raised concerns (Charlier & Croché 2008). In view raised concerns (Charlier&Croché2008). tries to be of geopolitically strategic importance, which were considered by various European coun- as , Latin America as well as Eastern , enrolments of foreign students from regions such ans studyingintheUS.Particularly thedecreasein choosing tostudyinEuropecompared- about by declining numbers of foreign students was linkedtoperceivedglobalpressuresbrought ThisBologna Process(Zgaga2006;Vögtle 2010). ment oftheso-called‘externaldimension’ ofthe importance inrecentyearsthroughthedevelop- Particularly thefirstfactorhasreceivedincreasing Competition? The ‘ExternalDimension’ –Cooperationor Charlier &Croché2008). cation (Tomusk 2004;Corbett2006;Pechar2007; competence forpolicydevelopmentinhigheredu- governments andEuropeaninterestsregardingthe lier &Croché2008);andtensionsbetweennational er education systems (Pechar & Pellert 2004; Char- Hartmann 2008);perceiveddeficitsofnationalhigh- tion systemsinEurope(Charlier&Croché2008; were perceivedglobalpressuresonhighereduca- Higher EducationArea(EHEA)by2010.These Process in 1999 with the aim of creating a European 29 EuropeancountriestoembarkontheBologna Research generallyhighlightsthreefactorsthatled Expert intheField ofHigherEducation, Rabat Madonna Maroun , Swieqi Expert intheField ofHigherEducationandthe Christine Scholz of , EgyptandLebanon Southern Mediterranean: theCase Education ReformintheEasternand The BolognaProcessandHigher Strategics Sectors|Culture&Society Amin (1976-77) and Amin & Luckin (1996), namely Amin (1976-77) andAmin&Luckin(1996), Analysis advancedbyWallerstein (1998;1990); pendencies assuggested by the World Systems cess? Orisitevidenceof centre-peripheryde- ber Statesintheearlystages oftheBolognaPro- Tomusk (2004)suggestedforthe‘new’ EUMem- prochement withEurope,muchinthesamewayas 39-45) evidenceof theirintentiontoseekrap- ences linkedtotheBolognaProcess(Zgaga2006: southern Mediterraneaninseminarsandconfer- engagement ofcountriesfromtheeasternand in the eastern and southern Mediterranean. Is the closely therelationshipofEHEAwithcountries gna Processstresstheneedtoanalysemore These divergingmotivesforengagingintheBolo- 1995 (Tomusk 2004). in 2004,forwhichnegotiationshadcommenced ropean Union,particularlyinviewofitsenlargement as anopportunityforarapprochementwiththeEu- Othersappear tohaveseenit lier &Croché2008). operation vis-à-vistheircooperatingpartners(Char- maximising theirownnationalbenefitsfromthisco- their individualpromotionactivitiesinthehopeof eration, variouscountriesoftheEHEAsteppedup Despite thejointdeclarationsformultilateralcoop- by eachcountry. more effective than individual strategies undertaken Multilateral cooperationappearedtobe,therefore, tiveness withotherworldregions(Hartmann2008). tractiveness forskilledindividualsanditscompeti- were consideredasdeterminingfactorsforitsat- ket aswelltheconnectionbetweentwo Higher EducationAreaandEuropeanlabourmar- in Europe.Inparticular,thesizeofEuropean and competitivenessofhighereducationsystems effective strategytoincreasetheattractiveness through theBolognaProcesswasconsideredan of that,Europeancooperationinhighereducation

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 297 Strategics Sectors | Culture & Society Panorama IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 298 Strategics Sectors | Culture & Society Panorama between countries fromoutsideittowards the noticeable bothwithintheEHEA (Kwiek 2004)and ers. Theeffectsofsuchpush andpullfactorsare being more‘attractive’ forthebesttalentthanoth- among thecountries,resulting insomecountries of thedifferenceinsocio-economic development and graduatemobilityisnotuncontroversialinview However,facilitating student towards theEHEA. internationally –thus,aimingtocreateapull-factor projects thequalityofhighereducationinEHEA Process assuggestedabove.Apartfromthat,it ment ofthe‘externaldimension’ of theBologna ates within and towards the EHEA– a central ele- turn supportsthemobilityofstudentsandgradu- periods betweenonecountryandanother.Thisin it eases the recognition of qualifications and study importance fromaninternationalperspective,since national qualityassurancesystemsisofparticular Facilitating thecomparabilityofandmutualtrustin in Europe of highereducationsystems attractiveness andcompetitiveness effective strategytoincreasethe Process wasconsideredan education throughtheBologna European cooperationinhigher ance systems. bility andmutualtrustbetweennationalqualityassur- at nationallevelandincreasecomparability, compati- higher educationinstitutionstoexternalexpectations structural reformstoensuretheaccountabilityof systemic changeinhighereducation,alongside surance hasgainedimportanceinbringingabouta In theBolognaProcessdiscourseonqualityas- Compatibility andtheirLinktoMobility Quality Assurance,Comparabilityand combination ofboth? force.” (Amin1976-77:47)Orisitevidenceofa periphery hasbornethecostoftrainingthislabour skilled individualsfromSouthtoNorth,“sincethe to thecentre” (Amin1976-77:47)byattracting as “adisguisedtransferofvaluefromtheperiphery education systems intheEHEA? seeking comparabilityandcompatibility withhigher be interested in implementing such reforms and why shouldothercountries and regionsoftheworld gna Process,who may influence its discourse? And, the highereducationreforms arisingfromtheBolo- cerns regardingtheconsequencesofimplementing If countriesformingpartoftheEHEAvoicesuchcon- and another study periodsbetweenonecountry recognition ofqualificationsand perspective, sinceiteasesthe importance fromaninternational assurance systemsisofparticular and mutual trustinnationalquality Facilitating thecomparabilityof (Kwiek 2004:770). ket (likeforexample,theUKorNetherlands)? tions andagoodshareintheglobaleducationmar- tutions fromthecountrieswithstrongmarkettradi- with thecountriesofregiononpartinsti- ation andsolidarityasdrivingmotivesincontacts European partners.Canweimaginesheercooper- ity’ spiritpresentedatthesametimeto(central) non-European globalcompetitorswiththe‘solidar- combine the‘competitive’ spiritpresentedtothe ly highlylucrative,disciplines.Itmaybehardto to CentralandEasternEuropeinvarious,butmost- and somearealreadyexportersofhighereducation tries arealreadyglobalplayersinhighereducation; ‘cooperation’ and ‘competition’ since: some coun- within andoutsidetheEHEAmayaffectspiritof ments. Kwiek (2004)argues thatsuchdevelopments tion at national level that arises from such develop- vision ofhighereducationandtheneedforregula- is importantinviewofincreasingcross-borderpro- tions toexternalexpectationsatnational level. This sure theaccountabilityofhighereducationinstitu- Besides that,qualityassurancealsoseekstoen- the EHEA. ther facilitatethemobilityofbesttalenttowards tion ofqualificationsforeigngraduatesmayfur- higher educationreformsthatimprovetherecogni- Therefore,embarkingon EHEA (Shawa2008). quirement (CHE 2006). Indeed,only twooutof quirement (CHE 2006). cil forHigherEducationin 2006hadnosuchre- ommendations andguidelines issuedbytheCoun- while therec- the majorityforeigners(CHE 2013), bers ofthequalityevaluation committeesmustbein surance regulationsinIsrael stressthatthemem- de-nationalisation ofhighereducation.Qualityas- ity in higher education in Israelistheprogressive Another notabledifferenceinthediscourseonqual- EHEA perse economic powersratherthanthe with the USorformercolonial by theaimofstrengtheningties Reforms mayhavebeeninfluenced dovitch &Soen2010). (Bernstein 2002;Davidovitch&Iram2009;Davi- stratification ofIsrael’shigher education system to serveparticularlytheirinterestsinsustainingthe diverse setofhighereducationinstitutionsappears comparative approachtoqualityassuranceacrossa 2002; Lieven&Graeme2006;Geva-May2001)this assurance ofhighereducationinIsrael(Bernstein for HigherEducation,whichisresponsiblequality versities inthegovernancestructuresofCouncil mind thestronginfluenceofresearchintensiveuni- Bearingin higher educationinstitutionsintheEHEA. trast tothefocusonexternalqualityassuranceof ject areaacrosshighereducationinstitutions,incon- rael suggestsafocusonqualityassurancebysub- Research ontheprocessofqualityassuranceinIs- The ExampleofIsrael nial economicpowersratherthantheEHEAperse. of strengtheningtieswiththeUSorformercolo- Instead, reformsmayhavebeeninfluencedbytheaim sult ofcooperationwiththeEHEAoraresponsetoit. questionable towhatextentthesereformsarethere- southern Mediterraneanarenoticeable.However,itis tween countriesoftheEHEAandeastern Indeed similaritiesinreformsonqualityassurancebe- Mediterranean Quality AssuranceinHigherEducationthe en controlover highereducationinstitutions. ternal expectations,mayhave beenusedtostrength- accountability ofhighereducation institutionstoex- on qualityassurance,which seekstoincreasethe reference tofundingconditionalities orthediscourse It appears, therefore, that such 2009: 41, 47). reforms inatop-downfashion(ArabRepublicof resolve toovercomethisresistancebypursuingthe Bank project. Nevertheless, it expressly stated its versities tothereformspursuedthroughthisWorld cation formed part, also noted the resistance of uni- national qualityassuranceframeworkonhigheredu- hancement project,ofwhichthedevelopment public of Egypt (2009) on the higher education en- Besides that,thefinalprojectreportofArabRe- dialogue withtheEHEA. and peripheryratherthanbeinginspiredbyapolicy ties withtheformercolonialpowerorbetweencentre pear tobemoreaimedatstrengtheningeconomic discourse fromtheBolognaProcess.Thus,theyap- ing fromWorld Bankloansratherthanbythepolicy Assurance AgencyoftheUKandconditionsfund- influenced by external consultancy from the Quality However,thesedevelopmentsappear 2006; 2009). education institutions(ArabRepublicofEgypt2004; accreditation andexternalqualityassuranceofhigher mirror morecloselythetieredstructureofprogramme Developments onqualityassuranceinEgyptseemto The ExampleofEgypt States, ratherthanwiththeEHEA. education andresearchinstitutionsintheUnited cation systemappearstobemoreinlinewithhigher experts werefromtheUS.Thus,Israel’shigher edu- the US.Indeed,in17outof32instancesallforeign 32 casesthemajority of foreignexperts were from view ofthat,itisinterestingtonotethatin28out fluences onIsrael’shighereducationsystem.In the CouncilforHigherEducationtoseekforeignin- in 27cases.Thisclearlyindicatesamajoreffortby made upthemajorityofevaluationcommittees 2005/2006 and2011/2012foreignevaluators ciplines carriedoutbetweentheacademicyear comparison, outof32evaluationsacademicdis- carried outbyamajority of foreignevaluators.In out duringtheacademicyear2005/2006,were seven evaluationsofacademicdisciplines,carried

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 299 Strategics Sectors | Culture & Society Panorama IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 300 Strategics Sectors | Culture & Society Panorama and human expertise, in addition to the current re- sectarian interference,limited monetaryresources Political and ted tothegovernment(MEHE, 2011). pared andcompletedon14/12/2010 andsubmit- agency wasinitiatedinthe form ofadraftlawpre- and one AMIDEAST project that a Lebanese QA fact, itisthroughEuropeanfundedTempus projects both institutionsandMinistries.(Tempus, 2012)In perts, whodisseminateinformationonBolognato apart fromtheTempus HigherEducationReformEx- porting the implementation of the Bologna Process In ,thereisnospecificmechanismforsup- Canadian systemrespectively. versities follow the European,American, Araband words, French,American, Arab, and Canadian uni- cies fromthecorrespondingcountryaswell.Inother try it is affiliated to and gets evaluated by QA agen- institution followstheeducationsystemofcoun- and muchinfluencedbyforeignforceswhereeach in Lebanonhastraditionallybeenaverydiverseone autonomy and freedom, the higher education arena available. Astheinstitutionshaveahighdegreeof ity havebeenthesolequalityassurancemeasures vidual institutions’ endeavourstomaintaintheirqual- to regulateandmonitorinstitutionalquality, theindi- With theabsenceofanationalregulativeframework ference ofArabministersHEinDubai2007. 2007-2013) and the recommendations of the con- as mentionedintheEUcountrystrategypaper(ENP, sure toestablishanationalqualityassuranceagency thereisagrowinginternationalpres- 2007/2008), Inadditiontothenationalneed(DGHE, ject, 2013). Lebanese QualityAssuranceAgency-TLQAAPro tation of the whole national system (Towards the some highereducationinstitutionsaffectstherepu- ing regionalcompetitionwheretheweakqualityof agency. Thisneedcomesasaresponsetothegrow- locally callsfortheestablishmentofanationalQA crease inthenumberofhighereducationinstitutions assurance agencies.However,therecentrapidin- some selecteduniversities,throughforeignquality sured throughinstitutionalcompetitivenessand,for ing bytheMinistry, qualityassurancewasbeingen- simple processofauditing.Beyondthisinitiallicens- higher educationinstitutionsthroughexercisinga cation hasbeenresponsibleforthelicensingofnew In Lebanon,theDirectorateGeneralofHigherEdu- The ExampleofLebanon EHEA. However,justbecause similaritiesmaybe EHEA. and consultancyfromindividual countrieswithinthe Bologna Processdiscourse aswellonfunding and tothisendmaydraw differentextentsonthe own nationalinterestsforhigher educationreform eastern andsouthernMediterranean pursuetheir Overall thesefindingssuggestthatcountriesinthe Conclusions with theEHEA. main Lebaneseeducationambianceisinphase funds andconsultancywhichensuresthatthe a national quality assurance agency based on EU through itsworkonpavingthewaytoestablishing has influencedtheLebanesehighereducation evaluation. ThismeansthattheBolognaprocess pus projectandhaveagreedtoperformthepilot universities havebeeninvolvedintheTLQAATem- non Europeansystemofeducation;thosesame well-established universitiesthatinitiallyfolloweda process hasnodirectinfluenceonthefewold agency. Furthermore, even though the Bologna who havenotoptedforaforeignqualityassurance ments, aswellanumberofthenewuniversities, which has around 40% of the total students’ enrol- only publicuniversity, theLebaneseUniversity, spired byEuropeanstandards,caninfluencethe tially adoptedtheBolognareforms,anNQAin- In additiontotheoldFrenchuniversitieswhoini- reciprocal cooperation not implytheexistenceofsoundand southern Mediterraneanthisdoes countries intheeasternand education reformintheEHEAand drawn betweenstrategiesforhigher Just becausesimilaritiesmaybe cation institutions. QA throughapilotevaluationofseveralhigheredu- QA modelbyemulatingthefunctioningofexternal hasbeendevelopingaLebanese project, TLQAA, such alaw. 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