go­ ted on the German occupiers, another major vernment of Albania entered liberated Tirana victory was achieved — internal reaction, the amidst the indescribable enthusiasm of the people Balli Kombëtar, Legaliteti and their armed bands of the capital. On November 29, 1944, the libe­ were completely smashed. The quisling govern­ ration of Shkodra marked the complete libe­ ment was completely paralysed and unable to ration and the triumph of the people’s revolu­ function. tion in Albania. With the liberation of most of the territory Immediately after the liberation of Albania, of the country the activity of the organs of the on the decision of the Central Committee of the people’s state power — the anti-fascist national Party and the orders of the Commander-in- liberation councils and Anti-fascist National Li­ 61 60 -chief. Comrade Enver Hoxha, the 5th and 6th of the houses was burnt or destroyed, more than one third of the livestock was taken away or Shock Divisions continued the pursuit of the slaughtered; bridges, the few existing factories, Hitlerite troops beyond the state borders of Al­ workshops, mines and ports, and means ;of com­ bania, into Yugoslavia. These divisions fought munication were either totally destroyed or shoulder to shoulder with the Yugoslav partisans heavily damaged. In proportion to its population, and the Kosova brothers for the liberation of Albania is one of the countries that suffered the the peoples of Yugoslavia. The sons and daugh­ heaviest losses in men, and especially in material ters of the Albanian people shed their blood in the territories of this country. values, during the Second World War. During this war 28.000 martyrs gave their lives. During the whole heroic struggle against the common antifascist enemy relations of com­ With the complete liberation of the country, radeship in arms were established between the for the first time in their history the Albanian Albanian people and the peoples of Yugoslavia. people won genuine national freedom and inde­ However, the Titoite leadership of the Com­ pendence, abolished all enslaving dependence of munist Party of Yugoslavia made great efforts their country on the imperialist states, took the to exploit these relations created during the anti­ state power in their own hands and today, under fascist war in order to realize its own chau­ the leadership of Party of Labour of Albania, vinistic ambitions: Through the network of agents with Comrade Enver Hoxha at the head, are which it had created at that time aimed to seize marching confidently towards the complete cons­ control of the leadership of the CPA, the leader­ truction of socialism. ship of the Anti-fascist National Liberation War of the Albanian people and, later, turn Albania into a province of Yugoslavia. Thanks to the POPULATION resolute stand of the Party, Comrade Enver Hoxha and the other members of the Central Committee The first general census after the Proclama­ of the CPA, who powerfully defended the Mar- tion of Independence in 1912 was taken in 1923. xist-Leninist line of the Party, the ambitions of In that year Albania had 803,900 inhabitants. the Titoites were not realized. Full periodical censuses of a scientific charac­ The National Liberation War (1939-1944) is ter have been conducted only since the liberation the most heroic and bloodiest war the Albanians of the country. Beginning from 1945, 6 censuses have waged during their history. The Albanian have been taken in Albania. According to the ge­ people, 1 million strong at that time, nailed down neral census taken on January 7, 1979, the po­ more than 15 Italian and German divisions and pulation of the PSR of Albania at that time was put out of action about 70,000 enemies killed, 2,594,600 — more than double that of 1950. At wounded or captured. During the Second World the end of 1983, the population of Albania was War about 700,000 fascist soldiers invaded the reckoned at 2,870,000 inhabitants of which 51.6 28,000 sq. kms territory of Albania causing extre­ per cent males and 48.4 per cent females. The mely heavy losses and devastation: 7.3 per cent of population of Albania grows at a yearly rate of the population was killed or crippled, 21 per cent about 60,000 inhabitans.

62 63 During the whole post-Liberation period the that 6,660 people are between 85 to 90 years average annual growth rate of the population of age, and about 5,000 between 90 to 100 years was 2.5 per cent, or 1.5 times higher than before of age. Liberation. This numerical increase of the popu­ Albania’s population is young. The mean lation is entirely the result of the raising of the age of the population is 26 years, the youngest well-being secured by the Party and our people’s in Europe. About 35 per cent of the population power and its natural growth. is under 15 years, 43 per cent between 15 to 39 The density of population is about 100 per­ years, 15 per cent 40 to 59 years, and only 7 sons per square kilometre. The greatest density per cent is over 60 years. of population is found in the western part of The structure of age-groups of the present the territory, where the biggest towns are con­ population of Albania will permit the future centrated. But as a result of a correct economic replacement of the generation at relatively high policy, which aims at a harmonious and propor­ rates. It is estimated that in 1985 the population tional development of the entire country, the will reach about 3 million, and in 1990, 3 million density of population has increased in the 300 thousand. Consequently, the density of popu­ remote mountain regions of the country, lation will rise to 115 inhabitants per sq. kilo­ too. Mountainous districts such as Mirdita, Skra- metre. par, Puka and Tropoja now have a density of At the present time the average family com­ population 2.5 times greater than in 1950. Today, prises 5-6 members. The table below is a clear the remote mountain zones of Dukagjin and picture of the structure of the family according Kelmend, situated in the Alps of Northern Al­ to its number of members. bania, have 2.5 times more inhabitants than the 15 per sq. kilometre they had before Liberation. In percentage The relatively high level of brith (28 per 1000 inhabitants) and the low level of deaths (6 1969 1979 per 1000 inhabitants) is characteristic of the de­ mographic development of Albania. Albania stands out for its high marriage rate. In 1982 Total number of families 100.0 100.0 the number of marriages reached 9 per 1000 of these: inhabitants. with 1 to 2 members 10,3 9,5 The average life expectancy is 70 years, as with 3 to 4 members 22,7 28,1 against 38 years in 1938. This means that the with 5 to 7 members 42,5 42,3 average life expectancy has increased about 10 with 8 or more members 24,5 20,1 months for each year of the existence of the people’s power. Life expectancy shows that in 1980 as against 1950, the average life expectancy Today the families of 1 and two couples for males grew 27,4% while for females it increa­ account for 96% of the total number of families. sed 32.4%. Today the average life expectancy for Characteristic of the class structure in Albania females is 72 years. The 1979 census showed is the existence of two friendly classes, the work­ ing class and the cooperative peasantry, from 64 65 which the stratum of the people’s intelligentsia te power has taken for the continous development has emerged. of the countryside on the road to socialism, and The working class is the leading class of the the progress achieved in reducing the distinctions country. Its leading role has not only been pre­ between the ways of life in towns and country­ served, but has also been strengthened and will side, the village has always remained populated. be strengthened in the future, too. The proportion of the working class total in our population has constantly increased. Now worker families make THE LANGUAGE up 45 per cent of the total. Females make up more than 46 per cent of Albanian is an Indo-European language. The the total number of the active population. The Indo-European character of the Albanian langua­ development of education, culture and science ge has been convincingly proved by comparative has sensibly raised the level of education of the linguistics since the last century. The Albanian population. From a country with almost 90% of linguistics, together with other Albanological its population illiterate in the past, after Libera­ sciences which underwent vigorous development tion, Albania is characterized by high rates of in the years after the triumph of the people’s schooling. During the decade 1969-1979, there has revolution in Albania, have made a considerable been a 30% growth of the population of 7 and contribution to the study of both the history of more years of age, while the educated part of the Albanian language and people, as well as its increased by 46%. As for the female popu­ its structure and development. This was made lation, this increase has been 51%. While in possible when favourable conditions were created 1950 the population with 7 or 8 years of school­ for the development of our sciences and cul­ ing, with a medium or higher education ac­ ture in general. counted for less than 1/6 of the whole popula­ Albanian comprises a separate branch in tion, today it accounts for 2/3 of it. One of the the family of the Indo-European languages. When main features of the development of education comparing the structure of the Albanian lan­ in Albania is the gradual narrowing of differences guage with the structure of the other Indo-Euro­ between town and countryside. A comparison pean languages, scholars have placed Albanian with the year 1960 shows that these differences closer to the Balto-Slavic (Eastern), as well as have now been reduced three times over. to the Germanic (Northern) Indo-European There have been changes also in the ratio languages. of urban to rural population. According to recent data, today about 33.7 per cent of the population Albanian has an Indo-European structure, lives in towns and 66.3 per cent in the country. which in the course of centuries has developed The socialist industrialization of the country and in an original way. the vigorous increase of the working class in Alba­ In the course of time, through constant nia has not been accompanied by the ruin and contacts with the languages of other peoples, abandonment of the countryside. On the contrary, Albanian has borrowed many words from them thanks to the measures which the people’s sta­ just as it has also loaned to them from her

66 67 Thus, on the historical plane the origin of the word-stock. However, all these borrowings have Albanian language and the Albanian people is not influenced its grammatical and phonetic sys­ closely linked with the problem of the auto­ tem. The foreign elements have been integrated chthonous character of the Albanian people i.e., into the system of the Albanian, adapting them­ are the Albanians the indigenous population of selves to the laws of its development. the regions which they inhabit today, or have Proceeding from the fact that the number they come there in later times? In general, it is of foreign loanwords in Albanian is relatively accepted that the Albanians are autochtonous large, some foreign Albanologist of the past in their present-day territories. A wealth of century concluded that the Albanian language finds made in the course of archaelogical exca­ is of a mixed nature. Such an erroneous conclu­ vations after Liberation shows that there is a sion was due to superficial knowledge of the continuity of culture from the Illyrians to the word-stock of the Albanian language, overem­ Albanians, which proves the autochthony of the phasizing the vocabulary of minor language zones Albanians in their territories since pre-historic and insufficient study of the structure of the times. Albanian language. Moreover, the thesis on the Illyrian origin Another problem which has long since of the Albanian language is backed up by strong aroused the interest of scholars is that of the and sound linguistic arguments. Those linguistic origin of Albanian. What is the ancient language elements, which modern science has at its dis­ Albanian comes from? Naturally, the question of posal about the , find their ex­ the origin of the Albanian language is closely planation through the Albanian. The Albanian his­ related to the question of the origin of the Al­ banian people. torical toponymy is of particular importance for proving the authochtony of the Albanians and In connection with the origin of the Albanian consequently, the Illyrian origin of the Albanian language, as is known, three different theses language. The comparisons between the ancient have long been advanced: the thesis of its Illyrian forms of place names (Dalmatia. Dardania, Di- origin, that of its Thracian origin, and that of mallum, Ulcinium, etc.) and the present forms its Illyro-Thracian origin. The thesis of the Illy­ shows that the latter are the uninterrupted con­ rian origin of the Albanian language is gaining tinuation of the former, in line with the histo­ ground thanks to the studies of many Albanian rical phonetics of the Albanian language. and foreign Albanologists coupled with the re­ A number of works and studies carried out sults of studies in archaeology and other fields during these years in various fields of Albano- More and more convincing proofs are being logy have refuted many erroneous theses of fo­ advanced in favour of this thesis. First and reign Albanologists on the origin of the Albanian foremost this thesis is based on firm historical people and language and have, thus, scientifi­ grounds. The fact that the present Albanians cally backed the truth about many important live in the territory inhabited formerly by the questions relating to the history of the Albanians. Illyrians supports the fact that the Albanians are the descendants of the Illyrians and the Albanian The Albanian language is among the later a further development of the Illyrian language. documented Indo-European languages. The earli­

68 69 est written document of the Albanian we possess 15th-16th century from Shkodra and the biogra­ is one belonging to the 15th century (1462) — pher of Skanderbeg, tells us. Among other things a brief formula of baptizing written in Latin he mentions some chronicles written in ver­ alphabet by the archbishop of Durrës, Pal nacular, that is, in Albanian. In his book «The Engjëlli, a contemporary of Skanderbeg. The Siege of Shkodra» he writes: «Of late I got first book in Albanian we konw of is Gjon Bu- hold of some annals which are in fact fragments zuku’s «Meshari» («The Missal») published in of writings rather than annals. These fragments, 1555. based on legends of our forefathers, tell us more A rapid glance over the history of the Alba­ about the reconstruction than about the con­ nian language can not fail to bring out this con­ struction of this city. From them we learn in tradictory aspect. On the one hand, a language the language of the people that a man named documented in writing very late, in the 15th Rosa and his sister are those who first founded century, and on the other, an ancient people the city of Shkodra.» autochthonous in these regions of the Balkans ’s book, like the later works since pre-history. Historically it is a well-known by other old authors, are proof of the existence fact that the Albanians are among the most of an older tradition of the written Albanian. ancient peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. Archeo- The language in which the first Albanian book logical data prove that the Albanian people have we know of has been written, is a rich language been living in these parts for well over three which flows smoothly. It has a comparatively thousands years. From one generation to ano­ well-established graphic and orthographic sys­ ther they have spoken their own language which tem. It is elaborated to such a degree that it they have preserved and developed as the most cannot be a language which has just started to precious thing, to our days. Thus, we have the be written, or more so, a language written for Albanian — a language so ancient as a spoken the first time. For this simple reason the five language and so recent as a written language. hundred-year period of the written Albanian Hence, it is only reasonable to think that the language should be viewed only as a small part Albanian must have been written long before of the history of the Albanian language, as the the 15th century. Historical documents testify to recent stage of its historical development. a much older tradition of the Albanian writing. In a description of our country in 1332 attributed Buzuku’s «Meshari» («The Missal») marks to the French monk Brockard, but which was the first stage of the literary Albanian language. in fact written by the archbishop of Tivar, Gu- The literary Albanian of that period, which lielmus Adeae, it is stated: «Though the Alba­ stretches to the turn of the 19th century, existed nians have a language which is utterly diffe­ as a system of unequally developed sub-systems. rent from that of the Latin people, they use La­ There existed then an asymetrical development tin letters in all their books.» between the written and spoken language. The We learn about the existence of written written language did not reflect all the lexical and works other than those of a religious character phraseological wealth of the spoken language. In from what Marin Barleti, the historian of the this period the Albanian language existed in three

70 71 main literary variants with a strongly dialectical The opening of the first Albanian school on basis: the Geg*, the Tosk* and the Arbëresh** the 7th of March 1887 in Korça, along with other literary variants. One cannot speak about a uni­ schools in different districts of the country, the fied literary norm at that time. The language it­ establishing of the unified self must have performed very limited social func­ at the Manastir Congress in 1908, the further tions. From the earlier centuries up to the 19th elaboration and development of the Albanian century the literary Albanian language, could not language were among the main achievements in make such a qualitative leap as it did during the the language field scored during the first stage second half of that century, which marks the be­ of this period. During the second stage of the ginning of the second stage of the literary Alba­ National Renaissance, which begins with the nian and the formation of the Albanian nation year 1912, when Albania’s independence was pro­ with its literary movement of the Albanian Natio­ claimed, up to the eve of the country’s liberation, nal Renaissance. There existed in those days the process of the convergence into a literary very backward feudal socio-economic relations, language and the efforts to unify it made further a very low cultural level and religious dissension. progress. Nevertheless, this process was badly The Albanian was officially forbidden to be obstructed by the backward socio-economic si­ taught at school and its teachers were persecut­ tuation, by the then obscurantist regimes, re­ ed by the occupiers, by the clergy, etc. Insur­ ligious division, as well as by the foreign inter­ vention of the imperialist and chauvinistic for­ mountable obstacles and difficulties were put on the road of the free development of the li­ ces. terary Albanian language. During the period of the National Liberation In the 19th century, with the beginning of War the national literary language gains new the strong movement for national liberation and, quantitative and qualitative features which, in along with it, of the Albanian National Renais­ turn, prepared the ground for and enabled the sance, the efforts for the development, learning transition into a new stage of the literary lan­ and dissemination of the Albanian at school, the guage after Liberation. This period is characte­ publication of various literary and artistic books, rized by the emergence of as big mass of people etc., were placed at the centre of the attention speaking, reading and writing the literary lan­ and of the struggle of our people for freedom, guage. These factors gave the Albanian literary education and culture. As Comrade Enver Hoxha language an activity and scope, a truly national has stressed, «The rifle and the ABC book, like character. twins, have always been carried by the Albanian In the period after Liberation, in the condi­ people in their trenches fighting for freedom, tions of the construction of the socialist society, independance, land, rights and progress». of great national unity in the economic, political and cultural fields, of uninterrupted development of all the creative living forces, of unprecedented * Geg, Tosk — dialects of North and South Albania development of education and publications in respectively. ** Arbëresh — dialect of the Arbëreshi (Albanians the mother tongue, and a correct policy of the who have emigrated to Italy in the 15th century). socialist state in the field of language, we witness

72 73 the final crystallization of an Albanian literary of the basic autochthonous fund. It is an open- language with clear structural and functional fea­ ended structure which continues to grow richer tures — as a single language which is common not only through the contribution of the dialects and one and the same to the whole Albanian na­ existing in the territory of the PSR of Albania, tion. Two scientific sessions may be regarded as but also through the contribution of the sub­ crucial moments in the process of the formation dialects existing beyond the boundaries of our and development of the Albanian national lite­ state, which are linguistically valuable and serve rary language: the Scientific Session of 1952, the present-day lexical structure. The lexical when the first attempts were made at clarifying structure of present-day literary Albanian is the and elucidating the problems related to the road result of a fight for the purity of the language of the formation of the national literary lan­ from more advanced positions than that of the guage from the positions of dialectical and his­ people of the National Renaissance. It makes torical materialism. The Congress of a distinction between old and new borrowings, of 1972, which not only sanctioned the unification between unnecessary foreign words and those of the orthography of the Albanian language, international words which are more often than but also confirmed with scientifically grounded not necessary, especially in the technical and arguments that the Albanian people have now scientific terminology. The care shown to clear a unified literary language, the literary norm of the vocabulary of the present-day literary which has already been crystallized in all its Albanian from unnecessary foreign words is main links: phonetic, morphology, vocabulary an expression of the concern to preserve the and word-formation. purity of our language, which is one of the After Liberation, the development of the most important features of a nation and of a language in a convergent manner brought national culture. In the present lexical structure about new qualitative changes also to the dia­ there is a tendency to bring the written litera­ lectical basis of the literary Albanian at the ry language closer and closer to the language foundations of which lie today the common spoken by the people and to further enrich it elements of the two principal dialects or the two as a language of a rich culture, the language of former literary variants. literature, science and technique. The Albanian linguistics has scientifically The present literary Albanian language has demonstrated that the present-day literary Al­ now entered a high stage of its functional de­ banian is formed not on a simple and norrow velopment. The social functions of the literary one dialect basis, but on a wider basis which Albanian have grown in scope, just as its commu­ includes the basic common elements of the two nicating and expressive value has gained in dialects — that of Toskëria and that of Gegëria, strength. It was only after Liberation that it or the corresponding literary variants in almost began to serve as the language of the higher equal proportions. school and science. Today if has developed its The lexical structure of the present-day four principal functional styles: the socio-politi­ literary Albanian is characterized by a rich vo­ cal style, the literary style, the scientific style cabulary, the core of which is made up of words and the official style. The linguistic means cha­

74 75 racteristic of each of these styles, have become dented possibilities for its development. The properly differentiated. The spoken Albanian, as necessary foundations were laid for an organiz­ a form of literary Albanian, has developed its ed scientific work by setting up specialized own language means which are different for, institutions of scientific research. The numerous and characteristic of, the various styles of the profound and many-sided studies on the funda­ spoken language. Thus, we may say our literary mental problems of our language, carried out language has assumed a fully polyvalent cha­ during the years of the people’s power, have racter only in the period of the complete con­ been based on a new material which was col­ struction of the socialist society. lected throughout the territory of the Albanian * language. They made it possible for the system * * of the Albanian language, its dialects and history to be known and studied in a comprehensive and scientific manner. On this basis a number of The Albanian linguistics has a tradition of fundamental works of a general character were well over 300 years. It begins with «A Latin- compiled. Albanian Dictionary» by Frank Bardhi (1635). One of the most important achievements But the problem of the study and development made so far is the theoretical study of the of the Albanian language came to the fore only morphological and syntactical structure of the during the second half of the 19th century, contemporary Albanian in its main aspects. The­ together with the whole cultural activity carried re began, on an unbroken ground, the scienti­ out by the Albanian National Renaissance move­ fic study of the Albanian phonetics. All these ment. studies made possible the compiling of «The Despite the work done by a number of ge­ Scientific Grammar of the Albanian Language». nerations of Albanian and foreign linguists up New trails were blazed in the study of the to the period before the Liberation of the country, lexical structure and phreseology of the Albanian it had not yet been possible to achieve a com­ language. For the first time in the history of the prehensive study of the language structure of Albanian vocabulary there are now well over the Albanian in all its aspects, nor had there 150 thousand files of Albanian words which re­ been written such works as would synthetize flect Albanian life in town and country in its and sum up studies on the diverse aspects of the all-round historical development. On their basis Albanian language. Thus, for instance, there was were compiled «The Albanian Language Spelling neither a scientific grammar of the contemporary Dictionary» (32,000 entries) and «The Dictionary Albanian, nor a historical grammar. There was of the Presentday Albanian Language» (over not an Albanian dictionary with word explana­ 41.000 entries). Work has also begun for compi­ tions, be it even a small-size one. ling a dictionary of Albanian words and their The triumph of the people’s revolution, the explanation in many volumes. establishment of the new social order of the A large amount of work has been and is dictatorship of the proletariat opened up for the being done for defining and unifying the ter­ Albanian linguistics new vistas and unprece­ minology of various sciences, technique and pro­ 76 77 duction. For this purpose more than 20 termi­ of Albanian etymology. The important work nological dictionaries of Albanian words with «Studies On the Etymologyof the Albanian their equivalents in several languages have been Language» , by Prof. Eqrem Çabej, is a landmark compiled. in this field. The studies which have been carried out After Liberation, the Albanian linguistics pla­ in the realm of the word-formation have shown ced at the centre of its research work the study of that Albanian has one of the most flexible the living language of the people, the contempo­ word-formation structures among the family of rary Albanian language, without leaving aside the the Indo-European languages, with great creative study of some problems relating to the history ability — both real and potential. This is how of the language but also having special signi­ our language has been able to cope with the ficance for the history of our nation. It is preci­ ever-increasing demands of our socialist society sely this close connection with the living pro­ by making use mainly of its own material and cesses of the spoken and written language of the not by borrowing from foreign languages. people that makes the Albanian linguistics a The study and research work in the realm truly living science. Such a science is able to of dialectology have thrown light on the pecu­ properly meet the present and future needs of liarities of the dialects and spoken variants of our national school and culture. It helps inculcate Albanian. They show the present status of the among the labouring masses, especially among spoken Albanian and show the ways the forma­ the younger generation, the love and veneration tion of the national literary language has gone for the mother tongue — this irreplaceable means through, its links with the dialects, as well as the which links the membres of our nation through history of the Albanian language. This purpose a thousand threads with their native land, its will be better served by the publication of «The past, and with the glorious epoch of socialism. Dialectical Map of the Albanian Language» , a work which will push further ahead our research work in the field of dialectology. * * * The concentrated efforts and activities carried out in the process of the formation of the common literary language were crowned with success especially with the Congress of In addition to the Albanian-speaking popu­ Orthography (1972) and a series of informative lation of the PSR of Albania, Albanian is spo­ works published in its wake. ken beyond its borders. It is the mother tongue The Albanian scientific thought dominates of the Albanians living in Yugoslavia and Greece, today also the field of the history of the Alba­ and in other countries of the world Albanian is nian language. The Albanian linguistics has given also spoken in many settlements of Albanians many new answers and solutions to the question abroad. Most of them have emigrated from their of the genesis and evolution of the main elements country some centuries ago, with the remainder of the Albanian phonetics and morphology. It having left Albanian in the end of the last cen­ has also made big strides forward in the study tury and the beginning of the present century.

78 79 been created an artistic literature represented In Yugoslavia, Albanian is spoken in North- by well-known poets and writers like Jeronim western and Kosova; in the regions de Rada, A. Santori, . Dara, . Serembe, . of Peshter, Presheva and Bujanovc, as well as Stratigo, V. Dorsa and many others. in Montenegro, in the regions of Plava, Gucia, In our days the new generation of Arbëreshi Triepsh and Gruda; in the mountain region of are following the path of their enlightened fore­ Kraja, in Ulqin and its environments. Today the fathers, striving to defend the Albanian language Albanians of Kosova, Macedonia and Montenegro and folklore from extinction. speak the common, unified literary Albanian. In Outside the Homeland, the Albanian lan­ Greece, the Albanian language is spoken in the guage is spoken also by the Albanians who have region of Çamëria. It must be said that the emigrated in the past century and the beginning Albanian spoken in both Yugoslavia and Greece of this one to Egypt, the USA, Argentina, Aus­ cannot be distinguished from the Albanian spo­ tralia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Rumania, etc. ken in the present-day Albania, as they have not undergone separate development. The Albanian language has been preserved and continues to be spoken in ancient Albanian settlements in Greece, Italy and elsewhere. In the islands of Hydra, Paros, Spetcia, Salamina and Eubea, in Peloponnesus, and in the re- gion of Athens Albanian is spoken as far back as the 4th century. Somewhat of later date is the Albanian spoken in the regions of Molise, Capitanata, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, etc. Most of the Albanian settlements there date back to the 15th and 16th centuries. More recent is the Albanian spoken in Dalmatia (the village Arbanas near Zara) founded towards the beginning of the 18th century, the Albanian spoken in Mandrica in Bulgaria and the Albanian spoken by the Albanian settlers in the Ukraine, (the districts of Melitopol and Odes­ sa) who went there at the beginning and the middle of the 19th century. Having been separated for a long time from the motherland, the Albanian spoken in these settlements has come under the influence of a foreign milieu, but most forms of it especially of the Arbëreshi in Italy, have been very well- preserved. On the basis of this language has 81 80 THE CONSTITUTION THE CONSTITUTION

On December 28, 1976, the People’s Assembly of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania adopted the new Constitution. The former Con­ stitution had been adopted in 1946. The drafting of the new Constitution was dictated by the profound social and economic changes that had taken place in our country. In the first place, these were changes in the new economic base. The liquidation of the capitalist sector of the economy and the establishment of a unique system of economy, the creation of the socialist ownership of the means of pro­ duction and the collectivization of agriculture, brought about the establishment of the socialist relations in production, both in town and coun­ tryside, thus abolishing the exploitation of man by man once and for good. By reflecting the socialist reality in our country, the new Constitution represents an im­ portant Marxist-Leninist document which shows the features of a true socialist state. By sum­ ming up our revolutionary practice, the Con­ stitution — our fundamental law, clearly defines that our state is the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat (Article 2). The sanctioning by Constitution of the proletarian class character of our state is of great significance, both for the present and the future of socialism and commu­ nism in Albania. It serves to bar the road, even

85 in a legal way, to the usurpation of power by the right to sign or accept, in the name of the Peo­ anti-socialist, bourgeois and revisionist elements, ple’s Socialist Republic of Albania, the capitu­ so as not to allow the degeneration of the dicta­ lation or occupation of the country (Article 90). torship of the proletariat and to ensure the In order to bar the road to any kind of complete and final construction of socialism and infringement of national and economic indepen­ communism in our country. dence, the Constitution prohibits the granting of In the Constitution it is stated, «The Party concessions to, and the creation of, foreign eco­ of Labour of Albania, the vanguard of the work­ nomic and financial companies and other insti­ ing class, is the sole leading political force of tutions, or ones formed jointly with bourgeois the state and the society.» (Article 3). and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states, The Constitution states that Marxism-Leni­ as well as obtaining credits from them (Ar­ nism is the dominant ideology according to the ticle 28). principles of which the entire socialist social Our Constitution reflects the principle of order is developed (Article 3). self-reliance as a general course of socialist The Constitution lays down that the goals construction in Albania. and the basic tasks of the state of the proleta­ Our fundamental law states clearly and rian dictatorship, are the uninterrupted develop- explicitly that it deos not recognize any restric­ ment of the revolution abiding by the principle tion or privilege on the rights and duties of ci­ of the class struggle, so as to ensure the final tizens on account of sex, race, nationality, edu­ victory of the socialist road of development over cation, social position or material situation (Ar­ the capitalist road and to achieve the complete ticle 40). building of socialism and communism. Article 42 of the Constitution guarantees the The Constitution also sanctions such impor- rights of national minorities, stating: tant principles as that on people’s sovereignty, «Protection and development of their people’s democratic, centralism, socialist legality, the culture and traditions, the use of their mother struggle against bureaucracy and liberalism, mass tongue and teaching of it in school, equal deve­ line, the direct worker and peasant control, the lopment in all fields of social life are guaranteed harmonization of the personal and general in­ for national minorities. terests, the combination of the material stimuli «Any national privilege and inequality and with the moral ones, by giving priority to the any act which violates the rights of national latter, the maintenance of correct proportions minorities is contrary to the Constitution and is in remuneration so as not to allow the creation punishable by law.» of privileged strata, etc. Citizens who reach the age of 18 years have The Constitution defines the general lines the right to elect and be elected to all the organs of the foreign policy pursued by socialist Alba­ of state power. The only persons excluded from nia. It proclaims that the borders of our Republic electoral rights are those deprived of them by are inviolable prohibits the setting up of fo- decision of the court and those who are mentally reign military bases and the stationing of foreign incompetent and declared as such by the court troops in its territory and recognizes no one the (Article 43).

86 87 The Constitution of the PSR of Albania lity of the person. Nobody can be arrested devotes an important place to questions related without the decision of the court or the approval to work. Work, which is guaranteed by the state, of the prosecutor. Nobody can be sentenced pe­ is a duty and honour for every able-bodied ci­ nally without the verdict of the court or without tizen. Citizens have all the rights to choose and being present at court apart from when it has exercise their profession according to their ca­ been legally proved that he is missing. pacity and personal inclinations. At the same In the PSR of Albania the home is inviol­ time, the basic interests of the society, the in­ able. terests of the socialist construction make it a The secrecy of correspondence and other must that, when choosing and exercising the means of communication cannot be violated profession, proper regard should be shown so except in the cases of the investigation of a that they are in conformity with the needs of crime, a state of emergency, or of war. the society (Article 44). In close relation with Parallel with the rights of citizens, the the right to work, the Constitution declares that Constitution sanctions also their duties. The ci­ citizens enjoy the right of rest after work; to this tizens are obliged to respect and implement the end a vast network of rest homes and other state laws, to preserve and strengthen the so­ recreation centres has been created. Citizens of cial order and the rules of socialist coexistence, town and countryside are guaranteed the neces­ to protect and strengthen socialist property. The sary material means of livelihood in old age, in defence of the socialist Homeland is the supreme case of illness or loss of ability to work. Special duty of and the greatest honour for all citizens. care is devoted to the invalids of the National Liberation War, those of the struggle for the defence of the Homeland and invalids from work, and conditions are created for their rehabilita­ tion. The citizens are guaranteed the right to education, medical service and medical treatment in the health institutions of the country, free of charge. The Constitution sanctions the equal rights between man and woman. Article 41 reads, «The woman, liberated from political oppression and economic exploitation, as a great force of the revolution, takes an active part in the socialist construction of the country and the defence of the Homeland. The woman enjoys equal rights with man in work, pay, holidays, social security, education, in all social-political activity, as well as in the family». The Constitution guarantees the inviolabi­

88 89 STATE ORGANIZATION STATE ORGANIZATION

Albania is a People’s Socialist Republic. The People’s Socialist Republic of Albania is the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat which expresses and defends the interests of all the workers. It is based on the unity of the people and has at its roots the alliance of the working class with the cooperativist peasantry, under the leadership of the working class. The Party of Labour of Albania is the sole leading political force of the state and society. Marxism-Leninism is the dominant ideology. On the basis of its principles, the entire socialist social order is run. The alliance of the working class with the peasantry, which makes up the overwhelming majority of the country’s population, consti­ tutes the social basis of the socialist state in our country. Its political basis are the representa­ tive organs and the general line of the Party of Labour of Albania for the construction of so­ cialism and the defence of the Homeland. Its economic basis is the socialist social property which has been established both in, town and countryside; its ideological basis is Marxism-Leni­ nism — the revolutionary ideology of the wor­ king class, its organizational basis is the De-

93 mocratic Front led by the Party of Labour of THE PEOPLE’S ASSEMBLY Albania. In the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania The People’s Assembly is the highest organ the entire state power emanates from and be­ of state power, which bears the sovereignty of longs to the working people. The working class, the people and the state, and the only law­ the cooperative peasantry and the other working making organ. It is elected by the people people exercise their power through their directly, by general suffrage, for a term of four representative organs and directly. The repre­ years. In conformity with the general line and sentative organs, as principal organs of the state, directives of the PLA, the People’s Assembly direct and control the activity of all the other defines the main directions of the internal state organs, which are responsible and render and foreign policy of the state, approves and account before them. They are elected by the changes the Constitution and the laws, decides people by general, equal, direct and secret ballot. on the compatibility of the laws with the The electors have the right to recall their re­ Constitution and interprets laws, approves the presentative at any time when he has lost the po­ plan of the economic and cultural develop­ ment of the country and the budget of litical trust of the masses or when he fails to the state, proclaims the general and partial mo­ fulfil the tasks assigned to him or when he acts bilization, the state of emergency and state of in contravention of the laws. war in case of armed aggression against the PSR The working class as the leading class of of Albania, ratifies and denounces international our society, the cooperative peasantry as well as treaties of special importance, gives amnesty, the other working people, under the leadership decides on the people’s referendums, elects, no- of the PLA, exercise direct organized control minates and discharges the Presidium of the over the activity of the state organs, the eco­ People’s Assembly, the Council of Ministers, the nomic and social organizations and their working Supreme Court, the Attorney General and vice- people in order to defend the victories of the -Attorney generals, the Chairman of the Ge­ revolution and to consolidate the socialist order. neral Investigation Office and its vice-chairmen, In the system of the state organs, the repre­ defines the territorial-administrative structure and decides on the setting up and closing of mi­ sentative organs which consist of the People’s nistries. Assembly, at the centre, and the People’s Of special importance for the carrying out Councils, at the base, are the only organs which of the tasks of an organizational character by realize the sovereignty of the people. Throughout the People’s Assembly is the activity of its Chair­ their work, they rely on the creative initiative manship. This is elected from the ranks of the of the working masses, draw them in running People’s Assembly and engages chiefly with its the country and render account to them. All other internal life. It represents the People’s Assembly state organs are subordinate to the representa­ in its relation with the representative organs of tive organs. The latter render account before other states. However, in any case, the activi­ the elected organs. ty of the Chairmanship, in complete distinction

94 95 to that of the Presidium of the People’s Assembly, citizen is free to boost the candidate registered at does not extend to the field of the realization of meetings, through the press, etc. state power. The deputy receives only the wage at his Elections to the last legislature (the 10th) of work centre. Being a deputy is a title of honour. the People’s Assembly were held on 14 November 1982. In this legislature the People’s Assembly was comprised of 250 deputies, 113 of whom (or THE PRESIDIUM 42.2 per cent) were elected for the first time. OF THE PEOPLE’S ASSEMBLY Of the deputies, 95 come from the ranks of the working class, 73 from the ranks of the coopera­ The Presidium of the People’s Assembly is tive peasantry. In the ranks of the People’s As­ a superior organ of the state power with per­ sembly there are 76 women, who make up 30.4 manent activity. It is comprised of the President, per cent of the deputies, and 192 deputies (or 3 vice-presidents the secretary and 10 members. 76.8 per cent) have finished higher schools. The President also carries out the function of On the basis of the law in force, Albanian the head of state. citizens who are 18 years on the election day The Presidium of the People’s Assembly is have the right to take part in the elections and elected from the ranks of the People’s Assembly be elected deputies to the People’s Assembly. at its first session and continues its activity till The only persons excluded from this right the election of a new Presidium. are the citizens deprived of it by decision of the court, and those who are mentally incompetent Between sessions of the People’s Assembly, and declared as such by the court. the Presidium controls the implementation of the The candidates proposed enjoy the respect laws and decisions of the People’s Assembly, the of the masses for their exemplary conduct in activity the Council of Ministers, the Supreme society and attitude towards work. Court, the Attorney General, the General Inves­ tigation Office and any other state organ, and Their candidature is subject to open dis­ summons them to report, it issues decrees and cussion in meetings by the electors, where they decisions, makes interpretations of laws, etc. Be­ express their opinions. sides this, it has other permanent powers — it Elections take place in one of the off-days. convenes the sessions of the People’s Assembly, Voting centres are set up in every election sets the date of elections to the People’s Assembly precinct and each of them has a special voting and the people’s councils, accords Albanian ci­ room or booth, in which, apart from the voters, tizenship, awards decorations and titles of ho­ nobody, not even the members of the commis­ nour, exercises the right of pardon, appoints sion of the voting centre, are allowed to enter. diplomatic representatives, accepts the creden­ Every elector goes to the voting centre to vote individually. tials and the letters of recall of the diplomatic No propaganda is allowed during the voting. representatives of foreign states, etc.; it directs Every citizen enjoys this right during the election and controls the activity of the people s councils, campaign, when every organization and every abrogates the unlawful or incorrect acts of the

96 97 Council of Ministers, of the people’s councils and scale, co-ordinating and directing all this kind of the executive committees. of state activity. The Council of Ministers is The Presidium of the People’s Assembly is appointed and revoked by the People’s Assembly a collective organ and renders account before and renders account to it; between sessions of the People’s Assembly. the People’s Assembly it renders account before the Presidium of the People’s Assembly. The Council of Ministers directs the activity THE PEOPLE’S COUNCILS for the realization of the internal and external policies of the state, promulgates decisions, or­ The people’s councils also are organs of the dinances and instructions on the basis of the state power, which carry out their activity in Constitution and the laws, directs and controls the respective territorial administrative units. the activity of the ministries and the other cen­ They are elected by the people directly for a tral organs of the state administration and the term of three years and like the People’s As­ executive committees of the people’s councils; sembly they carry out their activity in sessions it works out the draft-plan for the economic and and not permanently. cultural development of the country, the draft The people’s councils have important com­ budget of the state; it organizes and controls petences in all matters of socialist construction, the finances of the state and the monetary and within the territorial-administrative unit where credit system, it takes measures for the security, they exercise their activity. The people’s coun­ protection and strengthening of the socialist cils direct all social life in the political, econo­ juridical order and the rights of citizens, etc. mic, social-cultural fields, the defence of the The ministries, as central organs of the state country and the protection of the socialist juri­ administration, specialized in particular branches dical order, reconciling the local interests with of activity, which are directed by members of the general state interests. the Council of Ministers, carry out executive and legislative activity. The ministers are responsible THE ORGANS for the activity of their respective ministries OF THE STATE ADMINISTRATION and of the Council of Ministers; they direct and control the organs, enterprises, institutions and The executive and legislative activity is a economic organizations of their sector. special form of the state activity, which is car­ The Defence Council is instituted to direct, ried out by the organs of the state administration. organize and mobilize all the forces and reso­ All the organs of the state administration are urces of the country in defence of the Homeland. under full and effective dependence of the Peo­ The First Secretary of the Central Committee ple’s Assembly and the people’s councils of va­ of the Party of Labour of Albania is the Com­ rious levels. mander-in-chief of the Armed Forces and The Council of Ministers is the supreme Chairman of the Defence Council. The composi­ organ of the state administration. It carries out tion of the Defence Council is defined by the Pre­ executive and legislative activity on a national

98 99 sidium of the People’s Assembly on the proposal tion of the laws by the ministries and other cen­ of the Chairman of the Defence Council. tral and local organs, by the courts, the organs In order to carry out their executive and of investigation, enterprises, institutions, orga­ legislative activities in different territorial ad­ nizations, officials and citizens. ministrative units, the people’s councils of these The Attorney General’s Office has the right units elect respective executive committees. They to protest against every illegal act and to demand depend both on the people’s councils which have from the respective organs its abrogation or elected them and on the higher executive and amendement. legislative organs. Specialized organisms attached The Attorney General and his deputies are to them are dependent on the people’s council, the appointed by the People’s Assembly. Executive Committee and the higher organs of the state administration. THE INVESTIGATION OFFICE

THE PEOPLE’S COURTS The Investigation Office is the organ of the People’s Assembly which investigates into The people’s courts are the organs which penal acts. The duty of the Investigation Office administer justice. is to protect the socialist juridical order, to dis­ The people’s courts protect the socialist cover and prevent penal acts from being com­ juridical order, fight for the prevention of cri­ mitted to educate the working masses to imple­ mes, educate the masses of working people to ment the socialist law. The investigation or­ respect and implement the socialist law. gans are comprised of the General Investiga­ At the head of the organs of justice is the tion Office and the investigation office branches Supreme Court, which directs and controls the in the districts. activity of the courts. It is elected at the first session of every legislature of the People’s As­ sembly. The other people’s courts are elected ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION by the people directly and pass their decisions in the name of the people. Judgement is given The PSR of Albania is divided into 26 terri­ with the participation of assistant judges who are torial-administrative districts. The geographical elected directly by the people. Through their and economic compatibility of the territory of decisions they exert major educative influence, each unit, as well as its historical, political and not only on the persons brought before court other factors, have been considered to define its but also on all others. respective area. The districts are divided into smaller units, THE ATTORNEY into towns and united villages, while the towns GENERAL’S OFFICE are divided into city-quarters and the united vil­ lages into villages. The area of the territory of The duty of the Attorney General’s Office is the united village, the latter comprising several to control the precise and uniform implementa­ villages, depends on the capacity of economic

100 101 organization of the state farm, the highertype tion of the country, thus ranking in the fifth cooperative or the united agricultural cooperative. place. All these territorial-administrative units According to their production value, the main have their respective organs of local power which branches', of the industry are food-processing — carry out their activity in the given territory. which accounts for /4th of the district indus­ On the basis of the territorial-administrative trial production and stands out for its multibran- division, in 1982 there were 65 towns, and 438 ched structure; non-ferrous metallurgy (copper- united villages, comprising 2664 villages in the -processing and the production of copper wires territory of the PSR of Albania. and cables) which accounts for l/5th of the dis­ The territorial-administrative units (districts) trict industrial production, and then metal-wor­ are as follows: king light industry, electric power, wood-wor­ king and paper-making, etc. Shkodra district Agriculture, too, stands out for its multi- Area — 2528 sq.km.; population 206 200; branched structure. Cereals, especially grain, density — nearly 82 inhabitants per sq. km. occupy the main place among other crops. Indus­ trial crops, vegetables and fruit-growing are also The population lives in the town of Shkodra important. The district is renowned for the pro­ (70,000 inhabitants), which is the centre of the duction of tobacco, which is planted especially district, and in 181 villages. in the Upper-Shkodra Plain (Koplik), as well as From the point of view of its area, Shkodra for vine-yards, especially in the plain of Shtoi. In district is the largest tin Albania, and makes up Lower Shkodra there are blocks of fig-trees, 9 per cent of the area of the country. In regard to peaches and olive-groves. The plain of Lower, its population, it occupies fifth place, after Tira- Shkodra is the most important agricultural and na, Durrës, Fier and Elbasan. livestock region of the district, with the biggest Shkodra district lies in the northeastern part agricultural economies, state farms and higher- of the country, and comprises a good part of -type cooperatives. It is distinguished for the high the Alps. This is the most mountainous region of intensification of field crops production, as well the country and is renowned for its beauty. Rest as for livestock raising. homes for the working people have been set up In 1979 the Presidium of the People’s As­ in Theth and Razma. sembly awarded the lofty title of «Hero of So­ This district has a developed industry and cialist Labour», to the Shkodra district for its agriculture. Industrial production accounts for 67 socio-economic development and the work done per cent of the economic tasks of the district, to liquidate the consequences of the April 15, whereas agriculture 33 per cent of them. 1979 earthquace. In 1982, as against 1970, industrial and agri­ cultural production was 2.3 and 1.5 times greater, Tropoja district respectively. Area — 1043 sq.km, population — 39 800 The industry of Shkodra district accounts for density — 38.3 inhabitants per sq. km. nearly 8 per cent of the total industrial produc­ This district, with its centre in the town of

102 103 The administrative division of the PSR of Albania , with more than 5000 inhabitants, and 56 villages. In regard to its area, Tropoja has an average size as compared to the other districts, whereas in regard to its population it ranks among those with a small population. Tropoja lies on the northeastern part of Albania, on the blocs of the Alps, so its relief is mountainous. Here the Valbona valley is famous for its natural beauty. The inhabitants of this district are engaged in industry, and agriculture. Livestock raising is highly developed in the alpine pasture lands of this zone. Industry accounts for 76 per cent of the district total production, whereas agriculture 24 per cent. In 1982 industrial production was 22 times larger than in 1970. Its water resources are a major reserve for the electric power industry, which occupies a principal place — accounting for 3/4 of the dis­ trict industrial production and 30 per cent of the gross electric power production of the country. The «Light of the Party» hydro-power station, one of the biggest projects of our hydro­ energy so far, with a generating capacity of 500,000 kW, has been built in Fierza, on the Drin River. The food-processing and mining industries play an important part in the district economy. The field crops, especially bread grains and vegetables account for the greater part of the total agricultural production. Large tracks of land are planted with chestnuts (the biggest plan­ tation of the country) and black, or as they call them there, Tropoja plums.

104 Kukës district Area — 1330 sq.km.; population — 86 000, density — nearly 65 inhabitants per sq.km. The population of this district lives in two towns — Kukës and Kruma, and 100 villages. The centre of the district is the town of Kukës with 10,400 inhabitants. The town is completely new, built during the 70s. The old Kukës town is completely submerged under the waters of the reservoir of the «Light of the Party» hydro­ -power station on the Drin River. This district is mainly mountainous. The highest peak is that on the mountain of Gjalica (2480 m). Its geographical milieu is rich. Moun­ tain zones are covered by industrially important forests; the geological structure of the zone has determined the existence of numerous ores such as copper and chrome; its soil and climatic con­ ditions are suitable for the cultivation of many field crops. Industry accounts for 60 per cent and agri­ culture for 40 per cent of the total industrial- -agricultural production of the district. In 1982, as against of 1970, industrial produc­ tion doubled. Mineral extraction and non-ferrous metal­ lurgy, which account for half the industrial pro­ duction of the district and l/10th that of the country, play the principal role in the industrial development of the district. Food-processing, woodworking and other industries are important. Field crops, bread giving, especially wheat and barley, and vegetables, are among the main agricultural products. The district abounds in plums, apples and grapevines. Sheep of the «Ruda» breed and goats are rai­ sed in the mountain areas, while cattle and sheep

105 are raised in the rivers valleys and in the Has The rest is accounted for by industry, in Highlands. The Has Highlands, where the state which the mineral extraction together with the farm of Kruma has been set up, is an important chromiun ore-dressing industry, come first, to be agricultural area. followed by the food-processing and other indus­ tries. Dibra district Area — 1568 sq.km.; population — 134 800; Mat district density — 86 inhabitants per sq.km. Area — 1028 sq. km.; population — 67 000; The population of this district lives in two density — 66 inhabitants per sq. km. towns, Peshkopi and Bulqiza, and 182 villages. The population of the district lives in 4 Peshkopia is the centre of the administrative towns (Burrel, Klos, Ulëz and Krasta) and in 69 unit with 9,000 inhabitants. Bulqiza is a new villages. Burrel is the centre of the district, miners’ town. with 7,500 inhabitants. Ulza is its centre of elec­ This district lies on the eastern part of the tric power industry, Klos of food-processing Republic, on either side of the Black Drin River. industry, and Krasta of mining industry. The Drin valley is the lowest part of the district. Mat district lies on a mainly mountainous The Korab peak (2751 m.), the country’s highest terrain, in the central part of the country, on peak, is situated in this district. Mineral ores both sides of the Mat River valley. The highest such as chrome, sulphur, marble, etc., have been peak (over 2240 m.) is on the Deja Mountain. discovered in this district in the years of so­ cialist construction. The thermal-mineral water Industry, which accounts for 65 per cent of springs are situated in the vicinity of Peshkopia the total production of the district, occupies the and have important curative values. greater part of its economy. Mining and the The forests in the mountain regions, espe­ ferro-chrome metallurgy, which turn out 2/3 of cially Lura with its 7 glacial lakes, are famous the total industrial production of the district, for their natural beauty. account for 1/10 of the national production of Agriculture, which supplies 53 per cent the these branches. The district has its food-proces­ district’s total production, occupies the main sing, timber and other industries. place in the district economy. The industrial production realized in Mat in Agriculture stands out for its multi-branched 1982 was 2,6 times greater than in 1970. structure. Principal place is occupied by bread In this district two hydro-power stations, the grain (wheat, maize and barley), vegetables, es­ «Karl Marx» and «Friedrich Engels» hydro­ pecially dry-beans, and fruit-growing. power stations, have been set up on the Mat Fruit trees are represented by plums, apples, cherries and nuts. River. The Black Drin River valley in the most Field crops especially bread grain, play the important agricultural region, where the state main role in agriculture which accounts for 35% farm has been set up. Cattle raising is con­ of the total industrial agricultural production of centrated here. the district. Livestock raising and fruit growing

106 107 are the main pursuits of the population in the the valleys and sheep and goats in the upper hilly regions on both sides of the Mat valley. part of the district. A state farm has been set up in the Mat The Fan valley is its most important agri­ valley engaging also in cattle raising. Sheep and cultural region where the state farm of the district goats are raised on the hilly and mountainous has been set up. zone. The Martaneshi goat is famous in this district. Puka district Area — 1034 sq. km.; population 45 000; Mirdita district density — 44 inhabitants per square kilometre. Area — 867 sq. km.; population — 45 000; The population lives in two towns and 73 density — 52 inhabitants per sq. km. villages. The centre of the district is Puka with over 3000 inhabitants. Fushë-Arëz is an indus­ The population of the district of Mirdita trial town for the processing of timber and lives in three towns (Rrëshen, Rubik, Kurbnesh) and 60 villages. upgrading of copper. This is a mountainous district. Puka district The centre of the district is the town of is rich in forests and minerals. Here are the Rrëshen with 4000 inhabitants. Rubik is its biggest saw mills of the country. The district centre of the non-ferrous metallurgy (copper), has copper, kaolin and magnezite desposits. while Kurbnesh of the copper extraction and dressing. The three towns have been set up only Industry counts for 60 per cent of the total about 20 years ago. production of the district. The main branch of industry is the mining and enrichment of copper, The Mirdita district lies north of Mat district, which account for 4/10th of the industrial pro­ and includes the whole of the Fan River basin duction followed by wood-working, which (the Big Fan and the Small Fan). It is a hilly- accounts for l/3th of its production. Puka is mountainous district and a considerable part of among the districts which ranks top most in the the area rises up to 400 metres above the sea level. wood-working of the country. In 1982, as against 1970, industrial pro­ Industry accounts for 8/10 of the total indus­ trial-agricultural production of the district. duction increased 1.7 fold. In 1982, industrial production was 2,3 time With the construction of the «Enver Hoxha» greater than 1970. The principal branch of indus­ hydro-power station in Koman, with an installed try is the mining and processing of copper, which capacity of 600.000 kW, Puka district will con­ realizes 9/10ths of the total industrial produc­ tribute a great part to the electric power produc­ tion of the district, or 17 per cent of the tion. country’s mining and metallurgical industry. The cultivation of field crops, especially Field crops (especially cereals) represent the bread grain, livestock raising and fruit-growing, main direction in agriculture, vegetables are occupy the main place in agriculture. In the vi­ concentrated in the Fan valley, fruit-growing cinity of Puka there is a state farm which in the hilly zone, and cattle raising in engages in cattle-raising and vegetable-growing 109 108 Lezha district Kruja district Area — 479 sq. km.; population — 53 000; Area — 607 sq. km.; population — 93 000; density — 111 inhabitants per sq. km. density — 153 inhabitants per sq. km. The population lives in two towns (Lezha The population of this district (about 34 per and Shëngjin) and in 56 villages. cent) lives in 5 towns (Kruja, Laç, Fushë-Kruja, The centre of the district is the town of Milot and Mamuras) and in 60 villages. The Lezha, with over 8000 inhabitants, an early Illy­ district has as its centre the Hero City of Kruja, rian settlement, famous since ancient times and was Albania’s capital under Skanderbeg. Laç, a known as Lissus. The April 15, 1979 earthquake new industrial town with 4000 inhabitants, set destroyed the only ancient quarter of Lezha, and up in the 1960s, is the centre of the industry of two new quarters were built in its place. pyrometallurgy, phosphate fertilizers, acids, Most of this district lies on a bottom land food-processing timber, etc. Fushë-Kruja is also on the northern part of the Western Lowlands. an industrial town with a developed cement in­ Mountains rise to the east of it, and seldom dustry. Milot and Mamuras are industrial and exceed 1000 metres high. agricultural towns. The coastal plain of Lezha, formerly a Kruja district lies mostly in the lowland marsh land, today has been reclaimed and trans­ area. It is only to the east that the mountain formed completely into art area with an in­ range of Skanderbeg rises higher than 1000 m. tensified agriculture. Now it is the centre of with its highest peak, Maja e Liqenit of 1724 m. important agricultural economies of the district Industry, which holds principal place in the such as the state farm, the higher-type coopera­ total industrial-agricultural production of the tive and the livestock-raising complex. Bread district, accounts for 68 per cent of it. In 1982, grain, vegetables, rice and sunflower are exten­ as against 1970, industrial production grew 3.6 sively cultivated here. Blocks of fruit-trees and fold; non-ferrous metallurgy accounts for 1/3 of vineyards cover most of the hilly areas. In the the industrial production of the district, realizing lowlands, they raise cattle especially «Friezian» 1/10 of the national production of the mining pedigree cows, as well as pigs, sheep, whereas and metallurgical industry. The chemical and ce­ in the higher areas goats and sheep are raised. ment industries account for more than 1/10 of The agricultural production of the district ac­ the national output of the chemical and building counts for 60 per cent of its total production and materials industry. In the field of agriculture, the in 1982 it was 1,6 times greater than in 1970. main place is occupied by field crops (bread grain, sun-flower, rice, vegetables). Fruit-growing is The district has its food-processing and developed in the hilly area. The highlands around paper industry. the town of Kruja down to the town of Milot In regard to the development of timber and are covered with olive-groves. paper industry on a national scale Lezha ranks The plain close to the Adriatic, especially fifth among the districts which have such in­ the Thumana Plain, is the most important agri­ dustries. In 1982 the total industrial production cultural region. Before Liberation this plain was was 3 times larger than in 1970. marsh-land. After reclamation and systematiza­

110 111 tion work it was transformed into one of the tional scale. This industry is represented by the most important agricultural centres of the coun­ ship-yards for light-tonnage ships, production try, specializing in the production of bread lines of radio and TV-sets, industrial plants for grain, vegetables and milk. It is the centre of farming machinery and equipment, etc., which the most important agricultural economies, two are concentrated in Durrës, and the production state farms, a higher-type cooperative and some of glassware, nails, screws and bolts, in Kavaja. united cooperatives. The light and food-processing industry and the chemical industry (for the production of pesti­ Durrës district cides, rubber plastics) occupy an important place. Area — 848 sq. km.; population — 217 000; Durrës district is an agricultural area of a density — 256 inhabitants per sq. km. national importance. The lowlands of this district, The population of this district, with the formerly marsh-land, is the most important highest density in the country, is distributed agricultural zone with a high level of intensifi­ in four towns (Durrës, Kavaja, Shijak and Rro- cation. The large agricultural economies compri­ gozhina) and the rest in 119 villages. sing four agricultural enterprises, four higher- The centre of the district is the city of Durrës type cooperatives, the complex of raising calves, (72 000 inhabitants). This city, 2,700 years old, poultry station for eggs, milk cows, etc., have founded in the 7th century before our era, is been set up in this district. Cereals, vegetables, the largest sea port of Albania. sun-flower, cotton and rice are some of the field Kavaja is an industrial town with over 22,000 crops cultivated in this region. Fruit trees espe­ inhabitants, while Shijak is an industrial and cially grape-vines, have been planted on hill agricultural town with over 8000 inhabitants. sides. Durrës district ranks fourth in the Repu­ Rrogozhina is a motor-and rail-road juncture blic for the production of cereals second for and an industrial and agricultural centre. the production of rice and vegetables, third for The district of Durrës lies in the Western the production of sun-flower and cotton. Lowlands, along the Adriatic Sea. Industry plays the main role in its economy, Tirana district turning out 75 per cent of it total production. Area — 1238 sq. km.; population — 310 000; In 1982 it produced 2.2 times more than in 1970 density — 250 inhabitants per sq. km. and realized over 1/10 of the country’s industrial The population of this district is distributed production. Food-processing, as the main branch between 3 towns (Tirana, Vora and Kraba — 66.2 of industry, accounts for 1/3 of the total indus­ per cent of the whole population) and 150 villa­ trial output of the district, It stands out for its ges. Tirana, the capital of Albania, is the cen­ multi-branched structure and wide range of tre of the district with 202,000 inhabitants. It products; it processes vegetables and fruit, pro­ was proclaimed the capital of the country by duces beverages, cigarettes, etc. The engineering decision of the Congress of Lushnja in January industry accounts for 3/10 of the industrial pro­ 1920. Tirana is a «Hero City». All the supreme duction of the district and realizes 1/5 of the organs of the Party and the central departments production of the engineering industry on a na­ of the state, the mass organizations and the

112 113 scientific and educational institutes, such as the of vegetables, grapes, eggs, milk and meat, etc. Academy of Sciences, the University, the Higher The plain of Tirana is the most important Institute of Arts and the Higher Institute of agricultural and livestock region of the district. Agriculture, etc. have their seat in Tirana. Beside other pursuits it is famous for cattle Comrade Enver Hoxha. at the head of the raising, for milk and meat, for the industrial cul­ Albanian communists founded the Communist tivation fo vegetables and the raising of poultry Party of Albania (today the Party of Labour of for eggs and meat. The hills around Tirana are Albania) on 8 November 1941, in Tirana. planted with grape-vines, olives and other fruit The district of Tirana extends on the trees. Three big state farms, the higher-type Pre-Adriatic lowlands and a hilly and moun­ cooperatives and the largest united cooperatives tainous area. The highest peak in the district’s have been get up in the district. relief exceeds 1,800 m. Tirana holds first place in the Republic for Industry realizes more then 85 per cent of the production of vegetables, eggs, milk, grapes the total output of the district, or over 17, per and cattle raising. cent of the country’s total industrial production and in 1982 as against 1970, its production Lushnja district increased two fold. The engineering and machine Area — 712 sq. km.; population — 115 400; building industry which accounts for 23 per density — 162 inhabitants per sq. km. cent of the district’s industrial production and Although this district, like that of Lezha, 1/3 of the national production of this industry, Durrës, Gramsh, Tepelena and Kolonja, is among occupies first place. The principal role here the smallest units, in regrad to the density of is played by the «Enver Hoxha» automobile and population, it ranks fifth in the country. The tractor combine and the «Dinamo», «Dajti», population lives in the town of Lushnja, which is «Tirana» and «Partizani» plants, the electro­ the centre of the district with 24,000 inhabitants, mechanical plant, etc. Next comes light industry, and in 116 villages. represented by the «Stalin» textile mills, which The largest part of the territory of this dist­ contributes a quarter of the industrial production rict lies on the plain in the central part of the of the district and 3/10 of the national output Myzeqeja, which before Liberation was covered of this branch, food-processing industry with the by marshes. The Tërbufi swamp, which extended «Ali Kelmendi» combine, the wood-working in­ over a tract of more than 8,000 hectares of land, dustry, with the «» combine, the has been drained and improved through a system building materials industry, with the «Josif of dykes and barriers, and today is one of the Pashko» combine, etc. country’s major agricultural regions. This zone, The richest coal basin of the country with with the biggest agricultural economies, state the biggest plant for the enrichment of coal in farms and higher-types cooperatives, is part of Valias lies in the plain of Tirana; the other large the area with priority intensitifaction of agricul­ coal basin is that of Kërraba-Mushqeta. ture. In these fields are cultivated cereals, espe­ The district has a multi-branched agriculture cially wheat, for the production of which Lush­ as well as sectors specialized in the production nja occupies second place in the Republic in

114 115 proportion with its area, cotton, sun-flower for Industry comprises the ferrous metallurgy, the production of which it occupies first place, with the «Steel of the Party» metallurgical com­ as well as vegetables. Cattle raising for meat and bine which occupies a quarter of the industrial milk, and good breeds of sheep, are important production of the district and over 1/5 of the branches of the economy of this district. national production of the mining and metallur­ The hilly area of the district, which stretches gy industry. Important is the building materials from the south of the Shkumbin River down industry (the production of cement), food pro­ to the town of Lushnja is planted with fruit cessing industry, engineering industry, etc. Near trees. the city of Elbasan is the station. Agricultural production has gone up 1.5 Elbasan is also an important agricultural times as against 1970, and accounts for 56 per district for the production of cereals, especially cent of the total agricultural-industrial production wheat, tobacco (mostly on the Dumre Plateau), of the district, while the rest is realized by the sunflower, sugar beet, vegetables, etc. Fruit­ industrial production, which has increased 3.7 growing is also extensive in the hilly zones. times as against 1970. Attention is paid to raising of cattle, sheep and goats. The lowland area and the Dumre Plateau Area — 1481 sq. km.; population — 208 900;are the most important regions for field crops density — 141 inhabitants per sq. km. and the raising of cows for milk. The biggest agri­ The population of this district is distributed cultural economies, the agricultural enterprises between 3 cities (Elbasan, Cerrik and Peqin) and and the higher type cooperatives of the district 191 villages. Elbasan, the centre of the district, have been set up there. Olive-groves and citrus is as old as Skampin of the Antiquity. Elbasan plantations lie to the north of the city of Elba­ is an important industrial city with 68,000 inha­ from the hilly zone of Labinot to Peqin. bitants. Cërrik (pop. 9,000 inhabitants) is the centre of the oil-processing industry of the dis­ trict. Peqin is a small agricultural-industrial Area — 1013 sq. km.; population — 63 000; town, which traces its existence with the density — 62 inhabitants per sq. km. emergence of the town of Klodian, a town known The population of this district is distributed in ancient times. between two towns (Librazhd and Prrenjas) and This district lies mainly on the plains, part 63 villages. Librazhd, the centre of the district, of the Western Lowlands, and the Dumre plateau. has about 4 000 inhabitants. To the north and southeast the terrain is hilly and mountainous. Most of this district lies in a mountainous Industry plays the main role in the economy zone, on either sides of the Upper Shkumbin of the district, accounting for over 75 per cent of River and in the Domosdova valley. its total industrial-agricultural production. In The subsoil of the district is rich in iron- 1982, as against 1970, industrial production has nickel ore, which is exploited at several resources. increased 2.6 fold. The most important of them is that of Prrenjas.

116 117 The forests of the district are industrially ex­ Pogradec). The forests are of industrial impor­ ploited. tance. Industry accounts for over 44 per cent of In 1982, as against 1970, industrial production the total agricultural-industrial production of increased 2.2 fold; it secures 55 per cent of the the district and in 1982 it has increased two fold industrial-agricultural production of the district. compared to 1970. Mining, the light and food industry (production Of importance for the economy of the district of knitwears), the timber industry, etc. make up are the mining industry, the food stuffs industry, the bulk of the industrial production. the wood-working industry, etc. Agriculture also has advanced rapidly espe­ Agriculture accounts for 56 per cent of the cially in bread grain, sugar beet, fruit growing. agricultural-industrial production. The main Livestock raising is an important branch, too. crops are field crops especially bread grain. The most important agricultural and lives­ Livestock raising is also important. tock-raising region is the Buçimas Plain, where the cultivation of sugar beet, hops, bread grain, The Shkumbin valley is its main agricul­ tural region where the state farm has been set the raising of cows for milk, etc., have been up. Livestock raising, the growing of bread grain, concentrated, as well as the hilly system planted fruit growing (vine yards, walnuts, apples, plums, with apples, plums and vines. etc.), are concentrated in this area. The Domos- dova Plain, as part of this agricultural region, specializes in field crops and fruit growing. Korça district Area — 2181 sq. km.; population — 199 000; Pogradec district density — over 91 inhabitants per sq. km. The population is distributed between three Area — 725 sq. km.; population — about towns (Korça, Maliq, Bilisht) and 188 villages. 62 000; density — 85 inhabitants per sq. km. Korça (pop. 56 300), the centre of the district is The population is divided between the city a city patriotic traditions and a great love for of Pogradec and the 64 villages. Pogradec with schooling. Maliq is a centre of the foodstuffs 14 200 inhabitants is the centre of the district. industry, whereas Bilisht the centre of an agri­ Its origin, which dates back to ancient times, is cultural area. connected with the town of Enkeliana. The district of Korça comes next to Shkodra Pogradec, which hugs the edge of the Ohri for the size of its territory, (about 8% of the lake, is an important tourist city. area of the country). The district is situated in a zone of de­ The district lies in the plain of Korça (more pression surrounded by mountains on all sides. than 800 m above sea level) and the sorrounding Important among subsoil riches under ex­ mountains. The highest peak is the Ostrovica ploitation are: iron-nickel ore (at Guri i Kuq and Mt. (2 380). Çermenika and is enriched at Guri i Kuq) and The subsoil of the district is rich in mineral coal (at Alarup and Petrush, and the Mokra reserves of industrial value which have been region which are included in the coal basin of brought into exploitation, such as coal which is

118 119 extracted at Mborja-Drenova, and in Gora, at Agricultural production occupies the main Lozhan; nickel-silicate and copper in the Vithkuq place in the economy of the district, accounting mountains extracted at Rehova where it is also for over 70% of its total agricultural-industrial enriched. production. Industry provides about 60 per cent of the In the Devoll valley wheat, maiz and vine total agricultural-industrial production. The light are grown. The raising of cattle is also impor­ and foodstuffs industry play an important role tant. The mountainous regions produce bread in this direction, giving over 2/3 of the industrial grain and fruit, as well as wool, milk and cheese production of the district, and over 1/10 of the from sheep and goats. national production for these branches. Also of The food processing industry accounts for importance for the economy of the district is the over 50% of the total industrial production of engineering industry which produces high preci­ the district, with the timber industry taking up sion instruments, etc. 25% of it. Korça is an agricultural district of national importance, for the cultivation of bread grain, industrial crops (sugar beet, couplet and tobacco), Area — 775 sq. km.; population — about and vegetables and for the raising of cattle for 42 000; density — 54 inhabitants per sq. km. meat and milk. The population lives in Çorovoda, the centre Korça district comes second in the Repubulic of the district, with about 6 000 inhabitants, and for the production of wheat, and first for the in 99 villages. production of sugar beet, couplet, fruit (espe­ Skrapar is a mountainous region lying on cially apples and plums), milk and meat. The either side of the Osum river. plain of Korça is its major agricultural region. Here, too, farming plays the main role in the Before Liberation more than 5 000 ha of this plain economy, taking up over 66% of the agricultural- were covered by marshes, the main one being industrial production. that of Maliq was drained and reclaimed during Bread grain and fruit (grapes) are cultivated the years of the socialist construction of the and sheep and goats are raised. The Osum valley country. Agricultural enterprises, livestock raising with an agricultural enterprise set up there, farms and higher type cooperatives of the more is the more important agricultural zone of the important in the country have been set up here district. The food processing industry accounts for about half of the industrial production and there Area — 695 sq. km.; population — 38 000; is a developed timber industry. density — 54 inhabitants per sq. km. The population is distributed between the Kolonja district town of Gramsh and 73 villages. The centre of Area — 805 sq. km.; population — 22 300, the district is Gramsh with 6 000 inhabitants. density — 28 inhabitants per sq. km. The district is mountainous and lies on either Kolonja district has two towns, Erseka and side of the middle course of the Devoll river. Leskovik, and 71 villages. Erseka, with a popu­

120 121 lation of 4 000 inhabitants, is the centre of the the bulk of the industrial production of the district. district. The district is mountainous, with its lowest regions lying over 1000 metres above sea-level. Tepelena district Agriculture plays the main role in the eco­ Area — 817 sq. km.; population — 45 200; nomy, securing over 60% of the total national density — 54 inhabitants per sq. km. production. Bread grain (wheat and rye), fruit The population is distributed between two especially apples, grapes and cherries (the region towns (Tepelena, Memaliaj) and 62 villages. Te­ of Leskovik) are the main agricultural products pelena, with 5 300 inhabitants is the centre of and sheep and goats and in the lower regions the district. Memaliaj, with about 5 000 inhabi­ cattle are raised. tants is a centre of the coal industry. Coal is extracted at Bezhan. There is a saw­ Tepelena district is mountainous and lies mill at Germenji. on either side of the Middle course of the Vjosa Industry is represented by food-processing and in the Kurveleshi highlands. and wood-working factories, mines, etc. The district is rich in coal and phosphorite (in the Kurveleshi highlands). Përmet district Industry provides over 52% of the total Area — 929 sq. km.; population — 36 400; agricultural-industrial production of the district, density — 40 inhabitants per sq. km. with the mining industry coming first and the food-precessing industry second. The population is distributed between two Bread grain and livestock raising provide towns, Përmet and Kelcyra, and 90 villages. the bulk of agricultural production. The more Përmet, with about 6 000 inhabitants is the important agricultural region is the Vjosa valley centre of the district. where there is an agricultural enterprise pro­ This hilly and mountainous district lies on ducing fruit and vegetables as well as dairy pro­ either side of the upper course of the Vjosa ducts. In the mountainous regions bread grain river. is grown and sheep and goats are raised. Most of the population is engaged in agri­ culture, which provides over 63% of the total agricultural-industrial production. Bread grain, Area — 1027 sq. km., population — 154 000; fruit trees, grapes (viticulture has an ancient density — 145 inhabitants per sq./km2. tradition in this district) are the main agricul­ The population is distributed between three tural products. Sheep and goats are also raised. towns (Berat, Stalin City, Ura Vajgurore) and The Vjose valley is the more important agri­ 125 villages. Berat, with 36 000 inhabitants is the cultural region. The agricultural enterprise set centre of the district. It is the continuation of up there produces fruit, vegetables and develops the ancient city of Antipatrea. Stalin City, with livestock raising. 18 500 inhabitants, is a centre of the oil extracting The light and food-processing industry, and processing industry. which is concentrated at Këlcyra, accounts for Most of the territory of the district is hilly

122 123 and mountainous. Mt. Tomorri (2416 m) rises as and repair of the machinery of oil industry. a protective wall to the east of the city. The Ballsh is a centre of the oil extracting and plain is crossed by the Osum river and lies in the processing industry, whereas Roskovec is an northwestern part of the district. agricultural town. Industry accounts for 66% of the total agri­ The lowlands make up most of the area of cultural-industrial production and agriculture , with the Mallakastra hills rising to 34%. its south-east. Fier district is one of the major The textile industry (with the Textile Com­ industrial and agricultural districts of our bine) accounts for over 1/3 of the industrial country. production of the district and 1/10 of the pro­ Industry provides about 73% of the total duction of that industry on a national scale. industrial-agricultural production of the district The food-processing industry, the engineering and over 1/10 of the industrial production of industry (for the maintenance and repair of the the entire country. The main role here is played machinery of the oil industry), the oil industry, by the oil extracting and processing industry, etc., occupy an important place in the economy followed by the food-processing, electric power, of the district. Industrial production in 1982 engineering and other industries. The chemical increased two fold compared to 1970. industry of Fier district accounts for over 1/5 of Agriculture has a multi-branched structure, the national production and the electric power producing bread grain, especially wheat, cotton, industry for 1/4. The «Gogo Nushi» power and sunflower, vegetables and fruit. The olives, grapes chemical complex in the city of Fier is made up of Berat district are known all over the country. of several plants such as those of amonium Its livestock-raising is also important with milk nitrate and urea, a thermo-power station with cows in the plains and sheep and goats in the an established capacity of 160 MgW, an oil refi­ mountainous regions. nery, etc. In 1982 the industrial production of The more important agricultural region is the district has increased 2.6 fold compared to the lowland and hilly area where large agri­ 1970. cultural enterprises and higher type cooperati­ ves have been set up. In 1982 agricultural pro­ Fier is one of the more important agricul­ duction was 1.7 times that of 1970. tural districts. It comes first for the production of bread grain and second for the production of Fier District cotton. Sunflower is also cultivated, especially Area — 1 175 sq. km, population — 212 000; in the laroland and hilly regions, as well as density — 181 inhabitants per sq. km. couplet, vegetables, etc. Livestock-raising (milk The population is distributed between 4 cows, pigs, sheep, etc.) is also important. cities (Fier, Patos, Ballsh, Roskovec) and 138 Plantations of fruit-trees, olive-graves and villages. Fier an idustrial city with 36 200 inha­ vineyards have been set up in the hills to the bitants is the centre of the district. Patos, with south-east and east of the district. 13 000 inhabitants is the centre of the oil industry The lowland area of the district comprising and the engineering industry for the maintenance the largest agricultural enterprises and higher

124 125 type cooperatives is included in the zone of and irrigation projects, has been transformed priority intensification. into the principal agricultural zone. Here cereals, In 1982 agricultural production was over vegetables, cotton and sun-flower are raised. 1.6 fold that of 1970. There are dairy farms specialized in milk pro­ duction and a poultry raising complex. In the Vlora district hills there are fruit-tree plantations, especially Area — 1609 sq. km.; population — 155 000, olive-groves and vineyards. density — 96 inhabitants per sq. km. In regard to the extension of its citrus and The population of this district is distributed olive-tree plantations, the district occupies the between four towns (Vlora, Selenica, Orikum first and second place respectively on a national and Himara) and 94 villages. Vlora, with GO 000 scale. inhabitants, is the administrative centre of the district. It has been proclaimed a Hero City for Gjirokastra district the outstanding contribution of its people to the Area — 1137 sq. km. population — 60 309, liberation wars and the National Liberation War density — 53 inhabitants per sq. km. of the Albanians. Vlora was known in ancient The population is distributed between two times under the name of Aulon. Selenica a towns (Gjirokastra and Libohova) and 86 villages. centre known for the extraction of bitumen and Gjirokastra, a museum-city, with 21,000 inhabi­ Himara is the centre of an important agricultural tants is the administrative centre of the district. region. Industry plays the main role in the economy Vlora district is mainly hilly and mounta- of the district. The food-processing light (foot­ nous, with the exception of a small lowland area wear, knitwear) and engineering industries ac­ — the of Vlora. The coastline of the count for the bulk of the production of the district of Vlora makes up the greater part of district. In the village of Glina there is a mi­ the Albanian riviera. neral-water processing factory. Oil, bitumen, dolomite and other minerals The valley of the Drino River occupies the are extracted. Industry plays the main role in larger part of the lowland region and is a major the total industrial and agricultural production agricultural zone, producing bread grain, vege­ of the district, accounting for 70 per cent of it. tables, cotton, sunflower, etc. Cattle and pig The food-processing industry accounts for nearly raising is also important. 2/5 of industrial production, then come the ­ The hilly region accounts for much of the mical industry, the building materials industry fruit-growing of the district. (cement, bricks, lime, etenite tubes and slabs), Recently Gjirokastra district has been awar­ the oil extraction industry etc. There is an electric ded the title «Hero of Socialist Labour». bulb factory. The district has a multi-branched agricul­ Saranda district ture and is making rapid progress towards its Area — 1097 sq. km., population — 76 700 intensification especially in the lowland area, density — 69 inhabitants per sq. km. which, after the carrying out of land drainage The population is distributed between three

126 127 towns (Saranda, Delvina and ) and 93 70,000 inhabitants; Elbasan 68,000 inhabitants: villages. Saranda, with 12 000 inhabitants, is the Vlora 60,000 inhabitants; Korça 56,300 inhabi­ centre of the district. It is a town which in tants; Fier 36,200 inhabitants; Berat 36,000 ancient times was known under the name of inhabitants; Lushnja 24,000 inhabitants; Kavaja Onchesmoi. It is also an important touristic (Durrës district) 22,100 inhabitants; Gjirokastra centre. Delvina with over 7000 inhabitants, is 21,000 inhabitants; Stalin City (Berat district) an industrial agricultural centre. Industry and 18,500 inhabitants; Pogradec 14,200 inhabitants; agriculture have approximately the same pro­ Patos (Fier district) 12,900 inhabitants; Saranda portion in the economy of the district. The food­ 12,000 inhabitants; Laç (Kruja district) over processing industry accounts for half of the in­ 11,000 inhabitants; Kruja 11,000 inhabitants; dustrial production of the district, followed by Kukës 10,400 inhabitants; Cërrik (Elbasan district) knitwear, electric power and other industries. 9,100 inhabitants; Peshkopia (Dibra district) There are two hydro-power stations: the «Stalin» about 9,000 inhabitants. and «Bistrica 2». Cereals, rice, sunflower, cotton, and vege­ * tables occupy the main place in agriculture, * * which is chiefly concentrated in the valley of Delvina. Fruit-growing is developed on the hillsides and along the coastline of the region. The fruit-tree plantations of Lukova and The intensification of agriculture and the are among the most renowned in our country. improvement of socialist relations in the coun­ Saranda comes first in the Republic for citrus tryside have brought about an increase in the fruit, and occupies second place for olives, number of inhabitants of villages. Today the Livestock-raising, especially sheep and pigs has number of inhabitants per village nearly 700 as been given particular importance, too. against 380 in 1955. About 20 per cent of the villages have more than 1,000 inhabitants.

THE TWENTY BIGGEST CITIES

The number of cities and towns in Albania has increased during the years of socialist con­ struction. Today there are 65 of them as against 19 in 1938. According to their population, the 20 biggest cities (according to the 1982 census) are as follows: Tirana, the capital of Albania, 202,000 in­ habitants: Durrës 72,600 inhabitants; Shkodra

128 129 THE PEOPLE’S ECONOMY THE PEOPLE’S ECONOMY

The centuries-long Ottoman occupation, its typical feudalmilitary character, the brutal na­ tional and social oppression and religious divi­ sions had left Albania in a state of profound political and social backwardness. The capitalist relations which had begun to emerge in the first half of the 19th century in the Albanian towns, were then in their infancy. Albania did not go through the full cycle of the capitalist mode of production. The productive forces remained in an extremely backward state, whereas the re­ lations of production were typically feudal-bour­ geois relations. This very backward technical, economic and social situation existed until the end of the Second World War. The structure of the Albanian economy be­ fore Liberation was one-sided — typically agra­ rian. In 1938 the bulk of the population (84.6 per cent) lived in the countryside, the rest lived in the urban centres. Eighty-seven per cent of the population engaged in agriculture and only 13 per cent in industry, transport, trade, finance and banking, etc. The pre-war industry turned out no more than 6.6 per cent of the total national product (at 1981 prices). Nearly 3/4 of the total indus­ trial production was supplied by the light and

133 food-processing industries. Albanian industry the natural resources and the other assets of the consisted mainly of some primitive oil presses, country. The policy of open doors, of giving small, tobacco, alcohol, soap and other factories, concessions, of allowing the penetration of foreign and handicraft shops, and supplied only 3.3 per monopoly capital into our national economy, re­ cent of the national income. sulting in economic dependence on and indeb­ With the natural assets it had, Albania be­ tedness to capitalist countries, was liquidated. came a field for investments of foreign monopoly From the point of view of form, the nationali­ capital which took over the principal assets of our zations of 1945 were of an anti-imperialist de­ country. mocratic character, whereas their content was The occupation, of the country during the of a socialist character. These measures were Second World War worsened the socio-economic taken in the interest of the working class and situation. In proportion to population, compared constituted the foundation stone in the develop­ with the other countries of Europe, Albania ment of Albania on the road to socialism. suffered the greates damage. So, after the war With the implementation of these measures Albania emerged with an economy badly damaged the key positions of the economy passed into by the foreign occupiers and their stooges. the hands of the socialist state, the socialist state Immediately after Liberation and the esta­ property was created in industry, agriculture, blishment of the people’s power on 29 November construction, transport and other branches of the 1944, the question of the overthrow of old economy, unlimited perspectives and horizons feudalbourgeois relations of production and the were opened up for the development of the pro­ establishment of new socialist relations was ductive force and progress was made in the placed on the order of the day. The people’s construction of the economic base of socialism. power adopted important radical measures to The process of socialist socio-economic trans­ take over control of the economy, and that small formations continued in 1946, when all industry, industry that existed. State and worker control internal wholesale trade and foreign trade passed on production and distribution was established, completely into the hands of the socialist state, extraordinary taxes on war profits were impo­ the main means of production in the towns sed on merchants and various owners. became social property, and capitalist industry Of decisive importance for the socialist was liquidated in general. socio-economic transformations was the sociali­ The most acute problem in agriculture had zation of the main means of production by to do with the liquidation of the old feudal- means of nationalization. bourgeois agrarian relations. In 1945, seven The mines and the property of political fugi­ landowner families possessed 3.70 per cent of tives, the national bank and the other banks were the land, the wealthy owners, or 3 per cent of nationalized or liquidated in December 1944. Du­ the population, possessed 23.16 per cent of the ring 1945, 111 foreign capitalist companies and land, the state owned 12.71 per cent of the land, enterprises were nationalized without compen­ the middle estate owners or 83 per cent of the sation. This measure marked the establishment rural families, possessed 60.4 per cent of the of the sovereignty of the Albanian people over 135 134 land, while 14 per cent of the peasantry had are the rapid development of the productive very little land. forces, the construction of the material-technical The implementation of the Land Reform base of socialism, the continuous improvement marked the first revolution in the socio-econo­ of the whole system of new socialist relations of mic relations in the countryside. production and the deepening of the revolution The complete collectivization of agriculture, in the field of ideology and culture. which was carried out step by step, was the The Albanian economy is now a socialist second revolution which marked the most ra­ economy, which is based on the socialist social dical revolutionary change in the socio-economic ownership of the means of production, on the relations of the countryside. internal sources of development, which is or­ The liquidation of large-scale private capi- ganized and run in a conscious and proportional talist property and the establishment of the so­ manner, on the basis of a unified overall plan of cialist ownership of the main means of produc- socio-economic and cultural development, by a tion brought about the rapid advance of the single centre — the socialist state. It is a stable productive forces and the completion of the economy with great prospects for development. socialist cooperation of small producers in town Our socialist economy does not experience anar­ and countryside (craftsmen, poor and middle chy and spontaneity, the periodic economic peasants). As a result in 1960 the construction crises of over-production, currency and energy of the economic base of socialism in town and crises, inflation, price rises, unemployment, etc., countryside was completed. which are typical ulcers of the capitalist eco­ The construction of the economic base of nomy. socialism, i.e., the establishment of the new so­ The liquidation of unemployment and the cialist relations of ownership and production, drawing of all the active human forces of the distribution, exchange and management, marked nation into useful social work, mainly in the the end of the first phase of the socialist cons­ sphere of material production, is a major victory truction in Albania. The new socialist relations of our social order and our socialist economic of production boosted the development of pro­ system. ductive forces in industry, agriculture and the The socialist social order has guaranteed other branches of the economy. The economy work and good working and living conditions emerged from its profound centuries-long back­ for the working people, and these things are wardness on to the broad road of socialism. sanctioned in the Constitution of the PSR of Today Albania is a country where private Albania, the Labour Code and the other laws ownership of the means of production, the ex­ of the people’s state power. ploiting classes and the exploitation of man by The people’s state power has put an end to man have been abolished. unemployment and emigration of the labour With the construction of the economic base force, this great evil of the capitalist and revi­ of socialism, Albania entered a new historical sionist countries. The Constitution guarantees phase, that of the complete construction of so­ the working people the right to work and cialist society, in which the fundamental tasks remuneration for the work done. Labour power

136 137 is no longer a special commodity. The relations cessing industries. Now it exploits its own natural of the employment of the able-bodied population assets with its own forces. The Albanian indus­ have changed radically. The overwhelming majo­ try extracts and processes oil, copper, chromium rity of it works in the sphere of material pro­ and iron-nickel ores, and processes agricultural duction. In 1980 the total number of workers and livestock raw materials. was 3.6 times greater than in 1960 and 10 times The socialist industrialization of Albania, more than in 1950. Today two or three persons which remains one of the fundamental tasks of in each family of 4-5 persons are employed. the people’s state power in the economy, has In the socialist accumulation industry occu­ been carried out at rapid rates. During the pies first place and income from it constitutes period 1944-1980 the volume of total industrial the chief means for financing fundamental in­ production has increased at a higher rate than vestments and construction. Accumulation form the production in the other branches of the eco­ agriculture, transport, internal and foreign trade, nomy. The rapid development of industry has etc., also plays an important role in increasing increased the production and the range of socialist accumulation. In 1969, taxes and levies products, the means of production and the mass on the population were abolished. The income consumer goods, extended the power of man and sources of socialist accumulation are cen­ over the natural assets, ensured the development tralized in the state budget which finances the of industry over the whole territory of the development of the economy and the social-cul­ country, made possible the systematic improve­ tural sectors, and the strengthening of the de­ ment of the material well-being and the cultural fence capacity of the Homeland. level of the broad working masses, and further During the 40-year period of socialist cons­ strengthened the defence capacity of the country. truction the Albanian economy has developed In 1982 the volume of total industrial pro­ rapidly. duction was 37.1 times greater than in 1950, 6.1 In 1982 total social product increased 4.1 times greater than in 1960 and 2.3 times greater times more than in 1960 and 12.5 times more than in 1970. In 1984 the volume of total in­ than in 1950. It nearly doubled against 1970. In dustrial production is envisaged to increase 8.5 the 7th Five-year Plan (1981-1985), the directi­ per cent as against 1983. ves of which were endorsed at the 8th Congress The productive forces in industry have of the Party of Labour of Albania, total social developed in close and harmonious connection product is envisaged to increase 34-36 per cent, with the agricultural development. at an annual average rate of 6.4 per cent. This period is characterized by the priority development of heavy industry, which precedes the whole process of socialist industrialization. INDUSTRY The production of the means of production is developing at rapid rates. This will continue in In the years of the people’s state power Al­ the future, too, because the aim in, our country bania created its own multi-branched industry, is to gradually achieve the creation of a multi- including heavy and light, extracting and pro­ branched, heavy and light, extracting and proces­

138 139 sing industry which is based on the utilization cultural branches of material production supply of the natural assets of the country and the 68.6 per cent of the national income of the processing of agricultural and livestock products. country. In the early 70s mining occupied the princi­ The rapid socialist industrialization has been pal place in the development of heavy industry. accompanied with the increase of the social pro­ Now the heavy processing industry, the ferrous duct, the productivity of social labour, the na­ and non-ferrous metallurgy, the industry of mi­ tional income and the systematic raising of neral enrichment, organic and inorganic chemi­ the wellbeing of the people. cal industry, the energy industry, the engineering industry, etc. are gaining priority of place. In 1982 industry processed more than 55 per cent PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC POWER of the industrial raw materials and 45% of primary materials from agriculture. In the In the years of the people’s state power, the framework of the total industrial production, electric power industry has preceded the deve­ the production of means of production (Group A) lopment of industry and the whole economy. has increased at more rapid rates. Albania ranks among the countries which Nearly 46% of the state investments have produce more energy than they consume. From been used for the development of industry. 1972 Albania has become an exporter of electric Besides this, special attention has been paid power. to the harmonious development of all regions of In 1982 the electric power industry accounted the country, to increasing the economic potential for 4.3 per cent of the total industrial production, of districts and cities that were less developed as against 2.4 per cent in 1970 and 1.4 per cent in the past to ensure the geographical distri­ in 1960 (at 1981 prices). A unified electric power bution of industry in the best possible propor­ distribution system with 220 kv. power lines, tions. Most effective forms of the organization extends to the most remote corners of the coun­ of production, such as centralization, specializa­ try. tion and cooperation raising the level of mechani­ In 1982 the production of electric power was zation and automation of work and production nearly 18 times greater than in 1960 (at 1981 have been used in order to lighten people’s work prices). and to increase the productivity of their labour. Hydro-electric power plants, which exploit Despite the hostile anti-Marxist and anti- water-power resources, generate nearly 80 per Albanian activity of the Chinese revisionists, in cent of the electric power. 1980, as against 1975, the total volume of in­ On 25 October 1970 the electrification of dustrial output increased 35.1 per cent. Albania was completed. Electric light reached The contribution of industry to the creation even the remotest village. of national income has been as follows: in 1950 — In 1978 the «Light of the Party» Hydro­ 7 per cent, in 1960 — 18,6 per cent, in 1970 — power Station on the Drin River began pro­ 28.2 per cent and in 1982 (at 1981 prices) — duction. Its total installed capacity is 500,000 kW. 44 per cent. Today industry the other non-agri­ In the 7th Five-year Plan work is continuing on

140 141 other hydropower stations with still greater ge­ In 1982 coal extraction increased 2.6 fold nerating capacity, amongst which the hydro­ against 1970 and nearly 5.5 fold against 1960. power station at Koman, also on the Drin River, In 1985 coal extraction will increase 48 per cent with a capacity of 600,000 kW. more than in 1980. In 1985, as against 1980, the production of Work is going on to find other deposits of electric power will increase 16 per cent, and 14 coals with a higher calorific power and coking per cent of it will be secured from hydro-power coal. With the great development of this branch stations. Along with the construction of big hydro­ of industry, the country’s energy balance from power stations, small hydro-power stations will mineral fuels has been improved. The mines be built and commissioned to meet the growing already built in our country are electrified and needs of the people and the economy. operate with modem means and methods.

THE OIL, NATURAL GAS, THE METAL MINING INDUSTRY BITUMEN INDUSTRIES AND FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALLURGY Albania produces oil for its own needs and for export from its own resources. In recent Among the various mineral extracted in our years prospecting for oil has been concentrated country there are important industrial reserves around recognized fields and in new regions of chromium, copper and iron-nickel ores. These which have a perspective for future five-year constitute a reliable base for the rapid develop­ plans. Plants have been set up for the refining ment of our heavy extracting and processing and deep processing of oil, for the extraction of industry in the future. Geological data show that its derivatives such as high-octane petrol, Diesel our subsoil is rich in deposits of bauxite, phospho­ oil, kerosene, lubricating oil, furnace oil. etc. rite, polymetals and other minerals. In 1978 the deep oil-processing plant was complet­ In 1975, the extracting industry increased ed and began production. its production 3.4 fold against 1960 and in 1982 Oil and gas occupy the main place in our 5.2 fold against 1960. In 1982 the proportion of energy resources. In 1985, as against 1980, oil the extracting industry in the total industrial extraction will increase 58-60 per cent. production was 9 per cent as against 7.2 per cent The energy industry occupies a considerable in 1970. place in the volume of our export and the hard During the 6th Five-year Plan (1976-1980) currency income for our country. the average annual rate of chromium ore produc­ Another valuable source of energy is natu­ tion was 9.7 per cent, that of copper ore 11.1 ral gas, which is extracted not only as associated per cent and iron-nickel and ferrous metallurgy gas in the oil-producing zones, but also as me­ 26 per cent. thane gas from other fields. In the 7th Five-year Plan (1981-1985) the Natural bitumen, which is known for its extraction of minerals from the recognized good qualities, is also extracted in our country. resources of chromium, copper and iron-nickel

142 143 will continue to increase even more, from 30 per cent to two fold as against the previous At the casting shop 5-year plan. Conditions have been created to of the metallurgical Combine at Elbasan increase the extraction of other useful minerals, such as phosphorites, quartzites, rock salt, dolo­ mites, olivinites, bauxites, magnezite, nickel-sili- cate, alabaster, etc. Along with the big increase in the extraction of mineral ores, special importance is attached to processing them at home. Powerful combines and plants for the smelting and further industrial processing of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (chromium and copper) are set up. The Albanian copper industry now completes the full cycle of production from mining, enriching, smelting the ore to its metallurgical processing the prepara­ tion of the finished products — electrical wires and cables for internal consumption and export. In 1978 the first phase of the «Steel of the Party» metallurgical combine at Elbasan was commissioned. It produces more than 50 types of steel from our iron-nickel ore and in the not- too-distant future it will turn out nickel, too. New metallurgical projects commissioned in 1979 were the ferro-chrome plant and the pyrometallurgy plant, etc. During the 7th Five-year Plan work is continuing for the extension of the metallurgical combine with the plant for the production of various kinds of tubes, the production of rolled steel sheets and carbonic steels. In 1985, as against 1950, the production of rolled steel will increase nearly 76 per cent, carbonic ferro-chrome about three times, blister copper 28 per cent, etc.

THE ENGINEERING INDUSTRY

Our engineering industry is capable turning out spare parts, machinery and complete sets of technological equipment for the needs of indus-

144 The Deep Oil Processing Plant of Ballsh, Fier district Citrus-fruit plantations on terraces along the southwestern shore of Albania Before the triumph of the people’s revolution in Albania in 1944. these lands were covered by swamps, Today they produce plentiful crops One of the many livestock raising complexes The turbine room try, agriculture, construction and the other sec­ of the «Light of the Party» hy­ tors of the economy. During the years 1970-1980 dro-power station the engineering industry increased its production on the Drin ri­ more than 3.4 fold and today meets 95 per cent ver of the needs of the country for spare parts. In 1982, the engineering industry accounted for 15.1 per cent of the volume of the overall industrial production of the country. In 1978 a new engineering plant at the «Enver Hoxha» automobile and tractor combine was commissioned. The first Albanian-made tractor, 75 Hp engines, deep-drilling rigs for the oil industry and geology, ball bearings, etc., have been produced. This has created the possibili­ ties for our country to go over, on a more View of the dam under construction extensive and organized scale, to the production at the «Enver Hoxha» hydro-power station at Koman, of complete machines and sets of machinery for which will be the most powerful of Albania the mines, agriculture and the other branches of the economy, and the construction of complete technological lines and plants with our own forces. At the end of the 7th Five-year Plan the production of the engineering industry will be 43-45 per cent more than in 1980. In 1985, as against 1980, the production of machinery and equipment will increase 56-58 per cent.

THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

This is an entirely new branch of our indus­ try. Its foundations were laid especially during the 60s. Today the chemical industry produces nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers, sulphuric acid, amonia, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, soda ash and caustic soda, pesticides and herbicides, etc. Recently opened plants include the Urea Plant, which means doubled production of nitra- genous fertilizers with a higher nitrogen content,

145 and the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and caustic duction of asbestos, cement pipes and sheets and plant, while the existing plants of the chemical pre-fabricated sections for apartment buildings industry have been extended. has developed well. Factories producing silica The chemical industry now supplies agri­ and hollow bricks have been built in the main culture with nitrogenous and phosphate fertili­ cities of the country. The new industry for zers in quantities, on a large scale: more than cutting marble slabs, which is based on the many 145 kg active substance per hectare. beautiful marbles found in our country, is also The chemical industry for the production of part of the building materials industry. rubber, plastic, pharmaceutical and cosmetic In 1982 the volume of production of the products has also made great progress. building materials industry was 2.9 times greater In 1982 the production of the chemical in­ than that in 1970 and 1.5 times greater than dustry increased 53.3 fold against 1960, nearly in 1980, accounting for 7.7 per cent of the 4 fold against 1970 and nearly 3 fold against total industrial production of the country. In 1975. 1985, as against 1980, this industry will increase In 1982 the chemical industry realized 5.5 production by 20-22 per cent. per cent of the volume of overall industrial pro­ duction. In 1985, as against 1980, the chemical indus­ THE TIMBER try will increase its production 62-65 per cent AND PAPER INDUSTRY with the aim of creating a large source for export. Forests are exploited rationally through a system of saw-mills and timber-processing com­ GLASS AND CERAMIC INDUSTRY bines and factories for the production of ply- -wood, veneer, and seasoned timber, chemically This industry, which also is entirely new in treated posts and sleepers and paper. The ti­ our country, has rapidly increased its production mber-processing combine in Tirana is the big­ in the last years and greatly extended the range gest producer of furniture in the country. of its products. Now it is able to meet the increa­ Paper production is an entirely new develop­ sing needs of the economy and the people. In ment of the timber industry. Apart from the pa­ 1982 this industry increased production 4.6 fold per factories in Shkodra, Kavaja and Lushnja, against 1975, realizing 6.2 per cent of the total recently another big new paper factory has co­ industrial production. me into production at Lezha. The range of pro­ ducts from all these factories includes printing THE BUILDING paper, packing paper, paper sacks, cardboard and fibre board. MATERIALS INDUSTRY In 1982 the timber and paper industry realiz­ The most important branch of this industry ed 5.7 per cent of the total industrial production. is cement production. Big cement plants have In 1985, as against 1980, the timber and paper been built at Vlora, Elbasan and Kruja. Pro­ industry will increase production 22-24 per cent

146 147 LIGHT INDUSTRY THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY

In the development of light industry prio­ The food-processing industry, with its facto­ rity has been given to the production of the most ries and plants all over the country, occupies an essential, widely used goods, which meet the important place in the structure of industrial production. Although the food-processing indus­ needs of the people and can be produced on the try before Liberation produced 44 per cent of the basis of the local raw materials of agricultural total industrial output, it had only a limited ­ or industrial origin. mber of factories and workshops. From the pre-Liberation light industry, con­ Food-processing industry is now represented sisting of a few primitive factories in which by the sugar industry, the oil, macaroni, toma­ almost everything was done by manual labour, to paste industries, livestocks products — fruit such as the tanneries and some handicraft work­ and vegetable preserving, fish canning, the wine shops weaving cotton and silk, today powerful industry, etc. An important part of the produc­ combines and plants for the production of the tion of the food-processing industry is exported cotton and woollen textiles, knitwear and foot­ to various countries. wear, have been built in many parts of the coun­ In 1982, the food-processing industry increas­ try. Among the most important contributors to ed the volume if its production 1.9 fold as light industry are two powerful combines for the against 1970 (at 1981 prices), and more than 1.2 production of the cotton, woollen, synthetic and fold as against 1975 thus accounting for 24 per silk textiles. With the construction of the knitting cent of the total industrial production of the country. combine and the underwear factory in Korça, The mass consumer goods industry, together production of knitwear and underwear has great­ with agriculture, is now able to fulfil nearly 90 ly increased. Another important branch of light per cent of the needs of the people for these pro­ industry is garment production. The products of ducts. the textile and clothing industry fulfil the needs In 1985 — as against 1980 the food-process­ of the population of town and countryside and ing industry will increase its production by 23- also make a valuable contribution to Albania’s -25 per cent. export trade. In 1982, the volume of production of light industry was 1.8 times greater than in 1970 and AGRICULTURE supplied 16.6 per cent of the total industrial pro­ duction. There has been excellent development of Albanian agriculture is organized comple­ the production of artistic handicrafts, especially tely on a socialist basis. All the peasant eco­ carpets, organized on the basis of big enterprises. nomies, in the plains and the mountainous areas In 1985, as against 1980 the production of have been organized as collective economies, in the light industry will increase 38-40. agricultural cooperatives. In the past Albania had the most backward

148 149 agriculture in Europe. After the establishment of on August 29, 1945, only 9 months after Libe­ the people’s state power two tasks were laid ration and the establishment of the People’s Po­ down simultaneously: the socialist transformation wer. of the countryside and the all-round development The fundamental principle of the Land Re­ of agriculture. Agriculture must secure the food form law was to distribute the land to the pea­ of the people and make its major contribution to sants who worked it. the country’s industrialization and the develop­ The land, the vines, the olive groves and ment of the national economy. The realization of draft animals that had belonged to the big land- these fundamental tasks called for its socialist owners, merchants and other exploiters were ex­ development on the basis of largescale modern propriated. The state distributed them to the production, closely linked with all the branches and other sectors of the economy. This was an peasant families which had no land or little land, absolute necessity to open the way to develop­ giving each separate family 5 hectares. At the same time the buying, selling and alienation of ment of the countryside and the creation of the the land were prohibited. The old debts of the premises for the construction of socialism there. peasants were cancelled. The first step in this direction was to imple­ ment the slogan the «land belongs to the tiller». In November 1946 the Land Reform was This slogan was launched by the Communist fully implemented all over Albania. Party of Albania (CPA) during the National Li­ The forms in which the Land Reform was beration War. applied also had a revolutionary character. The committees of poor peasants gave concrete as­ sistance in registering the lands of big land- THE LAND REFORM owners, enemies of the people and all those who were expropriated on the basis of the law of the The first measure taken to put into practice Land Reform. They uncovered and combated the the revolutionary program of the Communist hostile activity of the big landowners, kulaks and Party of Albania for the socialist transformation other reactionary forces who rose against the of the countryside was the Land Reform. It was implementation of the Land Reform from the ­ the first revolution in the socio-economic rela­ ry beginning. tions in the countryside. The characteristic fea­ By transforming the peasant from a semi- ture of this revolution was the democratic trans­ -serf to the true master of the land he had been formation of the property relations in the coun­ working generation after generation, the Land tryside, the complete elimination of the remnants Reform created the necessary premises for all the of feudalism, the liquidation of the class of big economic cultural and social transformations landowners. At the same time, the Land Reform which were to take place in the countryside sub­ had a pronounced anti-capitalist character, be­ sequently. cause it was carried out by the dictatorship of The Land Reform laid the foundations also the proletariat. for the creation of the socialist state sector in The law on the Land Reform was proclaimed agriculture. On part of the expropriated land the

150 151 first state farms were set up, while the forests set up, the first being that of Krutja in Myze- and waters became the common property of all qe, in 1946. the people. The collectivization of agriculture was car­ ried out in several stages. The first stage lasted about 10 years, from COLLECTIVIZATION 1946 until 1955. During that period the slogan was «On the question of collectivization we must not be hasty but neither must we mark time». The Party of Labour of Albania saw clearly The period from 1956 until 1960 was charac­ that with its fragmented small-scale economies, terized by the mass movement into cooperatives agriculture could not emerge from the great not only of poor peasants, but of almost all the backwardness it had inherited from the past middle peasants in most of the villages of the and the harmonious and rapid development of country, except those of the high mountainous all branches of the people’s economy could not areas. be ensured. The People’s Power had to have its On the basis of the socialist transformations advanced socialist economic base in both town which took place in agriculture and the all-round and countryside. development of the country, the political-econo­ The Land Reform strengthened even more mic-social conditions were created for the pro­ the alliance of the working class with the la­ cess of collectivization of the countryside to be bouring peasantry on an economic basis, streng­ completed in the mountainous areas, too. Sum­ thened the people’s state power set up on the ming up the accumulated experience and taking foundations of this alliance. The working pea­ into consideration the creation the socio-econo­ sants closed their ranks still more tightly round mic conditions, the Party issued the directive for the Communist Party of Albania and created even the completion of the collectivization of agricul­ more profound convictions in the correctness of ture. its political line. All this was a very powerful This directive was carried out enthusiastical­ support for the Party to embark on the road of ly and consciously by the working peasantry of the socialist transformation of the countryside the mountainous areas, and within a very short step by step. time, less than three months, the collectivization The collectivization of agriculture was es­ was completed successfully in the mountainous sential and the only way to ensure the victory areas, too. of socialism in the countryside. Therefore, along The collectivization of With the extensive work for land improvement, developed as an uninterrupted revolutionary pro­ the mechanization of agriculture, the livestock cess, which was built up steadily and regularly. raising, etc. a great struggle was waged for col­ It was always accompanied with increased activi­ lectivization which, according to the consistent ty by the working peasantry itself, which took an and well-considered orientations of the Party, active part in the socialist transformation of the gradually covered the whole of the countryside. countryside and the country in general. The po­ In this context agricultural cooperatives were litical consciousness of the peasants and their

152 153 ideological level rose. Agricultural production im­ even more. The unification of the smaller coope­ mediately marked an unprecedented develop­ ratives into bigger ones provided possibilities for ment, eliminating the destructive consequences of a more harmonious development among the foreign invasions and overcoming the backward­ villages of the same cooperative, thus further ness inherited from the anti-popular regimes. narrowing the differences in the field of produc­ From its experience of life and thanks to the tion and in the socio-cultural field. great ideopolitical work of the Party, the labour­ ing peasantry was convinced of the superiority of the cooperativist order which alone could raise THE HIGHER-TYPE it from poverty and save it from exploitation. AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVE The psychology of individual work, small-scale private property and narrow personal interests Experience has shown that the construction were gradually supplanted by the consciousness of socialism in the countryside does not end with of common property, the united work and extend­ the completion of collectivization and the uni­ ed socialist production. fication of cooperatives. The property of the coo­ The successful completion of the collectivi­ perative, as the property of the group, has a zation of agriculture in 1967 has rightly been call­ transitional character. Gradually it must be tran­ ed the second revolution in the socio-economic sformed into the property of all the people. This relations in the countryside. is a relatively long process and it will pass The program of the socialist transformation through several phases, such as the phase of of the countryside was carried out through a narrowing the differences between the two fierce class struggle against the kulaks and the forms of property, and then the phase of the other enemies of the people’s power. In this transition of the property of the group to the struggle the labouring peasantry enjoyed the property of all the people, thus forming a new powerful support of its ally, the working class. form of property, the property of the whole The amalgamation of the cooperatives set up society. was carried out prudently, step by step, first. In the conditions of our country, the cor­ This process was necessary because it created rect definition of the roads for the first phase of new possibilities to strengthen them organiza­ this process is of great importance at present. tionally and economically, to use the state invest­ The setting up of higher type cooperatives in ments and other aid more correctly, to concen­ the lowland areas served this aim. This is an ori­ trate production and to make use of the supe­ ginal way defined by the PLA to accelerate the riority provided by the large-scale collective pro­ development of the productive forces and pro­ perty, to place agriculture more firmly on a duction in agriculture, to proceed gradually to­ scientific basis. wards narrowing the differences between the Today the agricultural cooperatives have an property of the group and the property of all the average area of more than 1,200 hectares each. In people. the lowland zones the agricultural cooperatives The main distinguishing feature of the higher have an average area of 2,000-3,000 hectares or type cooperatives is the participation of the sta­

154 155 te in the development of production with non­ cultural production, with an average annual in­ repayable investments, something which is not crease of more than 5 per cent. In 1976 our work­ done in the ordinary cooperatives. ing peasantry achieved a great victory: all the Another difference of these cooperatives is bread grain required to fulfil the needs of the the change from payment on the basis of work people was produced locally and this historic days done to payment according to the norms achievement is being repeated with ever greater completed. The rate of pay for each cooperative production from year to year. is determined according to its economic power, The year 1983 marked important advances in linking this with the results achieved in produc­ increasing productivity rates. Compared with tion. 1982, the overall agricultural production increas­ The experience of the consolidation of the ed 9 per cent. There were considerable increases higher-type cooperatives served to extend them in wheat, sun-flower and olive production, with to the hilly and mountainous regions. In some all planned tasks overfulfilled. The highest ever higher-type cooperatives of the lowlands con­ recorded average yield — 31 quintals per hecta­ ditions were created for their transformation into re, was taken in from all the area planted to state farms, a process which started in the Korça wheat (75 per cent of the territory of Albania and Fier districts. are mountains). In the lowlands, the area of prio­ The collectivization of agriculture and the rity intensification, an average of 45.8 quin­ work for its intensification and modernization tals of wheat per hectare has been taken created a new revolutionary situation in our in from an area of thousands of hectares, and in countryside. At work and in life our cooperative certain economies and sectors 50-60 and over 70 peasantry is being educated and tempered with quintals of wheat per hectare were taken in. High the features of communist morality, with the yields were taken in maize, too. In Shkodra and socialist attitude towards work and the collective Saranda an average of 80 quintals per hectare property. was taken in from vast tracts of land. The year The increase of mechanization, the big land 1983 recorded the highest figure in olive produc­ tion since Liberation. improvement and irrigation projects, the exten­ sive use of chemicals, the ever better application A broad network of agricultural scientific of advanced agrotechnology, the extension of the institutions has been set up throughout the coun­ try. With their assistance, within a record time, communications network, etc., the increase of the number of cadres and specialists and the general a series of studies of great importance for the rise in the educational level of the peasants have modernization and intensification of agriculture created the material conditions for an intensive have been carried out. They include the comple­ advanced agriculture, for raising the cultural le­ tion of the soil survey and the compilation of vel and the standard of living of the cooperati- pedological-agrochemical maps for each coope­ vists, and making production and life in the coun­ rative, the study of the climate of the country tryside more and more like production and life and the types of crops most suitable to it, the local production of selected seeds of all agricul­ in the town. Our country has achieved stability in agri­ tural crops, including wheats with yields of more

156 157 than 60 quintals per hectare, maize hybrids with «Red Star» state farm at Kamëz and over 4,000 a capacity of 100-120 quintals per hectare, vi­ litres at those of Bushat and Sukth without men­ rus-resistant tobacco, etc. tioning several advanced sectors which take in Now there are two higher agricultural in­ 6000-7000 litres per cow. The productivity of stitutes and 260 agricultural secondary schools sheep and goats has considerably increased, too. functioning in Albania. Ten central scientific-re- search institutions and 26 agricultural stations are engaged in scientific work in different re­ FRUIT TREES gions of the country. A great deal of work has been done to plant fruit trees, including pip, stone and citrus fruit, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY olives and grapes. In 1982 as against 1952, the number of the pip and stone fruit trees has in­ The big agricultural economies have created creased more than 5 fold, olives nearly 4 fold, very favourable conditions for the development citrus fruit about 9 fold and grape-vines 8 fold. of livestock farming. Now a modern, complex They are being planted in big blocks, such animal husbandry based on correct technical­ as the block of figs in the Berat district, which -scientific criteria has been established and is covers 2,000 hectares and has 200,000 trees; the developing. The main characteristic of the achie­ block of apples, plums, cherries and peaches in vements in this fields is the harmonious and pro­ the districts of Korça, Dibra, Kukës, Kolonja, Po- portional development of breeds and the organi­ gradec, Skrapar and Librazhd; the block of chest­ zation of specialized units. A number of agricul­ nuts in Tropoja, with 300,000 trees; the blocks of tural enterprises have big herds of cows and citrus trees at Stiar, Lukova, Vrina and Ksamil ensure regular supplies of dairy products for the in the Saranda district, as well as at Jonufër in towns. Important investments have been and are the Vlora district; the blocks of grapes in the dis­ being made to set up modern livestock complexes tricts of Tirana (1,500 hectares), Shkodra, Berat, for the production of meat and eggs, for the Lushnja, Durrës, Fier and Vlora; the blocks of industrial processing and silaging of animal feed. olives on the hilly regions along the 17 coastal At the same time many cooperatives of the hilly districts which occupy 100,000 hectares. and mountainous regions have been transformed Thousands of hectares of land have been into agricultural cooperatives engaged mainly in cleared and terraced for these plantings. The livestock raising. younger generation has made a great contribu­ In 1985 as against 1980, the production of tion to this work, and has planted many of these milk will increase 30-32 per cent, meat 53-55 per massive blocks through organized actions. cent, eggs 50-52 per cent, etc. To improve the varietal structure of the fruit Good results have been scored in increasing trees model orchards, with collections of the best milk production from cows over the last few varieties, have been established in all districts. years. Over 4500 litres of milk per cow have been Each year their nurseries produce millions of taken in at the cattle raising complex of the young pip and stone fruit trees and grape-vines,

158 159 as well as hundreds of thousands of young olive all the villages, the extension of motor roads and and citrus trees. the telephone network and many other measures In the process of implementation of the 7th of the kind are important steps towards achiev­ Five-year Plan work is going on to improve and ing this great objective of the PLA with regard increase fruit varieties as well as to set up new to the countryside. blocks of fruit trees on the hills surrounding the During the period 1960 to 1970, the real cities. incomes per head of population increased in the countryside 1.4 times more rapidly than in the town, while from 1971 to 1980 this increase was NARROWING OF DISTINCTIONS 2.4-3 times greater. In the development of pro­ BETWEEN TOWNS ductive forces, improving the wellbeing of the AND COUNTRYSIDE people and raising their social-cultural level, the PLA has been guided by the Marxist-Leninist Today the Albanian socialist countryside is orientation that socialism is not built only in the undergoing vigorous development and transfor­ town and for the working class alone, but also in mations in the field of production as well as in the countryside and for the peasantry. the social and cultural field. This revolutionary The implementation of such a line has process of the development of productive forces brought about that the countryside in Albania in agriculture and the perfecting of socialist re­ has not been abandoned and ruined, but on the lations in the countryside has led to the gradual contrary, is developing uninterruptedly, both in narrowing and the elimination of the essential the plains and in the mountainous zones. Res­ differences between town and countryside, bet­ ponding to the call of the Party, «We must take ween the peasantry and the working class. This to the mountains and hills and make them as has been and still is one of the fundamental fertile as the plains,» the peasantry, helped by questions of the general line of the Party for the state and the youth volunteers from the ci­ the construction of socialism in our country. To ties, has set up huge plantations of fruit trees this end, the PLA has applied a broad program and other crops on the hills, mountain slopes and of measures of a profound ideological, political, along the coast where previously there was only economic, social and cultural character. The con­ shrub covered barren land. The creation of new tinuous aid of the state for the countryside in villages planned on modern lines and farms on agricultural machinery, chemical fertilizers, cre­ newly broken-in land has altered the map of dits, higher cadres, as well as the setting up of Albania and has set agriculture on the road to ra­ a complete education and health service net­ pid development and prosperity. work in the countryside, the construction of a broad network of social-cultural objects and the granting of pensions to the peasantry, the expan­ sion of the scientific work, the electrification of

160 161 * been a loss of time to the benefit of capitalism * * and to the detriment of socialism, because the alliance of the working class with the working peasantry would have been seriously damaged. THE COLLECTIVIZATION The experience of the socialist construction OF AGRICULTURE IN ALBANIA in our countryside proves that collectivization HAS ITS OWN DISTINGUISHING must not be artificially delayed until a vigorous FEATURES development of the productive forces has been secured, just as it must not be artifically pushed It was carried out in specific social and eco­ through before the necessary political, ideological nomic conditions. First of all, it was carried out and economic premises have been created. in the conditions of the existence of the small- The collectivization of agriculture in our scale private land property. The experience of country was carried out by following a correct our country shows that where the dictatorship policy in waging the class struggle: the political of the proletariat has been established, the col­ isolation, the economic isolation and the elimina­ lectivization of agriculture can be carried out tion of the kulaks as a stratum. successfully, even when the nationalization of In general, in setting up the agricultural the land has not taken place, provided the land cooperatives in our country we did not wait for reform has been applied with profoundly revolu­ all the peasants to join at once but cooperatives tionary criteria. This experience constitutes a were set up even with a relative minority of the creative development of Marxist-Leninist science. peasants. As a result, the collectivization was not It shows that the nationalization of the land is postponed artificially. not an objective necessity for all countries prior During the four decades of the people’s state to the collectivization of agriculture. power agricultural production in Albania has Another characteristic is that, from the very grown and continues to grow nearly twice as beginning, we applied only one form of collectivi­ rapidly as the population. zation, the highest form, that of agricultural co­ In the 7th Five-year Plan agriculture occu­ operatives of production, and this, in the condi­ pies a particularly important place; total agri­ tions of our country, has justified itself as the cultural production in the 7th Five-year Plan most suitable form. will increase 30-32 per cent as against the 6th Another distinguishing feature for the socia­ Five-year Plan. Nearly 29 per cent of all invest­ list transformation of our countryside is that we ments of the 7th Five-year Plan are being used did not wait for the development of the produc­ in agriculture. About 60 per cent of the new la­ tive forces first and then collectivize agriculture, bour force are employed in agriculture and a but we began with the building of new socialist broader technical material base continues to be relations of production, without neglecting the placed at its disposal. development of productive forces. Had we waited As Comrade Enver Hoxha has said, «The de­ for the development of the productive forces and velopment of agriculture and the experience of then begun the collectivization, this would have socialist construction in our countryside prove 162 163 TRANSPORTATION the importance and universal value of the teach­ ings of Marxism-Leninism according to which In the system of the Ministry of Commu­ the only road for the construction of socialism in nications motor transport performs about 52 per the countryside, in the countries of fragmented cent of the total goods transport and 77 per cent peasant economies, is the collectivization of agri­ of the total passenger transport. Now the length culture. Any other way apart from collectiviza­ of motor roads is about 3 times greater than in tion leads only to the development or the re- the pre-Liberation period. A good part of motor -establishment of capitalism in the countryside.» roads are sealed. The number of goods and pas­ senger vehicles has multiplied. Motor transport ELECTRIFICATION now goes deep into the mountainous zones which were isolated in the past. On October 25, 1970, the electric light went Of special importance is railroad transport on in the last Albanian village which had re­ which will increase the volume of goods trans­ mained without electric power. In a symbolic port, thanks to the new railways to be built in way and to commemorate that day, this village the future. in the Fier district took the name «Agim» («Dawn»), From that day on, Albania entered the The first railway in Albania was built in ranks of those few states which have achieved 1947. Since that time railway transport has con­ the electrification of all the villages. tinually increased in length of line and number Up to 1945 no villages in Albania had elec­ of locomotives and wagons. tric power. To bring light to all the peasant In 1983 railway transport accounted for homes was a difficult and a very costly job. Ne­ more than 46 per cent of the volume of goods vertheless, the Party did it because it placed the transport. In 1985 as against 1980, the total volu­ interests, well-being and happiness of the people me of goods transport will increase 34-36 per above everything. The electric reticulation of the cent. In this context railway transport will be countryside was done entirely with the expenses given priority and grow 80-84 per cent. of the state. The peasants assisted in the work to The Laç-Hani i Hotit railway, which will carry this project through. link Albania with the International railway The electric reticulation of our villages pa­ system, is under construction. During the 7th ved the way to a profound revolution in the all- Five-year Plan (1981-1985) new lines and sidings around development and transformation of the are being built which make up 37 per cent of countryside. Together with the electric light, ra­ the total length of the existing railway lines. dio, television and many other household devices Today our merchant fleet is known in all were introduced into the peasant homes. the seas and oceans. The shipyard in Durrës (the The use of electric power in the countryside main harbour of the country) now builds ships up has made possible a perceptible rise in the level to 2700 tons. of mechanization of agriculture, which is increas­ ing productivity of all agricultural crops and making the work of the peasants easier. 165 164 FOREIGN TRADE mium exports. Our chromium contains 42 per

cent of CR 2O3 and the chromium-iron ratio is 3:1. The foreign trade of the People’s Socialist The continuous improvement of the structure Republic of Albania has become an important of our exports is shown by the fact that in 1980 lever for the extension of relations with foreign the exports of processed goods made up 70 per countries. The PSR of Albania has always shown cent of the total volume of exports. This qualita­ willingness to develop trade relations with va­ tive leap forward of our exports in the years of rious countries on the basis of equality, mutual the People’s Power can be understood better, if benefit and non-interference in one another’s in­ we only mention that before Liberation, Albania ternal affairs. It has trade relations with more exported only a very small quantity of products than 50 countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. of animal or plant origin. With the rapid development of industry the The trade relations with other countries have been steadily extended, together with the number of new articles for export is increasing economic development of the country. As against steadily, and their quality and packaging is im­ 1938, they have been extended as follows: in 1960 proving. Exports of fresh vegetables, especially 7 fold, in 1970 about 13 fold, in 1975 about 23.5 early tomatoes, which are in great demand on fold, in 1980 about 35.8 fold. the markets of many countries on account of The export-import structure has radically their excellent flavour, are increasing at rapid changed. Today Albania exports chromium ore rates. and concentrate, ferro-chrome, electric power, Whereas before Liberation Albania imported iron-nickel, petrol, Diesel oil, Bitumen, copper almost everything, today radical changes have and copper wire, rolled steel, pyrite ore and con­ taken place in the structure of imports, too. Be­ centrate, nickel-silicate, concentrate, bauxite, do­ ginning from 1976 our country is totally self-suf­ lomite, olivinite, products of the light and food­ ficient in bread grain and meets nearly 90 per processing industry, of the chemical industry cent of the needs for other mass consumer goods. (soda ash, hyposulphite, fluor silicate, selenium, Albania imports machinery and some kinds acids), building materials (cement, marble fac­ of raw materials which serve the development ings), ready-made garments, knitwear, leather and of production in the country. plastic articles, carpets, rugs, crafts products, In the 7th Five-year Plan the foreign trade aromatic oils and essences, tobacco, fresh and will develop even further. In 1985 as against 1980 preserved fruits and vegetables, cognac, wines, the volume of circulation of foreign trade goods etc. will increase 57-59 per cent. Priority will be given Minerals (chromium, iron-nickel, copper, bi­ to exports, so that the export-import balance gua­ tumen, etc.) occupy a considerable place in our rantees the increase of the hard currency reser­ exports. Among the minerals exported chromium ves of the country. The exports of goods in 1985 ore provides the greatest volume. Our country will be 58-60 per cent higher than in 1980. holds the second place in the world for chro­

166 167 PRICES POLICY cation, specialization and productivity of labour, factors which tend to reduce the cost of produc­ A unified, centralized and planned prices po­ tion. licy is applied in Albania. The price is an im­ The aim of production in our country is not portant economic lever in the hands of the so­ profit but fulfilment of the material and cultural cialist state for the increase of production, the needs of the working masses, the economy and improvement of the quality and the raising of the defence of the Homeland. Between produc­ the material well-being and the cultural level of tion and prices there is reciprocal connection. The the working masses of town and countryside. lowering of prices leads to increased demand and, The unified level of retail prices has placed all together with it, consumption. And this impels consumers on an equal footing. Fixing of prices the producers to find new ways and possibilities is not influenced by the spontaneous supply and to step up production in order to meet the needs demand of the market. The level of retail prices of consumers. In our planned economy, crises of directly influences the level of the real wage of over-production, inflation and uncontrolled pri­ the working people, which is on a fair ratio with ce-rises are unknown. the index of retail prices of consumer commo- The workers of our country do not feel the dites and the services tariffs. effects of the world economic crisis in the field Price is the monetary expression of the value of prices, because the state covers the fluctua­ of a commodity in money. But this does not tions of the prices of imported goods with its mean that the specific price of a commodity al­ own expenditure. Thus, the prices of essential ways expresses its value, that is, the necessary goods like sugar, vegetable oils, medicines, cof­ social work done for its production. There are fee, and so on, have not changed at all, although commodities such as pharmaceuticals, clothing the prices of these goods on the international and other articles for children, which are sold at market have increased many times over in re­ prices below their value. And this is done for cent years. the purpose of favouring certain groups of society In our country retail prices have only one such as families with many children, etc. At the course, that of stability or steady reduction, when­ same time, there are articles which are sold at ever our economy creates the conditions for prices higher than their value, the usage of this. There has not been a single instance of a which is not indispensable. In the same way, the price-rise in any commodity. On the contrary, prices of cotton and woollen fabrics, as well as prices have been steadily reduced, benefiting the of garments, are established in such a way as to working masses to the extent of millions of leks. direct the demand of the consumer more to rea­ Of course, this is not the only way to increase dy-made garments rather than to bolt material. the real wages of the working people. Along with This is done for the purpose of extending the de­ the lowering of prices, the policy of raising the mand for ready-made garments, because it is a lower nominal wages of the workers is followed, well-known fact that the organization of series too. As to the increase of the real income the production discloses new and greater possibilities fund of social consumption is highly influential. for saving raw materials, for raising the qualifi­ This fund represents a sinew of communist dis-

168 169 tribution, because it is distributed free according The Party of Labour of Albania has always to the needs. The social fund of consumption has been careful to maintain as correct a ratio as pos­ a tendency to increase faster than the wages fund sible between the pay of the cadres and the in­ and the income of the peasantry. This includes come of the workers and cooperative members, state expenditure for the social-cultural needs which avoids flagrant differences in income and (education, culture, health, etc.) Today the social the emergence of privileged strata which directly fund of consumption makes up 15 per cent of endanger the dictatorship of the proletariat and the overall consumption of the people. It is the construction of socialism. At the same time, created by part of the national income which is the PLA has always fought against tendencies utilized to meet the common needs of the work­ towards petty-bourgeois equalitarism in the field ing people. of remuneration which is also alien and harmful to socialism. In accordance with this revolutionary Mar- THE RATIO BETWEEN LOWER AND xist-Leninist line the wage system of the wor­ HIGHER WAGES kers and employees and the system of the remu­ neration for work for cooperative members have In Albania the working people have been been set up and systematically improved, always recognized and guaranteed a series of rights based on the socialist law of distribution accord­ such as: abolition of the exploitation of man by ing to work. man, the right to work, establishment and imple­ Beginning from 1976 some improvements mentation of the principle «equal wage for equal have been made in the system of wages: the work», etc. The revolutionary movement towards wages of the technical-administrative personel social equality, which started in our country with within the same economic branch were unified; the liquidation of the private ownership of the the evaluation of the qualification of the working means of production and the exploiting classes, is people was made on the basis of their cultural further developed in the process of socialist con­ level and professional skills; work places were struction towards the narrowing of the distinc­ classified according to working operations; wages tions in the standard of living of the working were better linked with the quality and quantity class and cooperativist peasantry and the diffe­ of the work done and the direct expenditure for rent groups of working people. In connection production; difficulties at work and the qualifi­ with this Comrade Enver Hoxha has said that the cation of the working people were better taken Party is fighting and will continue to fight to account of; fairer rations were established in the constantly improve the standard of living of the formation of income, giving priority to wages people, of everybody, being guided by the correct over supplementary material remuneration, etc. principle of not having equalitarism in wages, nor Today in Albania the ratio between the ave­ favouritism for anyone. Every wage must cor­ rage wages of the workers and the salary of the respond to the quality and quantity of work of director of the same enterprise is 1:1.7; the ratio everybody and the differences in wages between between the average wages of the workers in the working people must steadily narrow. general and the salary of a department head in

170 171 the ministry is about 1:2; the ratio between the THE COUNTRY WHERE lowest and highest wages of the workers within THE PEOPLE PAY NO TAXES the same branch is about 1:1.5-1.65 etc. These ratios are set by law. In the structure and application of its whole This is an unprecedented concrete, imple­ policy of taxation on the population, the Party mentation of Marxist-Leninist theses in practice, of Labour of Albania has always been aware a great reality of the proletarian justice in socia­ that taxation is a temporary historical category. list Albania where a post is not a privilege but a Therefore, step by step and with great care, it duty and where cadres are integrated with the prepared the necessary conditions for eliminating masses. it. On November 8, 1969, the decision was taken for the total abolition of the system of direct ta­ The lowering of higher wages, together with xation on the population. the measures to reduce fees and emolument of This measure is connected with the extension the working people of literature and arts, educa­ of socialist relations in production and with the tion and science above their basic wages, through rapid development of the productive forces of a better harmonization of material stimuli with the country. Thus during the 1945-1946 financial moral stimuli, is an expression of the treatment year (the first year after Liberation) the propor­ of the problem of wages from the class standpoint. tion of taxes from the population in the total in­ This is done for the purpose of further revolution­ come of the state budget was 92 per cent; in izing the material relations between the masses 1950 it fell to 12.6 per cent, in 1960 to 2.7 per and the cadres, and among the cadres themselves, cent and in 1969 to 0.1 per cent. a condition of vital importance to protect people, As can be seen, taxes were abolished not all especially the cadres, from harmful influences. at once or merely by administrative decree, but Experience shows that bureaucracy is fostered by step by step, parallel with the development of the higher wages. Bureaucratic elements always lean socialist sector of the economy and the change in the class structure in the country. This constitu­ towards altering through many ways and means tes a major victory achieved by our people and is the ratio in wages in their favour. a brilliant example of the consistent implemen­ The working class, under the leadership of tation by our Party of Labour of its general line its Party, has always combated these tendencies for the construction of socialist society and the through maintaining a clearcut revolutionary constant raising of the standard of living of the class stand. It has constantly seen to it that a people. correct system of wages is applied, and that ta­ Article 31 of our Constitution says explicitly: riffs of remuneration, work norms and ratios «The citizens pay no taxes or levies whatsoever». between lower and higher wages are such as to The complete abolition of taxes is of major promote production, raise its quality and not economic, political and ideological importance. allow pronounced differences in income among With the elimination of taxes, the personal in­ various categories of workers. comes which all the working people of our coun­ try, including the cooperativists peasantry, achie­ ve through their work, are intangible. 172 173 SELF-RELIANCE and energy resources, like oil and natural gas, coal and electric power. The export-import ratio The Albanian economy develops relying and the balance of payments has improved from completely on its own forces, its own material one five-year plan to the next. Albania has no and financial means without credits or aid from foreign debts and does not base its plans of de­ abroad. The persistent, selfabnegating work of velopment on any kind of external aid. the Albanian people has always been the deci­ Self-reliance has never been a temporary po­ sive factor of the revolutionary transformations licy dictated by external circumstances. It is not and achievements in the construction of socia­ a policy of autarkic development of the national lism of the stability and ceaseless development economy. All the peoples, big or small, make of our economy. their contribution to the cause of the revolution The principle of self-reliance emanates from and construction of socialism. They give each the teachings of Marxism-Leninism, according to other internationalist aid and support. Hence, the which the internal factor is the decisive one, and application of the principle of selfreliance does the external factor is only of auxiliary, comple­ not negate disinterested internationalist aid from mentary importance. the world proletariat and the socialist countries, Ever since the Anti-fascist National Libera­ on the contrary, it presuposes it. tion War, by relying entirely on their own forces, Albania exchanges on the world market part the Albanian people won their freedom and the of its national product with the goods it needs. independence of their country through armed Our socialist state carries on trade relations with struggle. Likewise, they have made the construc­ various countries of the world on the basis of tion of socialist society, the development of the equality, respect for national sovereignty, non­ economy and culture and the defence of the interference in internal affairs and mutual be­ victories achieved unconditional on external aid. nefit. The experience of Albania shows that every Albania has based its 7th Five-year Plan people, big or small, can carry forward and de­ (1981-1985) for the development of the economy velop their economy independently when relying and culture entirely on its own forces, without on their own forces. any kind of economic, financial and material aid Applying the principle of self-reliance, much or credit from abroad, despite its high rates of has been done in the PSR of Albania for the tap­ development and its tasks which are greater than ping and rational exploitation of the mineral and in any other five-year plan. water resources of the country. A heavy, extract­ In 1985 as against 1980 the total social pro­ ing and processing, industry has been developed duct will increase 34-36 per cent, industrial pro­ and the industrial reserves of minerals constantly duction 36-38 per cent, agricultural production increased. The development of the economy is be­ 30-32 per cent (for the five years taken together), ing based more and more on local raw materials fundamental investments (for the five years taken.

174 175 together) 22-24 per cent, the national income 35- 37 per cent, state financial income 34-36 per cent and real income per capita 8-10 per cent, etc. Our economy does not know such negative phenomena as decline of production, unemploy­ ment, inflation, prices-rises and other evils typi­ cal of the capitalist and revisionist countries.

FOREIGN POLICY 176 FOREIGN POLICY

The foreign policy of the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania is an open, independent and consistent policy of principle, based on proleta­ rian principles free from narrow bourgeois natio­ nalism or underrating of other peoples. As the policy of a socialist state, it is a profoundly inter­ nationalist policy which supports the revolution­ ary movement of the working class and the strug­ gle of the peoples for freedom, national indepen­ dence and social progress. The foreign policy of socialist Albania is not restricted by political pacts, military treaties or exclusive economic organizations. Albania does not base its economic and political development, its defence and its future on credits, loans or aid from other states, but only on its own forces. Albania is for the development of relations and collaboration with all those states which abi­ de by the principle of equality, non-interference in internal affairs of others, respect for sovreign- ty and reciprocal benefit. It is for the right of every people to self-determination and full so­ vereignty and for equality of all countries in in­ ternational relations. Socialist Albania is opposed to all imperialist and neocolonialist practices of inequality, discri­ mination and great-state dictate in international

179 reign aid and credits. These are two separate, un­ relations. It holds that relations between states, connected things. The Constitution of the PSR of whether big or small, should be free from any Albania, in order to bar the road to any threat kind of economic, political or military pressure to the national and economic independence of and dictate. Albania is opposed to and exposes the country, prohibits the granting of concessions the aggressive and warmongering policy of the to, and the creation of foreign economic and fi­ two imperialist superpowers-the USA and the So­ nancial companies and other institutions, or ones viet Union, which are the greatest and most dan­ formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist gerous enemies to the freedom and independence capitalist monopolies and states, as well as ob­ of the peoples, socialism, genuine peace and se­ taining credits, from them (Article 28). curity in the world. They protect and guarantee Our country has concluded a series of cul­ the existence of reactionary regimes, help them tural agreements with many countries and car­ keep their peoples in bondage to foreigners and ries on regular exchanges in the fields of art, instigate feuds and conflicts between nations. culture, science, sports, etc., on the basis of reci­ Their policies pose a direct threat for mankind to procal benefit and non-interference, and without be hurled into a third world war. discrimination or prejudice. These exchanges, Adhering to these principles, the government which are steadily being expanded, make the of the PSR of Albania is constantly extending its peoples acquainted with one another’s achieve­ diplomatic, trade and cultural relations with ments and progress and strengthen the friendship other countries. Socialist Albania devotes special between them. We have always held in high attention to her relations with the neighbouring esteem the progressive, both ancient and modern countries in particular and with the European culture of other countries, considering it property countries in general. Actually, Albania maintains and treasure of all mankind. On the other hand, diplomatic relations with 99 states. It is for the we make efforts to acquaint other countries with expansion of these relations with all these coun­ the treasury of the ancient and modern culture tries that wish Albania well and maintain a cor­ of our people, while always considering the desi­ rect attitude towards it. res and interests of their peoples. Our socialist state has been and is for the Likewise, Albania is for all-round exchanges normal and free development of international in the field of science and technology and profit trade on the basis of equality and reciprocal be­ from modern science, technique and technology, nefit. Our country is for balanced trade exchan­ while always preserving and safeguarding our ges, without discrimination or limitation, hence, independence and freedom of action in this field. it has repeatedly, expressed its opposition to At all times and in every situation, the aim unequal relations in trade exchanges, the mani­ of the foreign policy of Albania has been to con­ pulation of prices, and in general, machinations tribute as much as possible to the strengthening and attempts on the part of any state to exploit of peace and security in Europe, and the broad­ trade relations as a means of pressure for dictat­ ening of collaboration amongst its peoples. The ing its own political will and views to another PLA and the government of the PSR of Albania state. have openly declared their stand towards the po- We do not confuse trade exchanges with fo­ 181 180 litical and military blocs of the superpowers which are the source of divisions and splits in Europe, of recurring tensions and conflicts bet­ ween the countries of the continent. The view of socialist Albania is that only resolute opposi­ tion to American imperialism and Soviet social- imperialism, the liquidation of military blocs, the removal of atomic weapons and foreign troops, the dismantling of foreign military bases in the countries of both Western and Eastern Europe can ward off the danger of war and strengthen peace in Europe. The PSR of Albania prohibits the establishment of foreign military bases and the stationing of foreign troops in its territory (Article 91 of the Constitution).

THE PRESS AND PUBLICATIONS

182 THE PRESS AND PUBLICATIONS

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

One hundred and thirty newspapers, magazi­ nes, scientific bulletins and other periodicals are published in our country. The most important newspaper is «Zëri i po- pullit», organ of the Central Committee of the Party of Labour of Albania, the first number of which came out on 25 August 1942, in the days of fascist occupation, in the heat of the National Liberation War. «Zëri i popullit» soon captured the hearts and minds of the Albanian people, be­ came the voice that inspired mobilization. It car­ ried the word of the Communist Party of Alba­ nia, its revolutionary thought, the battle cry for the freedom and independence of the Homeland. It struck terror to the enemies, who worked hard to discover its printing base and destroy it, but their efforts failed, because the people defended it. During the period of socialist construction, too, «Zëri i popullit», like all our people’s press, has been the close and loyal aid of the Party of Labour of Albania, for the promotion of re­ volution in all fields. It has always made a va­ luable contribution to the continous strengthen­

185 ing of our socialist order, the unity of the people number of newspapers, magazines, and other pe­ round the Party, the education of our new man riodicals has increased, as well as the programs with the Marxist-Leninist world outlook and the of the Radio and Television and the bulletins of spirit of socialist love of country, the loyal im­ the Albanian Telegraphic Agency. plementation of the correct line of the Party, the «Zëri i popullit» and «Bashkimi» are dailies. defence of the lofty interests of the people and Other newspapers such as «Puna», organ of the the Homeland, in struggle with the internal and Central Council of the Trade Unions, «Zëri i Ri- external enemies. nisë», organ of the Central Committe of the La­ Reflecting the correct stands of our Party bour Youth Union of Albania; «Luftëtari», cen­ and socialist state on the international issues tral organ of the People’s Army, are bi-weeklies. and events, «Zëri i popullit» has gained recogni­ The newspaper «Drita» and the magazine «Nën- tion in the world. At a time when the bour­ tori» are organs of the Writers and Artists’ Lea­ geoisie and the revisionists spread all kinds of gue. Other important organs are the theoretical slanders, falsifications and humbug in order to magazines «Rruga e Partisë», organ of the CC of confuse and mislead the peoples, and make many the PLA, the illustrated magazine «Ylli», the ma­ efforts to put them off the correct revolutionary gazine «Shqiptarja e Re», organ of the Women’s struggle, «Zëri i popullit» has always been a tri­ Union of Albania, etc. Six newspapers and maga­ bune of the staunch support for the proletariat and the peoples, has condemned the policy of zines, with a circulation of 180,000 copies, are pu­ aggression and war pursued by American impe­ blished for the youth and children. rialism and Soviet social-imperialism and their Local newspapers are published in 17 centres tools, has always raised the banner of the Party of administration districts and in major industrial of Labour of Albania, the banner of Marx, Engels, centres. Lenin and Stalin, high and kept it unsullied. To have an idea of the development of our The day of the appearance of the first num­ press suffice it to mention that only 6 newspa­ ber of the newspaper «Zëri i popullit», August 25, pers, and these were completely in the service 1942, marks the founding of the Albanian peo­ of the anti-popular regime in power, were publi­ ple’s press. shed in pre-Liberation Albania. «Drita», the main Apart from «Zëri i popullit», illegal or­ newspaper of that time, had a daily circulation gans were published during the National Libe­ of only 4000 copies, while today «Zëri i popullit» ration War such as «Bashkimi», organ of the Na­ has a daily circulation of 100,000 copies. tional Liberation Front, (today the Democratic Front of Albania), «Kushtrimi i Lirisë» organ of the Communist Youth, (LYUA), as well as other organs in the districts and military units. THE RADIO AND TELEVISION While preserving and further developing its revolutionary traditions of the war years, during The Albanian Radio and Television is a state the years of socialist construction our people’s institution occupying an important place among press has grown in quality and quantity. The the mass media.

186 187 It prepares and broadcasts radio and tele­ vision programs of the most varied forms and (world service) in 20 foreign languages: English, for all age groups. French, Spanish, Russian, German, Italian, The Radio and Television has its own sym­ Greek, Turkish, Portuguese, Arabic, Chinese, Po­ phonic orchestra which was created in 1962. It lish, Hungarian, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Ruma­ makes its contribution to the development of Al­ nian, Bulgarian, Indonesian, Persian and Swe­ banian music and the high-level interpretation of dish. the works of Albanian and foreign composers. The Albanian Radio diffusion is comprised The first radio service in our country com­ of four local radio stations in the cities of Shko- menced on 23 November 1938, with the setting dra, Korça, Gjirokastra and Kukës, which broad­ up of a 3 kW short-wave station. cast 4-5 hours of local programs everyday. Regular radio programs began only on 27 The Albanian television commenced its first November 1944, on the eve of the liberation of experimental broadcasts on 29 April 1960. Until the country. On November 28, 1944, Radio Tirana 1965 it had two-hour broadcasts three days a broadcast live the speech of the primeminister week and its signals could be received only in and commander-in-chief of the National Libera­ Tirana and Durrës. Later our television programs tion Army, Comrade Enver Hoxha, at a big po­ reached also some other cities of the country in pular rally on the occasion of Independence Day the lowland and coastal areas. and the arrival of the Democratic Government in Our Television began its regular daily pro­ Tirana. During the first years all broadcasts were grams in 1971. Since that time it has constantly live, as there was no recording equipment. grown in quality and quantity. It broadly reflects From 1947-1950 radio programs were made the life, activities and creative work of our work­ up of 7.5 hours of service and four hours of ex­ ing masses. ternal service in five languages for listeners Programs are prepared in modern stationary abroad. and mobile television studios. Albanian television The first 50 kW medium-wave radio station has its correspondents in every district of the was set up in 1952, to be followed later by other country and their task is to reflect the activities powerful radio stations broadcasting on short and that are carried out in all fields there. Apart medium waves. Now the broadcasting power of from its different sections which prepare pro­ Albanian radio stations has greatly increased and grams on a broad range of themes and for all the voice of Albania is heard on all the conti­ age-groups, the Albanian television also has a sec­ nents. Today our broadcasting has a modern tion producing television feature films. The tele­ equipment and special studios for political, in­ vision makes ten such films per year. formative, social, cultural and artistic programs. In 1981 the Albanian television began its co­ Radio programs have increased steadily from lour broadcasts which in 1983 account for nearly year to year. Today Radio Tirana broadcasts 70 per cent of all its programs. uninterruptedly 18 hours a day and 82 hours Today there is a TV-set for every 15 inhabi­ tants. 188 189 In our country there are no taxes on radio- sophical and scientific character of different or TV-sets. fields, bilingual and plurilingual dictionaires of Our Radio-Television maintains regular con­ different branches of natural sciences have been tacts with a number of Radio-Television centres published. of different countries of the world with the pur­ The «Naim Frashëri» Publishing House pu­ pose of exachanging programs, on the basis of blishes literary works, — novels, collections of mutual interest. stories, short stories, poems, plays, etc. The Textbooks Publishing House publishes all kinds of textbooks for the various categories PUBLISHING HOUSES of schools, from elementary to higher schools. Besides these publishing house there are also Books are published by three main publish­ other publishing organizations such as, for exam­ ing houses. ple, the Academy of Sciences of the PSRA, the The «8 Nëntori» Publishing Houses publi­ University of Tirana, etc. shes political and scientific books. Its activity has steadily increased from year to year. It has pu­ blished the most important works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism. This publishing house de­ MAGAZINES votes a special place to the publications of the IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES Party of Labour of Albania and the Works of Comrade Enver Hoxha, prepared by the Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies of the Central Com­ At present 6 magazines in foreign languages mittee of the Party of Labour of Albania. Worth destined to various categories of readers are pu­ mentioning among them are the volumes of Prin­ blished in Albania: cipal Documents of the PLA, the forty-two volu­ «ALBANIA TODAY» — a political informa­ mes of the series of Works and the series of Se­ tive magazine. It is published bimonthly in lected Works of Comrade Enver Hoxha in foreign French, English, German, Spanish and Italian. languages. In recent years it has published a It acquaints the readers with the Albanian reali­ number of Works by Comrade Enver Hoxha, ty and Albania’s stands on important interna­ which have been translated in some foreign tional problems. languages: «Yugoslav’ Self-administration — A Capitalist Theory and Practice», «Imperialism «NEW ALBANIA» — an illustrated bimon­ and the Revolution», «Reflections on China» in thly magazine. It is published in Albanian, two volumes, «With Stalin», «Eurocommunism is French, English, German, Spanish, Russian, Ita­ Anti-communism», «The Khrushchevites», «The lian and Arabic. Through its articles and pictures Anglo-American Threat to Albania», «The Titoi- it informs the readers of various aspects of life tes», «Reflections on the Middle East», etc. in the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania. A great number of books of a political, philo­ «LES LETTRES ALBANAISES» — a quar­ terly magazine of selections from classical and

190 191 ses of the people. This is expressed in the fact contemporary published in that our press, radio and TV and various publi­ French, organ of the Writers’ and Artists’ League cations are not only property of the masses, tri­ of Albania. bunes of their revolutionary thinking, but also «STUDIA ALBANICA» — a bi-yearly maga­ the product of the masses and a direct expres­ zine in French with summaries of Albanian stu­ sion of their revolutionary line. Through their dies in the field of history, philology, etc. pu­ contributions to the press organs, the radio and blished by the Academy of Sciences. television, the working masses bring their «Puna» — a trimestral magazine publish­ thoughts, experience and beautiful language of ed in English and French, organ of the Gene­ the people to the mass media. With us it is not ral Council of the Trade Unions of Albania. It just the professional journalists that bring out carries articles on various aspects from the life the paper or the magazine, nor is the work at the of the Albanian working class, as well as mate­ radio and television done by a permanent staff rials expressing the attitude of the Trade Uni­ of editors alone. Large numbers of people of dif­ ons of Albania towards problems of the interna­ ferent walks of life, from city and country, peo­ tional worker movement. ple intimately acquainted with life, production «Foreign Trade» — a bimonthly magazine and the daily struggle of the working masses for published in English and French by the Chamber the socialist construction of the country, write for of Commerce, with information on Albanian fo­ the press and speak on the radio and TV. reign trade and advertisements of Albanian ex­ Matters of the press, like all other matters in port goods. the life of the country, are regulated on the ba­ sis of special laws. Our Constitution sanctions the right of any citizen to have his say freely in the organs of the press, in the radio and television. * * All the conditions have been created for the ac­ tual implementation of this right. The masses are The Albanian people’s press is characterized urged and encouraged by every means to exer­ by a high ideopolitical, scientific, and cultural cise it. level and a militant revolutionary spirit. It is a In socialist Albania, the profession of the powerful means in the hands of the broad mas­ journalist is an honoured one. Journalists are ses for the education and mobilization of the esteemed and respected by the masses for their working people for the construction of socialism objectivity, honesty, and lofty moral figure. On and the defence of the country. It devotes spe­ the basis of the law, the journalists enjoy all cial attention to international affairs; it con­ authors rights. The people working in the press sistently reflects the principled struggle of the and the Radio and Television have their own PLA and the Albanian people against imperia­ organization — the Union of Albanian Journa­ lism, revisionism, and the oppression and exploi­ tation of peoples in the world. lists and their organ — «Tribuna e Gazetarit». A characteristic of our people’s press in Al­ bania is that it is based firmly on the broad mas­ 193 192 SOCIAL LIFE SOCIAL LIFE

SOCIALISM AND THE INDIVIDUAL

Freedom of the individual! The harmonious and all-round development of the human perso­ nality. An ideal both ancient and new-from re­ mote antiquity to our days. But is was and is unable, for this ideal to make a headway in a society with exploiting classes. Oppressed politically, dependent and ex­ ploited to the bone economically, benumbed men­ tally and spiritually — this is the general picture of man, escepially the working man, in this so­ ciety. Above him — the state, the church, the employer, the many kinds of institutions in their service, the enslaving ideology, customs and tra­ ditions. At the dawn of its existence, the bourgeoisie unfurled the banner of the emancipation of the individual, together with the famous slogan of «freedom, equality and fraternity». But its ideals, too, were abortive. From the historical stand­ point, they were just a flash in the pan. True, formal juridical freedom of the individual, was won, but as Marx says, it was freedom to sell oneself, to sell one’s labour power. Man was turned into commodity. And he remains a com­ modity. His enslavement was prettified perfect-

197 ed, but remained enslavement, even for those who is a condition for the free development of all. create outstanding spiritual values — the wri­ This dialectical relationship between society and ters, scientists, etc., because, as Lenin put it. the individual finds the most favourable soil for they too, are tied to the capitalist’s purse-strings. its practical embodiment precisely in our socia­ Only communism can eliminate these age-old list society. contradictions of human society. And the condi­ Proof of this is the new free life of the peo­ tions for communism are prepared during its ple of socialist Albania today. The example of initial stage — socialism. Albania is a complete confirmation of Lenin’s thesis that socialism emancipates man from all The hired apologists for capitalism, slan­ aspects, enables all the energies and potential of dering the socialist social order, accuse it of op­ mankind, all the talents suppressed and inhi­ pressing the individual, ignoring and violating bited in society with exploiting classes to burst his interests. According to them, socialism redu­ forth freely and vigorously; that it educates and ces all individuals to the one level, «trims them teaches all, from the cook to the minister, to go­ all with the same shears», and lumps them all vern the country jointly, themselves; that it crea­ together in an «amorphous mass», a collective. tes possibilities for them to enjoy all the blessings Unable to tolerate the collective social discipline, created by them in the new social order; that it the bourgeois and petty-bourgeois individual opens the way to genuine, all-round, harmonious with anarchist tendencies, like the aristocrat of development. the past, regards the human collective as a force which gobbles up the individual. Even if they Through free elections with equal suffrage admit that socialism brings progress (only in the for all and the right to be elected to every state initial stage of its development, according to and social post, through active participation in them), the partisans of bourgeois individualism the various mass social organizations of a politi­ declare that this is achieved at the expense of cal character, through the implementation of the human rights. Truly a paradoxical logic: progress worker and peasant control over the entire life of in the life of man at the expense of his rights! the country, through the line of the masses and socialist democracy, popular discussions on va­ The theory of scientific socialism and the rious vital problems, of the development of the practice of socialist life in our country totally re­ fute these falsifications by bourgeois theoreticians. country and other means and forms of this na­ According to the Marxist concept, in every so­ ture, the individual affirms himself as an active ciety the individual is formed and developed in a participant in the political life of the country, given collective. Therefore, the development of from the base to the highest levels. And it is not the elite, but rank and file people, in the first the individual is conditioned by the development place workers and peasants, who climb to these of all other individuals, with whom he enters in­ to direct or indirect relations. Only in the collecti­ peaks. ve does the individual have at his disposal those The political emancipation of man is cement­ means which enable him to develop his gifts and ed through the economic mechanisms of the new abilities in all directions. And precisely in the socialist order, thus assuming a broad social collective the free development of each individual aspect. The effective right to work, and work for

198 199 all, work according to one’s abilities and qualifi­ from year to year with many new forces of an cations; pay according to the work done, according ever higher level, and steadily increasing skill. to its quantity and quality — this is the basis for Although a small country, socialist Albania is effective social for all the individuals, to proud that outstanding personalities already avoid that great differentiation and social-class known to and esteemed by the international pu­ polarization, characteristic of the present capita­ blic have emerged from these ranks. list and revisionist world. Here there are no It is interesting to examine how these indi­ taxes, the health and education services are free cations of major revolutionary socialist transfor­ of charge, rents are only symbolic, enslaving mations in the life of the individual are expres­ «credits» and debts to pay. Is all this not a gua­ sed in certain social strata and place, where they rantee that the individual will be genuinely free, stand out with special force. Take the persona­ that he can enjoy and make use of this freedoms? lity and individuality of the Albanian women of And what about the equality of all in edu­ today. An unimaginable emancipation within cation, and on top of this, in the possibility to four decades. From confinement in the house engage in the active and creative process of the and domestic slavery- to an impetuous outburst assimilation of cultural values, in the mass scien­ of forces. Participation in work completely equal tific experimentation, in creative work in all with men. The same in education, including hig­ fields, in the ceaseless all-round development of her education. Equal with man in every field of the spiritual world of the new man of socialist life. This is the soil for the unprecedented flo­ society? A country that only four decades ago wering of female individuality. was steeped in illiteracy has given all individuals Extremely interesting phenomena can be possibilities to climb to the highest levels of edu­ seen also in the current development of the Al­ cation, so that now almost all the youth of the banian youth, in the personality of boys and country get all kinds of schooling, including se­ girls. Through the mass education of the youth, condary schooling. And it is struggling to over­ their total emancipation in work, their active come the crippling of human education expressed participation in the life of the country, the youth in one-sidedness, especially in the separation of have proved to be a major revolutionary force, lections from work, of theory from practice. a driving and revolutionizing force in all fields of The practice of socialist construction in Al­ life. That is why the young people do not see bania is an extremely eloquent proof of the mass «individual freedom» in spiritual emptiness, in outburst of human talents and individual abilities degeneration, hooliganism, in anarchic protest in all fields of life — from politics to creative with a anti-social content. scientific and artistic work. We see the vanguard The ceaseless narrowing of the distinctions workers, of agriculture and industry are also de­ between town and countryside and the principles puties in the People’s Assembly. Ordinary work- of the organization of our socialist life have ena­ ing people are, at the same time, social activists bled the peasants, young and old, men and wo­ up to the highest organs of the Party and the men, to be included actively step by step, in all state, while the ranks of the literary, artistic, those social processes, which have guaranteed the cultural and sports organizations are augmented development of their individualities, just as with the townspeople. 200 201 Socialism and the individual — two notions dation of the entire economic social life of the closely linked with one another. Not just in theo­ country. Work constitutes the main source from ry, but as we have seen, in practice, too. So which every citizen ensures the means of liveli­ much so, that sometimes it is difficult to separate hood.» Thus, as has been the case up to date, the the one from the other, because the flowering state has put the guarantee of work for every of the human individuality is inconceivable and citizen at the foundation of the whole life of the unrealizable apart from the joint socialist life. country, as a right and duty for every citizen. This is guaranteed by the political, economic and social conditions of the socialist order. It is based LABOUR LEGISLATION on the existence of the political state power of the working class, the dictatorship of the prole­ The aim of Labour legislation in Albania is tariat, and the socialist ownership of the means to ensure the full implementation of the socialist of production. principles «work is a duty and an honour», and The principal laws dealing with the work «from each according to his ability, to each ac­ and life of the working people, with employment, cording to his work». Work for all and the imple­ the conditions of work, wages and social insuran­ mentation of these principles are guaranteed by ce are drawn up with the active participation the socialization of the means of production and of the workers and trade unions. This has made the planned organization of the economy. In Al­ it possible for the labour laws to reflect as fully bania there are no economic crises or unemploy­ as possible the policy of the Party, and to divest ment. Work has become the source of the well­ the labour laws of unnecessary or complicated being of everyone and the basis of our social formulations and make them simple, clear and system. understandable to the masses, thus enabling In the past many Albanians had to emigrate them to check up on their application in practice. in order to earn a livelihood. You would find The workers are guaranteed an 8-hour work­ them employed where the work was the hardest day by law. For certain categories of workers and most difficult in France and the United Sta­ engaged in difficult jobs the working day is re­ tes of America, in Australia or the Argentine. duced to 7,6 or 5 hours, without any reduction Most of the families of the emigrants experienc­ in wages. Overtime work is not allowed except ed many family tragedies. That is why the pla­ in special cases which are sanctioned. When the ces where the emigrants were farewelled were worker works overtime, he is paid an increase called by the people the «meadows of tears». of 25 per cent of his wage. Many songs of grief have been composed about In addition to the weekly day off and official the cursed migration, about the young brides left holidays, the workers and employees enjoy the without their husbands, the children who did not right to a paid annual vacation. A good number know the fathers who had been forced to go of workers, like those working in mines, metal­ abroad to earn their daily bread. lurgy, chemical works, the oil industry, tobacco In the Constitution of the People’s Socialist factories, the health service, education and cul­ Republic of Albania we read: «Work is the foun­ ture, etc. are entitled to supplementary leave of

202 203 up to 36 work-days a year. In order to enable danger their health are provided, free of charge, the workers to spend their vacations and relax with protective clothing and equipment (goggles, in a pleasant environment, holiday homes have masks, helmets, gloves, boots, and so on). In the been set up which are frequented by tens of branches of production in which emissions of thousands of workers every year. dangerous gases and vapours occur, in addition to In order to make it easier for all the working other protective devices, the workers are given people to raise their education, cultural and tech­ antidotes. Such steps for the prevention of occu­ nical level, the law envisages facilities for them pational diseases and accidents are a major fac­ to attend courses while continuing with their tor which has helped in preventing temporary jobs. The hours of work for those who are stu­ disability and invalidity from constituting a dis­ dying are reduced and supplementary leave with turbing problem in our country. up to 100 per cent of the pay is granted them to In addition to the free medical service, all prepare for and sit their examinations. This sup­ workers and employees and members of agricul­ plementary leave is from three to six hours a tural cooperatives are guaranteed social insuran­ week for part-time school attendance. ce. The necessary funds for social insurance are The law gives equal rights to men and to provided entirely by the state and are a supple­ women on the basis of the principle «Equal pay ment to workers’ wages and salaries. Social in­ for equal work». The state gives special protec­ surance provides for all eventualities, covering the working people before they are born, throu­ tion to women and minors. Pregnant women, nursing mothers and people with medical certi­ ghout their lives, and their families after their ficates are not allowed to work night shifts or death. Social insurance provides aid for the wor­ kers in case of temporary inability to work, rang­ overtime, or do heavy work. Working women also enjoy other facilities which enable them to ing from 70 to 85 per cent of their wages and payable from the first day of this inability. In take part en masse in production work and to carry out their duties as mothers. case of inability, because of injury at work or occupational disease, the compensation payment In line with the principle that «man is the ranges from 95 to 100 per cent of average earn­ most precious asset», the Labour Code and other ings. Women workers and cooperativists are en­ dispositions on safety at work attach special im­ titled to paid maternity leave of about 6 months portance to protecting the health and life of the before and after childbirth, paid at the rate of workers. Thus, their workshops, factories, enter­ 80 per cent of their average earnings. prises and establishments, where work goes on, Old age pensions for workers are differentia­ are designed, built and utilized according to the ted on the basis of the difficulty of their job. Full rules of technical safety, sanitation and hygiene. old age pensions are available to men who have The use of machines, mechanisms and installa­ reached the age of 50,55 or 60 years with 20 or tions which present a danger is permitted only 25 years at work and the women at 45,50 or 55 after they have been equipped with protective years of age with 15 and 20 years at work. The devices and when the workers have been given pension is paid at the rate of 70 per cent of ave­ sufficient training in the use of these devices. rage earnings. Pensions are also paid to invalids, The workers and employees on jobs liable to en­

204 205 to those who lose the family breadwinner, and tals, etc. are provided free of charge. Our state to those who have displayed special merits in spares nothing in running a qualified health the struggle for the freedom, independence and service established on scientific bases and cover­ socialist construction of the country. ing the entire population. There is an extensive Maternity leave before and after childbirth network of health institutions reaching the remo­ for women cooperativists as well as pen­ test villages. This network is comprised of hospi­ sions are paid in a centralized way by the State tals, dispensaries, maternity homes, day nurse­ Social Security organs. On the decision of the ries, institutes of hygiene-sanitation and medical Central Committee of the Party of Labour and research, stomatological clinics, pharmacies, en­ the Government, which came into effect on terprises of the pharmaceutical industry, and so April 1, 1976, the proportion of normal earnings on. payable in town and countryside in maternity, Today there is one doctor or stomatologist for child-birth and age benefits was equalized, and about 600 inhabitants. In comparison with 1938 the minimum age benefit payable in the coun­ the number of hospital beds has increased more tryside was increased. than 20 fold. Constant organizational and plan­ State control over the application of the La­ ning work is conducted for the proportional de­ bour Code and the laws ordinances, decisions and velopment of the health service, the creation of instructions on social insurance is exercised by the necessary conditions for its normal work and the supreme organs of the state, the social insu­ the training and specialization of its cadres. rance organs, inspectorates of labour, safety at A systematic struggle is waged against va­ work and health. The trade unions, the organi­ rious diseases not only by treating them, but es­ zations of the working class, also perform a very pecially by preventing them. As a result of these important function in this direction. They are prophylactic measures, Albania, the most mala­ extensively engaged in making the workers fa­ ria-stricken country in Europe before Liberation, miliar with the laws so that they are rigorously now has not a single case of malaria and other applied in fighting manifestations of bureaucracy diseases which were rampant in the past, such as and technocratism and in enforcing discipline on syphilis, tuberculosis, etc. are very rare. everybody. The self-denying work of our health cadres, Under the Labour Code the masses take an the constant raising of their level of qualifica­ active part in drafting of laws, decisions and tion, the political understanding of the problems other legal dispositions which bear on work, wa­ of prophylaxis and hygiene and sanitation, and ges, safety at work, the living conditions of the the establishment of close contacts between doc­ working people, in the drafting of the state plan tors and their patients — all this has produced and its application. notable results in recent years. Bearing always in mind the teachings of the Party and the instru­ THE HEALTH SERVICE ctions of Comrade Enver Hoxha, the health ca­ dres are striving to educate the people to see the In the People’s Socialist Republic of Alba­ doctor or go to the clinic time and again not only nia, medical services, visits, analyses and treat­ ment at home, in outpatient clinics, in hospi­ when they are sick but also when they just do

206 207 not feel well so that any disorder in the orga­ Homeland and the invalids from work, and crea­ nism may be detected by means of timely consul­ tes conditions for their rehabilitation. tation and examination before making itself felt The protection of the health of our people through disturbing symptoms and pain. should be viewed in all its aspects. Thanks to the major work done in the years Our state compels all enterprises to carry out of the people’s state power for the improvement all the measures that should be taken in order of the health of the people, the average life ex­ to protect the environment from pollution right pectancy in Albania rose from 53.3 years in 1950 from the first stages of work on new projects, to nearly 70 years in 1983, as against 38 years in and so on. But in addition to enterprises the law 1938. also charges social organizations, as well as every Some facts about how the health of mother citizen with duties so that he himself may pro­ and child is looked after speak on the important tect the environment from pollution, and take a results achieved by our health service. stand and make it a problem when he notices Conditions have been created for all expec­ any violation of this law, which is related di­ tant mothers in both town and countryside to rectly to the protection of the health of the deliver in maternity homes. Every village, how­ working masses. ever small it may be, has its midwife; there are When a child is taken ill, the working mo­ day nurseries in every city and village in which ther is given nine days of paid leave in every a very high percentage of our children are grow­ three-month period or up to thirty six working ing up. The provision of all medicines for chil­ days a year. If the doctor deems it necessary, the dren under one year of age and the supply of mother may be given supplementary unpaid vitamins to expectant mothers and their children leave to nurse her child through a long illness. after childbirth free of charge, the subsidizing of If the child has to be hospitalized, the mother, nurseries, etc. by the state are important factors particularly if she is breastfeeding the child, can exercising an influence on the constant improve­ stay there to assist the child for as long as the ment of the health of mother and child. doctor recommends it. For the whole of this pe­ The state creates the best possible conditions riod she is paid on the basis of the regulations for the broad masses so that they may spend of social insurance. their vacations, which are guaranteed by law, in According to the sanitary legislation of our a cultured way at our many attractive mountain country, it is compulsory for every work centre and seaside resorts where comfortable holiday to take measures for the prevention of profes­ homes have been set up. Facilities on our beaches sional diseases of the workers, in accordance are expanding from year to year. with the work centre and the material handled The working people of town and countryside by the workers. The work centre must secure are guaranteed the necessary means of livelihood the respective installations for ventilation or the in old age, in case of illness or loss of capacity suction of harmful gases, smoke and dust during for work. Likewise the state takes under special production processes and to remove in good time care the invalids of the Anti-fascist National Li­ all waste and left-over harmful to the environ­ beration War, of the struggle in defence of the ment. The work centre must supply the workers

208 209 with individual means and clothing for protec­ teaching programs and plans, the students do tion during production. The workers must also also practical medical work, beginning with the utilize these means during work. They are sub­ first year at the Faculty. For instance first-year jects to periodical medical examinations to make medical students do one month’s practical work the necessary analyses at the laboratory, and so of a nurse or sanitary worker. In accordance on. No new worker is accepted at work without with their subjects, the practical lessons are done having a medical report which proves the con­ in the laboratories or at the patient’s bedside and dition of his health. Recently there has been a mass check-up under the direct supervision of the assistants. and filing of certain diseases like heart-ailments, The relations between practical and theoretical tumors, etc. work are harmonized so that the student is as Every pregnant woman reports to the wo­ capable as possible of meeting the requirements men’s consultation rooms which are both in town to properly treat the patient. and countryside. The consultant keeps the ex­ The doctor-patient relations, being disinte­ pectant mother under constant control, follows rested (in our country, the doctor has no finan­ the normal development of the child, and when cial ties with the patient), are based on mutual any difficulty arises, immediately sends the wo­ respect and socialist humanism. man to the respective specialist. The expectant mother is given 6 months of paid leave before and after childbirth. The pregnant women pre­ pare themselves to receive their children follow­ THE ROLE OF THE WOMAN ing the advice of the midwife or the doctor who IN SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE is in charge of them. They go through a health education course called the «school of mothers» where they learn how to bring up their babies. The progress of the Albanian women, un­ Our state spares nothing for the life of the der the guidance of the Party of Labour of Al­ handicapped children. It makes huge expendi­ bania, is one of the finest examples of emancipa­ ture to return them to normal life. Special insti­ tion. The linking of the problem of women with tutions have been set up to correct several con­ national liberation and the treatment of this pro­ genital malformations. There is also a central blem by the Party of Labour of Albania as an institution for mentally handicapped children, integral part of the uninterrupted socialist revo­ where they are submitted to psychological, pe­ lution not only ensured real conditions for the dagogical and other special treatments. The re­ solution of all the problems of the women, but sults are very satisfactory; many of these chil­ at the same time made a contribution of great dren have entered life as all the others. generalizing value in this field. The revolutionary triangle of our school sys­ Before Liberation the situation of the Alba­ tem — lessons, production work and military nian woman was apalling. Not only did she suf­ and physical training — operates in the Faculty fer oppression and poverty, as all the people, but of Medicine as well. Besides lessons according to she also suffered from discrimination, inequality 210 211 Party had made it clear in its program that after with man, feudal moral norms, backward cus­ the establishment of the people’s state power the toms and religion. Often she was treated as a struggle for the emancipation of the women chattel — her father and her relatives sold her, would continue both in breadth and depth. In her husband and his relatives bought her. In so­ this program, the Albanian women saw the way me zones where the Muslim code prevailed poly­ to their salvation, therefore they rose in whole­ gamy was permitted. A young woman could be hearted struggle. About 6,000 women and girls married off to an elderly man for the interest of joined the ranks of the National Liberation Ar­ the clan or for money. The birth of a girl was my and many of them were leaders of partisan considered a misfortune and a burden on the fa­ detachments. Thousands of others took part in mily. In certain regions the woman was compel­ the underground work in the cities, in the de­ led to cover her face with a yashmak. Under these monstrations and clashes with the invaders. Wo­ conditions the participation of women in state men and girls gave the National Liberation Ar­ employment was something quite extraordinary. my massive assistance with food and clothing, Before Liberation throughout Albania there were provided shelter and treated the wounded, trans­ only twenty-one women teachers, two or three ported arms and ammunition. During the war, women doctors, not a woman engineer, agrono­ the councils of anti-fascist Albanian women were mist or chemist. No woman sat in parliament or set up in villages and cities to conduct organized did any more or less important job in the state ap­ political and cultural work with the masses of paratus. In the secondary schools girls made up the women, courses against illiteracy, and so on. only 2.4 per cent of the students. Illiteracy, which The Anti-fascist Union of the Albanian Women kept the overwhelming majority of the popula­ (AUAW), which was set up in 1943, played an tion in darkness, weighed even more heavily on outstanding role in the liberation war and in the the women. socialist construction of the country. During the National Liberation War, the After the establishment of our people’s state Communist Party of Albania attached major im­ power, a revolution in the economy was carried portance to the activization and mobilization of out, and this required the conscious efforts of the women. There are many examples in the his­ men, women and the entire people to fight with tory of Albania which show that women have self-denial to carry out the collectivization and fought, arms in hand, against foreign invaders, the socialist industrialization of the country, to but their participation in the National Liberation safeguard, administer and continuously streng­ War was a mass phenomenon and with an enti­ rely new content. The Party called on the wo­ then the common property. Men and women were trained at work, in schools, qualification men to rise and smash the shackles of fanaticism courses and political and ideological study groups with their own hands, to line up shoulder to shoulder with their menfolk in the struggle for to see the emancipation of women, among other problems, as a problem of the socialist revolu­ national liberation and their own emancipation. For the Albanian women their participation in tion. Special laws were proclaimed and condi­ the armed struggle was a sound guarantee for tions Were created to guarantee the rights of their complete emancipation in the future. The women, old norms and customs were replaced

212 213 with new norms and customs based on higher The people’s state power abolished capitalist respect for and greater dignity of the woman in exploitation, established a new legislative code our society. These great victories in the life of and opened the way to the operation of the the woman are sanctioned in the Constitution objective laws of socialist society. Under the peo­ which says, among other things, that the woman ple’s state power a new man has been formed, is a great force of the revolution, who takes an armed with the Marxist-Leninist ideology, with active part in the socialist construction of the new concepts about work, property, the family, the country and the defence of the Homeland. woman, etc. The creation of these conditions has The Albanian woman plays an important brought about a situation in which a girl is no role in the whole life of the country. At the 7th longer treated as a slave, in which love must be Congress of the PLA, Comrade Enver Hoxha the basis of every marriage. Young people now said, «Without the participation of the woman guide themselves by lofty socialist motives in the the socialist revolution cannot be carried out suc­ creation of the family, and not by material inte­ cessfully, and without the socialist revolution her rests, career-seeking and other motives which complete emancipation cannot be achieved.» To­ humiliate the woman. Regardless of the great re­ day in Albania, the work of the woman is seen sults achieved in our country, the struggle for and her word is heard in every sector of life. the emancipation of the woman continues and She takes part in the struggle for the construc­ will continue for a long time. To this end, edu­ tion of socialism full of dignity, she distinguishes cated by the teachings of the Party of Labour herself for her lofty revolutionary spirit, for her of Albania, the women of our country fight to determination and patriotism, she distinguishes uphold and further develop the spirit of their herself in work and life. Let us refer to some fi­ own emancipation and of society as a whole, so gures: at present 46 per cent of the working peo­ that the role of the woman as an active builder ple employed in our Republic are women and of socialism, a staunch defender of the Home­ girls, while in certain sectors such as the light land, a careful mother and educator of the youn­ and food-processing industry, education, health ger generation, is steadily enhanced. and trade this figure rises from 58 to 80 per cent; Our women are aware that the perspective 52 per cent of the working people of agriculture of the socialist development of Albania envisages are women. Women make up nearly 30 per cent and requires that the woman participates in all of the deputies to the People’s Assembly, 30 per the fields of the productive activity, because the cent of the members of the Party of Labour of creative and innovative thinking of a woman Albania, about 30 per cent of the members of the striving and fighting for her further qualifica­ Supreme Court, 41.2 per cent of the leaders of the tion is called for everywhere and always in order organizations of the masses. Great transforma­ to respond to the demands of our present and tions have taken place in the field of education, future five-year plans. too. The females account for 52 per cent of the The emancipation of the woman in Albania pupils in secondary schools and 50 per cent of is not a «feminist» movement as it is in the ca­ the students, and 42.4 per cent of the cadres of pitalist countries. It means the advance of the medium and higher training. woman towards full equality with men, their

214 215 progress hand in hand, in harmony of feelings, masses of working people in town and country­ aims and pure ideals their march towards com­ side. This requires that, on the one hand, the ca­ munism. dres, as representatives of the dictatorship of the proletariat, must manage, lead and supervise; while, on the other hand, they must consider CADRES ENGAGE themselves servants of the people, closely linked IN PRODUCTION WORK with the masses, and integrate themselves with them, must learn from and render account to Wherever you go in Albania, in town or the masses, and be constantly under their effec­ countryside, you are liable to come across lead­ tive control. This means that centralism must be ing cadres of all levels, workers of the admini­ correctly combined with socialist democracy. stration, people of intellectual pursuit who are But in socialism there exists the danger that working directly in production, shoulder to ­ the leading cadres may become bureaucratic, de­ ulder with the workers and peasants. It is a prin­ tach themselves from the masses and become ciple in the social life of socialist Albania that, opposed to them, may turn from servants of the with the exception of the elderly or those whose people into rulers over them, may degenerate health or physical condition does not permit it, and thus create a new anti-socialist caste or all the cadres of administration of the state, Par­ class — a thing which leads to the liquidation of ty or economic apparatuses and organs and so­ the dictatorship of the proletariat and the resto­ cial organizations, cadres of the army, the intelli­ ration of capitalism. The existence of such a gentsia, state enterprises and agricultural coope­ danger has already been confirmed by historical ratives take part regulary for definite periods experience. Failure to take it into account is in work directly in production. In addition to fraught with fatal consequences for the future classroom lessons and physical and military train­ of socialism. However, this is by no means ine­ ing, direct participation in production work is vitable and can be avoided if a correct Marxist- an essential component in our school curriculum, Leninist stand is maintained, and effective mea­ too. sures are taken to prevent it from turning into The participation of leading cadres and all reality. Among the measures which the Party of the people of mental work directly in work in Labour of Albania has taken to ward off this production is an aspect of our social life which danger, of great importance are the circulation is of vital importance to the cause of socialism of cadres from leading posts to the base and and firmly based on principle. from the administration to production, and vice Above all, it has to do with the establish­ versa, the bringing into the leading organs of ment, maintenance and perfecting of genuinely more persons who work in production, especially socialist relations in society. In order to establish from the ranks of the working class the reduc­ such relations it is not enough just to establish tion of higher salaries and putting the standard the socialist ownership of the means of produc­ of living of the cadres in correct proportion to tion. It is also essential to establish correct rela­ that of the masses, the further deepening of the tions between the leading cadres and the broad line of the masses in appointing cadres, intensi­

216 217 fication of the Marxist-Leninist ideo-political newest holiday centres in Albania. It is situated education of the cadres and fighting against ma­ a few kilometres west of the ancient town of Le- nifestations of technocracy, etc. zha. The fine sand and pleasant scenery are very The participation of the leading cadres and popular among beach goers. Thousands of chil­ the intellectuals in productive labour is a matter dren and workers spend their holidays there. of great principle also because it leads to the fur­ In the central part of Albania, behind Mt ther strengthening of the moral-political unity of Skanderbeg which divides the Kruja district the people in the struggle for the cause of the from the Mat district, amidst towering centu­ construction of socialism, averts the separation ries-old pine trees, is Qafë Shtama. Here you of theory from practice which, as Lenin points can see many bungalows where the workers and out, is one of the greatest evils and misfortunes their families spend their holidays in the months inherited from the old capitalist society. It con­ of summer. stitutes one of the concrete and effective ways Patok, on the shores of the Adriatic, not far of gradually narrowing the essential distinctions from the new town of Laç, is the newest holiday between physical and mental work. centre in Albania. A little further to the south, on Mt Dajti (1 612 m above sea-level) which we call the «Bal- HOLIDAY CENTRES cony of Tirana» is a children’s summer camp. In winter this is one of the most popular centres Holiday resorts for the working people and of the ski amateurs. There are other buildings their children have been set up in almost all re­ which constitute the workers’ holiday camp. gions of Albania. West of Mt Dajti, on the shores of the The tourist centre of Theth is located in the Adriatic, lies the biggest holiday resort of our Alps in the North. Whoever has seen the beauties country. This is the Durrës beach, with holiday of this place has described it as a pearl of na­ homes for the working people and their children, ture. The holiday home built in alpine style has with villas and tourist hotels. Tens of thousands been erected in a valley not far from the Shala of working people and their families spend their River, surrounded by mountains more than holidays there every year. 2600 m high. Near this centre, on the coast a little further To the West of Theth, but on a milder na­ south', is Golem. A holiday centre for young pio­ tural relief, is another holiday resort for the neers has been functioning there for many years workers. This is Razma, which attracts people and there are also beach houses for the workers from all over the country because of its beauti­ and their families. ful scenery. Following the coast south, we stop at Divja- Further south, on the shores of Shkodra La­ , west of the city of Lushnja. Divjaka has its ke, is the pioneers’ holiday home. This is one of own characteristic scenery: here a belt of pine the oldest centres of this character in our coun­ trees stretches right down to the sea. The beauty try. of the scenery and the tranquility of the site at­ Shëngjin is the northernmost holiday centre tract many working people to spend their annual on the shores of the Adriatic. It is one of the

218 219 leave at the holiday home or in the little bun­ SPORTS galows built for this purpose. One of the oldest holiday resorts in our In Albania all the younger generation is in­ country is Vlora. There are several holiday ho­ volved in sport. This is realized, first of all, at mes on its beaches for the working people and school, where physical training is one of the their children A new holiday home has been built three main components of the teaching process. here recently. Apart from individual participation, the youth Dhërmi is another coastal holiday resort. take part in sport also in an organized manner, Every year hundreds of working people spend according to a wide-ranging program which is their summer holidays at this resort on the sho­ the basis of sports activities and which is work­ res of the Ionian. The big rocks off the beach ed out in detail in every district, work centre, serve as ideal spring-boards for swimmers. institution, cooperative and enterprise by the Saranda is the southernmost Coastal holiday amateur sports organizations, in collaboration resort in Albania. It is built on the shores of the with the other mass organizations. This manner Ionian Sea and is famous for its beautiful sce­ of organization ensures a wide variety and con­ nery. tinuity of sporting activities. Besides the very In the Korça district, in the South-east of popular sports such as football, athletics, gymna­ our country, there are three holiday centres. stics, volleyball, basketball, etc., school programs There is the Voskopoja resort with holiday ho­ and sports calendars devote an important place mes for the workers and their children, and the to marches and excursions which are organized scenic spot of Dardha. In winter, the thick layers in such a way that the participants become clo­ of snow attract the ski amateurs. sely acquainted with the nature of the Homeland The newest holiday home built a few years — its mountains hills, forests, lakes, rivers, etc. ago rises in the form of a natural balcony over These activities also greatly assist the physical the city of Korça. training of the participants. Marshes and outings We conclude this itinerary with Pogradec. are organized on a school, work centre, agricul­ This small city is situated on the shores of the tural cooperative or district scale. Shooting, phy­ lake of the same name. Seen from above, it re­ sical culture displays and festivals of folk games, minds you of a huge crystal-clear mirror in which are based on the centuries-old traditions which the blueness of the sky and the greenness of our people, enjoy great popularity. Three na­ of high stately trees are reflected. Pogradec is tional festivals of folk games have been organiz­ one of the most attractive centres both for the ed so far. working people and for their children. Here, too, This broad movement is organized and di­ the state has built holiday homes for them. rected by the organization of the Sports Union For the period of their annual leave, the of Albania. The other organizations, from the ba­ workers receive full wages, while at the rest ho­ sic unit — the sports collective, up to the centre, mes they pay only one third of the expenditure, make their contribution to this mass movement. the state defrays the rest of the expenditure for The mass organizations, especially the youth and them and their children. the trade union organizations, make a major

220 221 contribution to carrying out these varied forms The number of teams for children 7 to 8 years of the sports movement, in compliance with the of age, organized by the sports dubs, is increas­ desires and requirements of the youth, such as ing from year to year. The children have their marches and outings, folk games, championships national activities in the form of a champion­ and spartakiads. ship or a spartakiad. A very large number of children are trained in the sports classes in the The numbers of the participants in the 8-year schools. Along with their general physi­ sports movement, which have been steadily growing from year to year, give a clear picture cal training, the teaching program of these clas­ of the vigorous development of this movement. ses includes specialization in one particular From the 1st National Spartakiad in 1959 to sport. In recent years these classes are being the 4th in 1979 the number of participants in­ opened in the village schools, too. creased from 150,000 to 500,000. The 5th National Before Liberation there were 27 physical Spartakiad which was held in October 1984, on education cadres for the whole of Albania. Today the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Li­ there is the «» Institute of Physical beration of the Homeland, had a record number Training from which over 2,000 physical educa­ of participants — 760,000, that is one out of every tion cadres have graduated. four inhabitants of Albania took part in it. The people’s state power has put considera­ On the basis of the estimates of internatio­ ble funds at the disposal of the younger gene­ nal organizations in proportion to its population, ration for the development of these activities. our country ranks amongst the states with a Today there are 21 football stadiums and 366 vastly developed physical culture and sports mo­ football fields, 81 sports centres, 6 sports palaces, vement. 36 shooting ranges for sporting purposes, 375 Our most highly qualified sports enthusiasts practice grounds, 27 halls for gymnastics, 339 are organized in the teams of sports clubs on the basketball and 476 volleyball courts. basis of districts, schools, work centres, agricul­ Even in the most remote mountain village, tural cooperatives and state farms, institutions together with the school and the house of cul­ and military detachments. These clubs carry out ture, you will also find the volleyball court and their activities by taking part in various cham­ football field. pionships. For instance, there are the National The Albanian sportsmen take part success­ Football Championships (I, II and III divisions), fully in a number of international activities — the national championships in basketball, volley­ football, volleyball and basketball, wrestling, ball, athletics, swimming, shooting, chess, table shooting, weight lifting, etc., in which they have tennis, amateur radio, classical and free style won a place of honour, and in certain sports wrestling, weight lifting, cycling, etc. There are also the title of champion. national events for junior teams — males and females, and children. In 1983 there were many beautiful sports events, such as the display on the occasion of The participation of children in sport has the 40th anniversay of the creation of our Peo- developed extensively, especially in recent years.

222 223 pie’s Army, the 20th Young Pioneers National Spartakiad, the National Spartakiad of the Working Class. Today there are over 500,000 people taking part in the massive sports movements every year.

Thousands of boys and girls participate in the physical culture and sports movement. In the photo: The opening of a big sports manifestation in Tirana

224 Manifestation of the closing of the National Spartakiad, a magnificent pageant of our younger generation An intensive care ward in one of the hospitals of the capital Hikers at the picturesque lakes of Lura View of the Botanical Garden, Tirana

EDUCATION - CULTURE SCIENCE - THE ARTS EDUCATION-CULTURE- ART-SCIENCE

FOLKLORE

Albania has a rich and original folklore. The feelings, culture and vitality of the Albanian peo­ ple are reflected in the wealth and diversity of the folkore. This national treasury has been con­ stantly enriched through the addition of the ex­ perience of each generation; it has also been in­ fluenced by the social and historical conditions and the geographical position of the country.

MUSICAL FOLKLORE

«Variegated songs» — this is what the peo­ ple call songs of the lyric genre. This descrip­ tion is a very good expression of the great di­ versity of this genre in Albanian folklore. All sorts of songs of various forms, content and themes have always accompanied the Albanian people from the cradle to the grave, at the most important moments of their lives, at work or at rest, in war or in peace, in joy or in sorrow. Through them the people have expressed their sentiments and opinions, their desires and dre­ ams, and their ideal of beauty. The folklorist can

227 find all kinds of interesting motifs in various ca­ ting epic songs of this kind in their chronologi­ tegories, of folk songs: lullabies with which the cal order, that is, beginning with the ballads of Albanian mothers rock their babies to sleep in the period prior to the Ottoman occupation in their cradles, nursery songs and rhymes which the 15th century, going on to the epic songs dur­ bring the pleasant aroma of childhood, gentle lo­ ing the time of the Ottoman occupation, which ve songs, satirical songs which show a keen eye tell of the struggle of our people for freedom, for for detail and pillory shortcomings through hu­ secession from the Ottoman Empire, of their mour and satire, wedding songs, toasts raised in uprisings or express their social protest against drinking bouts, elegies and dirges. Also of inte­ oppression or exploitation (the songs of emi­ rest are the motifs of certain work songs of grants abroad) or commemorate the mighty ­ shepherds, farmers, artisans and others, which forts of the patriots of our National Renaissance are replete with ancient elements both in their for national independence, we arrive at the songs verse as well as in their archaic musical modes. of the National Liberation War. All these epic Many ancient relics are to be found especially in songs give us valuable information about the ritual songs for yearly celebrations. Albanian historic circumstances in which the Albanian peo­ folklore is rich in ancient songs and dances, an ple lived in the past. They testify to the heroic echo of the celebrations of our pagan forefathers. resistance of the people who fought for centu­ These songs, handed down from one generation ries on end for their freedom and independence. to another, seem to be rooted deep in the hearts Finally, the songs of the period of socialist con­ of our people, although the new conditions of struction represent the further development of life are making an impact even in this category the historic epic, either in their elements of so­ cialist ideology, or in their new means of artistic of songs, putting aside some obsolete manifesta­ expression. tions and developing certain new themes further. Like the genre of lyric songs, the songs of To this day, from the ranks of the Albanian people there continue to emerge rhapsodists who, the epic genre are rich in motifs, subjects and along with old ballads, sing to the events of the forms. Certain popular ballads and «Songs of the day. Warrior Knights» from the most important cycle The various genres of folklore, their ancient of the legendary epic poetry, captivate one with motifs, their constant elaboration, as well as the the exuberant fantasy of their anonymous creat­ new productions have enriched Albanian folk ors and their wide range of means of poetic ex­ music with an extraordinary variety of artistic pression. A testimony to the poetic and musical expressions. This music is composed in all kinds of creativeness of our people, they are, at the same sequences of simple measures (that is 2/2, 2/4, 2/8, time, a reflection of their world outlook, opti­ 3/2, 3/4, 3/8, 4/2, 4/4, 4/8), or compound (that is, 6/2, mism, generosity, hospitality, manliness, as well 6/4, 6/8, 9/2, 9/8, 12/2, 12/4, 12/8), or mixed (that is, as many other noble virtues. 5/4, 5/8, 7/4, 7/8, 8/4, 8/8, (4+5)/8, 10/8 reaching With regard to the historic epic, it can be said that every important event was commemo­ higher measures up to 25/8). In addition to these, rated by the Albanian people through songs. Lis­

228 229 (çiftelia, bakllama, sharkia, çyr, jongar, kalushun we have irregular measures and «free» rhythms and saze) and arch instruments (lahuta and lau- («ad libitum»), which are not divided into defi­ nite bars. Of special interest is the polyphonic co­ ria). But pride of place in our musical expression belongs to the human voice. Many interesting ob­ mbination of voices in characteristic parts. From servations can be made about characteristic me­ this standpoint. Albanian folk music is divid­ ed into two main dialects which conform thods such as drawing the voice from the throat, as in the case of some folk singers from the to the two language dialects: in regions north south-western part of Albania (a kind of yodel of the Shkumbin River we have hemophonic (in which suddenly changes from the deep register unison) and heterophonic music, while on the to falsetto), or bursting out in powerful voices other side of this river we have polyphonic ­ like in some kinds of songs by the northern sic, both vocal and instrumental. The style of mountaineers. this polyphonic music varies according to the The creative ability, temperament, endu­ district, the number of parts (two, three or four), rance, optimism, together with many aspects of the age group (young men’s and old men’s songs), life, are reflected also in our folk dances which and the sex of the singers, and so on. The poly­ are, without doubt, among the most beautiful and phonic combination of voices in songs sung by the most interesting expressions of Albanian folk­ choral groups follows certain original rules set by lore. Their beauty has also attracted the admi­ local tradition. The study of this popular poly­ ration of a number of foreign writers and artists, phony is of importance to musicology from many aspects. among whom Lord Byron’s picturesque descrip­ tion of Albanian dances in his work «Child Ha- In every village and city block, from time to rold» is worth mentioning. time, one hears the sounds of music instruments In their forms and content, Albanian folk without which no wedding parties or particular dances vary more or less according to districts, celebrations take place. The various instruments the sex and age of the participants, etc. Every used by the people give our folk music all kinds district and, indeed, nearly every village has its of tonal shades. From the simplest instruments of own characteristic dances. The distinctive featu­ the ideophonic genre to those used by adults to res of the dances of every district conform to the stress rhythm, we have a wide range of tone and dialectical and ethnographic branches with which timbre. While there are five folk instruments a number of variants are linked. But, in spite of from the drum family: tamburine, drum, qyp, the great variety of the dances of different dis­ tumbullac and poç, it is in the wind instruments tricts, they also contain common elements ema­ that the widest range occurs, first, instruments nating from the unity of the Albanian tradition. made from crops; then paramusical instruments In the past the women and men of certain dis­ like gourds, conches, shells and horns. Then we tricts used to dance separately, while mixed dan­ have real instruments such as the bicula with ces were rare even within the one clan. As re­ two pipes, the pipëza with one or two pipes, the gards distinctions according to generation there surlena and the bagpipe. There is a wide range are old men’s and young men’s dances (old wo­ of string instruments, both simple paramusical men’s and young bride’s’ dances); there are even string instruments and real string instruments children’s dances. 231 230 Viewed from the number of participants, the acrobatic elements lacking as, for instance, in there are also solo dances which are danced in the dance of the «living tower» which is perform­ Northern Albania and in the region of Kosova ed by a circle of dancers linked shoulder to (Yugoslavia), while in Southern Albania, where shoulder, on which stands another circle of dan­ polyphonic music prevails, there are no solo dan­ cers. ces. Duo dances are danced in different ways The Albanian folk dances are not abstract throughout Albania while in Southern Albania performances but they express some lyric, epic they exist only as an integral part of collective or dramatic content through plastic movements, dances. mimicry, song, and so on. Of interest, from many As a rule trio dances are danced by two wo­ points of view, are the war-like dances which re­ men and a man or, vice versa, by two men and a flect strong character and manliness, the epic spi­ woman. Most of them are of a dramatic character. rit moulded in the long resistance against every Collective dances have more than four parti­ foreign occupation. Also interesting are certain cipants. These, too, differ both in form and con­ dances connected with ancient habits and cus­ tent. The commonest form is a straight chain as, toms. The most complete dances are those dan­ for instance, the humourous dances of caps or ced to vocal music provided by the dancers them­ coffee cups, which are danced by peasants of selves. In these dances poetry, song, choreogra­ Northern and North-eastern Albania. There are phic and acrobatic elements, up to puppet shows also dances in ranks, which interchange with and shadow pantomime, merge together. twists and winding movements as, for instance, The form and content of folk performances those danced by the Albanian settlers in Italy, in vary much or less according to generations, sex, which all kinds of figures are formed. In addition region and social strata, etc. Each region of the there are also dances of two dancing rows which country has its own characteristic performances are accompanied by songs. The commonest form and entertainments, almost every village has its is the circular dance which has spread all over own jesters and clowns who show themselves es­ Albania, as well as among the Albanians living pecially during family joys and celebrations. beyond the borders of our country. The circle Their repertoire created during the centuries re­ may be an open one, like an arch, horseshoe, flects at best the creative abilities of our people spiral, and so on, or a closed one, of big or small with their fantasy, taste and inclinations; at the diametre, according to the number of partici­ same time, out of all that diversity of traditional pants. The circular dances of Southern Albania performances one can witness many interesting have two leaders as required by the parts in po­ motifs, remnants of myths and legends, pagan ri­ lyphonic songs. tes and ceremonies, ancient customs and habits, It is difficult to describe in words the struc­ as well as reminiscences of historical events with ture of Albanian folk dances with their move­ a host of picturesque characters which reflect ments, steps and figures accompanied by ges­ the characteristic features of our people them­ tures and mimicry of facial expression. In ge­ selves. neral, the folk dancers dance not only with their Popular prose is also a great heritage of Al­ feet, but with the whole of their bodies. Nor are banian folklore. Its subject matter and themes are varied. 232 233 The varied phenomena, which our popular More than 500 types and variants of costu­ prose deals with, form a reflection of our society mes of various sexes and age-groups, including in the past in many colours and from many an­ those of the children, were presented to the Na­ gles. Our people have crystallized these pheno­ tional Folklore Festivals. Amongst them there mena into a number of types which, even though were very interesting, beautiful exemplaries. they often resemble one another, have distinctive Pleasant to the eye were especially bride’s costu­ elements among them. The basic theme of our po­ mes, with the masterfully arranged forms and pular prose is the struggle between good and evil. colours, as well as fine embroideries and decora­ In building up the events on this basis the peo­ tions on them. The taste and fantasy of the peo­ ple have created figures who confront one ano­ ple has manifested itself in all those varieties of ther, locked in fierce struggle until the complete costumes. triumph of good and happiness has been achieved. An ever lively and interesting branch of Along with fables, conundrums and puzzles, filled Albanian folklore is that of dramatic performan­ with figurative expressions and metaphors creat­ ces ranging from the simplest to the more com­ ed by the people as tests of igenuity, continue plicated forms. There are certain categories of to thrive. Likewise, proverbs and anecdotes with popular performances with or without a given the profoundity of their ideas music and dance fable such as humorous farces, stories, dramatiz­ merge into one whole. Very interesting are the ed in monologues or dialogues, pantomimes, per­ dances of the meadow performed by the high­ formances involving and the keenness of their landers of Northern Albania in silence, without observation, in which is concentrated the wisdom musical accompaniment, but according to the and age-old experience of the people themselves, rhythm which stems from the bodies of the dan­ are constantly being enriched. cers themselves. The diversity of rhythm and metre of our The Albanologist Gustav Weigand has des­ folk music enables the dancers to express all cribed the Albanian language as a Balkan lan­ their spiritual ardour through all kinds of dyna­ guage «par excellence» This description could be applied also to Albanian folklore in general, mic elements. since, in addition to its national features, it has When one watches the Albanian dances in many motifs and characteristic elements in com­ their own environment, with the picturesque cos­ mon with our neighbours. Of course, these are tumes of the dancers which bring out their plas­ the consequences of contacts and relations over tic movements better and under the accompani­ many centuries which have brought about many ment of their own characteristic music, one can exchanges or borrowings also in folklore. By tra­ not fail to be deeply impressed. All that diver­ cing the distribution of common motifs through sity of forms and motifs handed down from one comparative studies between Albanian folklore generation to another, with those myriads of and the folklore of the neighbours, inte­ movements, steps and figures of great expressi­ resting observation can be made about a nu­ ve power, are convincing evidence of the crea­ mber of phenomena, indeed, we can arrive at tive fantasy, mastery, artistic taste and rich spi­ their origin, that is, among the most ancient inha­ ritual world of this people. bitants of the Balkan Peninsula. In this way the 234 235 continuation of the Illyrians in the Albanians is theless, many patriots of the period of our Na­ brought out. Of course, what the people’s tradi­ tional Renaissance, especially those who had tions inherit from the distant past is not petri­ grasped the importance of folklore, strove, heart fied in unchanging forms, because folklore does and soul, to serve in this field, too, prompted by not remain stagnant, but moves along, flowing lofty patriotic aims. In Albania, as throughout all like an inexhaustible stream into which is poured Europe, the collections of folk songs began with the experience of many generations. During its the verses, thus, for a time it was only the poe­ course through the centuries it has constantly un­ tic side of folklore which was cultivated, while dergone changes both in form and content. Thus, the musical side was left entirely fallow. The the motifs and means of expression of folklore collecting and study of our folk music has been develop in accord with the dynamic of life. actively pursued, especially since the liberation of Here we must stress the unquestionable uni­ Albania. Under the care of the Party of Labour ty of Albanian folklore with all its diversity of of Albania, characteristic groups of folk singers, sources; all that host of ancient or more recent dancers and instrumentalists were set up in the motifs, borrowed or native, has been accumulated, cultural centres established even in the remotest layer upon layer, and merged into a single syn­ corners of the Homeland. Local and national festi­ thesis. vals have been organized. These festivals have Their persistence in preserving their mother revealed previously unknown talents. At the tongue, the habits and customs of their ancestors, 1983 National Folklore Festival in Gjirokastra, their folk songs and dances, as well as all the which is organized every five years, there were branches of their folklore have protected our 1600 participants selected from among 70,000 folk people from the process of denationalization du­ singers and dancers in the 26 districts of the ring the centuries of oppression. Our folk tradi­ country. Thus 1/40 of the population took part in tion has always been of great value to our socie­ the Festival. ty. Formerly, in the dark ages, it compensated to All this shows that folklore in our socialist a certain extent for the lack of schooling by edu­ Albania is not outdated and dying away but on cating the younger generations with the experien­ the contrary, is ever alive and continues to flou­ ce of their elders. For the patriots of the period rish and develop both in form and content, toge­ of our National Renaissance folklore was a po­ ther with the entire life of the country. werful weapon in their struggle for national in­ At the beginning of the 50’s musical folklore dependence. The important social, artistic, scien­ was introduced into the teaching programs of the tific and political function of this national heri­ Lyceum of Arts in Tirana, as a separate subject of tage continues to this day. study. Meanwhile the Albanian musicologists ha­ The history of the recording of the Albanian ve published a series of original studies about folklore begins with a group of proverbs publish­ folk dances and instruments, the themes of folk ed in 1635 by Frank Bardhi in his Latin-Al- songs and the morphology of folk music etc. The­ banian Dictionary. From that time on, the study se studies are the best proof of the rapid develop­ of Albanian folklore encountered the difficult ment of musicology which, although a new scien­ conditions of the Ottoman occupation. Never­ ce in Albanian culture, has already achieved so­ me obvious results. 236 237 In 1960, the Institute of Oral, Musical and tion just as for his freedom. He never separated Choreographic Folklore (later re-named the Insti­ his love for his country from his love for school­ tute of People’s Culture) with its archive, its col­ ing and his mother tongue. The Albanian pa­ lection of recorded songs and music and popular triots linked education with the struggle for fre­ instruments, was set up in Tirana. With the edom and independence, the struggle for the very founding of this Institute more suitable condi­ existence of the Albanian nation. In 1879 they tions were created for the collection and study of compiled a standard alphabet for the Albanian folklore through properly organized research ex­ language. peditions. The extension and deepening of the In the beginning of 1885, patriots from the spheres of research, the adoption of advanced me­ city of Korça made a petition to the Turkish thods of work and the employment of modern authorities to be allowed to open an Albanian technical means open wide prospects to the stu­ Club which would have a number of Albanian dy of Albanian folklore. Many publications with language schools under its administration. After folklore materials have come out, especially in persistent efforts they succeeded in opening the the recent years. first Albanian language school in Korça on March In the course of the development of our cul­ 7, 1887 (March 7 is now commemorated every ture, folklore continues to play an important role year as the Teacher’s Day). in the ideoartistic education of the masses, that In its first year the school had few pupils, is why it occupies a prominent place both in the but the following year their number increased to repertoire of the professional artists, as well as 200. It was a primary school in which all lessons in that of the amateur groups set up in work cen­ were taught in the Albanian language. tres or at the houses and centres of culture. The opening of the first Albanian language The radio and television broadcast regular school aroused great enthusiasm among the pa­ folklore programs. Musical folklore has been in­ triots all over the country. It prompted the open­ troduced as a subject of study into the programs ing of other similar schools in the other regions of the secondary schools of art, as well as of the of Albania. Higher Institute of Arts. Besides its social, poli­ But under the pressure of the Metropolitan tical, scientific and other values, this inexhausti­ of Korça and the Patriarch of Constantinople, the ble treasury also serves the further development occupation authorities began to close down the of and culture, national in form and Albanian schools. The efforts to open other Alba­ socialist in substance. nian schools failed in the face of this two-fold reaction. Those schools which were opened du­ ring 1888, were closed one after the other with EDUCATION the exception of that of Korça, which continued to function at a great sacrifice and in constant The struggle for the Albanian school be­ struggle with the church institutions and the fo­ gins as far back as the darkest years of the Ot­ reign occupiers. In 1891 the first director of this toman occupation of the country. The Albanian school was murdered, while his successors were has had to fight arms in hand for his educa­ imprisoned.

238 239 In 1892 the first Albanian language elemen­ tary school for girls was opened in Korça. In the same year the Metropolitan of that town excom­ municated the patriot teacher, Petro Nini Luarasi.

Nevertheless during the final decade of the last century, the number of Albanian schools in­ creased, and at the beginning of this century even some villages had their schools, which were at­ tended not only by children, but also by adults for whom special evening courses were run. Sin­ ce the number of teachers was insufficient, giv­ ing lessons in Albanian became a question of honour and a lofty patriotic duty. In 1912, after continuous struggles, Albania won its independence. But subsequent events, both national as well as international, made it difficult for our school to consolidate itself. This was a period of pronounced zigzags, of temporary ups and downs in the progress of the school. The period of the reactionary regime of Ah­ met Zog (1924-1939) plus the time of the nazi- -fascist occupation of Albania (1939-1944) again remain very difficult periods for the develop­ ment of . The broad masses of the people were still illiterate. On the other hand, the establishment of a system of school fees meant that the doors of the few existing schools were open only to the children of the wealthy. During the period of the nazi-fascist occupation, the Italian and German policy of denationalization towards our people was stepped up. Hundreds of teachers were obliged to aban­ don their schools and to take up the rifle to fight in the ranks of the partisan units and briga­ des. The foundations of our people’s education were laid during the National Liberation War. These elderly men are members of the Folk Ensemble of Kruja, Along with the organization of the war, the Com- which is now well known all over Albania

240 A folk concert at the Summer Theatre of Tirana Albania has an amazing variety of splendid folk costumes. At the National Folk Festival, which was organized in Gji- rokastra in October 1983, over 300 kinds of folk costumes were presented 1. 2. 3.

1.Cover of the Co- dices of Berat, the oldest docu­ ment in the ar­ chives of our country. 2.One of the study halls of the Na­ tional Library, Ti­ rana. 3.Amphitheatre, Bu- trint munist Party of Albania (today the Party of La­ bour of Albania) charged the National Liberation The University of Tirana, Councils with tasks for the people’s education. created in 1957, is an important centre of scientific Thus, they took up the opening of primary study in Albania. In the photo: View of the main building schools and courses against illiteracy in all the of the university liberated districts. The 1944-1945 school year (the first year after the liberation of Albania) was a record year for our education. Whereas during the 1938-1939 school year, Albania had 649 primary schools with 1349 teachers, during 1944-1945 (although the country was devastated by the war) there were 928 primary schools with 1743 teachers. After Liberation, a revolutionary course was pursued in our country to make education truly the property of the working people, the workers and peasants. In 1946 the school reform was carried out: education was proclaimed general, free of charge and equal for both sexes, the state and secular character of the school was guaranteed, etc. Ele­ mentary schooling was made compulsory. During the period from 1945 to 1955 a broad campaign was conducted to abolish illiteracy. This campaign was turned into a major social and national action bringing about the complete liquidation of illiteracy, this age-old ulcer of our people. Albania was the only country in Europe without a university. This was set up in 1957. La­ ter on, in Tirana and other cities of Albania ma­ ny other higher schools, such as the Higher In­ stitute of Agriculture, the Higher Institute of Arts, the «Vojo Kushi» Higher Institute of Phy­ sical Culture, higher teacher training institutes in the districts, etc., were set up. Now socialist Albania has a complete educa­ tion system with a wide network of full and part- time 8-grade and secondary schools and many

241 higher schools, without mentioning here many dary school student, a year’s textbooks may cost kindergartens for pre-school children. The University of Tirana has 8 faculties as much as a two day’s average worker’s wage. which train specialists in 68 profiles. Every year The kindergartens for pre-school children are this university and its affiliates train 6 times mo­ of two categories: kindergartens where meals art re higher cadres than Albania had in 1938. These not provided (here the family has no financial ob­ ligations, and kindergartens where meals are pro­ cadres fully meet the ever growing demands of vided. For the latter the family pays an amount our country for higher cadres. of only about 30 per cent of the cost paid by the The state guarantees work to all those who state. graduate from higher schools. In proportion to its population Albania ranks The problem of bursaries for secondary and among the first countries in the world today as higher school students is solved in this way: the regards the number of persons attending diffe­ state pays full bursaries to students from families rent categories of school. with many dependents, that is, with the lowest per capita income. Admissions are made according The Albanian school is constantly streng­ thening its socialist and national features, its re­ to the plans of the state organs and definite cri­ teria which give priority to the education of the volutionary character both in its content and its children of the workers and cooperativists. structure. The education reform of 1969, which To train an engineer it takes five years of provides for the school to be run on the basis of study at the university. three components — lessons, production labour, physical and military training — with the Mar- As a rule, besides the towns, secondary xist-Leninist ideology of the Party of Labour of schools are opened at the centre of the coopera­ Albania running through all of them, is being tive, which includes from five to ten villages. The successfully carried out. This revolutionary trans­ schools of the upper cycle of the 8-grade school­ formation of our new school was carried out after ing for ages ranging from ten to thirteen or a broad public discussion, in which all the broad fourteen years usually function in all the villages, strata of the people took part. This was a real re­ or one school for two neighbouring villages, when volution for our school. the children have no difficulty in attending be­ Children start school when they are six or se­ cause of the distance. In many of these villages ven years old, both in cities and in the country­ there are classes with ten to fifteen pupils. side. Pre-school education also has now become a The 8-grade school is compulsory in Albania component part of the school system. and it is 20 years now that it is being fully realiz­ ed in town and countryside. After this most of The state pays full cost of the functioning of the pupils attend the 4-year secondary school (ge­ the school system in all its links. In our country neral or vocational) with about 65 profiles and there are no fees to pay in any category of school. specialities. Vocational secondary schools admit The state pays for school buildings, their equip­ students on the basis of a plan which provides for ment, the salaries of teachers and the auxiliary the training of secondary cadres in compliance personnel. The family pays only for textbooks, with the needs of the development of the country. which are sold at very low prices. For a secon­ Admission to secondary schools of general edu­ cation is unrestricted. 242 243 Secondary schools in the rural areas train founded — the Institute of Medicine and the In­ cadres in agronomy, zoo-veterinary, fruit-grow­ stitute of Economics; the Law Institute was open­ ing, horticulture, and other fields of agriculture. ed in 1954. The number of students that year Peasant students are sent to the city schools to be trained for mechanics, electricians, midwives, reached 1,200. With the establishment of these higher schools agrarian economists, building technicians and the education system assumed a more com­ other professions needed by the countryside. plete physiognomy and was better placed in the In addition to secondary education, after service of the socialist construction of the coun­ completing the 8-grade schooling, the students try. can choose to attend 2-year courses called lower The University of Tirana, the biggest teach­ vocational schools with teaching programs based ing and scientific centre of our country, was on a correct ratio between lessons and practical created on September 16, 1957, on the basis of work. These schools are intended to teach stu­ the higher institutes already functioning, and dents practical skills more quickly. with the concentration of such scientific and teach­ For the youth who have started a job after ings forces as to enable the co-ordination and finishing the compulsory 8-year schooling and collaboration of different sciences taught in di­ are 16 years of age (the lowest age to start a job), verse chairs. This further raised scientific thought, there are part-time vocational secondary schools the qualification of the cadres and teaching to in which they can complete their secondary edu­ a higher scientific and ideological level. In order cation in their particular profiles. Textbooks for to meet the ever growing needs of the schools, all secondary schools (general or vocational) are another Teacher Training Institute was opened compiled by Albanian authors. in Shkodra the same year. Today there are 84 chairs and scientific sec­ tors at the University of Tirana. THE INSTITUTIONS The «Aleksandër Moisiu» Higher School OF HIGHER EDUCATION for Actors, the Conservatory and the Higher In­ stitute of Figurative Arts were opened on the The first higher school in our country, the basis of the many secondary schools of art created 2-year Teacher Training Institute, was opened after the liberation of the country. In 1966 these in Tirana in 1946. It was intended to train three higher schools were merged into the Higher teachers of the Albanian language and literatu­ Institute of Arts which now trains specialists in re, history and geography, mathematics and phy­ music, drama and fine arts, such as composers, sics, biology and chemistry. The Institute of instrumentalists, conductors, singers, actors, and Sciences was set up one year later, in 1947. stage directors; painters, sculptors; scene painters; Another three institutions of higher educa­ painters in the applied arts (glass and ceramics, tion were opened in Tirana in 1951 — the 4-year etc.) Teacher Training Institute, the Polytechnical In­ The «Vojo Kushi» Institute of Physical Train­ stitute and the Agricultural Institute. In 1952 ing was founded in 1958. It trains teachers of another two institutions of higher education were physical education and trainers for different 244 245 sports. Today this Institute has become an impor­ dictionaries (the first published in 1635), gram­ tant teaching, scientific and sports centre. mar books (the first published in 1716), theolo­ In 1971 another three higher institutes were gical treatises, etc. At the start of the 18th cen­ added to the existing ones - the Higher Institute tury, after the mass conversion to the Islamic re­ of Agriculture in Korça and the Teacher Training ligion took place in the country, a whole literary Institutes in Elbasan and Gjirokastra. trend began under the influence of Oriental lite­ Part-time higher school courses have as­ rature, with a considerable number of authors and sumed a very extensive character. Affiliates of works in a number of genres, and this trend las­ the University of Tirana and the other institutes ted for about two centuries. It is represented by function in a number of cities, such as Durrës, poets in whose works there is an obvious stress on Korça, Elbasan, Berat, Shkodra and Gjirokastra, social protest ( — late 18th in which workers and cooperativists attend even­ century) and anti-feudalism (Zenel Bastari — mid ing classes or follow correspondence courses whi­ 19th century), who were the precursors of the cri­ le continuing with their jobs. tical realism which developed in Albania during Courses in our higher institutes extend over the first 40 years of our century. 3,4 and 5 years. An Albanian literature of high artistic qua­ lities began with Albanian romanticism, a contem­ porary of the European romanticism of the 19th LITERATURE century. Its earliest outstanding work was the poem «Milosao’s Songs» (1836) by Jeronim de Ra­ We find the beginnings of the Albanian li­ da (1815-1903), author of a number of poetic terature in its first book (Gjon Buzuku: «The works, such as «Serafina Topia» (1839), «The Un­ Missal») which belongs to the year 1555, and the fortunate Skanderbeg», (1872-84), etc. earliest written document which has reached us But the writer who dominated Albanian li­ dates back to 1462. A document of the year 1332 terature in the 19th century was Naim Frashëri speaks of the existence at that time of Albanian (1846-1900), author of liric poetry («Flocks and books. At the end of the 16th century, the Arbë- Farming» 1866, «Summer Flowers» 1890), of reshi in Italy, driven from Albania a century a collection of philosophic and patriotic poems earlier, were still conducting their religious servi­ («The History of Skanderbeg», 1898, his master­ ces in the Albanian language, while the great Al­ piece), as well as a series of other important banian humanist, Marin Barleti, who wrote the works. «History of Skanderbeg», mentions chronicles in In Naim Frashëri, the Albanian language the popular language in 1504. However, nothing found a fiery poet who also gave fresh vigour to has escaped the ravages of time. A more or less Albanian philosophic thought by waging a spe­ extensive litrary activity re-emerged under the cial struggle against mediaeval theological thought Ottoman occupation with authors like Pjetër Budi, and by upholding and courageously spreading so­ Frano Bardhi, Pjetër Bogdani (17th century) and me of the more outstanding achievements of scien­ others. Their works had a religous and didactic ce. He remains the most beloved and most popu­ character, with religious books and a few poems, lar poet of our past.

246 247 Among the other authors of the time, let us Following the proclamation of Independence mention Andon Zako Çajupi (1866-1930), lyricist, (1912) and under the continuous threat of the satyrist, as well as writer of fables, with his col­ partitioning of Albania, or a new occupation (this lection of poems «Father Tomorri» (1902), from was achieved by Italian fascism in 1939), Alba­ which our critical realism begins, the lyricist nian literature developed along the lines of the , Asdreni, Zef Serembe Gavril Dara literature of the Albanian Renaissance, as a pa­ Jr., author of the well-known epic-lyric poem triotic literature with an ever stronger anti-feudal «Bala’s Last Lay», the revolutionary novelist Mi- and revolutionary character. hal Grameno, and others. The author who dominated that period, Fan The most favourite themes of this literature S. Noli (1882-1965), leader of the 1924 bourgeois- were those of the wars against the Ottoman inva­ democratic revolution, was one of the most out­ ders and especially during the time of Skander- standing citizen-poets, ( «Album», 1947, a col­ beg (15th century), the call for the liberation of lection of his poems) publicist, aesthete, transla­ the country, denunciation of feudalism, and so on. tor of works by Shakespeare, Cervantes, Ibsen, It was a literature closely linked with the natio­ and other world writers; historian (his master­ nal movement and with the ideas of illuminism, a piece «The History of Skanderbeg» was first pu­ literature which led that movement in struggle blished in 1921 and then published in revised against the occupiers, who had banned writ­ form in 1949), and musical critic (renowned for ing of the Albanian language, the opening of Al­ his study «Beethoven and the French Revolution», banian schools and the development of the cultu­ which aroused the admiration of Bernard Shaw, ral movement which took the name of the Alba­ Thomas Mann, Sibelius, etc.) After Kristoforidhi, nian National Renaissance. During this time, Naim and Sami Frashëri, before the Second from the middle of the last century, the Albanian World War, he made the most substantial contri­ press came into being, and later Albanian cultural bution to literary Albanian, which achieved its societies were formed and managed to open a few complete unification during the years of socialist schools teaching in the Albanian language. development in Albania. A well-known lyricist of The 19th century marked also the beginnings the time was . (1911- of Albanian linguistic science, with such authori­ 1938), with his collection of poems «Free Verses» ties on Albanian linguistics as Dhimitër Kamarda (1935) and his short stories, marked the culmina­ and (the author of a well- tion of the development of Albanian critical rea­ known dictionary), with so famous and encyclo­ lism with strong accents of social revolt. Among paedist and thinker as Sami Frashëri, Naim’s bro­ the prose writers of the time were the novelists ther, who was also the principal ideologist of the Foqion Postoli and Haki Stërmilli author of the novel «If Were a Boy» (1936) on the oppression Albanian national movement. His work «Albania: what it was, what it is and what it will be» (1899), of the Albanian women during the time of feudal rightly called the «Manifesto of the Albanian Na­ and bourgeois domination. A participant in tional Renaissance», is one of the most valuable the National Liberation War, he also left a «Dia- works of political and social prose in the Albanian ry» of the war which is noteworthy for its deep language. impressions from the life of the people who

248 249 were fighting in the general armed uprising. horizons to its constant enrichment and flower­ A new epoch in the development of Alba­ ing. nian literature begins with the outbreak of the The literature of the socialist epoch in Al­ Anti-fascist National Liberation War of the Al­ bania constitutes the highest stage of artistic banian people and the historic triumph of the development in Albanian society. This has found People’s Revolution (1944) which brought the expression in the richness of content and moti­ country its national freedom, overthrew the old ves, in the flowering of all genres, in the variety social order, and paved the way for the proces­ of styles and in the high level of artistic expres­ ses of the construction of socialist society and sion. The ideas of the revolution and progress, socialist culture. the aspirations of the masses of the people, li­ berated once and for all from any sort of mate­ The revolutionary literature of the war rial and spiritual bondage, form the true content years, which came into being in the underground of present-day Albanian literature. The source of communist press, was an expression of the anti­ its inspiration is the struggle of the masses for fascist resistance of the Albanian people, a des­ the thorough transformation of their life, for the cription of the patriotic spirit of the masses of construction of the new society, and the new the people and of their aspirations to a new man who has also become the central hero of wolrd. These motifs were expressed mainly in this literature. the war poetry, in the patriotic lyric which was One of the most active genres in present-day developed by such authors as the poet Memo Meto, who fell in the war, Kolë Jakova, Llazar Albanian literature is poetry which is taken up Siliqi, Aleks Çaçi and the satyrist Shevqet Mu- by a number of poets of outstanding artistic indi­ saraj, author of the poem «The Epic of the Balli viduality, of various styles and methods of poet­ Kombëtar» (1944), a classic example of Albanian ical expression among whom are Dritëro Agolli, satirical poetry and the most outstanding work , and . of the revolutionary literature of the Anti-fas­ They devote their efforts mainly to the lyric- cist National Liberation War. epic poetry in which the motifs of building the From the revolutionary literature of the new life, of freeing man from the old reaction­ anti-fascist resistance emerged, after the tri­ ary psychology and ideology, the ideas of the umph of the people’s revolution a literature of historic vitality of the Albanian people and their the new type, pervaded by socialist ideals and resistance to foreign invasions, and the historic the spirit of communist partisanship. It develop­ destiny of the nation and revolution are expres­ ed the best traditions of the former Albanian sed in vivid metaphoric language and with po­ literature, its civic character and the popular, de­ werful poetic symbolism. mocratic spirit of its realism and its close con­ The most oustanding works of this kind are nection with the poetic tradition of the people’s «Prishtina» (1949), by LI. Siliqi, «Of What Are oral literature. Born on the basis of new ideas, These Mountains Thinking?» (1964) by I. Kadare, the Marxist-Leninist materialist world outlook, «Devoll, Devoll!» (1964) and «Mother Albania» the new literature adopted socialist realism as (1975) by . Agolli, and others. its method, which opened previously unknown The epic-narrative poetry, developed on the

250 251 «The Confrontation» by . Laço, and others. The basis of the heroic folk epic, deals mainly with maturity of the Albanian novel with subjects subjects from the historic past of the Albanian taken from actual life was especially evident in people, their wars and battles for freedom, and the treatment of the great ideological and poli­ is represented by such works as «The Heroes of tical struggle of the PLA against modern revi­ Vig» (1953) by Kolë Jakova and others. sionism. The shorter genres of poetry, lyrics on civic In the short story, the writers Dhimitër Shu- and social problems, which are also based on teriqi, Naum Prifti, , Teodor La- the poets’ personal reflections and their contem­ ço and several others are outstanding. plation of nature, have undergone great develop­ In the new Albanian literature, drama inhe­ ment, too. rited a poor tradition from the past, but, through The best indication of the development of the efforts of the whole of literature to reflect Albanian literature after Liberation as well as of the major conflicts of the time, especially that the artistic level which the present-day Albanian between the old world in decay and the new literature has reached, is prose in its two most which is ever more affirming itself, this genre widely used forms, the short story and especially quickly set out on the road of realism and began the novel. to flower, providing plays for the national thea­ The Albanian novel today has emerged as tre which came into being in Albania only after the leading genre and has met with world-wide Liberation. The plays «Our Land» (1954) by recognition through Ismail Kadare’s «The Gene­ . Jakova, «The Highland Girl» (1971) by L. Pa­ ral of the Dead Army» (1964) translated in many pa, or the comedy «The Carnivals of Korça» languages, «Chronicle on Stone» (1971) and the (1961) by Spiro Çomora, «The Lady from the Ci­ «Great Winter» (1977). The present Albanian no­ ty» (1976) by Ruzhdi Pulaha, etc. are constantly vel is a realist novel which portrays man’s des­ in the active repertoire of Albanian theatres. tiny closely connected with the circumstances of Keeping pace with the development of lite­ social life and the existing material and spiritual rature are aesthetic thought and literary criti­ relations, but also under the light of the changes cism, which base their analysis of artistic phe­ they will undergo in the days to come. The nomena on Marxist-Leninist methodology. Out­ principal themes it treats are taken from the his­ standing in this field are Dalan Shapllo with his torical past as in «They Were Not Alone» (1952) collection of criticisms «Literary Expressions and and a cycle of novels on the National Renaissan­ Works» (1974), Koço Bihiku with his collection of ce by S. Spasse, «The Castle» (1970) by I. Ka- studies «Literature and the Time» (1982), Razi dare, «The Dead River» (1965) by . Xoxe; from Brahimi with his essay «Speaking of Poetry» the anti-fascist resistance and the people’s re­ (1972), Alfred Uçi with his book «Through the volution as in «Before the Dawn» (1965) by labyrinths of modernism» (1978), which criticizes . Musaraj, «Three Colours of the Time» by the ideological and aesthetic base of modern de­ A. Abdihoxha, «The Bronze Bust» (1970) by cadent art, and several others. D. Agolli, as well as from the building of the new The new Albanian literature is ceaselessly life as in «The Swamp» (1959) by . Gjata, flowering and developing. It is rising on the ba­ «Again On His Feet» (1970) by Dh. Xhuvani, 253 252 In the Early Middle Ages there is only one sis of the finest traditions of the artistic culture prominent musician in our tradition, Niketa of of the Albanian people, while at the same time Ramesiana who, during the 4th century, compo­ utilizing the progressive experience of world art sed a number of palaeo-christian songs, the best and literature. The phenomena of the crisis, known of which is the «Te Deum Laudamus». which decadent art is experiencing today, are In the 12th century we come across a musi­ alien to it, and all roads are blocked to the in­ cian like Jan Kukuzeli from Durrës, outstanding fluence of this art through a ceaseless struggle, for master of Byzantine music, who, through his a realist and humane art which sings to the broad and many-sided activity as a composer, strength of the free man and which is permeated singer theoretician and reformer, of music, open­ by the finest ideals of mankind, social progress ed new paths and gave fresh vigour to musical and the building of communist society. development. As an artistic expression of Albanian life, Evidence is not lacking of the development present-day Albanian literature has a marked of the art of music at the time of the State of national character and a profoundly socialist Arbër, as well as of the contribution of the mu­ content. Its development testifies to the vitality sicians of Arbër to the development of music in of socialist realism as a new artistic method Dalmatia. The Arbëreshi who during the 15th which gives wide possibilities for the all-round century, following the death of Skanderbeg emi­ reflection of life and for the flowering of crea­ grated from Albania to Southern Italy, where tive artistic styles and individualities. they founded Arbëreshi colonies, took with them some old musical manuscripts which are an im­ portant source for the history of our music. MUSIC With the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks in Albania, the cultivated music lagged behind. Albania has ancient musical traditions. When the Albanian cities gradually began to re­ Through their architecture, sculpture, ceramics, cover, music also began to be revived through mosaics and coins with effigies of dancers and the setting up of the odd society, fanfare or instrumentalists, the early centres of Southern band. The evidence we have of the musical acti­ Illyria show us that musical culture has flourish­ vity of that period is mainly connected with the ed here for a very long time. Along with Christian sphere, where certain composers of archaeological monuments, such as the are­ hymns, like Gjergj Papazino and Grigor Manasi na at Bylis, the stadium at , the thea­ (18th century) or Krisanth Maditi, former bishop tres at Butrint, Orik and Durrës, the odeon of Durrës (the first half of the 19th century) at Pojan and at other centres in which con­ were prominent, Krisanth Maditi was active in certs and musical performances were given, music and musicology, publishing a number of further information is provided in the works by studies on Byzantine music, organizing choral Greek and Roman classical authors. The cult of groups and training many pupils. the muses, the legends and myths about some During the second half of the 19th century, gifted Illyrian artists prove what importance was in addition to fighting for freedom and national attached to music in the life of the Illyrians. 255 254 independence, Albanian patriots spared no ef­ trained Albanian composers, like Fan Noli and forts to promote art and culture. Overcoming Thoma Nasi, were obliged to emigrate abroad. many obstacles and hardships, a school for music Abroad, Fan Noli composed a number of sym­ was opened and a band was set up in Shkodra in phonic poems based on Albanian themes and pu­ 1878. From that period we have some vocal and blished his musicological study «Beethoven and instrumental compositions by Palok Kurti. On the French Revolution». the eve of throwing off the shackles of five-hun­ In 1939 with the fascist occupation of Alba­ dred years of bondage, the national movement nia new misfortunes descended upon the Alba­ made rapid progress in all fields. nian people. By spreading their music the occu­ The national independence in 1912 found piers aimed at wiping out any trace of the na­ Albania with a few musicians and only a few tional Albanian music. However, during the Na­ brass bands in the main cities. At that time our tional Liberation War some clandestine artistic country was really backward from every point of formations were organized with a repertoire of view. The lack of cadres with technical-profes­ patriotic and partisan songs. In the heat of the sional training and the low educational and cul­ war, in July 1944, the partisan ensemble of the tural level were of course not suitable conditions National Liberation Army (today the People’s Ar­ for the flowering of Albanian music. But even my) was set up. under such circumstances, some composers emerg­ Right after the Liberation of Albania, the ed from the ranks of the people, such as Frano State Choir was set up which was later (1949) Ndoja, Martin Gjoka, Thanas Floqi and others to be incorporated in the Albanian Philarmonia. who, in addition to vocal songs and romances, In 1947 the Lyceum of Arts was inagurated composed some instrumental works like rhapso­ in Tirana. It would train middle-level cadres for dies, fantasies, medleys and the odd symphony. many branches of music and ballet. Now, with But the proclamation of independence did not the constant development of artistic education ensure the freedom and territorial integrity of there are nine secondary schools of art and se­ Albania. The Balkan War and, later, the First venteen 8-grade art schools. World War had devastating consequences for Al­ The Higher Institute of Arts, which includes bania. In such adverse political economic and so­ the Conservatory, was opened in Tirana in 1961. cial circumstances, the necessary conditions for It trains singers, instrumentalists, conductors, music to flourish did not exist. composers, musicologists, music teachers, etc. During the period of Ahmet Zog’s monarchic The setting up of the Albanian Philarmonia regime (1924-1939), art and culture were not en­ stimulated stage performances. In 1950, a ballet couraged and only with great difficulty did such group was organized and this was later (1956) composers as Martin Gjoka, Luigj Filaj, Kristo incorporated in the Opera and Ballet Theatre. Kono, Pjetër Dungu and others, as well as such The first Albanian musical stage work to be per­ singers as Marie Paluca (Kraja), Jorgjia Filçe formed after Liberation was the operetta (Truja), Tefta Tashko (Koço), Mihal Ciko, Kristaq «Dawn» (1954), composed by . In De­ Antoniu and others develop their artistic talents. cember 1958, was staged the first Albanian ope­ Some of the few technically and professionally ra, «Mrika», composed by . Later

256 257 on the Albanian repertoire was enriched by a which greatly assisted the flourishing of music number of new operas and operettas. through conferences, creative discussions and dif­ Meanwhile, the ballet did not lag behind. ferent publications. The genre of dances based on a particular theme In September 1957 the Ensemble of Folk was developed along other musical-choreographic Songs and Dances, with a vocal-instrumental and forms. The first Albanian ballet «Halili and choreographic complex, was set up in Tirana. Hajrija» composed by Tish Daija on the basis The Ensemble has often presented the beauties of a play by Kolë Jakova, was performed in Ja­ of Albanian folklore outside the borders of the nuary 1963. Then came a number of new ballets. country in many countries of Europe, Asia and The Albanian operas, operettas and ballets Africa and won the highest awards. Apart from generally treat important problems of the life of this Ensemble, the Ensemble of the People’s Ar­ our society or history — the heroism of our peo­ my and the Opera and Ballet Theatre extensive ple through the centuries, their struggles for artistic activity is carried on by the Radio-Tele­ freedom and social justice and the Anti-fascist vision Symphony Orchestra, the Orchestra of the National Liberation War. The librettists have Secondary Schools of Art, the Orchestra of the made an important contribution to the develop­ Higher Institute of Arts, as well as nine sympho­ ment of the above-mentioned genres; their ideo­ nic orchestras in the other cities of Albania logical clarity was a great help for the realistic (Shkodra, Korça, Elbasan, Durrës, Gjirokastra, development of music in this genre. etc.). To these must be added forty or more brass bands as well as the smaller orchestras of thir­ During the years of the people’s state power teen professional variety theatre companies in the Albanian composers have cultivated all the the different districts of the country. One of the forms of the vocal genre, from songs and roman­ distinctive features of musical development in ces to cantatas and oratorios, they have also cul­ socialist Albania is mass participation in scores tivated the forms of instrumental music, compo­ of workers’ clubs and houses of culture in the ci­ sitions for various instruments up to major ties, which together with the cultural centres in forms of instrumental music like suites, overtu­ res, ballads rhapsodies, symphonic dances, concer­ the countryside, carry out a wide range of arti­ stic activities. Every year festivals of new songs tos for violin, flute, cello and piano with orche­ are organized by the Albanian Radio-Television stra, symphonic poems, etc. The first Albanian service, as well as by the houses of culture and symphony was composed by Çesk Zadeja — Peo­ young pioneer’s centres in the districts. Every ple’s Artist (1956), and the first concert for vio­ year the May Concerts are organized in the ca­ lin and orchestra by Pjetër Gaci (1959). pital, as well as national contests of variety show In their creative activity the Albanian com­ theatres, brass bands, workers’ ensembles, groups posers adhere to the method of socialist realism: from agricultural cooperatives, and national national in form and socialist in substance. competitions of singers and instrumentalists. All The new Albanian culture carried on the these artistic activities contribute ever more to tradition of the artistic past of the country. Mu­ the enlivenment of the musical life of the coun- sicology came into being and was developed, try.

258 259 In these suitable conditions created by our arch (the peak of Ajtoi near Saranda). The cities Party and state power which devote special at­ have majestic porticos (Dimal and Zgërdhesh), tention to the development of music in our coun­ theatres and hippodromes (Amantia near Vlora), try, talented singers, choreographers, conductors monumental tombs (Selca e Poshtme near Po- and instrumentalists emerged and affirmed gradec), etc. Many little votive statues of expres­ themselves. sive shapes and ornaments like the plates of a bronze belt (3rd century before our era) with en­ THE FIGURATIVE ARTS graved images of fine workmanship have been found. The most ancient objects of artistic interest The cities of the coastal colonies (6th cen­ discovered in Albania date back to the Early Neo­ tury before our era to the 3rd century of our lithic Age (the 6th Millenium before our era) and era) have monumental architectural buildings in consist of painted ceramic fragments. The figure the classical style, like the Lions’ Gate and the of the woman is at times worked on realisti­ Theatre (Butrint), the Nympheum and the Monu­ cally, as well as in schematic form in the ter­ ment of the Agonothetes (), etc. Among racottas of Cakran-Dunavec (Middle Neolithic the finest works of sculpture found there are the Age). Outstanding among them are the great pot head of the Goddess of Butrint (3rd century be­ ceramics with painted geometric decoration of fore our era), the portrait, in the Roman reali­ the Minoic type found in Maliq and Kamnik stic style, of Agrippa (1st century before our (Late Neolithic Age). Rich in forms are the un­ era), the head of Demosthenes with a thoughtful painted ceramics of Maliq (Neolithic Age). Ves­ expression of face in the Greek style (3rd cen­ sels and cups with very pronounced handles on tury before our era). The stelae of Apollonia are the sides began to appear during the Bronze Age. This is evidence of the appearance of the rich in ornamentation and reliefs, sometimes Illyrian tribes. with three layers one above the other. There is The art of the Illyrian tribes develops espe­ great variety in the many bronze statuettes, ce­ cially in the Iron Age. (the 11th to the 5th cen­ ramics, mainly with red figures on a black back­ turies before our era). The ceramic material ground, and the terracottas. The most ancient found in the tumuli scattered everywhere within mosaic is «The head of a girl» (3rd century be­ the borders of today’s Albania and outside them, fore our era) found in Durrës. The Roman mo­ at the villages of Barç, Kuç i Zi (near Korça), saics in Apollonia, Durrës and elsewhere are Pazhok (near Elbasan), etc. is extremely varied mainly in geometric designs of two or more co­ in forms. The bronze weapons generally have lours. geometric decorations. But there are also deco­ The floors of palaeo-christian basilicas in rations with vivid anthropomorphic and zoomor- Central and South Albania are paved in mosaic. phic images. In the baptistery of Butrint (5th century), in the In the Illyrian cities (5th to 2nd centuries basilica of Lin near Ohri Lake (6th century), the before our era) the walls made of huge quadran­ mosaics represent mainly birds, vines, fish, etc. gular and polygonal stones are really imposing. Their colours blend in tonal effects. Of interests The earliest gates have the form of a pointed is the Byzantine wall mosaic (10th century) built

260 261 upon the foundations of the ruins of the Durrës the island of Maligrad in Prespa Lake (1369) is amphitheatre. remarkably expressive. The religious objects From the 6th to the 8th centuries of our era, are rich in artistically executed ornamentation. The epitaph of Gllavenica, embroidered by Gjergj like the Illyrians, the early Albanians built bu­ rial mounds — the majority of them in North Araniti in 1373, is a document of great historical importance and a masterpiece of applied art. Albania (near Koman village and elsewhere). The wars of the Albanian people against the These people were outstanding in working me­ tals and ornaments in bronze, silver and gold. On Ottoman invaders during the 15th century hin­ the ear-rings, clasps and pendants there are ima­ dered the construction of monumental buildings ges of the woman, the horse, etc. They are the and the development of paintings. After the Ot­ continuation, in a number of forms, of Illyrian toman invasion, in the 16th century, iconogra­ ornaments. phy, mural painting, etc. were revived within the religious buildings which are not distinguish­ The monuments of the mediaeval architec­ ed by their outward appearance. The seven ture of the Byzantine style are to be found in icons of the «great feasts» and the beautiful ga­ abundance in the South, while in the North they tes of the Berat evangelistry are of marvellous are less frequent. The Roman style predomina­ precision. These are thought to have been made tes there. The church of Perhondi (11th century, by Onufri (the middle of the 16th century), the near Berat), with elements typical of the Byzan­ author of murals in a series of churches in Kos- tine style, is a cathedral, with a bell-tower at­ tur (Greece), Berat and various villages of Elba- tached, like the Western churches. The church of san. His paintings tend to be more realistic, have Saint Nicholas in Mesopotam (13th century), dramatic expressions and remarkably decorative which looks like a fortress, is rich in heraldic colours. The icons and mural paintings of his reliefs, capitals, etc. An outstanding monument son, Nikolla (the end of the 16th century and in the typical Byzantine style of the 13th cen­ the beginning of the 17th century), have elongat­ tury is the church of Saint Mary at Pojan. The ed and more aristocratic figures. There were a churches of Saint Michael, erected on a rock out­ number of other distinguished painters, too. In crop below the Berat Castle, and Saint Trinity the early 18th century iconography and mural within its walls, belong to the 14th century. The painting took a new impetus, and realist ele­ icons of the 12th century are of classical Byzan­ ments of the baroque style were introduced into tine style: Saint Mary Odigitria in the Bllashto- them. In 1726 David Selenicasi painted the inte­ nja cave above Prespa Lake, and others. In the riors of Saint Nicholas’ church of Voskopoja. icons of the 13th century, the religious styliza­ From the end of the 15th century, buildings tion becomes more pronounced, whereas those of of the Muslim religion, began to be constructed, the 14th century express more intimate emotions too. The Lead Dome Mosque (18th century) in like Saint Mary’s Rest in the church of Saint Shkodra imitates Arabic architecture, but in the Mary in Berat. The mural paintings of the re­ Dervishes’ Temple in Berat (1791) and the Mos­ fectory of Pojan Monastery (1261-1328) are of que of Ethem Bey in Tirana (1791-1821) light and classic grandeur and with transparent colours. elegant elements of local folk architecture are in­ Saint Mary in the icons of Mborja (1380) and of cluded as well. 262 263 The revival of economic life and trade in the and a delicate artistic interpretation. Of particu­ 18th and 19th centuries brought about a growth of lar interest for their portrayal of the life and the cities with a spontaneous but original and ra­ customs of the country are «A Shkodra Wedding», tional solution to the problems of the popular ar­ as well as many realistic scenes in compositions chitecture. At this time emerged the Gjirokastra on religious subjects, like «Two Roads». The main tower-house, rising three or four stories on the subject of the art of the Albanian National Re­ steep mountainous terrain. The houses with porc­ naissance is the figure of Gjergj Kastrioti — Skan- hes in Berat link their white façades with one derbeg. Spiro Xega (1863-1953), an amateur paint­ another and stand out for their great number of and patriot, produced eight variants of Skan- windows. Shkodra’s two storied house with a bal­ derbeg’s portrait. His most original work is «- cony extends horiontally amidst gardens surroun­ hin Matraku’s Çeta», a subject from the life of ded by very high walls. The skilled trades and ar­ patriotic insurgents. tistic peasant handicrafts developed greatly. Wood­ After the proclamation of the independent carving reached a superb artistic level in the intri­ Albanian state in 1912, the artistic creativity was cate three dimensional designs of iconostases. No­ still left to personal initiative. From 1932 a nu­ table examples are those of the seat of the Ortho­ mber of monuments were erected, among them dox Bishop of Korça (late 18th century) and the works of the sculptor (1903) like Berat cathedral (1850). The interiors of dwellings «The National Fighter» in Korça, a realistic sta­ were ornamented with wood carvings (the styles tue, with a strong expression and Albanian psy­ varying according to each district) and Albanian chological characteristics. Paskali’s bust of Skan- wood-carvers became renowned all over the Bal­ derbeg (1939) has a legendary epic spirit. The kans. The fame of weapons, such as daggers, pis­ painting of this period is realistic, but inclined tols, rifles etc., as well as ornamental buckles and towards lyricism. The motifs of other objects, decorated with various techniques, (1891-1957) are mostly from the streets and mi­ especially in filigree, produced in Shkodra, Priz­ lieus of Korça and Pogradec, joyful landscapes ren, Elbasan and elsewhere, spread far beyond full of light and colour. «A street in Korça» is ty­ Albania. The metal ornaments worn by the wo­ pical of his work in which, in his own way, he men of the Highlands of Northern Albania faith­ expresses his love for the Homeland. Varied, mo­ fully retained the tradition of the ornaments of re demanding in its research for artistic thought the Albanian culture of the Early Middle Ages. The art of the Albanian National Renais­ and expression, is the work of Zef Kolombi (1907- 1949), a strict draftsman. His portraits, like his sance begins from after the year 1880, in the struggle for national independence and freedom «Self-portrait», have dramatic force, his lands­ from the Turkish rule. It is secular, breaking capes, like «The Harvest», reflect his melancholy away from the religious iconography, and treats and stagnation of his time. patriotic and ethnographic subjects. Kolë Idro- The people’s state power, born from the Na­ meno (1860-1930) is a distinguished painter, archi­ tional Liberation War, greatly encouraged and tect and artist of this period. The portrait «Sister assisted the development of art in our country. Tone» (1883) shows social-phychological depth Year by year, artistic organizations and in­

264 265 stitutions have been set up and the creative acti­ and proportions were created and the artistic ex­ vity and the number of artists have increased. Ac­ pression was enriched. cording to the directives of the PLA art was plac­ The social and democratic character of our ed in the service of the people and expressed art has resulted in the vigorous development of their revolutionary aspirations. It embarked on all its genres, especially, in the greater genres, the road of progress, while the socialist cons­ such as painting. This art has developed a histo­ truction has been advancing in fierce struggle rical expression with a particular epic and po­ against the internal and external class enemy, pular character. This painting is, in general, resisting the imperialist-revisionist pressure. Our true to life, vividly drawn, with transparent and art has become more profound in its content and intensive colours, at times of a decorative con­ artistic expression and more firmly based on its ception. own national experience. Many painters, such as: Abdurahim Buza, In the early years after Liberation, a number Sali Shijaku, Guri Madhi and others have af­ of busts and statues were erected in different firmed themselves in this field. cities of the country. They are followed by a se­ In order to encourage those who create in ries of important works of monumental sculptu­ these fields, general exhibitions and exhibitions re in the late sixties. Learning from the experien­ of individual painters and sculptors have been or­ ce of the older generation, the sculptors created ganized time and again to acquaint the broad works of a new, revolutionary content, in a po­ masses of the people with the best works of the pular social and patriotic spirit. A great number figurative arts. of monuments and busts of a realistic style and The best works of our painters and sculptors of vivid expressiveness commemorate outstanding are displayed at the Gallery of Arts in Tirana historical events or progressive revolutionary fi­ and in some of the main cities of the country. gures of the past and our times. Many sculptors, These exhibitions are constantly enriched with such as Odhise Paskali, Kristaq Rama, Muntaz new works. Dhrami, Shaban Hadëri and others, have distin­ Admission to the Gallery of Arts is free. guished themselves in this field. The 15th Plenum of the Central Committee of the PLA in 1965 reached the conclusion that THE THEATRE socialist realism had proved itself as a method in Albanian realistic art and should play a still great­ The foundations of the present-day Albanian theatre were laid down during the period of the er role in the communist education of the mas­ Anti-fascist National Liberation War. ses. Painting, sculpture and graphic art advanced Our first theatre was called «The People’s parallel with the demands of the time. Along Theatre». It was given this name because it was with the improvement of the material conditions born as a partisan theatre, in the mountains, in of our people, the demands of the masses for art the prisons, in the city quarters and villages, increased. Many important national and personal wherever the fight was waged against the fascist exhibitions opened. Many works of major genres occupiers. On May 24,1944, on the eve of the li­

266 267 beration of the whole country, at the town of supported the democratic forces in their struggle the historic Congress of Përmet, the first profes­ against reaction. The anti-popular regimes of sional theatre in the history of the country was that time not only did not give any assistance to set up. the development of these groups, but, on the Just as in music, dance, costumes, artistic contrary, persecuted them, dissolving the groups craftsmanship, architecture, etc., in the field of and taking primitive measures against their mem­ theatre, too, the Albanian people have a rich bers. Therefore, the enthusiastic efforts of many tradition. amateurs of the theatre were not crowned with Best evidence of the ancient origin of the the creation of a professional theatre. theatre in our country are many manifestations From the end of the last century up to the of a theatrical character which exist in the fol­ forties of this century, the world-famous Alba­ klore traditions of the people. But it was only nian actor, Aleksandër Moisiu (1879-1935), was in the period of the Albanian National Renais­ alive and performing. Finding it impossible to sance, along with the development of the strug­ realize his ardent desire to set up a national thea­ gle for national independence, that the amateur tre, he lived all his life abroad. The world pro­ theatre was developed, too. Just as they recognis­ gressive theatre considered Aleksandër Moisiu one ed the educative role of language and literature, of the greatest actors of the time. the writers of the Renaissance also recognised But even in the difficult conditions of our the educative and mobilizing role of the theatre. country in that time, in the ranks of the amateur Therefore, they gave great importance to the theatrical movement, too, a whole pleiad of ta­ theatre, utilizing it as a weapon for the patrio­ lented actors emerged and, after Liberation, creat­ tic education of the people and for their mobili­ ed the principal nuclei of professional theatres. zation in struggle against the Ottoman occupiers Today there are 8 professional theatrical for the liberation of the country. This patriotic troupes, 15 variety show and 26 puppet show tradition was a significant factor for the develop­ companies. Apart from the «People’s Theatre» in ment of the theatre later. For that reason, every­ Tirana, the theatres in the other cities bear the where in Albania and in the places Albanians names of outstanding artists of writers. The thea­ are living abroad amateur theatrical groups were tre of the city of Korça, for example, bears the set up, which played an important role in the name of the great poet and patriot of the Alba­ history of the Albanian theatre. These groups nian National Renaissance, A.Z. Çajupi; that of functioned especially in the main cities of the the city of Shkodra, the name of the revolutio­ country such as Shkodra, Korça, Gjirokastra, - nary poet of the thirties, Migjeni, that of the city basan, etc. as sections of various patriotic and of Durrës, the name of the great Albanian actor, progressive societies created by the workers, Aleksandër Moisiu. craftsmen, patriotic intellectuals and progressive The number of amateur theatre groups has youth. The progressive ideas expressed through a increased beyond all comparison with the past. repertoire of Albanian plays or works of world Almost every work and production centre, vil­ progressive playwrights strengthened the patriotic lage, military detachment, school and institution and political consciousness of the people, and has its own amateur theatrical group, which pre­

268 269 pares performances and stages them for their K. Jakova, «The fisherman’s Family» by S. - fellow workers and the other working masses. tarka, «The Carnivals of Korça» by S. Çomora, Festivals both for the amateur and professional «The Highland Girl» by L. Papa, «The Second theatres are organized systematically on a district, Face» by D. Agolli, and many others. regional and national scale. These theatres assist, Appreciating the values of the progressive influence and inspire each other. While the ama­ drama of other peoples, our theatre has staged teurs learn acting skills from the professional works from the treasury of world culture, such theatre, the professionals for their part, learn a as Shakespeare’s «Hamlet», «Othello», King great deal from the freshness, the natural acting, Lear», «The Merry Wives of Windsor»; Moliere’s and the creative enthusiasm of the amateurs, and «The Miser», «Tartuff», «The Noble Bourgeois»; find new talents among them. The professional Goldon’s «Mirandolina»; Chekhov’s «The Sea­ theatres carry out systematic work with the ama­ gull»; Gogol’s «The Auditor»; Gorky’s «The Ene­ teur movement. The most experienced actors are mies»; Schiller’s «Love and Intrigue»; Ibsen’s charged with this work. «Nora»; Brecht’s «Arturo Ui», etc. In 1946, the first middle school for art, the During its 40-year long existence our theatre «Jordan Misja» Lyceum, was opened, while in has produced from its ranks actors who, in regard 1959 it was the turn of the «Aleksandër Moisiu» to their ideoaesthetic quality of interpretation, Higher School for Actors. This is one of the bran­ may be rightly compared to the outstanding ac­ ches of the Higher Institute of Arts. In recent tors of the progressive world theatre. years producers have been trained at this school, The Albanian theatre is a theatre of socia­ too. Courses and other forms are organized for list realism, which truthfully reflects the reality the training of directors of the amateur theatri­ in its revolutionary development. It strives to be cal movement. always an art with proletarian partisanship and Although each theatre has its own premises, a national and popular character against any in­ with all the necessary facilities, both for the spec­ fluence of the bourgeois-revisionist ideology, and tators and for the actor, the theatre companies is a tribune for the treatment of great social pro­ also go out to audiences at work and production blems for the education of the broad masses of centres, in town and countryside. Each year, the people with the teachings of Marxism-Lenin­ every company stages 40 to 60 per cent of its ism. plays outside its theatre. The main aim of our actors is the faithful The development of the theatre in breadth characterization of the figures they interpret in has brought about an improvement in its quality. their dialectical development. The principal con­ Proceeding from the principle that there cannot cern of the directors of the Albanian theatre is be a truly national theatre without a national to ensure that the actor represents the real liv­ drama, today’s theatre has completely solved this ing man, and that each of the components of problem. the performance depends on him or the ideas he Hundreds of dramatic works have now en­ expresses. This is also the aim of the scene paint­ tered the repertoire of the national theatre, such er, composer, lighting operator, etc. as «The Prefect» by B. Levonja, «Our Land» by Naturalism, melodrama, theatricality etc., as

270 271 well as the ugly features of the so-called «mo- About 100 feature films produced so far, dern» theatre, the formalist, absurd, abstract, deal with diverse subjects from the life and cons­ and «anti-everything» theatre, which have no­ truction work of the Albanian people. Films are thing in common with the realist and progres­ based on novels, short stories, plays or comedies, sive theatre are alien to the Albanian theatre, or deal with topical problems concerning the com­ too. mon man, or the successes and efforts of the As an indication of the care and esteem working masses in the socialist construction of for the place and role of the theatre in our so­ the country. In the annual film production a spe­ ciety, artists may be awarded the highly ho­ cial place is occupied also by films for children. noured titles, «People’s Artist» and «Merited A very significant place is occupied by films Artist». on the Anti-fascist National Liberation War. Films on this theme evoke various events of the heroic struggle of our people, under the leader­ ship of the Party, for the liberation of the Home­ CINEMATOGRAPHY land. The struggle against conservatism and pa­ April 17, 1947 is the date when the People’s triarchal hangovers also holds an important pla­ Assembly of the People’s Republic of Albania ce in films on contemporary subjects. Further endorsed the decree for the creation of the Alba­ extending its historical scope, the Albanian cine­ nian Cinematographic Enterprise marking at matography has taken up now the treatment of the same time the birth of this new art in Alba­ the more distant past, such as that of the pre-war nia. It began its life in a modest way with the period and the Albanian National Renaissance. shooting of the first newsreel films about people’s Albanian films are being shown abroad, too. festivities and the construction of the first indus­ Their participation in various international festi­ trial projects and railways. With the creation of vals, in Cannes, Salonica, Salerno and elsewhere the «New Albania» Film-studio (1952) there start­ and especially in the Albanian film weeks or­ ed the regular production of newsreels and do­ ganized in some countries of the world such as in cumentary film to pass later on to the produc­ France, Sweden. Greece, Turkey, and others has tion of feature films. The first medium length been very warmly received, which testifies to the film, «Her children», was turned out in 1957, growing possibilities of the Albanian cinema­ while the first full length feature film — «Ta- tography. na» was produced in 1958. The state film-archives preserve a very inte­ Today in Albania 50 newsreels, 40 documen­ resting fund. It is made up of the entire natio­ tary films and 12-15 feature films of various gen­ nal film production after Liberation as well as res are produced annually. documentaries from the country’s past, shot by More than half this production is occupied foreign film-people since 1920. The latter reflect by colour films, but among them there are also the poverty and backwardness the reactionary widescreen films of cinemascope and vista-vision regimes of the past kept our country in. In con­ systems. trast with them, the scenes of king Zog’s lu-

272 273 xurious dinners and his pompous parades appear young artists are functioning in the principal ci­ very grotesque. Also, those documentaries clearly ties of the country, in work centres and agricul­ reveal the expansionist ambitions of fascist Italy, tural cooperatives, schools, the pioneers’ houses showing its foreign minister, Count Ciano, on the and palaces, houses and hearths of culture. They one hand, shedding smiles and signing as a wit­ are guided by experienced writers and artists. ness the marriage act of King Zog, and on the For writers and artists, who have established other hand, together with Mussolini preparing their reputation through the works they have the fascist aggression of April 7, 1939. published or exhibited, favourable working con­ Thus the materials of the archives help bet­ ditions have been created. ter understand the level of development of so­ First, writers and artists work reduced hours, cialist Albania today. 4 or 2 hours less every day, at their normal jobs. For this free time, left at their disposal for crea­ tive activity, they are fully paid by the state. THE WRITERS Besides this they are entitled to take crea­ AND ARTISTS’ LEAGUE tive leave every year. This leave may last from one month to one year, according to the case. The Writers’ League of Albania was founded During this period they receive full pay. on February 11, 1945. Later the working people Both writers and artists enjoy the right to of the figurative arts and music joined it too. exercise their free professions, which means they So it took the name of the Writers and Artists’ are not employed by any institution, but are en­ League of Albania. gaged in creative activity only. The state pays It has 26 branches, covering all districts of them a salary which is higher than that they the country, and hundreds of writers, painters, would have received as employees. If, during sculptors, producers actors, singers, dancers and their creative work, they need to go to various others as members or candidate members. regions of the country to gather materials, etc. It has its own Constitution and it is run by all their travel expenditure is paid by the state. its leading body elected by its members. The Through their organization — the Writers and leading body elects the chairman and three se­ Artists’ League, the creators are provided with cretaries — for literature, figurative arts and mu­ conditions to rest or work at the health resorts sic. It has special sections dealing with young which have been established at the most beautiful artists and relations with foreign countries. places in our country. The League publishes three literary organs the newspaper «Drita», the magazine «Nëntori», Painters and sculptors are provided, free of the magazine «Les Lettres Albanaises» («Alba- charge, with working studios. All their require­ nian Literature»), the latter is published in ments such as paints, canvasses, etc. are supplied, French. too. These artists have every possibility to open The League carries out numerous activities personal exhibitions with their works, and this is and organizes discussions on problem of the encouraged by the state. The best works are ac­ form and content of the literature and arts. cepted by the Gallery of Arts. Hundreds of literary and artistic circles of Producers, ballet dancers, and singers are

274 275 entitled to pensions earlier than the other work­ of Language and Literature, the Institute of His­ ing people. tory, the Institute of People’s Culture, the In­ Our writers and artists are entitled to ho­ stitute of Economic Studies, the Centre of Ar­ noraria for all their works which are published cheological Research, which belong to the Section or performed. of Social Sciences; the Institute of Nuclear Phy­ Various forms, such as competitions, festi­ sics, the Computer Centre, the Centre of Biolo­ vals, prizes and titles of honour, to encourage gical Research, which belong to the Section of outstanding creative work, are practiced in Alba­ Natural Sciences; the Institute of Hydromete- nia. reology, the Seismological Centre, the Laboratory of Hydraulic Research, which belong to the Sec­ tion of Technical Sciences. THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Academy has its Scientific Library with its affiliates in the dependent institutes. The pu­ The Academy of Sciences of the People’s blications council functions under the auspices Socialist Republic of Albania was set up upon of the Academy. the decision of the 2nd Plenum of the CC of the PLA (April 1972) as the highest scientific insti­ tution of the country. It carries out its scientific THE NATIONAL LIBRARY activity in the various fields of sciences which are covered by its dependent institutes to help The National Library is one of the most im­ in the organization and co-ordination of this acti­ portant cultural institutions in our country, both vity on a national scale for the solution of major because of the large number of books it has problems of the economy and culture in the ser­ available and because of the work it does to pu­ vice of the socialist construction of the country. blicize and spread them among the masses. The supreme leading body of the Academy The library has a priceless collection of pu­ of Sciences is its Assembly. The inaugural meet­ blications and manuscripts, which increases its ing of the Assembly was held in January 1973. scientific and bibliographic value, not only on a Today the Academy is composed of 17 members national level, but also internationally. This is and 5 corresponding members. The Assembly best reflected in its collection of , elects the Presidium which runs the work bet­ which is considered the richest in the world. ween meetings, the Chairman of the Academy, Today it is a recognized fact that for anyone the Vice-chairmen, the Scientific Secretary and studying Albanological science, whether an Al­ the leaders of the other forums. The Chairman of banian or a foreigner, it is essential to turn to the the Academy of Sciences is Prof. Aleks Buda. materials in our National Library. The Academy of Sciences is comprised of Of particular importance is the collection of three sections: the Section of Social Sciences, the Antiquities, which includes very old and rare Section of Natural Sciences and the Section of publications, incunabula and manuscripts of the Technical Sciences. The Academy now includes period from the 15th to the 18th centuries, most the following scientific institutes: the Institute of which refer directly or indirectly to various

276 277 immortalized his name, is his «History of Skan­ Albanian problems in the fields of geography, derbeg». The National Library has an almost history, archaeology, ethnography, folklore, lin­ complete set of editions of this work. It was first guistics, literature, and so on. published under the title «Historia de Vita et In reviewing the bibliography «Albanica», Gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum Principis» (1508- the noted historian Karld Gölner makes this com­ 1510) and republished in Augsburg 1533, in ment: «It (Albanica) astounds us with the treasu­ Strasbourg in 1537, in Venice in 1554, in Frank­ res in the collection of the National Library in furt-on Main in 1561, in Lisbon in 1567, and so Tirana, of which many historians do not know,» on. It was also translated into many languages. adding that these publications are also important In addition to Barleti’s book, the National Li­ in regard to the history of books printed in the brary has hundreds of other works about our 15th century. The place of honour in the collection of An­ National Hero Skanderbeg, by such authors as tiquities is occupied by books in Albanian written Lavardin, Duponcet, Biemmi, Kockert, Menezes, by our ancient authors. Among them are the 2nd Pontanus, Sarocchi, Whincop and others. The history of our Illyrian ancestors is re­ and 3rd editions (1636 and 1664 respectively) of Pjetër Budi’s work «Doktrina e Krishterë» («The flected in the works of ancient Latin and Greek Christian Doctrine»), Frank Bardhi’s «Dictiona- writers, of which the oldest examples in the Li­ rium Latino-Epiroticum» (1635), and Pjetër Bog- brary are Pliny’s «Natural History» printed in dani’s «Cuneus Prophetarum», first published in 1516, Caesar’s «Commentaries» (1539), Strabo’s 1685 and republished in 1691. «De situ orbis», (1549), and Diodorus Siculus, «Bibliothecae historiae» (1559), etc. Gjon Buzuku’s «Meshari» («The Missal») The history of the Middle Ages, together (1555), the first book in Albanian, Budi’s first with the Ottoman occupation, and the struggle publication of «Doktrina e Krishterë» (1618), of the Albanians for freedom are dealt with in «Pasechyra e të refyemit» (Speculum Confessio­ the works of Byzantine and other chroniclers, as nis») (1621) and «Rituale Romanum» (1621), well as of various travellers, of which National Frank Bardhi’s work on Skanderbeg, Lek Ma- Library possesses «Historiae Bizantinae scripto- tranga’s and Jul Variboba’s works are all kept in res» (1615), «Liber Chronicarum turcicarum» photocopies only, since the originals are in the (1578) and individual volumes by , Anna Library of the Vatican and in the Paris National Comnena, Chalcondylas, Sansovion, and others. Library. As Gölner remarked, the collection of an­ This heritage is enriched by the works of cient books and manuscripts in our National Li­ the Albanian humanist Barleti and Beçikemi. brary is also of particular interest for the study The first edition of the first work of Barleti «De of the history of books, in general. In this collec­ obsidione scodrensi» (1504), describing the first tion we have incunabula like the book of Sylvius and second sieges of the city of Shkodra by Sul­ Piccolomini, published in 1473, hence in the first tan Mehmed II (1474-1475) and (1478-1479), is period of the birth of the printing press. Amongst kept in this library. The author himself took part other things it speaks about Skanderbeg and in the war against the Ottoman Turks. about the struggle of the Albanians against the The most important work of Barleti, which 279 278 Ottomans. There are also old editions of the Bi­ ARCHAEOLOGY ble and the Koran, books put out by famous pu­ blishing houses, such as those of Aldo Manuzio Albanian archaeology — one of newest and the Elzeviers, illuminated books with gold branches of our historical sciences, was bom, and silver inlaid vellum bindings, decorated with grew and developed parallel with the people’s precious stones and filigree, which reflect the state power. Foreign archaeological missions also history of books at various stages of their deve­ carried out archaeological research in Apollonia lopment. and Butrint before the liberation of the country, but they plundered part of the artifacts disco­ THE STATE ARCHIVES vered. They displayed no interest at all in the Illyrian culture. The State Archives of the PSR of Albania When Albania was liberated, there was no include all the documents created in the course museum or archaeological institution in the of the activity of state, economic and social or­ country. The first archaeological — ethnogra­ gans, and of various political, social, scientific, phic museum was opened in 1948 and the first cultural, educational, and other personalities. cadres in this field started a job there. This nuc­ The administration of the state archives is leus of archaeologists served as a basis for the centralized under the General Directory of State creation of the sector of archaeology at the In­ Archives. stitute of History. This sector was extended and For the preservation and administration of strengthened and, as a result, the Centre of Ar­ archive materials, there is a network of ar­ chaeological Research which came under the di­ chives consisting of the Central State Archives, rect dependence of the Academy of Sciences of in which the documents of national importance, the PSR of Albania was created in 1976. Apart from ancient times to this day, are preserved, as from the section of archaeology at the Museum well as the archives of different institutions, in of National History, which is summing up the which documents of local importance are preser­ history of our country from the beginnings of ved. human history to the Middle Ages, there are The documents preserved in the Central archaeological museums in Tirana, Durrës, Apol­ State Archives or in the archives of different in­ lonia, Butrint as well as archaeological sections stitutions begin with the Purple Codex of Herat, at many historical museums in the different dis­ written on parchment with silver ink, which tricts of the country. belongs to the 6th century and reach to our Albanian archaeology attaches priority to days. research in the field of Illyrian culture and the Like the administration of the State Archi­ Albanian Early Mediaeval culture, without ne­ val Fund, the archival work is also centralized; glecting the ancient cities of Durrës and Apollo­ it is directed by the General Directory of the nia. The students try to elucidate the problem State Archives and has as its objective to put of the ethnogenesis of the Illyrians, their eco­ the documents in the service of the work of nomic, social and political development in the scientific study. period of the slave-owning society, as well as

280 281 the problem of the genesis of the Albanians. the burial mounds of Mat, Pazhok, Vajza, Barç, Dozens of pre-historic settlements and ne­ Dropull, etc., which extend in time from the cropolises have been discovered and interesting Bronze to the Iron Age, were very fruitful. What finds have been made in some of them. Exca­ strikes the eye in these graves, besides the con­ vations have been carried out in the pre-historic struction and the mode of burial, is the rela­ settlements of Maliq, Tren, Podgorie, Vashtëmi, tively large number of earthenware, as well as Dunavec, Kamnik, as well as in the burial iron and bronze objects found in them: weapons, mounds of Barç, Kuç i Zi, Prodan and Rehova in spear-heads, swords, daggers, knives, helmets, South-east Albania; in the caves of Blaz and breastplates, greeves, as well as a large variety Nezir and the tumuli of Mat in Central Albania; of ornaments, of particular artistic value, fibu­ in the burial mounds of Kolsh, Kruma, Këneta lae, pendants, bracelets, diadems, etc. and Çimanak in Northeastern Albania. Interest­ Important discoveries and studies have been ing material has been dug out in the settlements carried out for the ancient Illyrian period. Re­ of Cakran and the tumuli of Patos in the Coastal search work has continued over many years in Zone and in the burial grounds of Vajza, Dukat, the Illyrian cities of Amantia (Plloça), Dimal the Dropull Valley and the upper reaches of (Krotina), Antigonea, Çuka of Ajtoj, Selca e Po- Vjosa river in South Albania. shtme, Bylis, Lis and others. Huge surrounding From the many archaeological objects un­ walls, which constitute splendid monuments in earthed in these settlements and necropolises, we themselves, as well as what remains of temples have been able to determine the general featu­ and public and private buildings have been un­ res of the main pre-historic cultures according earthed in the sites of these ancient cities. Thus, to their periods of development. The artifacts an ancient stadium with 17 steps on the one side discovered in the multi-layer settlement of Ma­ and 8 steps on the other, built in the 3rd-2nd liq, which has been inhabited uninterruptedly century before our era, has been discovered in from the Late Neolithic Age (the beginning of Amantia. A portico with 7 niches has been un­ the 3rd millennium before our era) up to the earthed in the ancient city of Dimal, and monu­ end of the Bronze Age (the end of the 2nd millen­ mental buildings and parts of the city quarters nium before our era), occupy a special place in have been dug out in Antigonea. A large theatre the elucidation of the pre-. with about 7,500 seats, part of a stadium and All this period is testified by a wealth of archa­ other buildings have recently been discovered in eological material. This has enabled our students the centre of Bylis, one of the biggest cities of to follow the autochthonous process of the birth ancient Illyria. Graves carved off in rock, an and formation of the Illyrian culture and ethnos. original mode of burial among the Illyrians, have Albanian archaeology has scored important been found at Selca e Poshtme. successes in tracing and studying the Illyrian The vast archaeological material discovered culture of the Iron Age (11th-5th century before in these cities indicates the high degree of so­ our era) — a period of consolidation and vigo­ cio-economic development of the Illyrian cities rous development of this culture in the order of in the 5th-lst centuries before our era. the primitive community. The excavations in Most of these finds are made up of pottery,

282 283 iron work tools and building materials. There cent 20-30 years. Of these majestic monuments are also weapons, ornaments and other artifacts. worth of mention is the amphitheatre of the ci­ Ample numismatic materials, which throw more ty. One of its sides rests on the hill of the city light on the economic activities of the Illyrians, and has all the architectonic features of ancient has been gathered in these Illyrian cities. amphitheatres. As to size, it ranks among the Likewise, valuable material has been gathe­ largest amphitheatres of the Antiquity. The co­ red about the emergence of the Illyrian towns, llection of vases of different periods, diverse de­ the different stages of their development and corative objects and many tomb stones with their ties and relations with the Mediterranean Illyrian names show the important role the world. Illyrian element played in the life of this an­ The colonies on the coast such as Dyrra- cient city. chion, Apollonia and Orychon, the culture of Albanian archaeology has scored many suc­ which developed in close contact with the Illy­ cesses in the discovery of the Albanian Early rian culture, played an important role in the Mediaeval culture. Initially, excavations were car­ economic and cultural development of Southern ried out in some graves of the Early Middle Illyria. After many years of excavations the Ages in Northern Albania: in Koman, Burrel, greater part of Apollonia’s four kilometres long Shurdh and Lezha; later they continued in a surrounding wall has been unearthed. The lower number of fortified settlements in Varosh, part of it, dating back to the 4th century before Shurdhash, Pogradec, and in the recent 10-15 our era, is built of big hewn stone blocks fill­ years they were extended to some castles of ing perfectly into each other without mortar; Southern Albania such as Berat, Kanina, Ballsh, the upper part of it which in places goes as high Saranda and others. All this threw new light on up as 6.5 metres was built of bricks. A special the Illyrian culture of the late antiquity, the au­ place among the monuments of Apollonia is oc­ tochthonous base on which the early Arbër cul­ cupied by the Nympheon (fountain) of the town, ture was born. A rich and varied material with built in the 4th century before our era, which is the characteristic features of the Arbër culture remarkable for its architectonic solution. Evi­ of the 7th-8th century has been gathered in Me­ dence of the luxurious life of the upper classes diaeval necropolises and castles. In several places is the bloc of buildings of the 1st-2nd centuries, remains of basilicas which are remarkable for with floors embellished with polychrome mo­ their architecture and their fine mosaic laid floors saics with geometrical motifs and mythological have been found. The mosaic of the basilica of scenes. Many sculptures, which are considered Arapaj, in the outskirts of Durrës, is among the among the finest achievements of the time in finest found in the territory of the Byzantine this field, were found in these buildings and are Empire. now on display in the halls of the museum of The Albanian Early Mediaeval culture, or el­ Apollonia. se called, the Arbër culture whose existence is In the Antiquity Dyrrachion was the biggest proved today by a number of archaeological city and port of the eastern Adriatic, which is finds over a vast territory, was based on a strong proved by the monuments unearthed in the re­ Illyrian tradition and was a direct continuation

284 285 of it, and consequently, the Arbërs (Albanians) Peza at Peza (Tirana), the museum-house of the are the descendants of the Illyrians. Conference of Labinot (Elbasan); the museum- house where the Congress of Përmet was held MUSEUMS at Përmet; the museum-house (Frashër-Përmet) of the Frashëri brothers, the museum-house of The Museum of National History of Tirana the patriot Mic Sokoli at Tropoja, etc. reflects the centuries-long history of our peo­ All the cities have their museums which evo­ ple, from the earliest times to this day. ke the history of the city and the district. Al­ The Museum «Gjergj Kastrioti — Skander- most all the villages have museums, sometimes beg» in Kruja shows the 25-year struggle of our just one room or part of a room, in which histo­ people under the leadership of the National He­ rical materials connected with local events are ro, Gjergj Kastrioti — Skanderbeg in the 15th displayed. century. The Museum of the Albanian Mediaeval Art in Korça shows exhibits of the material culture MUSEUM-CITIES of our people in the Middle Ages. The Museum of Weapons in Gjirokastra pre­ Among the large number and many kinds of serves weapons used through the centuries by monuments, dating from the dawn of history to our people and produced by themselves, as well our days, our museum-cities occupy a special as weapons seized from the enemy during the place. struggles for the freedom and independence of The cities of Berat and Gjirokastra, have the country. been designated as museum cities and the under­ The Museum of National Education in Korça ground of the city of Durrës, the old Bazaar of reflects the struggle of our people for the disse­ Kruja, etc. have been placed under state protec­ mination of Albanian education among the broad tion on the basis of a special decision taken by masses of the people. the Council of Ministers. Special regulations in The Archaeological museums in Tirana, Du- the spirit of this decision deal with the concrete rrës, Fier and Saranda. etc., and the ethnogra­ problems of the administration, the preservation phic museums in Tirana, Librazhd, Lezha, etc. and restoration of these important centres of the The Museum of Popular Culture in Shkodra history and material culture of our people. reflects the artistic skill of the Albanian people, The Museum-City of Berat is an important their fine taste in wood carving, pottery, glass centre for the study of the history and material work, national costumes, etc. culture of the Albanian people because it preser­ Memorial Museums: the museum-house ves structures beginning with the Illyrians as ear­ where the Communist Party of Albania (today ly as the 4th and 3rd centuries before our era the PLA) was founded in Tirana, the museum- and ending with historic monuments connected house where the Communist Youth Organization with the National Liberation War. Worthy of of Albania (today the LYUA) was founded in Ti­ mention in this museum-city is the fortress in rana; the museum-house of the Conference of which we find many traces of reconstructions.

286 287 During the years of people’s power, Apart from Illyrian traces there are also recons­ the cities of Albania tructions of the 6th, 13th, 15th and 19th centu­ have changed completely. Over 80 per cent of the population ries. This fortress is one of the biggest of its kind lives in hew apartments and remarkable for the great variety of contri­ butions from various epochs. Some churches of the 13th and 14th centuries, some of which also preserve mural paintings, are worthy of mention for their architectonic values. The city itself, that is the residential centre as it is today, belongs partly to the 18th century and even more to the 19th century, during which a vigorous process of reconstruction of old houses took place. The en­ sembles of the museum-city of Berat are distin­ guished for their close combination with the ter­ rain which is utilized in a masterly way in the compositional volume of the buildings which, join­ ing together, create long strips of buildings, The­ se ensembles stand out for their architectonic coherence and their identical exteriors, the ba­ lanced horizontal composition and careful inte­ gration of separate architectonic elements. The many windows and the arched projections of the residential storeys lighten and give variety to the dimensional composition of these compact con­ structions. The Museum-City of Gjirokstra is younger. Its fortress, a structure with architectonic va­ lues, appears to date back to the 11 and 12th centuries. It was the nucleus of the city which, by the middle of the 17th century, achieved ra­ pid and vigorous development. Apart from the fortress, the characteristic houses of Gjirokastra, which constitute a specific type within the fra­ mework of the Albanian popular house, are of very important value. These houses are distin­ guished for their development in height and their pronounced monumental character. Despi­ te their severe outward appearance their inte­ riors are cozy and highly ornamented. The en-

288 One of the quarters of the museum town of Gjirokastra, in southern Albania The Cjergj Kastrioti-Skanderbeg Museum recently built in the Kruja fortress One of the halls of the Gjergj Kastrioti-Skanderbeg Museum in Kruja Important archaeological discoveries are carried out over the entire territory of Albania. sembles of this city stand out for their accen­ In the photo: Uncovering of an ancient mosaic tuated monumental and expressive character, their organic connections with the environment and variety of dimensional composition. Durrës is one of the most important cities of the Antiquity of our country. The city of today lies on the ruins of the ancient city founded as early as the 7th century before our era. Of the ancient and Mediaeval buildings of this city only part of the defence structures have resisted the ravages of time and are preserved above ground-level, for instance, the fortress built in the period of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasins I of Durrës origin and a number of Mediaeval towers and walls which date back to the period from the 10th to the 16th centuries. All the other monuments of this city are preserv­ ed below ground level and there are so many of them that anywhere you dig you will find so­ mething. Through excavations for the founda­ tions of new buildings, many important monu­ ments have been found, such as thermal baths of the Roman period in the centre of the pre­ sent-day city, mosaics, the sewer system of the ancient city and so on. That is why the under­ ground of Durrës has been proclaimed a monu­ ment of culture; no new construction is allowed without the approval of the Institute of Monu­ ments of Culture. The old Bazaar of Kruja, which dates back to the period from the 18th to the 19th cen­ tury is a rare specimen of those beauti­ ful architectonic complexes which in the past were centres of production and trade in our ci­ ties. This ensemble is remarkable for its success­ ful functional solution through a simple archi­ tecture in which timber occupies the main place. The facades of the shops, which can be dismantl­ ed so that they can also serve for displays, and

289 the characteristic eaves which, apart from shel­ ment of Butrint, where important archaeologi­ tering displayed goods, can also protect the buy­ cal discoveries have been made. Travels just as ers from the sun or rain, are made of timber. pleasant may be made from Saranda to Thus, the space between the two long rows of (in the Albnian riviera), or to the Museum-City shops, covered by the eaves, turns into a sort of of Gjirokastra. Here the foreign visitor is given very picturesque open-air market. The Bazaar the opportunity to visit the castle, the streets of Kruja, which was restored during the period and the characteristic houses of Gjirokastra. from 1965 to 1967, by the Institute of Monu­ The tourists may go to see the city and castle of ments of Culture, is one of the most interesting Berat, Vlora and its tourist spot «Illyria» which and the oldest of its kind preserved in Albania. is situated on a hilltop within the city, Fier and Apollonia, one of the most renowned towns of Antiquity in Albania, Kruja, its famous castle TOURISM and its museum of the national hero Gjergj Ka- strioti — Skanderbeg. Trips are also organized Albania is a beautiful tourist country. The to the cities of Lezha, Shkodra, Kukës, Elbasan, picturesque landscape of its sea-coast, plains Korça, Pogradec and particularly, Tirana, our and mountains create indelible impressions. capital, where tourists may go sightseeing and vi­ That’s why the number of people wishing to siting its historical, cultural, educational and visit it increases from year to year. economic centers. Complete facilities have been created for The foreign tourists will find the traditio­ the rest and recreation of tourists. During their nal Albanian hospitality everywhere, cultured stay in our country they get acquainted with the service, comfortable buses, shops to buy things, rich material and spiritual culture of the Alba­ money-exchange centers, etc. nian people and their achievements in the eco­ You can come to Albania as a tourist for a nomic and social development. Our country is period of fifteen, ten or less days. The date of noted for its beautiful and sun-warmed beaches. arrival, the period of stay and the kind of ac­ One of them is, for example, that of Durrës. comodation are stipulated in the contracts bet­ which is provided with all kinds of facilities and ween Albturizëm and other tourist firms. Like­ comfortable hotels. Various artistic performan­ wise, the program of visits is co-ordinated be­ ces and film shows, visits to interesting places, fore hand between Albturizëm and the other etc., are organized in this tourist centre. Not less tourist firms. beautiful is the Saranda tourist centre in South­ Albturizëm has links with many other western Albania. The road from Saranda to the tourist firms in various countries of the world, tourist spot of Ksamil winds through a scenery such as Germany, Austria, Italy, France, the of breath-taking beauty. In Ksamil there are Scandinavian countries, Spain, Turkey, Austra­ many facilities for tourists, who can also see the lia, etc. Anyone who wishes to visit Albania great and many transformations which have ta­ has only to address himself to these firms. The ken place in the years of the people’s power in tourist season in Albania begins in April and this region. Not far away lies the Illyrian settle­ ends in October.

290 291 CONTENTS

THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE

Geographical Position ...... 7 Relief ...... 8 The Climate ...... 11 The Rivers ...... 12 The Lakes ...... 13 The Flora and Fauna ...... 13 Underground Riches ...... 14 Historical Survey ...... 15 Population ...... 63 The Language ...... 67

THE CONSTITUTION ...... 85

STATE ORGANIZATION 93

The People’s Assembly ...... 95 The Presidium of the People’s Assembly ...... 97 The People’s Councils ...... 98 The Organs of the State Administration ...... 98 The People’s Courts ...... 100 The Attorney General’s Office ...... 100 The Investigation Office ...... 101 Administrative Division ...... 101 The Twenty Biggest Cities...... 128

293 THE PEOPLE’S ECONOMY ...... 133 Music ...... 254 The Figurative Arts ...... 260 Industry ...... 138 The Theatre ...... 267 Agriculture ...... 149 Cinematography ...... 272 Electrification ...... 164 The Writers and Artists’ League ...... 274 Transportation ...... 165 The Academy of Sciences ...... 276 Foreign Trade ...... 166 The National Library ...... 277 Prices Policy ...... 168 The State Archives ...... 280 The Ratio Between Lower and Higher Wages ...... 170 Archaeology...... 281 The Country Where the People Pay No Taxes ...... 173 Museums ...... 286 Self-Reliance ...... 174 Museum-Cities ...... 287 Tourism ...... 290

FOREIGN POLICY ...... 179

THE PRESS AND PUBLICATIONS

Newspapers and Magazines ...... 185 The Radio and Television ...... 187 Publishing Houses ...... 190 Magazines in Foreign Languages ...... 191

SOCIAL LIFE

Socialism and the Individual ...... 197 Labour Legislation ...... The Health Service ...... 206 The Role of the Woman in Social and Political Life ...... 211 Cadres Engage in Productive Work ...... 216 Holiday Centers ...... 218 Sports ...... 221

EDUCATION — CULTURE — ART — SCIENCE

Folklore ...... 227 Education ...... 238 The Institutes of Higher Education ...... 244 Literature ...... 246

294 295