Host-Parasite Interactions: the Parvilucifera Sinerae Model in Marine Microalgae

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Host-Parasite Interactions: the Parvilucifera Sinerae Model in Marine Microalgae Host-parasite interactions: The Parvilucifera sinerae model in marine microalgae Elisabet Alacid Fernández Directora: Dra. Esther Garcés Pieres Dept. Biologia Marina i Oceanografia Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC) Maig 2017 Tesi doctoral presentada per a l’ obtenció del títol de Doctor per la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Programa de Doctorat de Ciències del Mar RESUM DE LA TESI El parasitisme és una interacció generalitzada, que ha evolucionat pràcticament en totes les branques de l'arbre de la vida. Històricament no s’ha tingut en compte en l'estudi dels sistemes microbians marins, limitant el coneixement de les xarxes tròfiques marines i dels cicles biogeoquímics. Recentment, les eines moleculars han revelat moltes associacions hoste-paràsit fins ara desconegudes, situant els paràsits com a components clau de les comunitats planctòniques i bentòniques marines. El fitoplàncton sosté la major part de la producció primària, i de vegades causa proliferacions massives que poden tenir conseqüències negatives per als éssers humans i l'ecosistema. Les proliferacions de dinoflagel·lades sovint tenen lloc en la zona costanera, i co-ocorren amb paràsits de tipus zoosporic. En ocasions concretes, les infeccions causades pels paràsits poden ser la causa principal de mortalitat de les dinoflagel·lades, regulant la fi de la proliferació, de manera que s’ha suggerit el seu ús com a agents de control biològic. En la actualitat, hi ha descrits tres grups de paràsits eucariotes de dinoflagel·lades: els Amoebophrya (Sindinial), els Parvilucifera (Perkinsozoa) i els Dinomyces (Chytridiomycota). Ja que aquests paràsits poden controlar l'abundància dels seus hostes, poden afectar la dinàmica del fitoplàncton, l’estructura de la comunitat i la seva diversitat. Tanmateix, se sap molt poc sobre la seva ecologia i diversitat. El gènere Parvilucifera és un dels grups que s’han descrit recentment dins dels Perkinsozoa. Aquest gènere comprèn 5 espècies, la majoria descrites recentment. La major part del seu coneixement inclou les seqüències del 18S rDNA, que permeten la seva classificació filogenètica, i els caràcters morfològics rellevants taxonòmicament. Per a això, la present tesi té com a objectiu entendre millor les interaccions hoste-paràsit de les comunitats planctòniques marines estudiant el sistema P. sinerae-dinoflagel·lades com a model. La seva interacció s’ha estudiat a diferents escales, des de cèl·lula a cèl·lula, a la població i a escala de comunitat, combinant l’experimentació al laboratori i l’estudi de camp. La combinació de tècniques de microscòpia i eines moleculars, ha permès la descripció del cicle de vida del P. sinerae i la seva cinètica d'infecció. El P. sinerae té un cicle de vida directe que causa la mort de l’hoste, amb un temps de generació curt i una alta taxa de reproducció, produint una gran descendència a partir d'una sola infecció (Capítol 1). També hem identificat el sulfur de dimetil com el senyal químic que activa les zoòspores dins de l’esporangi, provocant el seu alliberament (Capítol 2). La nostra capacitat de cultivar el P. sinerae i les dinoflagel·lades, ha permès fer experiments d'infecció creuada, resultant en la classificació del P. sinerae com un paràsit generalista capaç d'infectar 15 gèneres de dinoflagel·lades (Capítol 3). A més, es va determinar que P. sinerae té preferència per certes espècies d’hoste, on assoleix una alta taxa de reproducció i de transmissió (Capítol 4). L'estudi de la detecció a la natura dels Parvilucifera i l’estimació del flux d’infecció usant trampes de sediments, ens ha permès caracteritzar i quantificar l'ocurrència, la dinàmica i l'impacte de la infecció per Parvilucifera durant les proliferacions de l’Alexandrium minutum (Capítol 5). Hem demostrat que aquestes proliferacions sempre van acompanyades per infeccions dels Parvilucifera, presentant una dinàmica temporal similar a la de la interacció entre depredador i presa, i contribuint a la fi de la proliferació amb una magnitud similar a d'altres factors biològics. L'anàlisi d'aquesta relació a diferents escales ha permès concloure que la dinàmica dels Parvilucifera està ben adaptada a la dels seus hostes, que formen aquestes proliferacions estacionals, les quals faciliten la transmissió dels Parvilucifera, mantenint-se la població de paràsits en ambients costaners marins. SUMMARY OF THE THESIS Parasitism is a widespread interaction that has evolved practically in all branches of the tree of life. It has historically been neglected in studies of marine microbial systems, limiting our understanding of marine food webs and biogeochemical cycles. Molecular tools have recently revealed many new host-parasite associations, placing parasites as key components of coastal marine planktonic and benthic communities. Phytoplankton sustains most of the marine primary production, sometimes causing massive proliferations or blooms, which may have negative consequences for humans and the ecosystem. Dinoflagellate blooms often occur in coastal areas, sometimes in co-occurrence with zoosporic parasite species. Occasionally, parasitic infections may be the main cause of dinoflagellate mortality, which can modulate bloom termination and consequently, their use has been suggested to biologically control natural blooms. Up to date, three groups of eukaryotic parasites of dinoflagellates have been described: Amoebophrya (Syndiniales), Parvilucifera (Perkinsozoa) and Dinomyces (Chytridiomycota). Such parasites can control the abundance of their hosts populations, and hence they can also affect phytoplankton dynamics, community structure and diversity. However, very little is still known about the ecology and diversity of these parasites, especially Parvilucifera and Dinomyces. Parvilucifera genus is one of the recently described groups of Perkinsozoa. To date, the genus comprises only 5 species, some of them described very recently. Most of the knowledge about this genus is related to the 18S rDNA sequences that allow its phylogenetic classification, and also with the morphological characters valuable for taxonomy studies. For this reason, this PhD thesis aims to better understand the microbial host-parasite interactions of marine planktonic communities by studying P. sinerae- dinoflagellates as a model system. Here we studied these host-parasite interactions at different scales, from cell-cell, to population and at community level, combining laboratory experiments and field studies. The use of several microscope techniques and molecular tools (TSA-FISH) have allowed the characterization of the life-cycle of P. sinerae and the kinetics of the infection stages. P. sinerae has a direct life cycle that causes the host death, with a short generation time and a high asexual reproduction rate, producing a huge offspring from a single infection (Chapter 1). Moreover, we unequivocally identified dymethilsulfide as the chemical cue that triggers zoospore activation and release from the dormant sporangium (Chapter 2). Our capacity to culture both partners of the association in the lab, P. sinerae and dinoflagellates, allowed for a series of cross-infection experiments, which resulted in the designation of P. sinerae as a generalist parasitoid, being able to infect up to 15 genera of dinoflagellates (Chapter 3). Furthermore, we determined that P. sinerae exhibits preferences for certain host species, which enhance parasitoid reproduction rate and transmission (Chapter 4). The study of in situ Parvilucifera detection and estimates of the flux of infected host cells using sediment traps has allowed us to unveil the occurrence, dynamics, and impact of Parvilucifera infection during Alexandrium minutum natural blooms (Chapter 5). We showed that outbreaks of the dinoflagellate A. minutum were always accompanied by Parvilucifera infections, presenting a host-parasitoid temporal dynamic similar to predator-prey interactions, and contributing to bloom decrease with a similar magnitude than other biological loss factors. The analysis of this relationship at different scales has provided the necessary information to conclude that the ecology of Parvilucifera is well adapted to that of its blooming hosts, whose seasonal proliferations enhance Parvilucifera transmission, sustaining the parasitic populations in marine coastal environments. 1 Contents General Introduction 3 Types of association between organisms – Interspecies interactions ......................................5 Parasitism...................................................................................................................................5 Relevance of parasitism in marine planktonic communities......................................................7 Phytoplankton in coastal ecosystems: dinoflagellate blooms..................................................12 Zoosporic parasites of dinoflagellates......................................................................................14 Parvilucifera parasitoids (Perkinsozoa, Alveolata) .....................................................................16 Aims of the thesis 19 Chapter 1: New insights into the parasitoid Parvilucifera sinerae life cycle: the development and kinetics of infection of a bloom-forming dinoflagellate host 25 Introduction..............................................................................................................................27 Material and Methods..............................................................................................................29 Results .....................................................................................................................................33
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