The EAAP Series is published under the direction of Siem Korver and Jean Boyazoglu

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Organizing committee J.H.M. Metz (chairman), Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Wageningen, Netherlands J.G. de Wilt (secretary), Directorate for Agricultural Research, Wageningen, Netherlands A.C. Smits (finance), Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Wageningen, Netherlands P.L. Bergström, Research Institute for Animal Production 'Schoonoord', Zeist, Netherlands Tj. de Boer, Commodity Board for Livestock and Meat, Rijswijk, Netherlands A.E. van de Braak, Denkavit Nederland B.V., Voorthuizen, Netherlands J. den Hartog, Commodity Board for Feedstuffs, The Hague, Netherlands I.P.Jorna , D.M.V. Campina, Veghel, Netherlands G.J.M. van Kempen, TNO Institute for Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Wageningen, Netherlands D. Oostendorp, Extension Service for Cattle Production, Lelystad, Netherlands M.W.A. Verstegen, Department of Animal Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands

Sponsors Protein Technologies International, St. Louis, MO, USA (main sponsor) Ministry of Agriculture, Nature management and Fisheries, The Hague, Netherlands Directorate for Agricultural Research, Wageningen, Netherlands Alpuro B.V., Uddel, Netherlands Denkavit Nederland B.V., Voorthuizen, Netherlands Commodity Board for Livestock and Meat, Rijswijk, Netherlands Gardenbroek's Veevoederfabriek 'Navobi' B.V., Elspeet, Netherlands N.V. Nukamel S.A., Olen, Belgium Real Veal Inc., Ixonia, Wi, USA CV. 'Sloten', Deventer, Netherlands New trends in veal calf production

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Veal Calf Production, Wageningen, Netherlands, 14-16 March 1990 (EAAP Publication No. 52, 1991)

J.H.M. Metz and CM. Groenestein (Editors)

"Y Pudoc Wageningen 1991

57, CIP-data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

ISBN 90-220-1016-3 NUGI 835

© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc), Wageningen, Netherlands, 1991.

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Printed in the Netherlands. Contents

Preface 1

1. Veal production overth eworl d

Dutch policy on vealproductio n— R. Woudstra 5 Vealproductio n inth eEuropea n Community —Tj. de Boer 8 Vealproductio n inNort h America— R. Groenevelt 16 2. Animal welfare

Needs andwelfar e of housed calves— D.M. Broom 23 Effects of breed andearl y social environment oncal f behaviour —P. Le Neindre 32 Ethological andphysiologica l reactions of vealcalve s in group-housing systems— C. Müller& M.C.Schlichung 36 Effects of housing onresponse s of vealcalve s tohandlin g and transport —H.R. Trunkfleld, D.M.Broom, K.Maatje, H.K.Wierenga &E. Lambooy 40 Behaviour of vealcalve si nindividua l stalls and grouppen s— J.L.Albright, D.K.Stouffer & N.J.Kenyon 44 Spatialrequirement s of individually housed veal calves of 175t o 300k g — C.C. Ketelaar- deLauwere &.A.C. Smits 49 Development of abnormal oral behaviour in group-housed vealcalves : effects of roughage supply— J. Kooijman, H.K. Wierenga & P.R.Wiepkema 54

3. Housing and management

Group housing of veal calves— A.C.Smits & J.G.deWilt 61 Loose-housing experiencei nNort h America— T. Tomkins 67 Automated feeding of milkreplace r and health control of group-housed veal calves— K. Maatje & J. Verhoeff 11 Effects of computerized milkfeede r on behaviour andwelfar e of calves —V. Ferrante, E. Canali, M.Verga &C. Carenzi 76 Health of vealcalve si n4 systems ofindividua l housingdurin g thefirs t weeks of thefattenin g period— E. ter Wee, H.K.Wierenga, LP. Jorna & A.C. Smits 81 Applicability of natural ventilation in veal-calf houses: atheoretica l approach —A. van 'tOoster 85 Purification of vealcal f manure— PJ.W. ten Have, H.C.Willers & W.G.J.M. vanTongeren 95

4. Health andcar e

Control of infectious diseasei n housed vealcalve s— AJ.F. Webster 103 Ruminaidrinkin gi n vealcalve s— A. vanWeeren-Keverling Buisman, Th. Wensing, HJ. Breukink& J.M.V.M. Mouwen 113 Abomasal ulcers invea lcalves :pathogenesi s and prevention —H.J. Breukink, Th.Wensing & J.M.V.M. Mouwen 118 Thermal demand of one-week-oldcalve s attw ofeedin g levels —J.W. Schrama, W. v.d. Hel & M.WA. Verstegen 123 5. Welfare legislation

Proposed legislation by theEuropea n Community onprotectio n of calves — AJ. Wilson 129 Intended welfare legislation on vealcalve si nWes tGerman y —G. Baumgartner 132 French view ona vea lcal f legislation— P. Le Neindre & J. Wintergerst 135 Current state of vealcal f welfare discussions inth eUS Aan d Canada — S.E.Curtis 138

6. Marketing

Reviewo f vealconsumptio n inFranc e— J.Y. Coroller& Y. Toulhoat 143 Marketing strategies and quality control for veali nth eUnite d States —A. FollenweiderSr. 150 Market-oriented production of veal:a napproac h from practice— S.H.M. Metz 154 Bio-economic model todetermin e theeconomicall y optimum fattening period in vealproductio n — G.WJ. Giesen, T.E. Elema & A.F. Groen 158 Modelprogramm e forproductio n and marketingo f free-range veal —R.A.Brown _ 162

7. Meat quality and growth stimulants

Biochemical musclecharacteristic s andvea l quality traits— C. Valin 167 Quality controldurin g vealprocessing :a nevaluatio n of modern techniques —F. J. M. Smulders IIA Integrated quality control in vealproductio n —L.J.M.H. Senden, D. Oostendorp & J. vanden Berg 180 Useo f growth stimulants andresidu econtro l in North Americanvea l production— D.M. Kinsman 185 Multiresidue test for ß-agonistsi n avariet y of matrices— L.A. van Ginkel, R.W. Stephany, HJ. vanRossum & J.F aria 192

8. Nutrition: protein sources

Introductoryremarks : someaspect so f skim-milk replacement byothe r protein sources in veal-calf diets— G.J.M. vanKempen & J.Huisman 201 The surplus of milkprotein s for nutrition of vealcalve s —E. Hetzner 206 Alternativeprotei n usei ncal f milkreplacer s— C.W. Kolar& TJ. Wagner 211 Varyingprotei n levels in vealcal f finisher formulations —P. Schneider, D. Bakke & D.Bearda 111 Soluble wheatprotei n in milkreplace r for vealcalve s— A. DeLaporte & M.Demeersman 222 Digestibility andgrowt hperformanc e of solublewhea tprotei n for veal calves —G.H. Tolman & M.Demeersman ' 227 9. Nutrition:antinutritiona l factors

Nutritional significance of dietary soya antigens in milk substitutes for calves —J.W. Sissons& HE. Pedersen 237 Soyaantigen s and anti-soya-antibody formation incalve s— G.H. Tolman 241 Newdevelopment s in analysis of antinutritional factors —M.G. van Oort, R.J.Hamer & GM. Tolman 247 Intolerance tope aprotei n inth epreruminan tcalf— R.S. Bush,R. Toullec, I. Caugant& P. Guilloteau 253 Screeningtes tfo r trypsin inhibitor— J. Mol& J.Meijer 257 Influence ofcondition s ofprocessin g soyabean s on the contento f antinutritional factors —N. Dubbeldam 261

10. Nutrition: supplementation

Experimental data on themode s of action ofprobiotic s— P. Raibaud & J.P. Raynaud 269 Ferrokinetics in vealcalve s— G.A.J. Miltenburg, Th.Wensing, HJ. Breukink &J.J.M. Marx 276 Iron status of new-born calves andeffect s of supplementation with different amounts ofiro n in vealcal f fattening— Th.Wensing, GA J. Miltenburg &HJ. Breukink / 280 Dry feed supplements for fattening white vealcalve s— A.E. vande Braak &J. Mol 285 Vealproductio n with less milkreplace ri n theratio n supplemented with concentrates andmaiz e silage— PL. Bergström & M.Dijkstra 289 Use of by-pass proteins andiso-acid si n aheav y calf diet— LA. Drevjany 29A

Closing remarks:som eobservation s 299 Preface

Approximately 160peopl efro m eleven countries attendedth efirs t everInternationa lVea l Symposiumi nMarc h 1990.Thi ssymposiu mwa striggere db yth efac ttha tvea lcal fproductio n inEurop ean dNort hAmeric ai sstrongl yinfluence db ydevelopment srelate dt oanima lwelfare , milk quotas, nutrition, automation, waste management and marketing. Therefore, it seemed timelyfo r expertsfro m variouscountrie san ddiscipline st odiscus sth epotentia lan dprospect s for this branch of industry. Three days of presentations resulted in a tremendous amount of materialan ddiscussions .Peopl efro m different backgrounds (researchinstitutes ,th eindustr y and policy-makers) participated in the exchange of facts, ideas and expectations. Hopefully, this symposium hascontribute dt ofurthe r improvement andt one wdevelopment si nvea lcal f production andrelate d activities. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the help of the organizing committee in preparing this symposium.Thank s tothei rintensiv eeffort s the symposium washel dabou t sixmonth s after the organization started. In this context, the contribution of A.C. Smits and J.G. de Wilt as local organizers, and that of A.E. van de Braak and G.J.M, van Kempen in the programme organization deserve specialmention .T .Tomkin splaye da significan t rolei n theinitiativ e to holdth esymposium .Further , theorganizatio nwa sinvaluabl y helpedb yth efinancia l support of anumbe ro f organizations. Duet oth eshor tpreparatio n time,i twa simpossibl et ohav ea proceeding spublishe da tth e time of the meeting. Although draft manuscripts were ready, much work still needed to be done.Member so fth eorganizin gcommitte ean dals oG.H . Tolmanar eacknowledge dfo rthei r help with reviewing the papers. Karin CM. Groenestein did a tremendous job by taking responsibility for thefina l stageso freviewing ,revisin gan deditin gth ewhol eserie so fpapers . Trees E.M. Hettinga (AHoF, Friesland) handled the preparation of the computer version. Finally, with oneexceptio n allpaper s could beinclude d in thisproceedings . TheInstitut eo fAgricultura lEngineerin g atWageninge nacte da sth ehos tinstitute .Directo r A.A. Jongebreur is acknowledged for the institute's facilities, services and whole-hearted support.

J.H.M. Metz 1. Vealproductio n overth eworl d Dutch policy on veal production

R.Woudstr a Directorof Animal Husbandry andDairying. Ministry ofAgriculture, Nature Management andFisheries, TheHague, NL

Introduction Cooperation isincreasin g throughout the world, asca n besee nfrom th edevelopment si n theE Ctoward sth ecompletio no fth einterna lmarke ti n 1992,recen tdevelopment si nEaster n Europe, andth e GATT negotiations. Research andpolic y should be oriented broadly and internationally.Th esymposiu m 'Newtrend si nvea lcal fproduction 'coul dcontribut et o future cooperation, toth e benefit ofal lit sparticipants . The long-term agricultural policy of the Netherlands was laid down last year in the Memorandum onth e Future Structure of Agriculture. Theobjectiv e of this policy isa safe , sustainable andcompetitiv e agriculture. Thekeyword s arequality , welfare, health and the environment.

Thevea lcal fsecto ri nth e Netherlands Inth eNetherlands ,th edevelopmen to fth evea lcal f sectori sclosel ylinke dt odevelopment s in thedair y sector. Inth epas t 30years , thedair y sector has become thelarges t agricultural sector,wit h almost 1.9millio ncow s anda tota lproductio no f 11 million tonnesmil kpe ryear . Vealproductio n becamea nimportan teconomi cactivit yi nth e 1950s,base do nth erevaluatio n of the by-products ofth e dairy industry: milk powder anda surplu s ofcalves .Bu twhe nth e milk quota system was introduced in 1984,th e position ofth e veal calf sector became more difficult. The number ofdair y cows fell, resulting infewe r new-born calves available to the vealindustry .A tth esam etime ,fee d costsros ebecaus eo fth ereductio ni nth evolum eo fmil k powder. Eighty-five percent of total veal production from theNetherland s isexported , largelyt o Italy,Franc e andWes tGermany . Some9 0percen to fproductio n comesfro m farms thathav e financial contracts with thecal f milk industry. Thesecto r is therefore characterized by the limitedindependenc e ofth eproducers .

Animalwelfar e policyan d research

Public concern about farm animal welfare hasincrease d inrecen t decades,partl y because of intensification of production methods. Inresponse , various institutes started researcho n animalwelfare , inorde rt odevelo pcriteri at omeasur eanima lwelfare .Later ,researc h focused on thedevelopmen t ofalternativ e housing systems. The Dutch industry recognized the importance ofresearc h onanima l welfare quite early on. In 1978, theFar m Animal Welfare Fund wasinstitute d by the Commodity Board for Feedstuffs in order to stimulate thedevelopmen t of alternative housing systems. The Fund contributed about 10millio n Dutch guildersi n 10years ,whic h was about 10pe r cento fth e totalcost so fresearc h onanima l welfare inth eNetherland s overtha tperiod .Th eresource so f theFun d areallocate d by theFar m AnimalWelfar e Committee.Producers , supplierso fmil k replacer, theanima l welfare organization andgovernmen t officials were represented inthi s Committee. Variousresearc h institutes haveworke do n agrou phousin g system for vealcalves .Grou p housingi sno wuse do n about 13 percen to fth evea lfarm s andi ti sfunctionin g satisfactorily. The further improvement and commercialization of these systems by the industry will be supported by additional research. As regards individual housing,researc h has been doneo n theminimu m ethologically acceptable cratesizes . Dutchpolic yo nfar m animalwelfar e andth eharmonizatio no fthi spolic ywithi no fth eE C arelargel y based on theresult s of thisresearch . Abalance dpolic y on animal welfare should take into account the interests of animals as well as of the producers. Therefore at national level, the government hasconsulte d theindustr y and theDutc h Society for theProtectio no f Animalsabou tpolic yproposal sfo rlegislation ,an dextension .Th eE CCouncil' sproposa l for minimum standards for the housing of veal calves, which focuses on group housing was importanti nthes ediscussions .Welfar e measurestha tmigh taffec t thecompetitiv epositio no f the sector should be regulated within the framework of the EC. Furthermore, present-day housing systems cannot be abolished before there are alternatives acceptable, in terms of animal welfare andfarmin g practice.Finally ,th edestructio n of capitalinvestmen t should be avoided. This can be done by allowing for sufficiently long terms of depreciation so that investments can be slotted intonorma l farm management. Now that the principles and perspectives of the group housing system are known, it is primarily theindustry' s ownresponsibilit y todevelo p these systems further and tointroduc e themo nfarms .I nth ecomin gyears ,researc hmus tfocu so nimprovin gth ehealt ho fcâl fgroup - housing systems.

Feeding Thediminishin g supplyo f skimmed milkpowde rha sle dt oa rise i nfee d costs.Thi sma y necessitatechange s in thefeed , for examplereplacin go f animalprotei n byvegetabl eprotein . From thepoin to f view of welfare, the supply of someroughag e isdesirable . In the near future, research must focus on appropriate feeding systems, adequate rations andimprove d feeding equipment.

Growth promoters

An aspect which hasregularl y caused negativepublicit y is growth promoters.Th eDutc h policyo ngrowt hpromoter scomplie swit hth epolic yo nregisterin gfee dadditive sa tEuropea n level.Accordin g tothis ,growt h promoters should • be effective; • haven oadvers eeffec t onanima lhealth ; • leaven oresidue s which areo rma yb eharmfu l topubli c healthi n theen dproducts ; • haven oharmfu l impact onth e environment. In the future, theregulation s about residues in the end-product will become stricter. Product safety and theconsumer' s attitudewil l be taken intoaccount .Furthermore , the safeguarding of animalhealt h andanima lwelfar e willb e emphasized. In addition, theE C policy is aimed at approving products for which no waitingperio d is required.Product s requiring awaitin gperio d increase therisk o f unintentional orintentiona l mistakeso nth epar to fth efarmer .Thi swil lmak eth eapprova lo fne wgrowt hpromoter smor e difficult. It is very important for Dutch farmers to comply with the EC regulations, not only to safeguardpubli chealth ,anima lhealth ,an dth eenvironment ,bu tals ot oensur eth eundisturbe d export of animal products. The industry should bear responsibility for the proper use of registered growthpromoter s anddevelo pa n adequate quality assurance system. Quality Toimprov eth equalit yo fth eveal ,i ti svita lt omeasur equalit y aspectsi nth evariou slink s in theproductio n chain. It is essential to obtain relevant information and topas s it on toth e preceding and subsequent phases of production.Objectiv e qualityparameter s must bedeve ­ loped: several projects tod o this arecurrentl y inprogress .Whe n theresult s are available,a n integrated system ofqualit y control will beintroduce d throughout theproductio n chain.Th e aim of this system will be to enable the different links to coordinate their management with thehel p of information from the otherlink s in theproductio n chain.

Environment The Netherlands is one of thefirst countrie s to be confronted with problems of environ­ mentalpollutio nresultin gfro m ahig hconcentratio no fanima lproduction .Th eenvironmenta l problems consist of a surplus of manure ando f NH3emission . In thevea lcal f sector therei s a surplus of 1.5 million tonnes of calf slurry, out of a total production of 2.5millio n tonnes. Mosto fthi ssurplu si streate dcentrall yi ncalf-slurry-processin g units.Thi si sa ver yexpensiv e process.Th evea lcal f sectorcontribute s littlet oNH 3emission .

Prospects , The veal industry faces important choices both at sector level and at farm level. Animal welfare andhealth ,th eenvironmenta lproblem s andrequirement s concerningproduc tqualit y will have an important influence on the prospects for this sector. The necessary investments will put heavy pressure on the sector's profitability. In the long term, however, there are sufficient prospectsfo ra vea lproductio n sector,althoug hperhap so na smalle rscale ,tha ttake s market trends and consumer opinion into account. In the Netherlands investments in regula­ tions to deal with environmental pollution will be relatively high. This means that the cost price of veal must bereduce d if Dutch veal is to maintain acompetitiv e position in theEC . Therear econsiderabl edifference s infar mresults ,suggestin gther ei sscop efo r improvements thatwil lreduc e costs.Th efarmer' s ownresponsibilit y toimplemen t suchimprovement s will have tob eemphasized . Group housing and alimite d supply of roughage may bepar t of aproductio n system that is morei n line with the needs of theanimal s andth edemand s of society. The choices indicated above should be based on information. An important part of this information is generated through research. Theexchang e ofresearc h results will lead tone w ideasan dne winitiatives .Thi s symposium willundoubtedl y contributet oth eadaptation san d changes neededi n thevea lcal f sector. Veal production in the European Community

Tj. de Boer CommodityBoard for Livestockand Meat, P.O. Box 5805,2280 ZH Rijswijk,NL

Summary

Vealproductio n in theEuropea n Comunity (EC) depends much on the dairy production. Foryears ,th eproductio n ofvea lincrease d with theincrease d numbero fdair ycow s andwit h the availability of skimmed milk powder asa resul t of ECpolicy . Since 1984,a milk quota system has caused an annual decline in dairy and veal production. In 1989, the total veal production was about 79000 0 tons (10%les s than in 1988).Wes tGerman y andFranc e (the majorproducin gcountry ,wit h39 %o ftota lE Cvea lproduction ) showedth esharpes tdecline . InItal y andth eNetherland s (with 25% and 19%o f thetota lproduction) ,th edeclin ewa sonl y small.A furthe r reduction of vealproductio n isforecast . Alsoth edeclin e in consumption of thelas tfe wyear s(9 %les si n 1989)wil lcontinue .Mos to fth evea li sbein gconsume di nFranc e andItal y(44 %an d32 %o ftota lE Cconsumption ,respectively) .Th eE Cha sa self-sufficiency ratefo rvea lo f 115.Thi scause s anexpor to fveal .Withi nth eEC ,th eNetherland si sth e major exporter (over 90%o f theirproduction) ; Italy is the major importer.Fo r several reasons,th e profitability of vealproductio n isbein greduce d for allpart s ofth etota lproductio n column. Descriptors:veal ;production ; consumption; European Community.

Introduction In theEC ,vea lproductio n is closely related todair yproduction .Fo ryears ,productio n of vealha dincrease dwit hth eincrease dnumbe ro fdair ycow san dwit hth eE Cpolic yo nskimme d milkpowder . After several fruitless attempts tointroduc e measures tolimi t milk production, amil kquot asyste mwa sintroduce di nMarc h 1984.Thi squot asyste maffecte d vealproductio n toa larg eextent . The quota system has also affected the whole dairy industry. The availability of skimmed milkpowde r (e.g.fro m intervention stocks)particularl y stimulated vealproductio nfo r years. Vealproductio ni snamel ybase do nth efeedin g ofonly ,o ralmos tonly ,mil ko rmil kreplacers . Thisresult si na whit eo rpin kcoloure dmeat .Th emea ti sver ytende ra slon ga syoun ganimal s are slaughtered atweight s between 100k g and20 0kg .

Milk quotasyste m

With the introduction of the milk quota system in the EC, the number of dairy cattle has decreased significandy and thisdeclin e willcontinu e until the year2000 , asexpert s predict. By 1991ther emigh t bea reductio n of 20%relativ et o 1984(almos t2 6millio ndair ycattl ei n 1984,abou t2 0millio ni n 1991) .Thi sreductio nresult si nabou t75 %les scalve savailabl efro m thedair yherd sfo rbee fan dvea lproduction .Besides ,th enumbe ro fbee fcattl eha sonl yslightl y increased. Increased milk yield of individual cows will also cause an additional decrease of dairycattl ei ncomin gyears .Th esmalle rnumbe ro fdair ycow swil lparticularl yaffec t thevea l production, where it is almost entirely dairy calves that enter this sector of meat production. In 1989,23 %o f all the calves born entered veal production (still 25.2% in 1988). In 1989, 10.9%o ftota lbee fan dvea lproductio ncomprise dveal ,compare dt o11.6 %i n 1988.Moreove r the dairy farmer is more interested in crossbreeding some of his cattle with beef bulls. The crossbredcalve sar edestine dfo rbee fproductio nt oa larg eextent .I nothe rwords ,thi stendenc y willals oreduc eth enumbe ro fcalve sintende dfo rvea lproduction .O fcourse ,th eE Creduce d the options for intervention for beef.Nevertheles s a small increase of beef production in the EC is expected. For the last two years, the beef market has proved to function fairly well withoutth eunderpinnin g of theinterventio n system. All the effects work in only one direction: adecreas e of the vealproduction . In the last 3 years, the numbero f slaughtersdecrease dconsiderably : in 1989,agai n by7.5 %compare d to 1988.

Vealconsumptio n Thetren di nvea lconsumptio ni nth eE Ci so fmajo rinteres tfo rth ewhol eo fvea lproduction . Inth eE C most of the veal is beingconsume d inFranc e and Italy (29900 0 and21 8 000ton s of carcass weight in 1989,respectively , which is 44% and 32% of total consumption in the EC).Tota lconsumptio n ofvea lwa sabou t69 000 0ton si n 1989.A shar pdeclin ei nconsump ­ tion in 1988 wasrepeate d in 1989 (estimated at 8.6% less).Thi s means that over atw o year period themarke t fell by 18%.A surve y ofvea lconsumptio n is given inTabl e 1. Thedeclin eresulte d from supply anddeman d factors: • the substantial decline of theproductio n resulted inmarke drise s in prices and soreduce d consumption,particularl y inFranc e • theimag eo fvea lha sbee naffecte d byconsume rconcern sabou tth eus eo fillega lhormone s andintensiv eproductio n techniques. / Trends inth e major consuming countries werea s follows. • InFrance ,ther ewa sanothe rshar pfal li nconsumptio n(- 8% )a sa resul to flowe rproductio n and aswitc h tocompetin gmeat s • InItaly ,a marke dfal loccurre da sa resul to fconsume rconcer nabou tillega lus eo fhormone s • The veal market in West Germany collapsed (-25%); the decline over atwo-yea r period hasbee nalmost—40% . Forecastsindicat eanothe rmarke tdeclin ei n 1990(-4.1%) .I n 1988,th econsumptio npe rhea d wasi nFranc e 5.8 kg,i nItal y about4 k g andi nWes tGerman y and theNetherland s lesstha n 2kg .Th edecrease dconsumptio n isals oreflecte d inth edevelopmen t of theconsumptio n per head in themai n veal-producing countries (Figure 1).

Production ofvea l

Whatar eth e vealproductio n figures like,a sa resul to f thetw omai n influences: • themil kquot a system • thereduce dconsumptio n of veal? In 1989,th etota lproductio n ofvea lwa sabou t79 000 0tons .Onl y 5membe rcountrie s ofth e ECwer eresponsibl y for nearly 95% of thetota lproduction . Francewa sth elarges t producer, accountingfo r 39%.Th eothe rmai nproducer swer eItal y(25%) ,th eNetherland s (19%),Wes t Germany (7%) andBelgiu m (5%). Relative to 1988,ther e was a sharpdeclin ei n netproductio n in all major countries; from 24%i nWes tGermany ,wit h ashar pcrisi si nth evea l sector,an d 12% inFranc e toonl y2 %i n Italy.Anothe rreductio n of about 3% isforecas t for 1990(Tabl e2) . FromTabl e2 ,i twil lb eclea rtha tonl y5 membe rcountrie so fth eE Car eo frea limportanc e toconside ro nbehal f of vealproduction .I tmigh thav ebee n noticed before thatles s attention ispai d toothe r countries.Jus ta fe wremark s on thoseothe r areas of theEC . Table 1. Vealconsumption inthe EC (in 1000 tons ofcarcass weight).

Consumption(i n 1000tonnes ] Relative <;hang e (%) 1980 1985 1988 1989 1989/88 1990/89F France 367 357 326 299 - 8.3 - 5.4 Italy 213 231 227 218 - 4.0 - 2.3 Netherlands 17 24 22 24 + 9.1 - 9.1 WestGerman y 117 106 91 68 -25.3 - 8.8 Belgium/Lux. 31 32 28 29 + 3.6 + 3.4 Greece 71 39 24 21 -12.5 - Denmark 2 2 2 2 - - UnitedKingdo m 12 8 6 5 -16.7 - Ireland 1 - - -

EC-10 760 799 726 666 - 8.3 - 4.2

Spain 13 16 15 - 6.3 _ Portugal 10 10 7 -30.0 - EC-12 822 752 688 - 8.6 '-• - 4.1 F: Forecast Source: GIRAbase do nEUROSTAT , PVV.

-e- France -+- Italy —- Netherlands — West-Germany -H- Belgium/Lux.

'80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 years Figure1. Vealconsumption in the EC (kgper headperyear, 1980-1989). Source: EUROSTAT.

10 Table2. Vealproduction in the EC (in 1000 tonnes of carcass weight).

Vealproductio n (in 1000tonnes ) Relative< :hang e(% ) 1980 1985 1988 1989 1989/88 1990/89F

France 405 387 351 309 -12.0 - 5.5 Italy 146 175 202 198 - 2.0 - 5.1 Netherlands 141 183 164 148 - 9.8 + 6.8 West Germany 78 83 75 57 -24.0 -10.5 Belgium/Lux. 33 43 44 42 - 4.5 + 2.4 Greece 18 6 6 6 - - Denmark 2 2 2 2 - - United Kingdom 14 10 11 11 - - 9.1 Ireland 1 - - -

EC-10 838 889 855 773 - 9.6 - 3.0

Spain 12 16 15 - 6.3 +25.0 Portugal 9 4 4 -

EC-12 910 875 792 - 9.5 - 2.8 F: Forecast Source: GIRA-OFIVALbase d onEUROSTAT ,PVV .

1. Spain is somewhat difficult tojudge . From the consumption per head, the production of veal seems to be rather important, but several statistics include figures of heavier beef animals.I nfact , production of vealcomprise s only asmal lproportio n ofwhit eveal .Mos t of the calves are slaughtered as young animals of 300-350k g carcass weight ('terneros', 'terneras' and 'anojos', producing a 'red' veal). Recently production statistics have been modified to conform to EC requirements. These young animals, previously classified as veal,ar eno wclassifie d asbeef .Th eproductio no fwhit evea li sconcentrate daroun dMadri d (Segovia -Avila) ,th eproductio n ofre dvea li n Catalonia (Huesca- Lérida) . 2. InPortugal ,productio n andconsumptio no fvea lar eo fmino rinterest .Ther eha sneve reve n been any encouragement. 3. Vealproductio n has never really existed in Greece. Acertai n amount isimported , mainly from the Netherlands. Since September 1989,channel s for import improved and imports might increase. Inparticular , thecaterin gindustr y isdemandin g veal. 4. InDenmar k andi n Ireland, therei sn orea l vealproductio n and consumption. 5. The United Kingdom produces very little veal. Most of the veal consumed is imported, largelyfro m theNetherlands .Moreove rBritai ni sno ta nimportan tveal-consumin gcountry . Significant isth enumbe ro fexporte d calves (about 30000 0i n 1989). Asth eself-sufficienc y rateo fth eE Ci s 116(Tabl e3) ,ther ei sexpor to fvea lt oothe rcountrie s (mainly theMiddl eEast) .Withi n theEC ,th eNetherland s isth emajo r exporter (over90 %o f theirproduction) ;Ital y isth e major importer.

11 Table 3. Self-sufficiency ratesfor vealin the EC.

1980 . 1985 1988 1989

France 110 108 108 103 Italy 69 76 89 77 Netherlands 725 647 745 617 West Germany 67 78 82 84 Belgium/Lux. 110 134 157 145 EC-10 110 111 118 116

EC-12 111 116 115 Source: EUROSTAT

Table4. Production ofmilk repacer in the EC (in 1000 tonnes).

Relative Production (in 1000tonnes ) change(%) 1980 1985 1987 1988 1988/87 France 877 794 841 777 - 7.4 Italy 325 270 258 252 - 2.3 Netherlands 512 607 652 651 - 0.2 WestGerman y 378 273 192 181 - 5.7 Belgium/Lux 60 59 35 39 +11. 4 Others 91 91 61 60 - 1.6 EC-10 2 243 209 4 203 9 1960 - 4.9

EC-12 2 173 2 089 2 003 - 4.1 Source: EUROSTAT.

Structure ofvea lproductio n

Production of veal is situated near some dairy regions, where also the production of skimmed milk powder andmil k replacers hasbee n concentrated. The main regions arewes t and south-west France, the north of Italy, in West Germany near the Dutch border and the Netherlands. As another consequence of thedifferen t developments in theÏ C and as aconsequenc eo f the structure of vealproduction , trade in livecalve s haschange d in the lastfe w years.Ther e was an increase in import demand in veal-producing countries. Italy is the main importer of youngcalves .O nth eon ehand ,th eUnite dKingdo mi sa nimportan tsupplie ro fyoun gcalves , Onth eothe rhand ,ther eha sbee na notabl eincreas ei nexport sfro mEaster nEurop e(especiall y Poland).Thes eimport sma yincreas ewit hth epolitica lchange .Howeve ri nth elonge rter mi n Eastern Europe,loca lproductio n of meatma yincrease , with lessexpor t ofliv eanimals . The role of the milk-replacer industry is very important. This industry dominates veal production andth emos tdominan tmanufacturin g companiesoperat eEC-wide .The y already

12 operate moreo rles s in thefutur e ECo f 1992;th eE Cwit h onecommo n market and without borders. Somecompanie s originated inth eNetherland s have aleadin g position. Toa largeextent , vealproductio n isbase d on acontrac t between producers and themilk - replacer-manufacturing industry. InFranc e and the Netherlands,90 % of the veal producers has such a contract, in Belgium 80% and in West Germany 70%. In Italy too, contracts are verycommon , butofte n therelationshi p betweenproduce ran dmilk-replace rindustr y iseve n closer,a sth emanufacture r itselfi sth eowne ro fth efar m andth eveal-cal ffattene rget sa salary . Thissalar ywil lpartl ydepen do nth equalit yo fhi swork ,sinc eth efattene r canreceiv ea bonus , forexampl ebase do ngrowth ,mortalit yan dcarcas squalit yo fth evea lcalves .Suc ha paymen t system hasbee n included inman y contracts too. The structure of veal production is affecting the size of the calf-fattening farms. In Italy, somefarm s arever ylarge ,mostl y theone sowne db yth emilk-replace r manufacturers. About 75%o fth e 1300farm shav ea capacit yo f 100fattenin gposition so rmore .Thes efarm saccoun t for over 96%o f the total Italian vealproduction ; only 200 farms areresponsibl e for 65% of thetota lproduction . In 1989,i n theNetherland s 2340farm s had an average capacity of 281 calves.I nFrance ,430 0farm sha da capacit yo f5 0calve so rmore .The yha da naverag ecapacit y of 150calve s and accounted for 78% of totalFrenc h veal production.

Milkreplacer s Production ofmil kreplacer si sdecreasing .Tabl e4 show sth eproductio n until 1988.I nth e EC, production of milk replacers has decreased for years. In 1988, the decline was4.1 % relative to 1987.Onl yi nth eNetherland sdi dproductio n increaseunti l 1987,a demonstratio n ofth epositio n ofthi sDutc hindustry .Th eNetherland si sth emajo r exportero fmil kreplacers ; 31% of the total production in 1987 and even 39% in 1988. Nevertheless a decline in production wasals oinevitabl ethere . In 1988,mil k production in Europedecrease d by 2.6%,wherea s there was an increasei n allothe rarea so fth eworld .Mor ean dmor eattentio nwil lhav et ob epai dt oprofitabl e feeding- stuffs andeve n alternative feeding systems, sinceus eo f dairy products is discouraged inE C vealproduction . Therei spressur e on thewhol emilk-replace r industry now.Th estructur eo f vealproductio n causes adirec trespons et othi sinfluenc e by vealproducers .

Profitability

Vealproductio n has been lessprofitabl e during the last few years,fro m 1986on . Profita­ bility of vealproductio n is-beingreduce d by thefollowin g factors: • increasing cost of skimmed milkpowder , the mainfee d ingredient, asinterventio n stocks havebee n eliminated andproductio n hasdecline d • reduced availability of calves,resultin gi nincrease d calfprice s in 1988an d 1989 • bano n the useo f growth hormones in allE Ccountries , therebyreducin g feed conversion efficiency. The situation is likely to remain fairly difficult in 1990 and, as mentioned before, another decline inne t slaughter by 3% isforecas t byexperts . Infuture ,ther ewil lb eadditiona lcost sa sa consequenc eo fE Clegislatio no nanima lwelfar e and housing systems.A tpresent , individual pens for veal calves arecommon . InFranc e and Italy, hardly any veal calf is housed in groups, in the Netherlands only 10% but in West Germany about 25% are already housed in groups. In other words,presen t proposals of the EC will affect vealproductio n inEurop e to alarg eextent , because even in thelas tfe w years higher vealprice s couldno t increase profitability.

13 carcass weight kg

-s- France -+- Italy Netherlands — West-Germany ~^~ Belgium/Lux.

~i 1 1 1 1 1 1 r '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 years

Figure2. Averagedressed carcass weight of veal in the EC (1980-1989). Source: EUROSTAT, PW.

Thefurthe r sharpfal l inproductio n resulted inanothe rmarke dris ei n theE Cpric eo fvea l calves (8%)i n 1989.Variation s between countrieswer econsiderable . • InFrance ,price sincrease d sharply by 13.5%a sdeman dhel du prathe rbette rtha ni nothe r countries andproductio n again declined sharply • There was a sharp price rise by 17.5% in the Netherlands as the market recovered, particularly in thefirs t half ofth eyea rwhe nproductio n wasespeciall y low • InWes tGerman y andItaly ,pric erises wer emarked , 12.5%an d 14%,respectively , asth e fall inproductio n wasth emor eimportan tfactor , despitewea k demand. Theaverag eE Cmarke tpric eo f 1989wa s24 5EC U (about64 6NLG )pe r 100k g liveweight. TheE Cmarke t can beexpecte d tomov efurthe r upwardsi n 1990.However , thepric erise mayb emor emodes t (5.5%) becauseo f theforecas t smallerdeclin ei nproduction .Suc hpric e risespu t veal increasingly into the 'luxury' category, with relative prices turning consumers away from theproduct .

Slaughterhouses

Inth etota lproductio n system,slaughterhouse s areno thavinga n easytim eeither .Wit hth e declinei nnumbe ro fslaughters ,profitabilit y decreased sharply.Th ecompetitio n betweenth e slaughterhousesi sstrongl yresponsibl efo r thehig hvea lprices .Especiall yi nth eNetherlands , a few slaughterhouses specialize in the slaughter of vealcalves .Onl y 7, mosto f them in the fattening areas, are involved in almost a million slaughters. Four slaughterhouses did more than 100000 slaughters ayea ri n 1989an d4 areclosel y associated toa milk-replace rmanu ­ facturer too. Thedecreas ei nth enumbe ro fslaughter si sno tcompletel yreflecte d indecrease dproductio n of veal,becaus e the average carcass weightha sincrease d for years.Howeve r carcass weight

14 stabilizedlas tyea ra ta naverag eo f 130kg .Ther ear egrea tdifference s betweencountries .Th e Netherlands produced theheavies t veal (average carcass weight in 1989 156kg ) and weight isstil lincreasin g(Figur e2) .I nBelgium ,carcas sweigh ti srapidl yincreasin gt oth esam eleve l as in the Netherlands. In France, however, weights remain low,wit h an average of only 118 kg in 1989an dhardl y anyincrease .

Conclusions Fromdevelopment si nEuropea nCommunity ,som econclusion sabou tvea lproductio nma y bederive d 1. Vealproductio n in the EC is closely related to the dairy production and to the ECpolic y on dairy production. 2. France,Ital y andth eNetherland s areth emai n veal-producing countries;Ital y andFranc e consume the most 3. The consumption of veal is decreasing in most EC countries. This decline is a result of common concerns about theproductio n of veal and of the high prices compared toothe r kinds of meat. 4. Since 1984,a mil kquot asyste mha scause da nannual ydeclin ei ndair yan dvea lproduction . A further decline has been forecast. The decrease in number of calves available for veal producion will be most significant. Even imports of calves from Eastern Europe may decrease in the longer term. , 5. Themilk-replace rindustr y dominatest production of veal throughout theEC . Availability of skimmed milk powder andproductio n of milk-replacers is decreasing. This is causing pressure on theprofitabilit y of theindustry . 6. Mostvea lproductio ni sbase do na contrac tbetwee nproducer s andmilk-replace r manufac­ turer. Since 1986,th e veal producer has had lowprofits . Forecasts for the next few years are no better. Proposed EC legislation on animal welfare and housing systems will cause even morepressur e on profits. 7. Withth edeclin ei nnumbe ro fslaughter sprofitabilit y ofslaughterhouse sha sals odecreased . As the average carcass weight of veal has increased for years,th edecreas e in number of slaughters is notcompletel yreflecte d in decreased production of veal.

15 Vealproductio n in North America

R. Groenevelt Real Veal,Inc., P.O. Box347, Ixonia, Wisconsin53036, US

Summary Vealproductio ni nth eUnite d Statesha da slo wstar ti nth esixties ,bu texpande ddurin gth e seventies. At the moment, there are about 1300 veal-calf enterprises in the US. This paper describes the history and the market situation of US veal production, developments from 1970-1990 and an outlook toth e future.

Introduction Thispape rwil lconcentrat emostl yo nvea lproductio ni nth eUS .Canadia nvea lproduction , mainly concentrated in the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, is similar to that of the US. Canada has veal calf facilities for about 40 000 calves, of which 15%ar e in loose-housing systems. An estimated 100 000 formula-fed calves were marketed in 1989. Exports were minimal. Unlike theUS ,th emajorit y (90%) of veal producers in Canada arelabour-leas e growers, paid a fixed weekly income for their labour, supplying the facilities and the utilities. No substantial growth isexpecte d for the Canadian vealindustry . This present description ofU S vealproductio n willfocu s primarily onth e areaeas to f the Rocky Mountains,wher e 95% of today's formula-fed veali s produced.

Productionhistor y Commercial production of formula-fed veal calves in the US began more than a decade after itsintroductio n inHolland .Th ehug esurplu so f non-fat drymil kmad ei ta ninexpensiv e andidea l ingredientfo r milkreplacer .Whey ,a logica lcarbohydrat e source,wa splentifu l and mostly dumped in the fields. Furthermore, baby dairy bull calves were hardly utilized. They wereeithe rkille d andburie d onth efarm , ori fther ewa sa demand , slaughteredan dbone d for veal.I n other words,productio n costs of 'European-Style' veal seemed very attractive inth e sixties. Thestar twa sver yslow ,however ,an di twa shar dt oconvinc emeat-packer san dprospectiv e veal producers that there could be a great future in raising and marketing formula-fed veal calves.Th emai nreaso ntha t thevea lbusines s gotof f thegroun dwa sth e strategy tofocu s on thelarg eNe w York CityJewis h population andth epromotio n of 'fancy-kosher' veal. By theen do f the sixties,th enumbe ro f vealproducer s started toincreas eremarkabl y and by 1970,clos et o2 0000 pen si nenvironmentall y controlled barnsha dbee nerecte dfo r fancy vealproduction . The largest expansion of veal pens occurred during the seventies,resultin g in atota l numbero f 35000 0i n 1980. Loose housing became a hot issue in the early 1980s,promote d by some to try to pacify theanima lright s groups andexploite d byother s toente rth emarke t withmechanica l feeders andth elike .A ne wgeneratio no fgrower sconvertin gbarns ,garage setc. ,a tlo wcos tan dputtin g in automatic feeding equipment, found out that calf feeding could notb edon ewhil e sipping abee r andwatchin g television. At the sametime ,man ymisinforme d existing growerselimi ­ natedthei rvea lpen st orais evea lcalve smor eeconomically finding, ou ttha tth eopposit ewa s the case. This surge of loose housing religion caused the market to drop because of a fast-

16 increasingoversuppl yo fofte n vealcalve so finconsisten tquality .Man yo fthos ene wgrower s putthei rcar sbac ki nth egarag ean dth eothers ,i fno tbroke ,wen tbac kt oraisin gthei ranimal s inindividua lpens .Today ,no teve n 1% ofU Svea lgrower srais ethei rcalve si nloos ehousing . Certainly noteworthy is that during the last two decades the average and better grower has always been ablet omak ehealth yprofit s yearafte r year.

Market analysis There are about 1300 veal-calf-raising enterprises in the US. The veal-pen count as of January 1990wa s42 5000 ,o f whichles sthe n30 000 0pen s seemedt ob efilled . Over5 000 0 of the42 500 0pen smigh t beconsidere d non-refillable (Table 1).Ove rth elas tfe w years,th e number of enterprises has decreased, whileth e sizeo f theaverag eoperato r has increased. In the very near future, many older veal barns will become obsolete because of disrepair or unsuitability for housing heaviercalves . Thetypica lan daverag eindependen tU Svea lproduce rhold s30 0calve san draise s2 cycle s annually.Th eprofil e of avea lgrowe rdiffer s substantially from areat oare aan dfro m farm to farm. Contrary to most Canadian andEuropea n growers,th e majority of US veal producers (70%)ar efinanciall y independentfro m meat-packers,fee d companies andothe rinvestors .I n 1988,labor-leas e operations housedi nexces s of 35% of theU Sformula-fe d veal population. Low profits in early 1989 caused elimination of mostly the poorer labour-lease growers.A large number of veal farms in the State ofWisconsi n are atpresen t inactive because of this. Except on a small or local scale, total integration has had limited success in the USA and accountsfo rles stha n9% .Almos tal lMidwester nvea lproducer scontrac teac hgrou po fcalve s for a guaranteed minimum market price, while most growers in the East do without such contracts. By number of vealpens ,th efollowin g areth emajo r production States:Wisconsi n (158000) ,Indian a (63000) ,Pennsylvani a (56000 ) andOhi o (43000) . Therear eabou t20 0veal-cal fenterprise sequippe dfo rliqui dfeeding .Producer susin gliqui d feed in Indiana, Ohio and Michigan are on thedecline . In Northeast Wisconsin, where more than 50%o f the liquid users are,vea l producers havebee n profitable. Normally, starting and finishing thecalve so npowdere d feeds andusin g 80%liqui d feed, thosegrower s livingclos e toa quality-chees e plant seem toobtai n decentresults .

Table 1. Distributionof veal farms inthe US.

Upper Mid North South midwest central east Veal farms 496 252 358 92 Number ofpen s 17780 0 106 400 8520 0 28 900 Activevea l farms 391 (79%) 208 (83%) 297 (83%) 71 (77%) Numbero f pens 103 900 91700 74 800 21400 Vealfarm s used for dairy beef 34 (7%) 23 (9%) 19 (5%) 9 (9%) Number of pens 8 600 6 350 335 0 2 400 Inactive veal farms 71 (14%) 21 (8%) 42 (12%) 12 (11%) vealpen s 6590 0 8 350 7 050 5 100 Average number ofpen spe r farm 265 440 250 300

17 Vealconsumptio ni nth eU Sha sbee ndecreasing ,bu tconsumptio n offormula-fe d vealha s been growing slowly but steadily. In the US, 'veal' is a collective name for many kinds of meats obtainedfro m 'calf' slaughter (Table2) . Formula-fed finished vealcalve sincrease d4 0pound s(abou t2 0kg )i nliveweigh t between 1987 and 1990; an average of 350pound s (about 160kg ) in 1987; and close to 400 pounds (about 180kg ) now.Becaus e of the decreasing number of available and suitable bob calves andth eincreasin gpurchas ecost ,i twil lb enecessar yan dmor eeconomica lt orais eeve nheavie r vealcalve s inth e future.

Developments1970-199 0

Since 1970,th eaverag epric eo f non-fat drymilk , wheyproduct s andothe ringredient so f veal-milk have increased in price over fourfold. In the same period, US prices of veal feed onlydoubled .Price so fbab ycalve sincrease dsixfold . Successfully loweringconten to fprotei n in finisher feeds and eliminating non-fat dry milk from most formulas, together with raising alighte rbo bcal ft oa heavie rweigh twit hminimu m sacrifices infee dconversion ,deat hlosse s andhealt hcar ekep tvea lproductio nprofitabl e duringth elas ttw odecades .Tabl e3 show sho w USformula-fe d vealproductio n haschange dbetwee n 1970an d 1990.

Table 2. Numberof calves slaughtered by class underFederal inspection (1000 head).

Year Bob veal 150-400lb s Other Total < 150lb s formula fed non-formula >40 0lb s

1987 1 207.8 1002.7 171.4 297.5 2 679.4 1988 1 065.9 1003.3 155.9 185.1 2 410.2 1989 873.2 932.6 108.9 196.9 2 111.6

Table 3. Formula-fedveal production in 1970 and1990 inthe US.

1970 1990

Calf's startingweigh t (kg) 50 40 Marketing liveweight (kg) 125 175 Growth cycle (week) 12 17 Feed consumption (kg) 120 240 Feed conversion 1.6 1.8 Averagedail y gain (kg) 0.89 , 1.14 Feed cost ($) 66.00 264.00 Initial calfcos t($ ) 25.00 150.00 Live marketprice/k g ($/kg) 1.01 2.97 Grossprofi t ($/week) 2.94 6.24

18 Future outlook Demand for veali sexpecte dt osta ystron ga tleas t 10month s outo f theyea rove r thenex t coupleo f years.Fro m thepoin to fvie wo f health,vea li sgettin g andexpectin g toge t alo to f positivepublicit y in theU San d Canada. Successful application of non-dairy proteins in veal feeds and raising an even heavier high-quality veal calf at the lowest possible production cost, with ample profits for the veal producer, maketh e meat processor andth efee d manufacturer theke y issues for the 1990s.

19 2. Animal welfare

.»

i Needs and welfare of housed calves

D.M. Broom Departmentof Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Universityof Cambridge, MadingleyRoad, Cambridge CB3OES, GB

Summary

Theconcep to fwelfar ei sintroduce dan dbasi cbiologica lfunction s aredescribe di nrelatio n toth eneed so fcalves .Thes efor m mechanisms thathav eevolve di nth especie san dpersis ti n domestic cattle today.Indicator s ofpoo rwelfar e in calves arereviewed . Current systems for rearing calves in crates result in poor welfare but welfare is much better in a well managed group-housing system.Publi cattitude sar estartin gt oaffec t thevea lindustr yconsiderabl yan d a solution toth eproble m involving achang et o group-housing systems with adie t including adequateroughag e and iron isnecessar y if the industry ist osurvive . Descriptors: welfare; needs;behaviour ; physiology; calf rearing.

Welfare

Animalsencounte ra variet yo fdifficultie s duringthei rlive san dthe yus ephysiologica lan d behavioral methods to try to cope with these. The extent to which coping methods, such as adrenal activity, are used can be measured, as can the consequences of failure to cope, for examplereduce dabilit yt ogro wo rreproduce .Th ewelfar eo fa nindividua li sit sstat ea sregard s its attempts tocop ewit h its environment (Broom, 1986).Welfar e can vary from very poort o very good,an dca nb emeasured .Measurement srelevan tt oth eassessmen to f welfare include those of injury level, disease incidence, pain responses, consequences of lack of control, especially frustration, and theeffect s of fear. Situations or human actions that lead topoo r calf welfare are direct abuse; neglect which isdeliberate ,accidenta lo rdu et olac ko fknowledge ;provisio no finadequat econdition sdurin g housing, transport or marketing; disease; failure to provide for emergencies and improper proceduresdurin gan dbefor e slaughter.Direc tabus einclude shittin go rfrightenin g theanima l and carrying out surgical operations. Neglect might involve failure to feed or clean out adequately, to treat if diseased, or to care for if injured, disturbed or likely to be harmed in someway .Emergencie swhic hcoul daris eo nan yanima luni tar efire ,powe rfailur eo rextrem e weather conditions. Welfare can be very poor in these emergency situations and provision should bemad efo r early warning, back-up power supplies,preventin g the freezing of water supplies,providin gventilatio no rshower si nver yho tconditions ,fir eprevention , firefighting, and rapid evacuation of all animals in case of fire. The welfare of most diseased animals is poor, sometimes very poor, so disease prevention, without general exacerbation of disease problems by too widespread a use of antibiotics, is desirable. Procedures that minimize pathogen contact withth ecalve s andth etreatmen to fdisease d individuals isth ebes tstrateg y here. Conditions and procedures when animals are handled, transported, marketed and slaughtered can often lead to very poor welfare but the topic that will be discussed in most detail in thispape r is thehousin g andassociate d management ofcalves . Thefactor s affecting welfare outlined abovefal l intothre e somewhat overlapping catego­ ries in terms of human responsibility. The design of the housing and management system is largely theresponsibilit y of theowne ro f theuni t andth esit emanager .Thes epeopl e havea substantial affect onth ewelfar e oflarg enumber so findividua l animals.Th eme nan dwome n who care directly for the animals in that they feed them, clean up after them, check them to seei f theyhav eproblems ,handl ethe mfo r treatment ormovemen t toanothe rplace , andloa d

23 them onto vehicles, have a very important effect on animal welfare. Contributions areals o made by specialists such asveterinar y surgeons, vehicle drivers andabattoi r staff. Noneo f these aloneca ninsur etha twelfar e isgood .Eac hha sa mora lobligatio n towardsth e animals.

Needs Anee di sa deficienc y ina n animaltha tca nb eremedie db yobtainin ga particula rresourc e orrespondin g toa particula renvironmenta lo rbodil y stimulus.Need sar edictate db yth ebasi c biologyo fth eanimal ,fo rthe yrelat et oit svariou sfunctiona l systems.Far manimals ,includin g calves,hav ea narra yo fneed ssimila rt othos eo fthei rwil dancestors .Th emechanism swhic h evolved within thespecie s arestil lpresen ti nou rdomesti c animals although someresponses , such asthos e associated with flight from man, arereduced . Various functions aredescribe d below with explanation ofth enee d andwha tth e animalmus td oi norde rt o satisfy them. 1. Inorde rt oobtai n adequatenutrient s andt oreduc ediseas eincidence , theyoun gcal f must ingest and digest, first colostrum and then milk. The biologicâkmechanisms that have evolved inorde r toachiev e thisar esearchin g behaviour which should result infindin g a teat andthe n thelickin g andsuckin g ofa teatlik e object. The behaviour ofth e calf isno t just organized sotha tal l such behaviour isterminate di fth egu ti sfille d with milkbu tth e licking andsuckin g behaviour itself iso fgrea timportanc et oth ecalf .Th ecal fneed s both torectif y anynutrien to renerg y deficiency andt o sucko n atea to rteatlik e object. 2. Thefunction s ofrecuperatio n andavoidin gdange rdurin gth etim eo fda ywhe nfeedin gi s lessefficien t inrang econdition sar eserve db yrestin gan dsleeping .Adequat eres tan dslee p requiretha tth ecal fadopt sa sleepin gpostur eo na suitabl esurfac efo ra perio ddurin gwhic h therei sno tto omuc h disturbance. 3. Theavoidanc eo fdange r alsorequire stha tanimal sexplor e theirsurrounding s soa st o find outabou tsource so fdanger ,an dt ohid eo rsho wescap eresponse si fnecessary .Exploratio n is alsoo fvalu ei nth eefficien t exploitation ofresources .Th enee dt oexplor e existsfo ral l animalswhils tthos et ohid eo rt oescap eexis ti fth ecal fperceive stha tther ei ssom edanger . Man isofte n treated asa dangerou s predator byyoun g calves andman y eventsi nth elif e of ayoun gcal f elicit attemptst ohid eo rescape . 4. In order that bone andmuscl e candevelo p normally, andtha t injury canb eavoided ,th e calf needs to take sufficient exercise and to move or adopt postures that do not cause discomfort. Ifbone s areno tloade db ymuscl e action andbod y movement then osteopenia will develop. Asmal l amount ofexercis e atfrequen t intervals mayb esufficien t toinsur e normal bone development. Extreme inactivity causes abnormal muscle developmentan d may also cause joint problems. The biological mechanism to prevent or remedy these problems is for animals towan t to take regular exercise andt oavoi d discomfort sucha s thatwhic hresult sfro m difficulty inmakin g certain movements. 5. Important aspects of gutdevelopmen t incalve s areth echange s inth erume n etc., which result in efficient utilization of grass andothe r fibrous plants that areth e staple food of cattléTHenceth ecal f needst oea troughag e andt oruminate .I tha sa ver y strong preference toea tfibrou s material andt oattemp t toruminate ,eve ni fn oroughag e hasbee n ingested. Any inadequacies of nutrients, including iron, also make calves want toea ta varietyo f materials thatmigh t supply themissin g nutrient. 6. Disease andparasitis m levels areminimize d bykeepin g thebod y clean. Grooming also helps inthermoregulatio n andothe r functions. Hence animals needt orespon d tostimul i whichindicat etha tgroomin gi snecessary ,principall y by.lickin gthemselves .Thes estimul i emanate from thewhol e body andi f an animal initiates agroomin g sequence, thewhol e body hast ob e groomed if iti s tob esatisfie d with what it hasdone . Hence inability to groom the hindpar to fth ebod y causesproblems .

24 7. Cattle are social animals, and ability to deal with social situations is important and de­ mandingt othem .I norde rt odevelo psocia lability ,eac hcal fneed st oapproac han dinterac t with othercalves . Whilsta genera lstud yo fth ebiolog yo fcalve stell su stha teac ho fthes eneed si so fimportanc e toth e animals,measurement s ofbehaviou r andphysiolog y givemor einformatio n aboutho w important they are.I n some cases,frequen t and vigorous behaviour or attempted behaviour, sucha ssuckin go rgrooming ,indicate sth estrengt ho fth eneed .I tma yb eimpossibl efo rcalve s incertai n farm conditions tosho w somekind s ofbehaviou rbecaus eo fth erestriction splace d upon them bythos econditions .Henc ei ti snecessar y for aswid ea spossibl e arang eo f signs ofpoo rwelfare ,fo rexampl eabnormalitie so fbehaviou ro rphysiology ,t ob euse dt orecogniz e theimportanc e of theneed .

Indicatorso fpoo rwelfar e inrelatio nt orearin g conditions

Highdiseas eincidenc e

Calves areparticularl y susceptible torespirator y andgastro-intestina l disease.Va n Putten (1987 )quote sdat afro mPostem ashowin gtha t67 %o fbatche so fvea lcalve si nth eNetherland s required treatment for respiratory disease by 10week s and 20% had enteric disorders after one week in a veal-production unit. Similarly, van der Mei (1987) found that 25% of veal calves hadrespirator y disease and 14-18% had severediarrhoe a before 10week s of age,th e higher levelreferrin g to group-housed calves.Webste r (1984)reporte d less diseasei ngroup - housed calvesan di t seemslikel y thatdiseas emigh tb elowe ri nwel lmanage d grouphousin g than incrate s buthighe ri nles s wellmanage d grouphousing.I ti sclear ,however , thati nbot h crate housing and group housing, these high incidences of disease in veal calves are a particularly serious welfare problem. Calvespurchase d andbrough t into auni t arefiv e times more likely torequir e treatment for disease (Webster, 1984),s othi s is an important causeo f theproblem . Withth eexceptio no f afe w sucklercalves ,vea lcalve sar eseparate dfro m theirmother sa t a very early age. This separation causes some problems for the calf and inevitably makes it rather more difficult for the farmer to keep it healthy. Calves left with their mothers stand earlier andar emor eactiv etha nthos ewhic h areseparate d(l eNeindr e& Signoret , 1987).Th e reducedvigou ran dlac ko finteres ti nthei renvironmen tshow nb ysom ecalve safte r separation can result in failure to obtain adequate immunoglobulin and nutrients. Even if some timei s spent with the mother, avariet y of factors affect the likelihood that sufficient colostrum will be ingested and immunoglobulin absorbed from it (Broom, 1983). Much greater disease problems arise when young calves are transported, sometimes via amarket , to another farm sotha tthe y encounter newpathoge n challenges andofte n ane wdiet .

Stereotypies

Tongue-rolling or tongue-playing and other 'purposeless oral behaviour' (Webster et al., 1985)i sabnorma l behaviourtha ti sno tshow nb ycalve stha tca ncop ewel lwit hthei renviron - Tment. These are examples of stereotypies, repeated relatively invariate sequences of move- Jjnents thathav en oobviou spurpos e (Fraser& Broom , 1990),an djus t asi nman ,zo o animals or sows, stereotypies are indicators of poor welfare. Tongue-rolling is much more frequent amongstcrate-reare dcalve stha namongs tthos ereare di ngroup s(Andrea ee tal. ,1980 ;Webste r etal. , 1985;Wierenga , 1987).Ther ei sindividua lvariatio ni nit soccurrenc ebu tther ei salway s much variation in the methods used for trying to cope with inadequate rearing conditions (Broom, 1986; 1988).A reductio n inth eoccurrenc eo f stereotypedlicking ,manipulatio netc .

25 occurs when straw isprovide d (vanPutte n &Elshof , 1978;Webster , 1984) andhighe rlevel s areobserve d atlo wligh t level of 2lu xtha n at20,10 0o r 130lu x (Dannemanne t al., 1984).

Table 1. Oralbehaviour of calves attwo weeks ofage (%).

Suckler calves Crate-housed Group-housed

Purposeless oral activity 1 14 Grooming 6 15 Ruminating 8 2

Table 2. Calfbehaviour when fed from bucketor teat(after Hammell etal., 1988).

Bucket Teat Duration of drinking (min) 18 44 Time suckingdumm y teat(min ) 13 1 Drinking interrupted by suckingdumm y teat yes no

100

%

Figure 1. Percentageof timesucking or lickinga novelnon-nutritive teator another calf during10 min after drinking milkfrom abucket (Broom &van Praag, in prep.).

26 Suckingan dlickin g Some sucking and licking is stereotyped but other behaviour of this kind, although too variable in form to be called a stereotypy, has a high enough frequency or duration to be abnormal.Dat afro m Webstere tal .(1985 )i sshow ni nTabl e 1.Similarly ,Ketelaar-d eLauwer e & Smits (1989)reporte d such oralactivitie s for 20-30% of thetim ei n cratesrangin g in size from 70 cm x 150 cm to 170c m x 250 cm. It would seem from this result that absence of suitable stimuli for normal sucking, lack of social contact orinadequat e diet are likely tob e moreimportan t than lacko f spacei ncausin g this behaviour. Non-nutritive sucking is likely to arise in the first place if the calf's need to suck is not satisfied duringfeeding . Itsoccurrenc edepend supo n whati savailabl efo rth eanima lt osuck . Calves may want very much to suck buthav en oobjec t present sothe y may increase licking behaviouro rsho wothe rsign so fpoo rwelfare . Ifi ngroups ,calve stha twis ht osuc kma ysuc k thepenis ,nave l orear so fothe rcalve s andi ndoin g soma ycaus eproblem s tothemselve s by drinking urine, or to other calves by causing soreness. Individually housed calves that can reach one another may suck another calf and 'kissing'pair s are frequent in occurrence. The suckingo fth epe no ro fothe rcalve soccur smos tjus tafte r feeding andi smuc hmor e frequent if thecal f isfe d from abucke t than ifi ti sfe d from ateat . When anon-nutritiv e teati sprovide di n acalf' s pen, thecalve s spendmuc h time sucking it,especiall y after feeding (Waterhouse, 1978;Broom , 1982).Suc hsuckin gi sreduce di fmil k is supplied more frequently (Metz, 1984). It is more prolonged and may interrupt drinking whenmil ki sdrun k from abucke t(Hammel le tal. , 1988; Table2) .I na nexperimen ti nwhic h anove lnon-nutritiv etea twa spresente dt oindividuall y housedcalve sa tdifferen t ages,calve s moretha n3 0day so fag edi dno tsuc ki twithi ntw ominute so ffinishin gdrinkin gfro m abucke t (Broom& va nPraag ,i nprep.) .Figur e 1 showsth edeclin ei ninteres ti nth enove lnon-nutritiv e teatwit hage .Th edesir eo fcalve st osuc ka tea tdecline swit hag ebu tanimal swhic hassociat e feeding with teat-sucking willcontinu e sucking to alate rage . Excessive self-licking occurs frequently in crate-housed calves andresult s iningestio no f hairan dformatio n ofhai rball s orbezoars .I tcoul db etha tinabilit y togroo m thehin dpar to f thebod yincrease s thedesir et ogroo mthos epart so fth ebod ytha tca nb ereached . Self-licking wasreduce d by feeding 75go f straw perda y andnumber s of hair balls dropped from means of fifteen to less than one (van Putten &Elshof , 1978).I n the same study, sham rumination occurred in crate-housed milk-fed calves for two hours per day. Provision of straw allowed normal rumination in that study andi ntha tb y Webstere t al. (1985) .

Adrenalan dothe rphysiologica l indicators

In a study of 8-week-oldFriesia n calves,Dantze r et al. (1983) assessed previous adrenal activity bymean s of challenge with adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).Tethere d calves showed a significantly greater Cortisol response to ACTH challenge than did group-housed calves, suggesting that thetethere d calves had used theiremergenc y adrenal cortex response more often during therearin g period. Asimila r result was obtained byFrien d et al. (1985a), who alsofoun d significantly higherbasa lCortiso l levels,thyroi d hormone levels andneutro - phil/lymphocyteratio s in tethered orindividuall y housed calves thani n group-housed calves (Table3) .

Responset odisturbin gstimul i

Calvesar emuc hmor eseverel yaffecte d bycontac twit hma ni fthe yhav eha dlittl epreviou s human contact. Frequent gentle contact is desirable for calves. Excessive fearfulness occurs whencalve sar ekep ti npoorl yli tbuilding s(Webste r& Saville , 1981).Th eresponse so fcalve s tohandlin g andtranspor t aresubstantiall y greateri fthe yhav ebee nkep ti ncrate s thani fthe y

27 Table3. Physiological6-week-old calvesafter different housing. Datafrom Friend et al. (1985a).

Physiological indicator Tether-stall Individualpe n Group-housed 0.56 mx 1.2 m 1.2 mx 1.5 m

Tri-iodothyronine (ng dl-1) 106 78 58 Thyroxine (Hgml -1) 6.0 5.0 4.3 BasalCortiso l (ng ml-1) 5.4 4.2 3.4 Cortisol after ACTHchalleng e (ng ml-1) 103 98 75 Neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio 0.69 0.37 0.36

have been kept in groups (Trunkfield et al., this book). Soi t would appear that crate-reared calves areles s wellabl et ocop ewit hdifficultie s sucha sthos epresente d bythos eprocedures .

Difficulties ofpostur ean dlocomotio n

The postures adopted by most resting calves with no space restriction cannot be adopted by a calf in a narrow crate (de Wilt, 1985). The most preferred head position is'difficult to adoptan dhind-le gextensio ncanno toccur .Thi sstudy ,an da subsequen tdetaile dinvestigatio n byKetelaar-d eLauwer e &Smit s (1989)ha sshow ntha tcalve str yver yhar dt oadop tposture s that are comfortable and that result in good thermoregulation, particularly in hotconditions . Hind-leg stretching occursfo r 2-8% ofth etim ean dth ecommo n lyingpostur ei ncrate s with one leg extended along the body does not occur if more space is available. Behaviours like legstretchin gtha tar einfrequen t maystil lb eo fgrea timportanc et oa nindividual .A nexampl e of anotherbehaviou r thati sinfrequen t butimportan ti sdefaecation . Theminimu m widththa t allowed comfortable lying for calves was found to be 90 cm. Afurthe r problem reported in small crates was that calves had difficulties standing up and lying down. Calves choose to walk atinterval si f they areabl e toan dcrate-house d calves showmuc h locomotor behaviour whenrelease dfro m thecrat e (Warnick et al., 1977;Frien d etal. , 1985b).Afte r sixmonth si n acrate ,man y calves have severelocomotor y problems (Trunkfield et al.,thi sbook) .

Socialan dmaterna linadequac y

Calvesreare d in isolation performed badly in competition with group-reared calves when mixed after 6-8 weeks (Warnick et al., 1977), 12week s (Waterhouse, 1979), and 6 months (Broom &Leaver , 1978). Some elements of social interaction are still shown after isolation but signals such as ear movements are abnormal and ability to compete effectively within a mixed herdi sclearl y impaired (Broom, 1982);th eeffect s of isolation for 6month swer e still apparent one year later. Some signs of maternal inadequacy were evident in calves rearedi n isolation for six months (Broom &Leaver , 1977) although leNeindr e (pers.comm. )wa sno t able to see impairment of maternal behaviour after shorterperiod s of isolation. Although crate-reared veal calves do notencounte r othercalve s except for theperio d before slaughter, iti s clear that their normal social development is impaired substantially by isolation. Water- house(1979 )foun d thateffect s onsocia labilit ywer emuc hgreate ri fth ecalve swer ei nvisua l isolation than if theycoul dse ean dtouc h othercalve s througha hurdl epartitio n (alsoBroom ! 1982).Calve si n 'enriched'pen swit hindependentl ymovin gobject si nthe mwer emor enorma l in their social behaviour. Group-housed calves show littlecompetitiv e behaviourtha tmigh t beconsidere d harmful. There can be uneven growth rates but these problems can be solved by better provision of

28 food. Social facilitation aids weaker calves in group-housing as long as there are enough feeding places. Where milk was provided from teats to calves 0-5 weeks old, good results wereobtaine db yputtin gfiv emilk-supplyin gteat si naro w2 0c mapar t(Barton , 1983;Barto n &Broom , 1985).Group-house d calves also learn readily todrin k from responder-controlled feeders (Maatje, thisbook) .

Injuriesan danaemi a

These topics are covered by Webster and others in this volume. Anaemia results in poor welfare. Severe ulceration does soto o but there are doubts about the effects of smallulcers , which arefrequen t after feeding onmil kan dstra w (Welchman &Baust , 1987). Therema yb e links between behavioralresponse s todifficul t conditions andabomasa l ulceration (Wiepke- ma, 1985). Claw problems can be bad on inadequate or poorly drained floors and tail-tip necrosis can bever y high onslats .

Conclusions Iti sclea rtha tth ecrat euse dfo r vealcal fproductio ndoe s notmee t theneed so fth ecalve s andresult s in awid erang eo f indicators ofpoo rwelfar e incalves . Whatchang ei snecessar yi norde rtha tth ewelfar e ofcalve swil lb egood ?I f thecrat ewer e larger, for example 90-120c m wide, someo f theproblem s would be solved. Thecal f would be able to turn round, stretch and adopt more comfortable lyingpostures . However it would still be unable to exercise normally by walking,interac t socially,che w solid food, ruminate, carryou tinvestigator y behaviouro rrespon dappropriatel yi ffrightened . Hencecalve shouse d individually inlarge r solid-sidedpen s stillsho wclea rsign so fpoo rwelfare . Ifth esoli dwall s of individual crates are replaced by open sides, the environment of the calf is considerably improved because some social interaction can occur and the calf can move in a little more space. However social behaviour is still very much limited by the crate and the other défi­ ciences listed above are not removed. The change that results in the removal of these déficiences ist okee pth ecalve s ina grou p in alarge rpen . Amajo r problem inth evea lindustr yi sth edeman dfo r 'white'meat .Th eindication s from a wide range of studies are that the diet composition which is necessary to produce 'white' vealwil lalway scaus esom esever ewelfar e problems.I norde rt oavoi dclinica lanaemi ai nal l thecalve s andt oprovid eroughag etha tth ecalve sca nmanipulate ,che w andruminat eon ,th e meatmus tbecom e alittl epinke ro naverage .Suc ha nimprove ddie tfo r vealcalve s shouldb e cheaper, shouldresul t inbette rfee d conversion and should leadt olowe rdiseas elevels . With improved diet, including adequate roughage and iron, and a group-housing system with measures taken tominimiz e intersucking, veal can beproduce d humanely. Disease levels in grouphousin gca nb ehig hbu tthi sdoe sno toccu ri ngoo dgroup-housin g systems,whic hhav e good care by stock persons, a good diet and usually materials such as straw for calves to manipulatean dchew .Full yslatte dfloor s areles slikel yt owor kwel lan ddiseas ei smor e often aproble m in such systems,especiall y where adequate iron androughag e are notprovide di n the food. Individual crates that have open sides for social contact and that are large enough for calf comfort (moretha n 90c m wide)ar ecertainl y betterfo r calves thannorma lcrate sbu t areno ta sgoo da sful l grouphousin gan di tma ywel lb echeape rt ous ea group-housin g system. The veal industry has to take note of the fact that veal consumption is dropping rapidly, eveni ncountrie slik eItal ywher ether ei sa stron gtraditio nfo rvea ldishes .Th epubli cpercep ­ tion of the poor welfare of the veal calf is a major factor in the accelerating decline in veal consumption.Ther ei sn oreason ,however ,wh ythi sdeclin eshoul dno tb estoppe dan dreverse d if changes in diet and housing result in improved welfare and thepubli c is informed ofthis . Therei sa tendenc yfo rth epubli ct oassociat ewhit evea lwit hpoo rwelfar e soa ne wimprove d

29 L imageo fvea lcoul dinclud esom echang ei ncolou rtogethe rwit hexplanatio nfrom th eindustr y thatne wvea lcome sfro m betterfe dcalve swhos ewelfar e isbette rbecaus ethe yliv ei ngroup s andbecaus e their otherbiologica lneed s areals omet .

References

Andreae,V., J. Unshelm & D. Smidt, 1980. Handhabung van Kälbern in Gruppenhaltung. Arbeiten zurartgemäße n Tierhaltung.254:89-96 .K.T.B.L . Darmstadt. Barton,M.A. , 1983.Th eeffect s ofmanagemen t andbehaviora lfactor s onintak eo f acidified milk andconcentrate s by group-reared calves.Animima lProductio n 36:512. Barton,M.A .& D.M .Broom ,1985 .Socia lfactor saffectin g theperformanc e ofteat-fe dcalves . AnimimalProductio n40:525 . Broom,D.M. , 1982.Husbandr ymethod sleadin gt oinadequat e socialan dmaterna lbehaviou r incattle .In :Disturbe d behaviouri nfar m animals.Ed .W . Bessei.Hohenheime r Arbeiten, 121:42-50.Euge n Ulmer, Stuttgart Broom,D.M. , 1983. Stereotypies asanima lwelfar eindicators .In :Indicator srelevan tt ofar m animal welfare. Ed. D. Smidt. Current Topics in Veterinary Medicine & Animal Science 23:81-87.Martinu s Nijoff, TheHague . Broom,D.M. , 1986.Indicator s ofpoo r welfare. BritishVeterinar y Journal 142:524-526. Broom,D.M. , 1988.Welfar econsideration si ncattl epractice .Proceeding so fth eBritis hCattl e Veterinary Association for 1986-7:153-164.B.C.V.A. ,London . Broom,D.M . &J.D .Leaver , 1977.Mother-youn g interactions indair ycattle . BritishVeteri ­ nary Journal: 133,192. Broom, D.M. &J.D . Leaver, 1978.Th e effects of group-rearing orpartia l isolation on later behaviouro f calves.Anima l Behaviour26:1255-1263 . Dannemann,K.,D .Buchenaue r&H .Fliegner ,1984 .Th ebehaviou ro fcalve sunde rfou rlevel s oflighting .Applie d AnimalBehaviou rScienc e 13:243-258. Dantzer, R., P. Mormede, R.M. Bluth &J . Soissons, 1983.Th e effect of different housing conditions on behavioural and adrenocortical reactions in veal calves. Reproduction Nutrition &Developmen t 23:67-74. Fraser, A.F. & D.M. Broom, 1990. Farm animal behaviour and welfare. Tindall, Bailiere, London. Friend, T.H., G.R. Dellmeier & E.E. Gbur, 1985a. Comparison of four methods of calf confinement. 1.Physiology .Journa lo f Animal Science 60:1095-1101. Friend, T.H., G.R. Dellmeier & E.E. Gbur, 1985b. Comparison of four methods of calf confinement. 2.Behaviour . Journal ofAnima lScienc e 60:1102-1109. Hammell,K.L. ,J.H. MMet z& P . Mekking, 1988. Suckingbehaviou ro fdair ycalve sfe d milk andlibitu m bybucke to rteat .Applie dAnima lBehaviou rScienc e20:275-285 . Ketelaar-de Lauwere, C.C. &A.C .Smits , 1989.Onderzoe k naar de uit ethologisch oogpunt minimaal gewenste boxmaten voor vleeskalveren met een gewicht van 175 tot 300 kg. IMAGRappor t 110.IMAG ,Wageningen . IeNeindre ,P .& J.P .Signoret , 1987.Ethologica lresult so fwelfar e research invea lcalves .In : Welfareaspect so fhousin gsystem sfo rvea lcalve san dfattenin gbulls ,ed .M.C .Schlichtin g &D . Smidt:77-88 .C.E.C. ,Luxemburg .EU R 1077EN . Metz, J.H.M., 1984. Regulation of sucking behaviour of calves. In: Proceedings of the InternationalCongres so nApplie dEtholog yo fFar mAnimals .Kiel .ed .J .Unsholm ,G .va n Putten &K . Zeeb.p .70-73 . K.T.B.L.,Darmstadt , vande rMei ,J. , 1987.Healt haspect so fwelfar eresearc hi nvea lcalves .In :Welfar e aspectso f housing systemsfo r vealcalve s andfattenin g bulls,ed .M.C .Schlichtin g &D .Smidt ,99 . C.E.C.,Luxemburg .EU R 1007EN .

30 van Putten, G., 1987. Housing and management concepts in today's veal production. In: Welfare aspectso fhousin gsystem sfo rvea lcalve san dfattenin g bulls,ed .M.C .Schlichtin g &D .Smidt .p .45-59 . C.E.C.,Luxemburg .EU R 1077EN . van Putten, G. & W.J. Elshof, 1978. Zusatzfuttering von Stroh an Mastkalber. Aktuelle Arbeiten zurartgemäße nTierhaltun g 233:210-219.K.T.B.L. ,Darmstadt . Warnick, V.D.,C.V .Arav e& C.H .Mickelsen , 1977.Effect s ofgroup ,individua lan disolate d rearingo f calves onweigh t gain andbehaviour . Journal ofDair y Science60:947-953 . Waterhouse, A., 1978.Th e effects of pen conditions on the development of calf behaviour. AppliedAnima lEtholog y 4:285-286. Waterhouse,A. , 1979.Th eeffect s ofrearin gcondition s onth ebehaviou r andgrowt ho fdair y calves.Ph.D. thesis ,Universit y of Reading. Webster, A.J.F. & C. Saville, 1981. Rearing of veal calves. In: Alternatives to intensive husbandry systems,p .86-94 .U.F.A.W. ,London . Webster, AJ.E, C.Saville ,B.M . Church,A .Gnanasakth y &R .Moss , 1985.Som eeffect s of different rearing systemso nth edevelopmen t ofcal f behaviour.Britis h Veterinary Journal 141:249-264. Webster,A.J.F. , 1984.Cal f husbandry, health andwelfare . Collins,London . Welchman, D. de B. & G.N. Baust, 1987. A survey of abomasal ulceration in veal calves. Veterinary Record 121:586-590. Wiepkema,P.R. , 1985.Ove r gedragsstoringen bij dienen in deveehouderij . Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde 110:12-20. Wierenga,H.K. , 1987.Behavioura lproblem si nfattenin g bulls.In :Welfar easpect so fhousin g systems for vealcalve s andfattenin g bulls, ed.M.C .Schlichtin g &D . Smidt,p . 105-122. C.E.C.,Luxemburg .EU R 1007EN .

31 Effects ofbree d and early social environment oncal f behaviour

P.l eNeindr e InstitutNational de la Recherche Agronomique, Theix,63122 Ceyrat, FR

Summary

Atpastur eo nth efirs tda yafte rbirth ,th ecal fi swit hit smothe rawa yfro m theothe rmember s of the herd. Someday s after birth itsda m rejoins the groupo f cows andonl y later the calf is integrated intoit s peer groups. Most of thecalf' s socialinteraction s aredirecte d towards its damdurin gth efirs t monthso flife .Th eeffect s ofisolatio no npostnata lan dsubsequen tsocia l and maternal behaviours were studied. Mothered calves are much more active than isolated ones. Subsequent maternal behaviour and the social behaviour of Friesian animals are not influenced byearl ymanagement .Howeve ri na bee fbreed ,isolate danimal sar edominate db y mothered ones.Th eeffect s of isolation can therefore vary between breeds ofcattle . Descriptors: social behaviour; maternal behaviour; welfare.

Introduction Thewelfar e problemso f vealcalve sca nb ebette ranalyse d andunderstoo db yobservatio n of calvesi na nundisturbe d environment. Theactivitie so fcalve ssuckle db y theirmother so n pasture andth eeffect s ofisolatio n during theearl y stageso n subsequent socialbehaviou r are reported.

Ontogeny ofsocia lbehaviou r

Thirty-nineprimiparou scow swer eobserve dwit hthei rcalve sa tpasture .The ywer edivide d intofou r herds inpaddock s of five toeigh t hectares.Eac h herd was observed for five whole days. The nearest neighbour wasrecorde d every 30minute s for each animal. Social interac­ tionswer eobserve d continuously. Justafte r birth,th ecal f andit sda mwer etogethe ran dspen tmos to fthei rtim eisolate d from the other animalso f the herd. After thefirs t week the dam spentmos t of the day in the herd (Figure la) but the calf still remained alone more than 10%o f the total time (with no other animalwithi n 40metres) .I twa sthe n alonever yseldo m andmos to f thetim ei tha d acal f as aneare rneighbou r (Figure 1b) .Durin gth efirs t monthso flife , thecal finteracte dmainl ywit h itsdam .I t suckled only her andwa slicke donl y byher . Socialenvironmen t ofth ecal f ina nundisturbe denvironmen t isthe nquit ecomplex .Fro m thefirs t days to thepostweanin g period, therei s aslo w changei n the sociallif e of thecalf .

Effects ofearl yisolatio no nsubsequen t socialbehaviou r

Vealcalve si nintensiv efarm s arefa rfro m thesenatura lconditions .I nparticular ,the yhav e nocontac twit hthei rdam san dsometime snon ewit hthei rpeers .Tw oset so fexperiment swer e designed:th efirst t oanalys eth eeffect s ofisolatio no ncal fbehaviou rdurin gth efir st fe whour s after birth; the second tostud yth elon g termeffec t of isolation. Very different types of cattle exist from the dairy breeds to the beef breeds. Dairy calves areusuall y isolated from birth whereasbee f calvesremai nwit h theirmother s untilth e ageo f 8 months. We therefore tested wether the effects of isolation might be different for the two

32 types of calves.W e studied animals from two breeds:Friesian , adair y breed; Salers, abee f breed.

Postnatalactivit y

Fifty-six calves (Friesians n = 29; Salers n = 31) were observed for 4 hours after birth. Thirty-one were isolated from theirmother s after birth and theother s were mothered. Their activities werefilme d onvideo .Th einterva l between birth andfirs t standing upan dth etota l time spent standing upwer erecorded . Mothered animals stoodu pmuc hearlie rtha nisolate dones .Onl y40 %o fth eSaler scalve s stood upwhe n isolated compared with75 % of theFriesian s (Table 1). Mothered Salers calves drunk more colostrum when suckling their mothers than when feeding from a bottle (8.9%vs .6.3 %o f their bodyweight).Lik e Metz &Met z (1984) buti n contrast with the studies of Selman et al. (1971) andFallo n (1978),w efoun d that mothering had noeffec t on thecalf' s absorption of colostrum from theintestine . Salers calves drank less colostrum than Friesians (39 vs.8 2 %drun k moretha n 2kg ) and for the same amount of immunoglobulin drunk, Salers had a lower blood level of immuno­ globulin (12.5mg/k gvs .18.2) .

Socialbehaviou r

Fourteen artificially reared heifers and 14mothere d ones were observed atpastur e when five months old. The number of interactions directed towards the other calves was higheri n theartificiall y reared animalstha ni nth eother s (agonisticinteractions : 16.6vs . 1.0, non-ago­ nisticinteraction s and licks:6. 6 vs.0.3) . Thirty-six 3-year-old cows were observed atpasture .Twent y hadbee n isolated from birth until the ageo f 3month s (Friesians n= 12,Saler s n= 8 )afte r which they were grouped. The other animals were mothered by nurse cows (Friesians n = 8, Salers n - 8). There was no significant difference between the social behaviour of isolated and mothered dairy cows. However mothered beef cows were significantly more active and dominated those that had been isolated (Table2) .

NEAREST NEIGHBOURS (%) a) Dam b) Calf 100-* -100— •• • • Alone H Other cows Pi HI • Other calves

H Own calf or j s dam s i Interval between calving -10 * 1 4 and observation Calving (Days)

Figure1. Changein nearest neighbours withthe interval between calving and observation. Expressedas relative frequencies of scans (%, onescan every thirtyminutes).

33 1 Table 1. Influenceof breed and environment on the interval between birthand standing up (in min - 240if the calf didn't stand up) (the numberof calves to stand up! total number). a'b-c- significant differenceP < 0.05.From Le Neindre & Signoret(1987).

Salers Friesians

Isolated 204± 58a 117±86b (6/15) (12/16) Mothered 64±60c 45 ± 53c (15/16) (9/9)

Table 2. Influenceof breed and rearing conditionson hierarchialp osition (thehigher the data, the higher the hierarchialposition). FromLe Neindre (1989b).

Herds FN FM SN SM

SN/SM 4;7 ** 12.0 FN/FM 8.7 6.5 SM/FM 6.1 ** 12.7 SN/FN 3.0 ** 9.9 Mann-Whitney test: * P < 0.05 **P<0.01 F Friesian S Salers N Non-mothered; M Mothered

Table3. Effectsof breed and rearing condition on cow-newborn calf relationships (4-h period afterbirth; Mann-Whitney test).From Le Neindre (1989a).

Breed Rearingconditio n Total

Friesian Salers non- mothered mean s.d. mothered

Numbero fdat a 6 7 7 6 13 13 Numbero fattempt sbefor e firstsucklin g 22*** 8.0 ' 3.7* 7.2 5.3 5.0 Birth-first sucklinginterva l (min) 69.5 75.3 73.7 71.3 72.6 24.0 Latencybetwee nclavin gan d firstlickin g(min ) 6.6 5.0 7.7* 3.7 6.0 4.2 Totallickin gtim e (min) 44.3 41.9 51.4** 33.2 43.0 17.7 Numbero fkick sa tth ecal f 0.5 1.7 0.9 1.5 1.2 1.9 * P<0.05 **/><0.01 *** P < 0.001

34 Maternal behaviour

Thematerna lbehaviou ro fth ecow sdescribe dabov ewa sobserved .Thirtee nwer eobserve d during thefou r hours following birth and allanimal s were observed for 5whol eday s during thefirs t threemonth s following calving. Earlysocia lisolatio no ffemal ecalve sha dn oimportan teffect s onthei rsubsequen tmaterna l behaviour. The detrimental effects (inparticula r aggressive behaviour towards newborns) of not being mothered at birth or of being isolated after birth both of which were reported by Harlow& Harlo w(1969 )i nmonkeys ,wer eno tobserved .O nth econtrary ,isolate dcow slicke d their calves longer than mothered cows (Table 3). When the calves were older, the only significant difference was thatobserve d mothered dams suckled more often than those from isolated dams (4.69 sucklingbout spe rda y vs.4.05) .

Conclusion Calvesi n asucklin gher dhav ea ver ycomple x socialenvironmen t andinterac twit h allth e members of the herd. It seems correct to keep this social environment as much as possible. TraditionalFrenc hproductio no fvea lcalve si sa goo dwa yo fmaintainin git .I nthi shusbandr y system,calve s suckle their mothers twice ada y (three times ada y when they areyoung ) and they areno t usually isolated from theothe rcalves . The effects of early isolation on calves are not as great as they are in some species of monkeysan dno ts ogrea ta si softe n said.Howeve rbee fcalve sar ever ydisturbe db yisolatio n even if the effects are not asimportan t on dairy calves.Calve s from the dairy herds must be separated from their mothers but how their welfare is better if they have somecontact s with othercalve si sunclear .W ed ono tkno wi fth emer epresenc eo fhuma nbeing si simportan t for thecal f andca n compensate theabsenc eo fcongeners .Howeve ri ti sclea r that somecontact s with human beingsdurin g theearl y ageseas eth e subsequent handling ability of theanimals .

References

Fallon, R.J., 1978.Th eeffec t of immunoglobulin levels oncal f performance and methodso f artificially feeding colostrum toth enew-bor n calf.Ann .Rech . Vet.9:347-352 . leNeindre ,P. ,1989a .Influenc eo frearin gcondition san dbree do nsocia lrelationshi po fmothe r andyoung .App .Anim .behav .sei .23:117-127 . le Neindre, P., 1989b. Influence of rearing conditions and breed on social behaviour and activityo f cattlei nnove lenvironments .App .Anim .Behav .Sei .23:129-140 . leNeindre ,P .& J.P .Signoret , 1987.Ethologica lresult so f welfare research in vealcalves .I n M.C.Schlichtin g &D .Smid t (ed.):Th ewelfar e of calves.EU R 10777p .77-88 . Metz, J. & J.H.M. Metz, 1984.Di e Bedeutung der Mutter in derUmwel t der neugeborenen Kalbes.Kuratoriu m für Technik undBanwese n inde rLandwirtschaf t 307:188-198. Selman, I.E., G. McEwan , &E.W . Fisher, 1971.Studie s on dairy calves allowed to suckle theirdam s fixed timespos tpartum . Res.Vet .Sei . 12:1-6.

35 L Ethological and physiological reactions of veal calves in group-housing systems

Christiane Müller &M.C . Schlichting Instituteof Animal Husbandry andAnimal Behaviour FAL, Trenthorst, D-2061 Westerau,DE

Summary Theeffect s ofgrou psize ,spac eallotmen tan dsupplementar yroughag efeedin gwa sstudie d in 80 vealcalve s over a fattening period of 20 weeks.Behaviora l activity,restin g behaviour and preputial sucking was recorded every five weeks. The ethological results showed that locomotion was more frequent in the uncrowded groups and that uncrowded calves hadles s problems lying down. After 6 weeks and atth e end of the study, adrenalreactio n to ACTH (1-24) stimulation (Friend, 1980) showedonl y smalldifference s between groups with group sizean dspac eallotment .Supplementar yfeedin go nroughage ,however ,exerte da large r effect on the adrenal reaction. Descriptors:vea lcalves ;grou psize ;spac eallotment ;roughag esupplement ;preputia lsucking ; resting behaviour; adrenal reaction.

Introduction Traditionally,vea lproductio nmean skeepin gcalve sseparatel yi ncrate swit ha slatte dfloo r duringa nunbalance dintensiv efattenin gperio d(Andrea ee tal. , 1980;d eWilt ,1985) .Meetin g the high requirements of the young calf is a big problem for most farmers. The tendency towardsgrou phousin go fvea lcalve si sobviousl ywelcom efo rwelfar ereasons .I ti snecessary , however,t oimprov esom easpect so fth edifferen t group-housing systems.Wit hthi sincentive , we studieddifferen t combinationso f groupsiz ean dspac e allotment.

Materialan dmethod s Intw oconsecutiv eexperiments ,a tota lo f 80vea lcalve s werehouse d in groups of five or ten for a fattening period of 20 weeks.Fro m the age of two weeks, all calves were kept on concrete slattedfloor s andfe d on amilk-replace rfro m bucketswit hnippl etwic edaily . After each feeding the calves wererestraine d for 15minute s in the feeding stanchion (Graf et al., 1989).I n the first experiment, eachcal f wasprovide d with 200 g straw cobs perda y andi n the secondexperimen t with20 0g stra wpe rday .Fo reac h group size,spac eallotmen twa s 1.0 and 1.5m 2pe ranimal .I naddition ,on egrou po f 10calve swa skep to ndee plitte rwit h 1.5 m2 per animal asa referenc e system.

Resultsan ddiscussio n Locomotion depended on age or body weight of the animals and, to some degree, on available space and floor type (Figure 1).Severa l activities (such as bucking, running, and jumping) depended upon space allotment and were only possible in groups with 1.5 m2 per animal. Most locomotion was observed in the reference group with deep litter. In the other

36 groups,th econcret e slattedfloor wa srelativel y non-slippery atth ebeginnin go fth e fattening period.Later ,th eslatte dfloo r becameincreasingl y slippery through accumulationo fmanure . In allgroups , daily weight gain was not influenced by group size orspac e allotment. Contrary to common opinion, increased locomotion inth e reference group did not reduce weightgai neither .Althoug hth estra wintak efro m thedee plitte rwa sno trecorded ,it snutritiv e valueca nb eignored .Sinc eweigh tgai nwa ssimila ri ncalve sfe d withnorma lstra wan dcalve s fed with straw cobs,i ti s questionable whether straw cobshav e ahighe r nutritive value than regular straw. Atth ebeginnin go fth estudies ,restin gbehaviou rwa ssimila ri nal lgroups .Wit hincreasin g body weight, however, calves on slatted floor displayed increasing difficulty during lying down.Afte rreachin ga bod yweigh to fabou t15 0kg ,calve so nslatte dfloo r showeda decrease d frequency of lying bouts. Similarchange s wereobserve d inolde r heifers kept tether (Müller et al., 1989). These changes in resting behaviour were somewhat more pronounced in the crowded groups. The main problem in keeping veal calves in groups is the occurrence of mutual sucking. Dependingo nth efeedin gsystem ,youn gcalve scompensat ethei rnee dfo rsuckin gb yorientin g the behaviour towards animate andinanimat e objects (Sambraus, 1985).Preputia l suckingi s especially frequent, possibly because of the similarity between the mammary gland andth e preputialregio n(Met z& Mekking , 1987).Wit hincreasin gage ,th econditione dsuckin grefle x becomes lessmarke d (Figure2) . Inou r studies,calve s kepto n strawdisplaye d significantly lesspreputia l suckingove rth e wholefattenin g period. Forcalve s on slattedfloor, preputia l sucking was highest in crowded groupswit h 10animal s andtend st ob eles sfrequen t inth euncrowde d groupswit h 5animals . In addition to behavioral observations, the possible effect of stress from thehousin g conditions onth eadrenocortica lreactio n wasteste dafte r ACTH(l-24) stimulation (Ladewig & Smidt, 1989). Inth e 6th and 22nd week, allanimal s were equipped with intravenous catheters and,o nth efollowin g day,give n 1.98 iuo fACT Hpe rk gBW"-" .Bloo d samples for

Locomotion / Day ( x and SEM ) 0 10 calves, 1.5 sq.m./animai; slatted floor {n—20)

B 5 calves, 1.0 sq.m./animal; slattea floor (n= 20 j

r 120 [Q 10 calves, 1.0 sq.m./animal; slatted floor (n= 20 )

R S S calves, 1.5 sq.m./animal; slattea floor (n=1C) £ 100 • 10 calves, 1.5 sq.m./animal; deep litter (n=10) Q U 80 E N 60 C Y

12 17 Weeks of Age

Figure1. Frequencyof locomotion (bucking, runningand jumping) in24 h of observation duringthe 7th, 12th, 17th and22nd weekof age of the first experiment.

37 i L 25 PREPUTIAL SUCKING / DAY N ( x and SEM ) U M 0 10 calves, 1.5 sq.m./animal; slatted floor B 20 E B 5 calves, 1.0 sq.m./animal; slatted floor R D 10 calves, 1.0 sq.m./animal; slatted floor P E Q 5 calves, 1.5 sq.m./animal, slatted floor R

A N

M A L \*k,m mA 12 17 22 Weeks of Age

Figure2. Frequencyof preputial sucking in24 h of observation period in the 7th, 12th, 17th and22nd week of age inboth experiments.

Cortisol determination were collected at irregular intervals from 1 h before till 5 h after stimulation. Inth efirs t test,calve skep to nconcret e slattedfloo r ata hig h stockingrat e showeda tend s tob ehighe r Cortisolresponse .I n the secondtest , allgroup sexcep t thereferenc e groupwer e atth esam elowe rlevel .Th edifferenc e inplasm aCortiso lbetwee nth egrou pofte n calveswit h 1.0 m2pe ranima l andth ereferenc e groupwa ssignifican t (P< 0.01) . Thisresul tindicate stha tsupplementar yroughag efeedin g isth edecisiv efactor .Onl y small differences werefoun d between groups withdifferen t group sizean d space allotment. The addition of negative influences from the housing and feeding system caused stress reactioni nbehaviou ran dphysiology .A simila rinterpretatio nha sbee nreporte di nothe rstudie s (Dantzer et al., 1983;Philipp s etal. , 1982).

Conclusion Ourdat aindicat etha tth egreates tdifficult y invea lcal fproductio ni sth eunnatura l feeding ofyoun gcattle .Ther ewer en oconspiciou sdifference s inth emeasure dparameter s withgrou p sizean dspac eallotment .Onl yanimal so fth ereferenc egrou po ndee plitter ,i nwhic hroughag e was available ad libitum revealed a different behavioral andphysiologica l reaction. For the high weight atwhic h calves are slaughtered,feedin g adultcattl eonl yo nmil kreplace r liquid food without additionalroughag econstitute s awelfar e problem. Aslon ga sth ehig hdeman dfo rvea lfo rexpor texists ,slaughte rweight sar elikel yt oincreas e further. The main task for producers will be a general change in feeding of veal calves until they are young bulls (e.g. Barley beef)- In this process,i t seems to be useful to separate the fattening periods toaccommodat eth echangin g needs of thecalves .

38 References Andreae, U., J. Unshelm &D . Smidt, 1980.Handhabun g von Kälbern in Gruppenhaltung. KTBL-Schrift 254:89-96. Dantzer, R., P.Mormède , R.M. Bluthé &J . Soissons, 1983.Th e effect of different housing conditions on behavioural and adrenocortical reactions in veal calves. Reprod. Nutr. Develop.23:501-508 . de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Landbouwuniversiteit . IMAG,Wageningen ,NL . Friend, T.H., 1980.Stress :Wha t isi t and howca n it bequantified ? Int.J . Stud. Anim.Prob . 1:366-374. Graf,B. ,N .Verhage n &H.H .Sambraus , 1989.Reduzierun g desErsatzsaugen s beikünstlic h aufgezogenen Kälberndurc hFixierun gnac hde mTränke node rVerlängerun gde rSaugzeit . Züchtungskunde 61:384-400. Ladewig, J. & D. Smidt, 1989.Behavior , episodic secretion of Cortisol, and adrenocortical reactivity in bulls subjected totethering .Horm .Behav .23:344-360 . Metz, J.H.M. & P. Mekking, 1987. Reizqualitäten als Auslöser für Saugen bei Kälbern. KTBL-Schrift 319:228-236. Müller,C , J.Ladewig ,H.-H .Thielsche r& D .Smidt , 1989. Behaviouran dhear trat eo fheifer s housed intethe r stanchions without straw.Physiol .Behav .46:751-754 . Phillips,W.A. ,R.P . Wettemann &F.P . Horn, 1982.Influenc e ofpreshipmen t managemento n the adrenal response of beef calves to ACTH before and after transit./J . Anim. Sei. 54:697-703. Sambraus, H.H., 1985.Mouth-base d anomalous syndromes. In:Fraser , A.Etholog y of farm animals.Elsevie r Sei.Publ. ,Amsterdam . Chapter 31.p .391-422 .

39 L Effects of housing on responses of veal calves to handling and transport H.R. Trunkfield,* D.M. Broom,*K .Maatje,* * H.K. Wierenga,**E .Lamboo y ** &J . Kooijman** * Dept.of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, MadingleyRoad, Cambridge, GB ** ResearchInstitute of Animal Production, 'Schoonoord', P.O.Box 501, 3700AM Zeist, NL

Summary

The responses to handling and transport of male Dutch Friesian veal calves housed in different systems and reared with different feeding regimes have been investigated. Calves reared to six months of age in isolation in crates and bucket-fed werecompare d with groups of 15o r 30 calves fed by automatic teat-feeder. Behavioral observations and physiological welfare indicators show that the calves reared individually in crates were more stressed in response tohandlin g and transport than the calves reared in groups.Othe r studies have been carried out with calves reared in groups of five on different feeding regimes. Bas^l Cortisol levelswer elowe ro na milk-and-stra wdie ttha no nmil konl yo rmil kan dhay ,bu tafte r handling and transport, plasma Cortisollevel sincrease d on eachregime . Descriptors:vea l calves; housing; handling; transport; feeding regime; welfare.

Introduction

The life experience of an animal in its housing environment will influence its subsequent response to a stressful procedure. Wehav e investigated the effects of different housing and feedingsystem scurrentl yuse dfo rrearin gvea lcalve so nth esubsequen tresponse so fth ecalve s totransport .Transpor ti sa comple xmixtur eo fadvers estimul iincludin gexperienc eo fa nove l noisy environment, handling by people during loading and unloading, mixing of unfamiliar calvesofte n withcrowding ,deprivatio no ffoo dan dwater ,exposur et ofluctuation s intempera ­ ture and humidity, andvehicl e movement.Physiologica l responses of calves tohandlin g and transport have been found (e.g. Kent & Ewbank, 1983; Fell & Shutt, 1986). Behavioral responses haveals obee nreporte d incattl e (Kenny &Tarrant , 1987)an dcalve s (Friende tal. , 1981). Calf welfare during transit may vary from good topoo r with conditions and methods of transport, and factors such as age, breed and sex of the calf and duration of journey (Trunkfield &Broom , 1990).

Study1

Numerousinvestigation shav eshow ntha tcalve sreare di nisolatio ni ncrate sar eles sactive , less socially experienced and behave in more ways that are considered to be abnormal than group-reared calvesbecaus eo f therestriction s imposedb ythei renvironment .Thes e findings suggesttha tcalve sreare di ncrate sar emor echronicall y stressedtha ncalve sreare di ngroups . Because of these differences, two trials were carried out to investigate whether there was a difference inrespons e toth eacut estres so f transportbetwee ngroup-reare d andisolation-rea ­ redcalves .

40 Study2

Vealcalve shav ebee nshow nt obehav ei nvariou sway stha tar econsidere dt ob eabnorma l including stereotypies, such as tongue-rolling, which are a sign of poor welfare (Fraser & Broom, 1990).On eo fth efunction s ofstereotypie si sthough tt ob et oreduc estress .Supplyin g roughage tovea l calves appears toreduc e both thedevelopmen t andoccurrenc e of abnormal behaviour (Kooijman et al., this volume). A study was therefore carried out to determine whethercalve sreare do ndifferen t levelso froughag eresponde ddifferentl y tosubsequen tacut e stress during transport.

Methods Study 1

Both trials involved 6-month-old calves undergoing production monitoring (Maatje & Verhoeff, this volume).Twent y calves werehouse d individually in crates, 170c m by 70c m andwer ebucket-fe d ona ratio no f9 k go fmil kreplace rfollowe d by 100g stra wpellet stwic e daily.Fou rgroup so f 15calve s(Tria l 1)an don egrou po f3 0(Grou p3 )plus tw oo f 15 (Groups 1 and 2) in Trial 2, at a space allowance of about 1.5 square metres per animal were fed by automatic teatfeede r on aratio n of 18k go fmil kreplace r andwer eprovide dwit h free access to straw pellets. Behavioral observations were made during one week before transport to determinean ydifference s inbehaviou ri nsit ubetwee nth etw ohousin gsystems .Observation s ofresponse s toloadin gwer emad eo n theda y of transport. Theduratio n ofjourne y wason e hour followed by about half an hour spent in lairage. The crate-reared calves were kept separatelyi ntw ogroup si nth elorr yan di non egrou pi nth elairage .Group-reare dcalve swer e all mixedo n the lorry and duringlairage .

Study2

Calves werereare d to eight months in groups of five on different feeding regimes: milk only (M),mil k and hay ad libitum (MH), and milk and straw pellets ad libitum (MS).The y were compared in their responses to handling and transport. Thejourne y duration was one hour.Al l groups weremixe d on thelorr y anddurin g 45minute s spenti nlairage . In both studies, simultaneous saliva and blood samples were taken on the day before transporta tth eestimate dtim eo floading ,an dafte r transporta tslaughter . Salivawa sanalyse d for Cortisol by anELIS A technique (Coopere t al., 1989).Saliv a contains thefre e fraction of plasma Cortisol. Plasma was analysed for total Cortisol by radioimmunoassay. Arginine vasopressin (AVP)als oappear st ob einvolve di nth estres srespons ei nsom especies ,showin g aneventua l depression in levelsi nrespons e toadvers e stimuli (Matthews,persona l commu­ nication).AV Pplasm alevel swer eals odetermine db yradioimmunoassay .Th eenzym elactat e dehydrogenase (LDH) consists of five isomers which can be analysed by electrophoresis. Isomer 5 appears to leak into the blood from skeletal muscle as aresul t of damage such as bruising, in response to stress hormones and during strenuous exercise (Jones, personal communication).

41 O before handling andtranspor t CI before handling andtranspor t H after handling andtranspor t • after handling andtranspor t

7 -, P<0.01

Group calves Crate calves Crates

Figure 1. Mean Cortisol levels before and Figure 2. Meansaliva Cortisol leüels before after handling and transport(Study 1,Trial and after handling and transport (Study 1, 1). Increase in crate-rearedvs. increasein Trial 2):Increase in crate-reared vs. group- group-reared, P <,0.001. reared, P5 0.001.

Results Study1

Calvesreare di ncrate sla ydow nfo r agreate rpercentag eo fth etim etha ndi dcalve sreare d in group pens. Visual observations during loading showed that crate-reared calves had difficulty inboardin ga walk-o nram pbu twer eloade dmuc hmor equickl ytha n group-reared calves.Group-reare dcalve sha dhighe rbasa lCortiso llevel stha ncalve sreare di ncrate sperhap s due to sampling stress. An increase in both plasma (Figure 1) and saliva (Figure 2) Cortisol levels following handling and transport wasfoun d tob e significantly greater in crate-reared calves than in group-reared calves. Arginine vasopressin showed a larger depression in crate-reared calves. Crate-reared calvesonl y showed asignifican t increasei nrecta l tempera­ ture after handling and transport.

Study2

Thefeedin g regimeresultin g inth elowes t salivaCortiso llevel s before transport wasmil k plus straw pellets,P = 0.06 (Figure 3).Th e increase in Cortisol with handling and transport was similar for all calves on all three feeding regimes. LIÎH-5 levels were similar after transport, however the increase from basal levels was significant only for the calves fed on milk and hay (Figure 4) and approached significance for those calves fed on milk and straw pellets.

42 • before handling and transport ED before handling and transport • after handling and transport H after handling andtranspor t P<0.05 'OOOT PSO.05 P<0.1

Figure3. Meansaliva Cortisollevels before Figure4. Meanplasma LDH-5 levels before and after handling and transport(Study 2). andafter handling and transport (Study 2). Basallevels lower in MS treatment, P = 0.06.

Conclusions ,

Thepreviou s physical and socialenvironmen t inwhic hcalve shav ebee n reared hasbee n shownt oaffec t theirresponse st otransport .Calve sreare di ncrate scop eles swel lwit hhandlin g and transport than thosereare d in groups,thu sprovidin gfurthe r evidence that such housing systems should be discontinued. The results of the second study show that differences in feeding regime, which have been shown to produce differences in behaviour in the rearing environment appear, toresul t indifferen t physiological responses totranspor t stress.

References Cooper,T.R. ,H.R .Trunkfield ,A J . Zanella& W.D . Booth, 1989.A nenzymelinke dimmuno ­ sorbent assay for Cortisol in the saliva of man and domestic farm animals. J. Endocrinol. 123:R13-16. Fell, L.R. & D.A. Shutt, 1986. Adrenocortical responses of calves to transport stress as measuredb y salivary Cortisol.Can .J .Anim .Sei . 66:637-641. Fraser,A.F .& D.M .Broom , 1990.Far m Animal Behaviour andWelfare . London: Bailliere, Tindall. Friend, T.H., M.R. Irwin, AJ. Sharp, B.H. Ashby, G.B. Thompson & W.A. Bailey, 1981. Behaviour and weight loss of feeder calves in arailca r modified for feeding and watering in transit. Int.J . Stud.Anim .Prob .2:129-137 . Kenny, F.J. & RV. Tarrant, 1987. The reaction of young bulls to short haul road transport. Appl.Anim .Behav .Sei . 17:209-227. Kent, J.E., 1977.Th e effect of road transportation on young cattle. MSc. Thesis,Universit y of Liverpool. Kent,J.E .& R .Ewbank , 1983.Th eeffec t ofroa dtransportatio n onth ebloo dconstituent san d behaviouro f calves.I . Sixmonth s old.Br . Vet.J . 139:228-235. Trunkfield, H.R. &D.M .Broom , 1990.Th ewelfar e of calves duringhandlin g and transport. Appl.Anim .Behav .Sei. ,i npress .

43 Behaviour of veal calves in individual stalls and group pens

J.L. Albright *,D.K . Stouffer *& N.J .Kenyo n ** * Departmentof Animal Sciences, Purdue University, WestLafayette, Indiana, US ** Schoolof Agricultural and Forest Sciences, UniversityCollege of North Wales, Bangor, GB

Summary A field study was conducted in Northern Indiana during the winter of 1988-89. Eighty Holstein male calves; 40 in stalls (0.9 m2) and 40 in 8 pens (1.3 m2/calf) were observed at 20-minuteinterval s at5,10 , and 17week sold . Stalls andpen swit h slattedfloor s weremad e ofwood .Eac hcal fwa scategorize dfo rlyin gan dstandin gan d1 of4 0postura lan dbehaviora l activities later grouped for analysis, showing %tim e spenti n each. Weobserve dtha t sternalrecumbenc y increasedwit hag efro m 47t o57.6 %fo r stallcalve s andfro m 45.5t o55 %fo rpenne dcalves .Othe rnon-erec trestin gposture sdecrease dfro m 21.6 to 12.2%fo r stall calves and 26.6 to 12.3% for penned. Time spent standing decreased with age from 30.5 to 29.5%fo r stall calves and increased from 27 to 32%fo r grouped penned calves. Behaviours compiled into categories show that time spent performing grooming, investigating, and idling activities decrease with age from 13.3 to 3.1%fo r stall calves and 12.5t o2.3 %fo rpenned .Thes ebehaviour swer epartl yreplace db yhea dan dbod ymovements , increasing from 2.4 to 13.4% in stall calves and from 2.8 to 14.9% in penned calves. Oral activitieswer esimilar ;stal lan dpe ncalve sbot hshowe d5 %tongu eplayin ga t1 7weeks .Othe r behaviours notedwer ealik eo rlo wi nfrequenc y in allcalves .Fo r eachcal f anassessmen to f easeo fmovemen t wasmad eth emornin go f trucking toth eabattoir .Al lcalve smove d freely; stallcalve s attempting toleav eth e alley to getbac k in line whereaspe n calves showed more sniffing andinvestigatio n behaviour of thealle y floor. Descriptors:behaviour , vealcalves ;individua lhousing ;grou phousing ;handling ; movement; welfare.

Introduction Most North American veal and dairy producers believe that individual penning is, on average, better for calf health and well-being than group housing systems. (Agriculture Canada, 1988;Albright , 1983;Bakeretal. , 1981;Curti se tal. , 1988;Smit he tal. , 1990).Ther e remainsa nee dfo rresearc h anddevelopmen t ofhousin g systems thatconside rth ewell-bein g ofvea lcalves ,s otha tth eproblem sassociate dwit hrestricte dmovemen t andlac ko foutle t for naturalbehaviou rca n besave d (Agriculture Canada, 1988). Accordingt oWebste r(1989) ,th econventiona lsyste mo fconfinin gvea lcalve si nindividua l wooden crates and feeding them a liquid milk-replacer diet twice daily from buckets has receivedmuc hcriticis m onwelfar e grounds.H eclaim sth emos tobviou sinsul tt oth e welfare of thecal f ist oconfin e itt oa stal lwhere ,i nth elatte rstage so fgrowth ,i tcanno ttur n around, groomitsel fproperly ,adop ta norma lsleepin gposition ,o reve nstan du pan dli edow nwithou t difficulty. BritishFriesia n veal calvesi nboxe s (stalls)ove r theag eo f 10week s wereunabl e to adopt normal sleepingposition s with theirhead s tucked into their sides;an d to overcome this,crate s would need tob ea tleas t9 1c m wide (Webstere t al., 1986). Inthei rstudie sva nPutte n &Elsho f (1982)conclude dtha tvea lcalve s witha bod yweigh t of20 0k gnee dstall sa tleas t7 0c mwid ean d 170c mlong .Difficultie s arosewit hsmalle rstal l sizes (55cm) ,particularl y in the last month of the growthperiod , when lying wasrestricted , and getting up andlyin g down required greateffort , asdi d grooming. According to deWil t

44 (1985,1986),calve si nindividua l(1. 2m 2)crate sspen tmor etim elyin gtha nthos ei nth egrou p (7.3m 2) pens (74%agains t68% )du et oth egreate rvariatio n of stimulii nth egrou ppen san d perhapsals obecaus elyin gcalve swer eoccasionall ymounte dan dtrodde no nb ypenmates . In thegrou ppen scalve s spent2 %o flyin gtim elyin go nthei rsid ewit hbot hhindleg s stretched; theseposture s onlyrarel yoccurre d inth ecrate sb y theen do f the2 0wee k fattening period. In Canada new andrenovate dfacilitie s for calves mustcompl y with thecurren tminimu m recommendedindividua lpe nsize :6 5c mx 165c m (1.1m 2)fo rcalve sweighin gu pt o20 2k g and 1.4 m2 for grouppens .Thi s recommendation may change as aresul t of further research (Agriculture Canada, 1988). Without giving dimensions, the American Veterinary Medical Association (1985) supports confinement rearing, provided proper husbandry practices are followed. Recently, they (Boyce, 1989) statedcalve s should be able to stretch, stand, andli e down completely, and that they may or may not be allowed to turn around, depending on management, housing, and health considerations. (The statement calls for adequate lighting andventilatio n invea lcal fbarns ,an dfo rregula rmonitorin go fhaemoglobi nvalue st opreven t calves from becoming anaemic.) The American VealAssociatio n revised guidelines call for individual stall sizes for calves weighing up to 182k g tob e6 1c m x 163c m or 1.1 m2 in all new or renovated facilities. For each 11.4k g increase in final weight, stall width should be 2.54 cm and thelengt hmus t berevise d upward to 178c m (Smith et al., 1990).

Objectives

Thisstud yi sa nattemp tt oasses sth elyin gbehaviour ,postura lan dothe rbehaviora ldevelop ­ ment of Holstein veal calves kept under commercial conditions in individual stalls or group pens (5calves/pen ) at5,10 , and 17week s ofage . Afiel d study wasconducte d at acommercia l research facility in Northern Indiana during the fall-winter of 1988-89. Eighty Holstein male calves were monitored, 40 were raised in individual stalls (61c mx 152c mo r0. 9m 2) and4 0i neigh tpenne d groupso ffiv ecalve s (1.3 m2/ calf) with feeding partitions. Stalls and pens were constructed from oak and had slatted woodenfloors . Thebar nwa s wellventilate d bytime-programme d andthermostaticall y con­ trolled fans set at2 1°C .Continuou s lighting was available andmeasure d tob e 10lx .

Resultsan d discussion Calves wereobserve d at20-minut einterval sfo r 72recording s in24-hou rperiod s at5 an d 10week san dfo r 12hour sa t 17 weeksold .I naddition ,eas eo flocomotio n wasassesse dearl y on themornin g of trucking toth e slaughterhouse. Initially, each calf was categorized for lying or standing; then one of 40 postural or behavioralactivitie swer enoted .Later ,value swer egroupe dint osimila rdirecte dactivitie s for easeo fanalysis ,showin gth epercentag etim espen ti neach .Al lresult sar eshow na spercentag e frequency (Tables 1-6). Otherbehaviour snote dbu tno ttabulate dwere :anticipatin gfeedin g (drinking),an drestless ­ ness after feeding (about 4%);ruminating ;hea do n slats;hea do n another; feet stretched out; bawling; coughing; eliminative; and sexual behaviour. These occurred in similar or low frequencies (%). For each calf going to market, we established a predetermined scoring system from 1-5 with 1= calf could not walk; lifted onto the truck to 5 = walked or ran unassisted onto the truck. No shock prods (goads) were used. One calf rated a 3 and the rest rated 4. With experienced handlers,well-maintaine d stallsan dpens ,al lcalve smove dfreely ; however,stal l calvesattempte dt oleav eth ealle yt ojoi nothe rcalve s standingi n stalls. Grouppenne dcalve s exhibited more interest and directed their attention to more sniffing and investigation of the

45 Table 1. Restingpositions inveal calves-stalls vs.pens (byweeks of age).

Stalls (%) Pens(% ) 5 10 17 5 10 17 Erectposture ,eye s open 45.0 45.5 52.6 43.0 44.5 51.0 Erectposture ,eye s closed 2.0 6.0 5.0 2.5 7.0 4.0 Sternalrecumbenc y 47.0 51.5 57.6 45.5 51.5 55.0

Head onnec k 11.5 9.0 10.3 15.0 9.0 8.5 Head on flank/legs 9.1 5.0 1.5 10.2 6.0 3.5 Lyingo n side 1.0 1.0 0.4 1.4 1.0 0.3 Non-erect 21.6 15.0 12.2 26.6 16.0 12.3

Table2. Grooming, investigative, idlingbehaviour-stalls andpens (byweeks of age).

Stalls (%) Pens(% ) 5 10 17 5 10 17 Grooming self 2.3 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.0 Grooming others 2.5 1.0 0.5 2.5 0.7 0.4 Being groomed 1.5 0.5 0.3 1.4 0.1 0.0 Grooming 6.3 2.5 1.8 5.4 2.4 1.4

Investigative 3.5 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 Sniffing 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.8 1.0 0.0 Investigative 5.5 1.0 0.0 5.8 1.0 0.0

Idling 1.5 2.5 1.3 1.3 2.2 0.9

Table 3. Headand physical activities-stalls orpens (byweeks of age).

Stalls (%) Pens(% ) 5 10 17 51 10 17 Nose up 0.5 2.5 2.3 0.71 3.0 2.5 Head out 0.6 7.0 6.3 0.71 6.0 7.5 Shakinghea d 0.2 1.5 2.4 0.41 2.0 2.4 Head 1.3 11.0 11.0 1.81 11.0 12.4

Rubbing 0.4 0.5 1.2 0.31 1.0 1.2 Butting 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.11 1.0 0.3 Playing 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.61 1.0 1.0 Running 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0 Physical 1.1 1.3 2.4 1.01 3.0 2.5

46 Table4. Oralactivities inveal calves-stalls vs.pens (byweeks of age).

Stalls(% ) Pens(%) 5 10 17 5 10 17 Chewing wood 3.2 2.0 2.3 4.0 1.4 3.5 Licking stall/pail 6.0 2.0 3.4 3.3 2.0 3.0 Tongue playing 2.0 4.0 5.0 1.4 3.5 5.0 Socking scrotum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 Being sucked 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 Urine drinking 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 Oral 11.2 8.0 10.7 8.7 7.2 11.5

Table5. Summaryof postural andbehavioural activities—stalls and pens (byweeks of age).

Stalls(% ) Pens(%) 5 10 17 5 10 17

Lying 69.5 67.5 70.5 73.0 ' 67.8 68.0 Sternal recumbency 47.0 51.5 57.6 45.5 51.5 55.0 Non-erect 21.6 15.0 12.2 26.6 16.0 12.3 Grooming 13.3 6.0 3.1 12.5 5.6 2.3 Head andphysica l 2.4 12.3 13.4 2.8 14.0 14.9 Oral 11.2 8.0 10.7 8.7 7.2 11.5

Table 6. Significance levels.

Stalls vs.pen s Withincreasin g age

Lying Sternalrecumbenc y ** Non-erect * (wk5 ) * Grooming Head and physical Oral * p

alley floor. These observations support previous work (McFarlane et al., 1988;Sandhag e et al., 1983)whic hshowe dn odisorientation ,impaire dmoto rcoordinatio no rproblem si ncalve s beingtake nfro m theirstalls .Thes eimpairment scoul db eobserve di ncalve sreare do nslipper y floors oro nworn-ou t slats,o ri f theywer eyoung , sicko ranaemic .

47 Conclusions

1. Uprightsterna lpostur edevelopmen tincrease dwit hage .Thi swa saccomplishe db yreduce d 'sleep'an dli efla t postures in both stall andgrou ppens . 2. Grooming, investigative, and idling behaviours decreased with age and were replaced by head andbod y movements. 3. Frequencies of oral activity did not significantly differ between types of pen. Initially, lickingstall/pai lwa sobserved ;late rthi sprogresse dt otongu eplayin g(5%) .Tongu erollin g hasbee nsuggeste dt ob ea 'Pavlovia n type'respons esee nwhe ncalve sthin kthe yar eabou t tob efe d (Phillips, 1989).I tdisappeare d after feeding, when calves wereresting .Webste r et al. (1986)conclude d thatpurposeles s oralactivity ,e.g. , licking orchewin g thewall ,o r tonguerollin g is not aclea r indicatoro f stressi n vealcalves . 4. Behavioral trends were similar between individual stall and penned calves housed on wooden slats. 5. When removed from their stalls and grouppens ,al lcalve s movedeasily .

References AgricultureCanada , 1988.Recommende dcod eo fpractic efo rth ecar ean dhandlin go fspecia l fed vealcalves .Publicatio n 1821/E,Agricultur e Canada,Ottawa ,Ontario . Albright, J.L., 1983.Statu so f animalwelfar e awarenesso fproducer s anddirectio no f animal welfare research in thefuture . Journal ofDair y Science 66:2208-2220. American Veterinary Medical Association, 1985. Guide for veal calf care and production. Schaumburg,Illinois . Baker, F.H. et al., 1981. Scientific aspects of the welfare of food animals. Council for Agricultural Science andTechnolog y Report No. 91, p.37-38 . Boyce, J.R., 1989. Committee looks at veal calf welfare. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association 194:1160. Curtis, S.E., J.L. Albright, IV. Craig, H.W. Gonyou, K.A. Houpt, J.J. McGlone & WR. Stricklin, 1988.Guid efo r thecar ean dus eo f agricultural animalsi n agricultural research and teaching. Agricultural Care Guide,On eDuPon t Circle,N.W .Suit e 710, Washington, DC.p .55-57 . de Wilt, IG., 1985.Behaviou r andwelfar e of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Wageningen . Instituteo f AgriculturalEngineering,Wageningen . 138 pp. deWilt ,J.G. , 1986.Behaviou ro fvea lcalve si nindividua lcrate san dgrou ppens .Netherland s Journalo fAgricultura l Science34:233-235 . McFarlane, J.M., G.L. Morris, S.E. Curtis,J . Simon &J.J . McGlone, 1988.Som e indicators of welfare of crated vealcalve so nthre edietar y iron regimens.I Anim.Sei .66:317-325 . Phillips,T. , 1989.Answerin g allegations aboutveal .Larg eAnima l Veterinarian 44(l):26-28. Sandhage, M.E., J.L. Albright, L.M. Micinski VanDame & S.L. Walker, 1983. Veal calf behaviouri n standardwoode n crates.Journa lo fDair y Science66(Suppl. ) 1):137. Smith,CK. ,J.L .Albright ,M .Barkley ,D .Briner ,E .Heck ,J.C .Gawthrop ,W.M . Grover, VW Hays,H . Polzin, D. Shields,T.B .Smith ,R.L . Sommers &IM . Wagner, 1990.America n VealAssociation , Inc. Guide For the Care and Production'of VealCalves . Third edition. Naperville,Illinois , vanPutten , G.& W .Y . Eishof, 1982.Th elyin gbehaviou ro fvea lcalve su pt o22 0kg : welfare andhusbandr y of calves.IP . Signoret (Ed.)p . 83-104. MartinusNijhoff , TheHague . Webster, A.J.F., 1989. Improved husbandry systems for veal calves. In: C.J.C. Phillips (Ed.):New techniques in cattleproduction . Butterworths,London ,p . 174-176. Webster,A.J.F. ,C .Savill e& D .Welchman , 1986.Improve dhusbandr ysystem sfo rvea lcalves . AnimalHealt hTrust ,Far m Animal CareTrust .Universit y ofBristo lPress ,Bristol .

48 Spatial requirements ofindividuall y housed vealcalve so f 175t o30 0k g

C.C.Ketelaar-d eLauwer e& A.C .Smit s Instituteof Agricultural Engineering, P.O. Box43,6700 AA Wageningen, NL

Summary Astud y wascarrie dou to nindividuall y housedvea lcalve so f 175t o30 0kg .Th efirst par t of the study was to ascertain the exact amounto f space used bycalve s for different postures and movements if there is no spatial restriction. In the second part the postures relevant in determining thecrat esize s thatar eethologicall y acceptable were ascertained. Descriptors:vea l calves; spatialrequirements ; behaviour; postures;movements ;crat esizes .

Introduction

Inth eNetherlands ,ther ei sa tren dtoward skeepin gvea lcalve sunti lthe yweig h25 0k go r more. For reasons of animal welfare, the government decided that the crate sizes for these heavy animals should be adjusted. Research wascarrie dou to nth e spatialrequirement s ofindividuall y housed vealcalve so f 175t o300 kg .Ethologica l criteriawer eth emos timportan ti n thisresearch .

Materialan d methods Thestud yconsiste do ftw oparts .I nth efirst , partth eexac tamoun to f spaceuse db ycalve s keptwithou tspatia lconstraint si nlarg ecrate so f 150c mx 25 0c mwa sdetermine dfo r different postures and movements. This part of the study yielded the crate sizes for the unrestricted adoptiono fthes eposture san dth eexecutio no fthes emovements .I nth esecon dpart ,th eeffect s ofrestriction s toth eadoptio n ofthes eposture san dt oth eexecutio n ofthes emovement swer e determined in calves kepti n crates of different sizes.Th ebehaviou r of thecalve s kept inth e 150c m x 250c mcrate s served asa reference . Theresearc h wascarrie dou ti nthre etrial swit hfift y malecalve s(Dutc hFriesia n xHolstei n Friesian)each .Th eanimal swer eslaughtere dwhe nth eaverag eweigh twa sabou t30 0kg .The y were then 33 weeks old. Once a week, the calves were weighed, and once every fortnight, certainbod ysize swer erecorded .Th ecalve swer eindividuall yhouse di ncrate swit ha woode n slattedfloor .Fo rth eexperiment , 16crate so f 150c mx 25 0cm ,3 crate seac ho f 100c mx 20 0 cm and7 0c m x 170c m and4 crate seac h of 95c m x 195 cm,9 0c m x 190cm ,8 5c m x 185 cm, 80c m x 180c m and7 5c m x 175c m wereused . Behavioural observations were carried out once every fortnight from week 18u p to and including week 32.Ther e were twotype so f observations: 1. Time-sampling observations: avideo-recordin g of each calf was made at intervals of 7.5 minutesdurin ga 24-hou rperiod .Thes eobservation swer euse dt omeasur eth eexac tspac e used by thecalve s in the crates of 150c m x 250 cm, and for determining which postures wereadopte d by thecalve s in thecrate s of different sizes. Inth ethir dtrial ,th eeffec t ofmovin gcalve sfro m asmal lcrat e (70c mx 170cm )t oa larg e one(15 0c mx 250 cm )wa sstudied .I ntotal ,eigh tcalve swer emove d(tw ocalve spe rwee k in weeks 20, 24, 28 and 32). Time-sampling observations were carried out during the 24-hour period before, and on the first, third and fifth days after the transfer to the large

49 * of time 100x200 cm

60x180 cm

age (weeks)

Figure1. Lyingon thebrisket with front legs bentand one hind leg stretched away from the bodyin crates of different sizes (% of totalobservation time).

% of time 90x190 cm

32 18 32 18

age (weeks)

Figure2. Lyingon thebrisket with front legsbent and one hind leg stretched alongside the bodyin crates of different sizes (% of totalobservation time).

crates.Afte r oneweek ,th ecalve swer emove dbac kt oth esmal lcrate s andthei rbehaviou r on thefollowin g day wasobserved . 2. Continuousobservations :a video-recordin gwa smad eo fon ecal fdurin ga n8-hou rperiod . Thewa yo f gettingu p andlyin gdow n wasstudied .I ntotal , sixcalve s were studiedi nthi s way for eachcrat esize .

50 Results From the exact space used when adopting certain body postures and when performing certainmovements ,i tappeare dtha tcertai nbod yposture spu trequirement smainl yo nth ecrat e width and others on the crate length. The crate width was needed for lying with one or two hindleg s stretched awayfro m thebody .Th ecrat elengt hdepende d onth e spaceneede d toli e with one or two front legs stretched, and on the space needed for standing with the head stretched forward. Acrat e sizecoul d bedetermine d for allthes e body postures (Ketelaar-de Lauwere & Smits, 1989). Which body posture was chosen as a criterion for the crate width andfo r thecrat elengt hdepende do nth eresult so f thebehaviora l observations. Thebehaviora l studies onth ecalve si ncrate so fdifferen t sizesshowe d thatlyin gposture s that required little space were seen less often in large crates than in small ones. Conversely lyingposture stha trequire dmuc hspac ewer esee nles softe ni nsmal lcrates .Thes e differences becamemor emarke d asth ecalve s grewolde ran dthei rweight sincreased .I nlarg ecrates ,n o change was seen in thefrequencie s of thelyin gposture s thatrequire d littleo rmuc h spacea s thecalve sgre wolder .I nsmal lcrates ,th efrequenc y oflyin gposture stha trequire dlittl espac e increased as the calves grew older, and the frequency of lying postures that required much space decreased. Furthermore, those lying postures requiring little space, which wererarel y seeni n thelarg ecrates ,increase di nfrequenc y inth e smallcrate s asth ecalve s grewolder .I n these lying postures, the calves lay with one hind leg stretched alongside the body.Figur e 1 showsth etim espen tlyin gwit hon ehin dle gstretche dawa yfro m thebody ,a postur erequirin g much space, and Figure 2 shows the time spent lying with one hind leg stretched alongside thebody . Calves moved from a smallcrat e toa larg eon e showed astron gincreas ei n the frequency of lying withon e hind leg stretched awayfro m the body,an d astron gdecrease , usuallyeve n a cessation,o f lying withon ehin dle g stretched alongside thebody . After moving the calf back to the small crate, therevers e happened: the frequency of the first mentioned lying posture decreased strongly and that of the second increased strongly (Table 1). Thecontinuou s observations indicated that, when getting upo r lying down, the calves in the small crates moreofte n interrupted the movement, more often bent their heads sideways or updurin g the movement andmor eofte n hit their heads against thepartition s of the crates during themovement . Moreoverthe yneede d moretim et oge tu pan dli edown .Thes ecalve s tendedt oge tu po nthei rforeleg s first (likehorses) .Th ecalve si nth elarg ecrate sslippe dmor e often onth e floor during gettingu p andlyin gdown .

Discussionan d conclusions Theresult ssho wtha tth ebod yposture scalve sadop tar edependen to nth esiz eo fth ecrates . Thisbecome smor emarke da sth ecalve sge tolde ran dheavie rbecaus eth ecrat esiz ebecome s morerestrictive .Mos tstrikin gher ear eth elyin gposture srequirin glittl espace ,whic har eno t seeni nth elarg ecrates .I tseem stha tthes e 'special'lyin gposture sar ea substitut efo rth elyin g postures requiring much space. This contention is supported by the behaviour of the calves movedfro m asmal lcrat et o alarg eon ean dback .Whe ni nlarg ecrates ,thes ecalve s adopted lyingposture s thatrequire dmuc hspac ea sfrequentl y asothe rcalve stha tha dbee naccommo ­ datedi nth elarg ecrate sal lth etime .Moreove rth e 'special'lyin gposture s almost disappeared in thelarg e crates.I t seems that thelyin gposture s with one hind leg stretched alongside the bodyar eno t 'natural'fo rth ecalve sbecaus ethe yd ono tli ei nthes eposture swhe nunconstrai ­ ned. De Wilt (1985) found that individually housed vealcalve s at eight weeks of agecoul d not easily lie with both hind legs stretched away from the body in crates 70 cm wide.Fro m

51 Table 1. Averagefrequency of lyingwith one hind legstretched away from thebody (Lying Posture1) and withone hind legstretched alongside thebody (Lying Posture 2) before and aftertransfer from a small crateto a large one('before' and 'after', respectively) andafter movingback to a small crate('return') (% oftotal observation time).

Week Calf Lying' Posture 1 LyingPostur e 2 before after return before after return 20 1 2.2 43.9 29.7 29.1 0.2 2.2 2 3.4 18.6 9.3 15.1 0.3 1.6 24 3 0.0 32.2 3.3 23.1 0.3 34.1 4 0.5 21.2 0.5 22.0 0.0 36.2 28 5 1.1 28.7 0.0 39.2 0.3 43.8 6 1.7 24.1 0.0 21.0 1.2 32.0 32 7 0.0 34.5 0.0 30.9 0.7 29.0 8 0.0 19.5 0.0 48.6 1.9 49.3

Table 2. Recommendedcrate sizesfor vealcalves of175 to 300kg.

Age Mean weight Cratewidt h ' Cratelengt h (weeks) (kg) (cm) (cm) 18 175.2 80 170 20 189.3 85 170 22 206.1 85 170 24 227.2 90 175 26 246.4 90 180 28 262.6 90 185 30 283.0 90 185 32 301.0 95 190

16week s of age,lyin g with one hind leg stretched alongside the body was still theonl y way for the calves to stretch theirhin dlegs . Theresult so fth econtinuou sobservation sindicate dtha tcalve si ncrate softe n had difficulty getting up or lying down. These difficulties in large crates seemed to be related to the slipperiness of the floor. The difficulties shown bycalve s in small crates were most obvious and seemedt ooriginat efro m therestricte dspace .Accordin gt oBogne r(1981) ,i ti snecessar y tokee pcalve so n anon-sli pfloor . Therefore, wooden slatswoul db eunacceptable .Gra f etal . (1976) observed that a slippery floor could cause severe difficulties for calves when getting up orlyin g down. The behavioral observations revealed which postures were important in determining acceptable crate sizes.Th eultimat e criterion chosen for thecrat ewidt h was the spacecalve s needfo rlyin go nth ebriske twit hth efron t legsben tan don ehin dle gstretche dawa yfro m the body.Thi slyin gpostur e wassee nver yofte n (32.8% oftota llyin gtime ;Ketelaar-d eLauwer e & Smits, 1989)an di twa sreplace d bya n 'unnatural'lyin gpostur ewhe n therewa sn olonge r enough space.Moreover , thermoregulation wasease d when acal f was ablet ostretc h atleas t one hind leg away from the body (van Putten & Elshof, 1975). The criterion chosen for recommending thecrat elengt h wasth e spacecalve s needwhe n they standi nth ecrat ewit ha

52 straight back and the head stretched forward. It was the longest posture for which the exact amount of space could be measured (Ketelaar-de Lauwere & Smits, 1989). This made it possible to guarantee that there would be some extra space at thefron t of the crates, so that the calves could get up and lie down (Kaemmer & Schnitzer, 1975).Tabl e 2 gives the crate sizes.

References Bogner,H. , 1981.Einig eMindestforderunge n für dieHaltun gun dMas tvo nKälbern , wiesi e sich austierschutzbezogene n Untersuchungen ableitenlassen .Tierzüchte r 9:376-378. de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Agricultura lUniversity ,Wageningen . Graf, B., R. Wegman & M. Rist, 1976. Das Verhalten von Mastkälbern bei verschiedenen Haltungsformen. SchweizerischeLandwirtschaftlich e Monatshefte 54:333-355. Kaemmer, R &U . Schnitzer, 1975.Di e Stallbeurteilung am Beispiel des Ausruheverhaltens von Milchkühen. In:Di eBeurteilun g vonLiegeboxen .KTBL-Schrift , Darmstadt. Ketelaar-de Lauwere, C.C. &A.C .Smits , 1989.Onderzoe k naar de uit ethologisch oogpunt minimaal gewensteboxmate n voorvleeskalvere n metee ngewich tva n 175to t30 0kg .D e hoeveelheid ingenomen ruimte en gedragsaspecten. IMAG-rapport 110,Wageningen , vanPutten ,G .& WJ .Elshof , 1975.Platzanspruc heine sMastkalbes .In :Haltungssystem eun d Verhaltensanpassung. KTBL-Schrift, Darmstadt,p .56-63 . /

53 Development ofabnorma l oralbehaviou r in group-housed vealcalves :effect s ofroughag e supply

J.Kooijma n *,H.K .Wiereng a *& PR .Wiepkem a* * * ResearchInstitute for AnimalProduction 'Schoonoord', P.O.Box 501, 3700AM Zeist,NL ** Departmentof Animal Husbandry, EthologySection, AgriculturalUniversity Wageningen, P.O. Box338, 6700 AM Wageningen, NL

Summary

During2 trials ,th edevelopmen to f twoabnorma lpattern so fora lbehaviou ri n group-hou­ sedvea lcalve swa sstudied .Th eeffec t ofroughag eintak eo nthes eabnorma lbehaviour swa s investigated. Basedo nth eresult so fthes etrial si twa sconclude dtha tfeedin groughag et ovea lcalve si n additiont omil kreplace rreduce sth edevelopmen tan doccurrenc eo fabnorma lora lbehaviour . Both the quantity and the structure of theroughag e appeared to determine the extent of its effect on thecalves ' behaviour. Descriptors:vea lcalves ;abnorma lora lbehaviour ;roughag e supply.

Introduction In today's veal calf production, the animals frequently show behaviour considered to be abnormal.A sa consequenc eo fth emil kreplace rfeedin gmethod ,th ecalve sdevelo predirecte d suckingbehaviou rlik epreputia l suckingo rsuckin go nothe rpart so fpenmates 'bodie s (Mees &Metz , 1984;d eWilt , 1985).Beside sthi sredirecte d suckingbehaviou rothe r abnormal oral behaviour patterns, such as excessive sucking/biting/licking (manipulation) on inanimate objects and tongue-playing, areperforme d (Sambraus et al., 1984;d eWilt , 1985).Althoug h many researchers have speculated about the causes and function of this abnormal behaviour (Sambrause tal. , 1984;Wiepkema , 1987),a nacceptabl eexplanatio ni sstil llacking .However , theoccurrenc eo f thesebehaviou rpattern si scurrentl yconsidere dt ob eindicativ eo fimpove ­ rishedwell-bein g (Wiepkema et al., 1983). For the production of white veal, calves either receive no roughage at all or very little throughout thefattenin g period. Consequently, thecalve s areno t (orhardly ) ablet o chewo n roughagean dt oruminat e(va nPutten ,1982) .A scalve swoul dunde r(semi-)natura lcondition s developint oruminatin g animals,th eabsenc eo froughag ema ycontribut et oth edevelopmen t ofabnorma lora lbehaviour .Indeed , severalauthor s (vanPutte n &Elshof , 1978;Papendieck , 1979; Sambraus etal. , 1984)hav ereporte d arelationshi p betweenroughag e deprivation and theoccurrenc eo f abnormalora lbehaviour .Especiall y themanipulatio n of inanimate objects and tongue-playing havebee n mentioned in this context. The aim of this research was toinvestigat e thedevelopmen t of abnormal oral behaviour patternso fmilk-fe d vealcalves .Furthermore ,th eeffec t ofroughag esuppl yo nth eoccurrenc e of thesebehaviour s was studied.

54 Materialan d methods For this investigation, abar n with 18pen s for 5 calves each was available.Th epen s had woodenslatte dfloor s andself-closin g feedinggates .Ther ewa sa woode ntroug hfo rroughag e infron t of eachpen . The calves were fed milkreplace r in buckets twicedail y (7:00-7:30 h and 16:00-16:30 h) according toa commercia l scheme.Th e barn wasilluminate d from 6:00 hunti l 20:30h . In 2 trials, of 31 and 26 weeks duration, respectively, the following treatments were compared: A.mil k replacer only (control); B. milkreplace r +a dlibitu m strawpellets ; C. milkreplace r +a dlibitu m hay; D.mil k replacer +20 0g strawpellet spe rcal f perday ; E. milk replacer + 1 kg maize silagepe rcal f perday . Threepen s were usedfo r each treatment. In thefirs t trial, only Treatments A, Ban d Cwer e tested;i n the second trial, all 5treatment s were tested. Inth efirs t trial,onl y 80%o f themil k replacerratio n was given with theha ydie t compared to theothe r twodiets . Thecalves 'ag e averaged onewee ko n arrival atth eexperimenta l farm. After one weeko f habituation, observations of behaviourwer ecarrie dou tfo r 30-minperiod s starting after milk intake.Th ebehaviou r of the5 calve s in ape n wasrecorde dever y 10seconds .Th e following behaviourpattern s wererecorded : Manipulating objects The calf bit, sucked, licked or in some other way made oral contact with inanimate objects. Tongue-playing Thecal f madestrange ,swinging ,corkscrew-lik e movements withhi s tonguei no routsid ehi s mouth. Thefattenin g periodo f thefirs t and secondtria l wasdivide d into 8an d7 periodso f 24days , respectively. In each 24-day period every pen was observed 4 times. In the second trial no observations werecarrie dou tdurin g the third andfift h period. Observations during 24 hours were carried out to determine the time spent on roughage intake.Th ebehaviou ro fth e5 calve si nape nwa srecorde dever y5 minutes .Fo rlabou rreasons , 24-hour observations were carried out in the first trial only duringperiod s 6,7 and 8; andi n the second trialonl ydurin gperiod s 1,2an d4 .Durin geac h of these24-da yperiod seac hpe n wasobserve d once.Th e24-hou r observations wereconfine d toTreatment s Ban dC . Assuming that one interval score represents an average of 10 seconds, the measured behaviour scores ofth ehalf-hou r observations werecalculate da spercentage s ofth eobserva ­ tiontim espen to ndifferen t behaviourpatterns .A nanalysi so fvarianc ewa scarrie dou twithi n each period on the means perpe n for each behaviour pattern. For the 24-hour observations, the mean percentages of intervals in which roughage intake was recored were compared by means of theStudent' s ttes tfo r eachperiod .

Results

The occurrence of the manipulation of inanimate objects and tongue-playing behaviour during thesuccessiv e24-da yperiod so f the2 trial si sshow ni nFigur e 1. During thefirst tria l the highest incidence of both behaviour patterns occurred when the calves were fed milk replaceronl y(contro ltreatment) .I nth esam etreatmen t theoccurrenc eo fthes eabnorma lora l behaviour patterns increased throughout the fattening period. The lowest incidence was recorded whenth ecalve s received additionalha y adlibitum . The highest incidence of manipulating objects and tongue-playing during the second trial occurred in the control treatment and when the calvesreceive djus t 200 go f straw pellets in addition to the milk replacer. In both treatments, the incidence increased throughout the

55 • milk replacer (control) • milk replacer (control) D milk + straw pellets Q milk + 200 g straw pellets S 80% milk + hay S milk + 1 kg maize silage D milk + straw pellets S milk + hay manipulating manipulating objects (a) objects (a) (% time) (X time) 35 T 35

30

25

20 -•

15

10 aa 5

.Usil l 'I"™* *') lM* ' nll l"^L' M1 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 I 12 3 4 5 6 7 period period tongue-playing tongue-playing (% time) (b) (% time) (b) 10 10 T

5 ••

bb l=JiJtSJLEi ••a-~-. 1234567LkB 12 3 4 5 6 7 period period

Figure 1. Occurrenceof (a) manipulating objects and (b) tongue-playing during thefirst (left part) andsecond (right part) trial, aspercentages ofthe observation time(- 30mins). Each period lasted24 days. Different symbols (a, b,c, d) indicate significant differences (P< 0.05) betweentreatments withineach period. fattening period. As in the first trial, the lowest incidence of both abnormal oral behaviour patternswa srecorde dwhe nth ecalve swer efe dha ya dlibitu mi nadditio nt oth emil kreplacer . Time per 24 hours spent on roughage intake tended to increase throughout the fattening period (Figure2) .Furthermore , thehay-fe d calves spentsignificantl y moretim eo nroughag e intake than the ad libitum straw-pellets-fed animals in each 24-day period. In thefirs t trial, strawpellet san dha yintak eincrease d from practically zeroi nwee k 1 tomor etha n2. 5k gpe r animal per day in week 31. In the second trial, straw pellets and hay intake increased from zeroi n week 1 to 1.1 and 1.6k gpe rcal f perda y inwee k 26,respectively .

56 • milk + straw pellets S (80%) milk + hay roughage intake (% intervals)

period

Figure2. Timespent on roughage intakeduring 24 hours, aspercentages of the fötal number ofobserved intervals. Furtherexplanation: seeFigure 1 and text.

Discussion

Theresult s show that deprivation of roughage results in anincrease d display of excessive manipulation ofinanimat eobject s andtongue-playin g behaviourb yth ecalves .Othe rauthor s (e.g.va nPutte n& Elshof , 1978;Papendieck , 1979;Sambrau se t al., 1984)hav eals oreporte d a correlation between a lack of structured feedstuffs and the display of these abnormal oral behaviour patterns. Apparently the animals have a strong (innate) need for roughage which increases throughout the fattening period. This increased need is inferred from both the increasing amount of roughage eaten and the increasing time spent on roughage intake throughout thefattenin g period. Notbein g ablet ofulfi l thisnee dresult s in ahighe r tendency to develop and perform abnormal oral behaviour. Individual factors may determine towha t extent thecalve s expressthes e abnormal behaviourpatterns . An important aspect is the amount of roughage supplied; supplying just 200 g of straw pellets did not appear to satisfy the calves' need. Satisfaction of the need for roughage also depends on its structure. The results indicate that when high-quality roughage such as hay (containing alarg eamoun to ffibre ) wassupplied ,les smanipulatin gobject s andtongue-play ­ ing behaviour was recorded than when low-quality roughage (straw pellets or maize silage) was supplied. Theja w and tongue activity required for both theintak e and theruminatio n of roughagema y beimportan t factors in explaining the influence of feeding roughage. Assuming abnormal behaviouri sindicativ eo fimpoverishe d well-being (Wiepkemae tal. , 1983),i t can beconclude d thatroughag e supplyresult s in a significant improvement of veal calves'well-being .Th eamoun to froughag e suppliedi scrucia li nthi srespect . Supplying20 0 g of straw pellets percal f perda y wasno t sufficient tomee tth ecalves 'need s inou rtrials .

57 Acknowledgements

This research was partly funded by the Fonds Welzijn Landbouwhuisdieren (Farm Animals Welfare Fund).

References deWilt , J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Wageninge n Agricultural University.IMAG ,Wageningen . 137 pp. Mees,A.M.F .& J.H.M .Metz , 1984.Saugverhalte nvo nKälber n- Bedürfni s und Befriedigung beiverschiedene n Tränkesystemen. KTBL-Schrift 299:82-91. Papendieck,T. , 1979.Ethologisch eReaktione nvo nKälber nau fRohfasermange l beiHaltun g auf Lattenrosten. Landbauforschung Völkenrode, Sonderheft 48:62-66. Sambraus, H.H., M. Kirchner &B .Graf , 1984.Verhaltensstörunge n bei intensiv gehaltenen Mastbullen. Deutsche tierärtzlicheWochenschrif t 91(2):55-60. vanPutten , G. &W.J .Eishof , 1978. Zusatzfütterung vonStro h anMastkälber . KTBL-Schrift 240:210-219. van Putten, G., 1982.Weifar e in vealcal f units.Veterinar y Record 111:437-440. Wiepkema,RR. ,D.M .Broom ,I.J.H .Dunca n &G .va nPutten , 1983. Abnormal behaviouri n farm animals. Commission of theEuropea n Communities,Brussels . Wiepkema, P.R., 1987. Behavioural aspects of stress'. In: P.R. Wiepkema & P.W.M. van Adrichem (Ed.): Biology of stress in farm animals: an integrative approach. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht,p .113-133 .

58 3. Housingan d management Group housing of veal calves

A.C. Smits *& J.G . deWil t* * * Instituteof Agricultural Engineering, Wageningen,NL ** Directoratefor Animalproduction and Dairying, TheHague, NL

Summary

Stimulated bypubli c criticism ofth ewelfar e ofvea lcalve si nindividua l crates,th e feasi­ bilityo fhousin gvea lcalve si nsmal lgroup swa sinvestigated .Th ecalve swer ekep ti ngroup s of five, fed from open buckets, provided with some roughage andtethere d during the first 6-10 weeks after arrival.Thi s group-housing system was compared with individual housing in crates,i nterm so fbehaviour , health,production , labourrequirement s andeconomics . The conclusion from thisresearc hint oth eprospect sfo rgrou phousin go fvea lcalve si stha tgrou p housing isa viabl e alternative tocrates . Descriptors:vea l calves;housin g system; behaviour; performance; economics.

Introduction Individual housingo fvea lcalve sha sbee npractise d commercially inth eNetherland san d otherE Ccountrie sfo ralmos tfourt y yearswit hsatisfactor y economicresults .Sinc eth e1960s , public concern about thewelfar e offar m animals hasle dt oseriou s criticism of the housing of vealcalve si nindividua l crates.Thi scriticis m wasfocuse d onth erestrictio n ofmovement , lyingposture san dsocia lcontact .I norde rt oimprov eth ewelfar e ofvea lcalves ,th e feasibility of group housing was studied in a joint project involving the Institute of Agricultural Engineering (IMAG),th eWageninge n AgriculturalUniversit y andDenkavi t NederlandB.V . In thefirs t prototypeo fth egrou p housing, thecalve s wereloos e housed in groups of five andbucket-fe d twicedaily .Th econcret eslatte dfloo r ofth egrou ppen s (3.80m wide ,2.2 0m deep) wascovere d with barley straw, which wasals o provided ad libitum in baskets.Th e growth,fee dconversion ,slaughte rqualit yan dhealt ho fth ecalve si nthi shousin gsyste mwer e in general satisfactory andsimila r tothos eo fcalve s inindividua l crates (0.65m x 1.65 m), provided with 100g o fbarle y straw daily.Howeve r thosecalve s kepti ngroup s that showed suchbehaviou ra spreputia lsuckin gan durin edrinkin gproduce dpoo rgrowt h and performan­ ce. Total labour requirement for the provision of straw andth eremova l ofdun g wasabou t twicea shig hi nth e group pensa si nth e individualcrates . Thesedrawback s ofth eloos e housingo fvea lcalve so nstra wle dt o two importantmodi ­ fications. First, thecalve s were tethered toth e feeding gateb ynec k chains during thefirs t 6 weeks,t opreven tpreputia lsucking .Secondly ,th estra wwa somitted ,t oreduc eth ehig hlabou r requirements. Themodifie d group-housing system wascompare d with individual housingi n termso fanima l welfare, production, health,labou r andeconomi c aspects. This paper discusses the results ofthi scomparison , which was doneo nexperimenta lan d ordinary farms.

Housing systems

Thegrou ppen so f2.5 0m dee pan d3.0 0m wid ewer esurrounde db ygalvanize d partitions (1.10mhigh) .Th efloo rconsiste do fwoode nslat s(7 0m mwid ean d3 0m mapart )wit hwoode n or aluminium laths,i nth etransvers e direction, about0.7 0 mapart .Th ecalve s were tethered toth efeedin g gate bynec kchain s (length0.3 5 m)durin gth efirs t 6week safte r arrival.The y

61 240

Figure1. Side-viewof a group pen for five calves witha slatted floor, in metres. were separated by wooden partitions (0.60m long ,0.8 0 mhigh) ,whic h wereremove d when thecalve s wereuntethered . Atroug h waspositione d inth edoo r of each grouppe n and about 100g o f straw cobs were supplied daily (Figure 1). Thecrate s (about 1.65 mlon gan d0.60-0.7 0m wide )consiste d of twoside-wall s (1.10m high), apartl yrippled fron t and back,an da slatte dfloo r (slats7 0m mwid ean d3 0m mapart) . Almostal lth ecalve swer emal ean dabou ton ewee kol do narrival .Mos tcalve swer eblac k and white,a fe w werere d andwhite .

Behaviour Inon euni to f theexperimenta l farm,7 grou ppen san d 12individua lcrate s of0.7 0m wid e wereinstalled . The lyingposture s of each calf wererecorde d once every 10minute s during one 24-hour period in weeks 8, 12, 16an d 20 after arrival.Thi s procedure wasrepeate d in 4 consecutive fattening periods.Thi s way,variou slyin gposture s andactivitie s of calves ingrou ppen s and inindividua l crates could becompare d (deWilt , 1985). Theresult s shown inFigur e2 focu s onth epositio no f thehea ddurin glying .Thes eresult s are part of a more comprehensive study of various lying postures and activities of calves in grouppen s andindividua l crates (deWilt , 1985). Theincidenc eo f lyingwit h thehea d turnedbac ko n the shouldero rbell ydecrease d more rapidly over time in the crates than in the group pens (Figure 2A). The occurrence of lying with thehea drecline dforward s on thefloo r increased in thecrate s butno t inth e grouppen s (Figure 2B). Supporting the head otherwise, for instance against the side-walls in the crates oro ncongener s (orth efence ) in the grouppen s wasleas tcommo n inth ecrate s (Figure2C) . Lying with the head upright, which is complementary to lying with the head supported was more frequent in the grouppen s because theincidenc e of thisactivit yi n thecrate s increased over time (Figure2D) . Theseresult s indicate that lying with the head turned backwards is thwarted by the side- walls of thecrates .Th e head is held upright moreoften . Apartfro m possible discomfort, the impairment of lying with thehea d supported may affect sleep (Ruckebusch &Bell , 1970).

62 -« individual -o group

to

16 20 16 20 weeks weeks D

80

75 -

O^U 12 16 20 16 20 weeks weeks

Figure2. Lyingwith the head turned backwards (A), reclined forwards (B),on congeners (C) or upright(D) in individual crates andgroup pens withslatted floors from week8 to20. The linesshow the overall average and trend of these lying postures in both housing systems, while dotsindicate averagesper week. Thevalues indicatedare percentages oftotal lying.

Fromth eobservation so nlyin gbehaviour ,comfor t behaviour, socialactivities ,exploratio n andstereotype d behaviour,i twa sconclude d thatcompare dwit hindividua lhousin gi ncrates , thissyste mo fgrou phousin gi sa majo rste pi nth edirectio no fimprove dcal fwelfar e (deWilt , 1985).

63 Table 1. Treatments ofenteric and respiratory disorders andother illnesses in individual cratesand group pens, asa percentage oftotal number of calves.

Housing system individual group Numbero f calves 6809 8953 Enteric disorders(% ) 14.2 18.8 Respiratory disorders(% ) 39.7 53.2 Other(% ) 9.4 15.0

Table 2. Dead calves andculls asa percentage oftotal number of calves, in individual cratesand group pens.

Housing system individual group Number of calves 6809 8953 Deaths(% ) 3.01 3.95 Culls(% ) 1.42 2.18

Table 3. Production results inindividual crates andgroup pens ofslaughtered calves.

Housing system individual group Number of calves 6587 8477 Initialsweigh t (kg) 41.4 41.5 Liveweight at slaughter (kg) 221.9 227.0 Length of fattening period (days) 171 176 Growth (g/d) 1058 1053 Feed conversion 1.843 1.826

Table 4. Slaughterquality of calves inindividual cratesand group pens, rated from 0(very bad) to 10 (excellent).

Housing system individual group Number of calves 6240 7963 Meat colour 6.8 6.7 Fat colour 7.3 7.3 Meatiness 6.9 6.9 Fat cover 7.0 7.2

64 Healthan d production The health andproductio n of calves in grouppen s and in individual crates was compared ontwelv efarm s duringfiv e consecutive fattening periods.(Smit s& Ham , 1988) .Eac h farm had both housing systems; thefeedin g schedules were identical. In order to prevent preputial sucking and to make health management easier, the group- housed calves were tethered with neck chains between shortpartition s during thefirs t 8-10 weeks after arrival. The farmers recorded any illnesses, health treatments, culls and deaths. Slaughter quality (meatan dfa t colour,meatines s andfa t cover)wa sestablishe dvisuall yo na scal efro m 0(ver y bad) to 10(excellent) . Treatment of enteric and respiratory disorders and other illnesses, including trauma and navel infections, wasmor efrequen t in thegrou ppen s than in theindividua l crates (Table1) . Theincidenc eo frespirator ytreatment swa srelativel y highi nbot hhousin gsystems .Preputia l sucking was seldom observed and was not regarded as aproblem . The higher frequency of diseases in the group pen was alsoreflecte d in themortalit y and culling rate (Table 2). After eliminating the dead andculle d animals from the calculation of the production results,dail y growth andfee dconversio n weresimila ri nth etw ohousin gsystem s(Tabl e3) .Th eliveweigh t of calves at the slaughterhouse was somewhat higher in the group pens than in the crates, because thegroup-house d calves hada slightl y longerfattenin g period.Th e slaughterqualit y ofth ecalve si nth etw ohousin g systemswa ssimilar ,excep tfo r asmal ldifferenc e infa tcove r in favour of the group-housed calves (Table 4),perhap s because group-housçd calves were more active. There were remarkable differences between individual farms in the comparison of both housing systems; on some farms mortality,cullin g rate and production results were betteri n thegroup-housin g system. The early detection of illnesses and the adequate treatment of individual calves in group housingrequir e extra attention from thefarmers . Inth egroup-housin g system,ther e weren o meaningful differences between thefirs t and thelate rfattenin g periodsi nterm so fhealt h and production of thecalves .

Labour requirementsan d economics

Theactivitie so fth efarmers , sucha sstalling ,feeding ,healt hcontro lan dmedica ltreatment , tethering and untethering the calves, and cleaning the pens, were recorded in both housing systems.Ther ewer edifference s betweenhousin gsystem si nth etim erequire dfo rthes evariou s activitiesbu tth etota llabou rrequirement swer esimila ri nth egrou pan dth eindividua lhousin g (Giesen, 1984). The economic consequences in terms of labour income were calculated by Kasper et al. (1989)fo r individualcrate so fdifferen t widthsan dgrou ppen s withdifferen t typeso f feeding gates.Th ecalculation s wereals omad efo r acombine d system,i n which thecalve swer e first housed incrate s and then transferred togrou ppen s at 10-12week s after arrival (Figure3) . Sincei ti smuc hmor ecommo nt oconver texistin gstall stha nt obuil dcompletel yne wstalls , thecalculation srefe r toth econsequence s ofconversion .I fcrat esiz eincreases ,th enumbe ro f calves per stall section will decrease and this leads to areductio n in return from labour. The differences inretur nfro m labourbetwee nth ethre etype so fgrou phousin grepresen tvariation s in housing costs,whic h aremainl y theresul t of thetyp eo ffeedin g gates. Itca n beestablishe d that group housingi s aneconomicall y acceptable alternative toindi ­ vidual housing in crates of 0.70 m wide or more. Furthermore, the combination of at first individual housing and latergrou p housing may bemor eprofitabl e than individual or group housing alone.

65 Dfl.Aear

80 Gl G2 G3 Cl C2 Type of housing •I Crates 1Z2Grouphousin g Effi Combination

Figure3. Farmer'sreturn from labour for threedifferent housing systems. From the left, crates ofdifferent width (0.65,0.70,0.75 and0.80m), threetypes of group housing and a combination ofcrates andgroup pens.

Conclusions The housing of veal calves in groups offive fe d from open buckets, provided with some roughagean dtethere ddurin gth efirst 6-1 0 weeksi sa nimportan tste ptoward s improvedcal f welfare. The higher mortality and culling rate in the group pens may be reduced by better disease control andbette r housing andclimate ,especiall y inth efirs t weeks after arrival.Th e individual recognition of calvesi n group pens needs further improvement, as doth e feeding equipment,th eventilatio n system andth efloo r type.Finally ,th efeasibilit y ofhousin gcalve s individually in rearing units during thefirst week s followed by loose housing in group pens needs further investigation.

References de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Agricultura l University. IMAG,Wageningen . Giesen,J.H.J. , 1984.Arbeidsbestedin g ind evleeskalverhouderij . IMAGnot a 108, Wagenin­ gen. Kasper, G.J., J.H.J. Giesen & A.C. Smits, 1989. Vleeskalverenhuisvesting in economisch perspectief.IMA Grappor t 106,Wageningen . Ruckebusch, Y. &RR . Bell, 1970.Etud eélectropolygraphiqu ee tcomportemental e desétat s de veille et de sommeil chez la vache (Bos taurus). Annaleste Recherches Vétérinaires 1:41-62. Smits,A.C .& PJ.M .Ham , 1988. Praktijkonderzoek groepshuisvesting vleeskalveren.IMA G rapport 105, Wageningen.

66 Loose-housing experience in North America

TrevorTomkin s MilkSpecialties Company, P.O. Box278, Dundee, Illinois 60118 US

Summary In the early 1980s a number of companies introduced and promoted loose-housing veal- production systems in the US. The system consisted of a European-designed automatic milk-feedingmachine ,an da na dlibitu m feeding program.Holstei n bullcalve so f about4 5t o 50k g initial weight wereraise d in groups of 40 to 50 with one automatic feeder per group. Thelengt ho fth efattenin gperio dwa s 14t o 16weeks .Cal fperformanc e wasextremel y varia­ ble in comparison with individual bucket feeding systems and profitability was lower. The main reasons for the poor performance related to higher morbidity and mortality, higher feed/gain ratios and wider variation in weight at slaughter age. (Mortality > 10%vs . < 6%; feed/gain 1.75-1:95:1 vs.1.65-1:75:1 ; slaughterweigh ta t 15week s 120-180k gvs . 150-175 kg.) Descriptors:loos ehousing ; veal; automatic feeder; milk feeding.

Introduction Following the apparent commercial success in the late 1970s of some loose-housed veal production systems inEurope , andi nparticula rEnglan d (Paxman, 1981; Webster& Saville 1981;Webste re t al.,undated) ,a numbe r ofcompanie s involvedi nth evea lindustr y inNort h America introduced loose housing to the United States in the early 1980s. The system was promoted and sold on the basis of increased growth rates with ad libitum feeding, reduced labourcompare d withconventiona lbucke tfeeding , lowcapita linvestmen tan do fbein gmor e humane. The system consisted of aEuropean-designe d automatic milk-feeding machine whichre ­ constituted dry powder and an ad libitum feeding program. Milk was available through a nipple.Holstei n bullcalve s of about4 5t o5 0k ginitia l weightwer eraise d in groupso f 40t o 50wit hon eautomati cfeede rpe rgroup .Th elengt ho fth efattenin gperio dwa s 14t o 16weeks . During theperio d from 1982t o 1985,i ti sestimate d that the number of vealcalve s being raisedannuall y inloos ehousin g systemsi nth eUnite d Statesros efro m 0 to20 000 0 (16% of US total), but from 1985t o 1990tha tfigure ha s declined toa n estimated maximum of 5000 calvespe rannum .

Housingan denvironmen t Somerelativel ylow-cos toperation swer ese tu pi nconverte ddair ybarn san dothe rexistin g buildings, and in some cases more sophisticated purpose-built facilities were established. Calveswer eeithe rkep to nbedding ,whic hwa stypicall y straw,woo d shavingso rcor n stalks, oro nwoode no rconcret e slats.Ventilatio n inth ebuilding srange dfro m natural systemswit h noforced-ai r movementt ohighl y automatedcontrolled-environmen t systems.I na fe wcases , particularlyi nth esouther npar to fth eUSA ,calve swer ekep ti nnaturall y ventilatedbuildings . Many of the low-capital investment operations wereclearl y inadequate in manyrespects . Wherecalve swer ekep to nbedding ,th efloor s underneathfrequentl y hadlittl eo rn odrainage , whichmad efo rexcessiv eus eo fbeddin gmaterial .Wher einadequat ebeddin gwa sused ,calve s werei nwe tconditions .I nsummer ,th eus eo fbeddin ggav eris et osever elic ean dfl yproblems .

67 Table 1. Feedingprogram for loose housedveal production.

Age (weeks) Milk concentration (gflitre) 1-4 80-125 5-8 125-16 0 9-12 160-200 13-1 6 200

Table2. Performance of veal calves on loose housing comparedwith conventional veal productionsystems. Datafrom producers' records 1983-1985.

Loosehousin g Conventional

Timeo nfee d (weeks) 14 - 16 14 - 16 Startweigh t (kg) 45 - 50 45 - 50 Finish weight (kg) 120 - 180 150 - 175 Feed/gain 1.75 -1.95 1.65 -1.75 Mortality (%) ' >10 <6.0

Where slatted floors were used, these were frequently very wet and slippery during the first few weeks. This made management difficult, when trying to restrain and isolate a calf for treatment.

Nutrition Holsteinbul lcalve swer etypicall ypurchase da tsal ebarns ,the nsorte da ta centra llocation , and shipped tovea lunit s 12t o 36hour slater . On arrival at the units, calves were allowed to rest for 6 to 12hour s with access only to water orelectrolyt e solutions through anippl eassembl y orope n trough. Calveswer eusuall yintroduce d tomil kfro m theautomati cfeede r ona nindividua l basist o ensure that thecal f would suck from a nipple.I n many cases,calve s would then be allowed ad libitum access tomil k from that stage.I n other cases,calve s would berestrictedl y fed on the nipple on an individual basis and only given milk replacer ad libitum after 2 to 3days . Milkwa sgive n ata temperatur eo fabou t4 0°C .Th emil kfeedin g programconsiste do fabou t 40k g starter feed (21% crudeprotei n (CP), 16%fat ) and 185k gfinishin g feed (16%t o18 % CP,18 %fat) .Th estarte rfee dcontaine dadde delementa liron .Mil ksolid swer eincrease d from 8%a tth eoutse t to 18-20% atth e finish. Thefeedin g progrartii s summarizedi nTabl e 1. Themil kreplacer s generallycontaine dlowe rpercentage so fskim-mil kpowde ran dhighe r percentages of wheyproteins .

68 Health The general experience was that calf health was considerably poorer in loose-housing systems.A tth eoutset ,scourin gan ddiarrhoe awer emajo rproblems ,particularl ywher ecalve s weregive nacces st oa dlibitu mquantitie so flow-solid smil kreplacer .Thes escourin gproblem s wereno teas y totrea to n anindividua lbasis .Frequently ,calve sbecam e severely dehydrated. Hygienewa softe n verypoor ,an dprobabl ygav erise t odiseas etransmittal .Scourin gproblem s generally lasted 2t o 3 weeks. Between three and five weeks, calves that had not started well on the system were often susceptiblet opneumonia .Thes eproblem swer eexacerbate dwhe nventilatio nwa sinadequate . During the later stages of the growth cycle, a variety of problems were common, some specifically related toloos ehousing .Bloat ,relate d tooverconsumption , enterotoxaemia and abomasal ulcers werecommon . Inman ycases ,stereotype dbehaviou rdevelope di nearl ystages ,includin gpreputia lsuckin g and urinedrinking . Itwa scommo nwher ecalve swer ebedde do nstra wfo rthe mt ostar tconsumin g significant amounts andt odevelo p activerumens .Wher e thishappened ,circumstantia l evidence sugge­ stedles sproblem sassociate dwit henteri cdisorders ,bu tlowe rmil kintakes ,provide dth estra w consumed wasclean .

Performance '

From the outset, calf performance was extremely variable in comparison to conventional bucket-feeding systems (where calves are kept in individual pens and fed twice daily) and profitability was lower as shown in Table 2. This data is extracted from producer records available during theperio d 1983-1985. Themai n reasons for thepoo rperformanc e arerelate d to higher morbidity and mortality, higher feed/gain ratios and widervariatio n in weight atslaughte rage . Themanagemen to firo nsupplementatio nwa sgenerall ymor edifficul t thanfo rcalve sraise d in individual pens andthi s gaverise t o widervariatio n in meatcolou ran d affected financial returns. In general, the meat-packing industry did not like loose-housed calves because of greater variation in size,colou r and conformation.

Conclusions

The loose-housing concept asintroduce d in the early 1980sha s not been as successful in the US asi t had reportedly been in Europe and thisrelate d to anumbe r of factors. Poor calf performance, higher morbidity and mortality, higher feed/gain ratios and wide variation in weight atslaughte rage . Inaddition ,managemen t ofth eloos ehouse dcal fwa sconsidere dmor edifficul t andclaim s thatth esyste mwa slabour-savin g wereill-founded . Additionalcosts ,suc ha sbedding , further detractedfro mprofitability .Mechanica lunreliabilit yo fequipmen tals ogav erise t omanageria l andnutritia lproblems , which contributed togreate rexpenses . Arecen t attemptha sbee nmad eb yMil kSpecialtie s Companyt ore-examin eloos ehousin g witha computer-controlle d systemfo rindividuall yfe dtransponder-equippe d calves.Thi sha s notdemonstrate dtha tsom eo fth eproblem swit hloos ehousin gca nb eovercom ewher ecalve s arei n largegroup s of2 5calve s ormore .

69 References Paxman, P., 1981. Quantock loose house system. In: Alternatives to intensive husbandry systems:Proceeding s of symposium, Wye College (University of London) Publ. Univer­ sitiesFederatio n of AnimalWelfar e (UFAW1981) . Webster, A.J.F. & C. Saville, 1981. Rearing of veal calves. In: Alternatives to intensive husbandry systems: Proceedings of symposium, Wye College (University of London) p.86-94,Publ .Universitie s Federationo fAnima lWelfar e (UFAW1981) . Webster, A.J.F.,C .Savill e &D . deB .Welchman , 1986.Improve d husbandry for veal calves Published byUniversit y of BristolPress .Bristol , England.

70 Automated feeding of milk replacer and health control of group-housed veal calves

K.Maatj e *& J . Verhoeff ** * ResearchInstitute for AnimalProduction 'Schoonoord', P.O.Box 501, 3700AM Zeist,NL ** Departmentof Herd Health and Reproduction, Facultyof Veterinary Medicine, Universityof Utrecht, P.O.Box 80151,3508 TD Utrecht, NL

Summary

Comparative investigations werecarrie dou t between bucket-fed vealcalve s in individual crates and group-housed calves with automated and rationed teat feeding of milk replacer. Rationsi nbot hsystem swer eidentical .Th ecalve si ngrou ppen swer eidentifie d electronically in thefeedin g station. Behaviour, growth rate,fee d intake, health and slaughter quality were determined. The growth rate and feed intake of the group-housed calves were lower than those of the calves in individual crates. The feed conversions were equal. There were no differences in carcassconformation . Thecolou ro fth emea to fth egroup-house dcalve swa smor efavourable . Recordso fth efeedin gbehaviou ro fth egroup-house dcalve swer estudie dt oseel fsic kanimal s could beidentifie d ata nearl y stage. Descriptors:vea lcalves ; group housing;automate d feeding.

Introduction

The main reason for the development of group-housing systems is that they are assumed tob emor eattractiv et oth enatur eo fvea lcalve stha nindividua lhousin gi ncrates .Th ecalve s havemor efreedo m of movement andmor e socialcontac t in grouphousin g (deWilt , 1985). Automated feeding systems for milk replacer were already available in the late 1960s. However the ad libitum intake of milk replacer had too many disadvantages (N.N., 1976). Since the development of electronic identification systems, individually rationed automated feeding has becomepossible .Automate d feeding from teatdispenser s has someclea r advan­ tages over bucket feeding. First, the need for sucking is satisfied during feeding and the occurrence of cross-sucking, including preputial sucking and urine drinking isreduced . Bucket-fed calves in group housing are tied up during the first six to eight weeks of the fattening period topreven t preputial sucking andurin e drinking (Smits &Ham , 1988).Wit h theautomate dfeedin g system,thi sperio do ftyin gu pca nb eomitted .Furthermore ,th esuppl y of milkreplace r can bedivide d overmor e than two meals per day,thu s approaching amor e natural drinkingpatter n andth efarme r is neededles s atfeedin g times. Another important aim of this investigation was to see whether the automated feeding system could beuse dfo r theearl y detection of sickcalves .

Materialan dmethod s

Fivecomparativ etrial swer ecarrie dou tbetwee nbucket-fe d vealcalve si ntraditiona lcrate s and group-housed calves with automated feeding on milk replacer. In each of the trials 80mal eDutc h Friesian x Holstein Friesian calves, about 7 days old, were obtained from commercial farms. Four groups of 15calve s were housed in grouppen s

71 Table 1. Production results ofgroup-housed calves andcalves in individual crates(from three trials);*losses = deaths+ culls;** final live weight = (100/65) x coldcarcass weight.

Calvesi n Calvesi nindi - group pens vidual crates

Numbero f calves 180 61 Fattening period (days) 161 161 Losses(%) * 5.6 0 Initial weight (kg) 41.5 41.0 Final liveweight(kg)* * 218.1 225.4 Daily gain (g) 1097 1145 Feed conversion 1.78 1.76

Table2. Carcass qualityof calves fattened ingroup pens andin individual crates. Scales: a:1 = maximum,10 = minimum; b:1 = maximum, 6 =mini­ mum; c:1 =pale, 8 = dark;

Calvesi n ( halvesi nindi ­ group pens vidual crates

Numbero f calves 170 61 Fleshiness3 6.76 6.76 Fatcovering b 1.90 2.38 Meat colour0 3.40 4.27 Haemoglobin in blood at slaughter (g/100 ml) 8.40 9.08 and 20calve s were housed in individual crates.I non e trial, the groups werechange d to one groupo f 30calve s and twogroup s of 15calves .Th ecrate s and the group pens were situated inth esam eunit .Fo reac hcal f 1.5m 2o ffloo r spacewa savailabl ei nth egrou ppens .Th ecrate s were7 0 cm widean d 170c mlong . Group-housed calves were recognized by a computerized identification system. A signal then madeth etea tappea ran ddelive r0.5 1o fmil kreplacer .Thi sprocedur ewa srepeate d until the calf hadreceive d its meal.Durin g thelate rexperiments ,preparatio n of the milk replacer wascentralize d andi t waspumpe d into apipelin e connectedt oth efeedin g station.Th emil k replacer was distributed by aflo w meter. The daily rations were divided into four meals for thecalve si n grouppens ,an dint otw omeal sfo r thecalve s inindividua l crates.I nadditio n to themil kreplacer , thecalve s in both systemsreceive d strawpellets . During the fattening period, data were collected about beharviour, haemoglobin in blood, liveweight (every twoweeks) ,fee d intakean dhealth .Afte r slaughter,th ecarcas squalit y and theconditio n of thelung s andrume n wereassesse d visually. Feed intake,drinkin grat e andrewarde d and unrewarded visitst oth efeedin g station were recorded automatically. Aveterinar y surgeonphysicall y examined the animals twice aweek . Both the automatically recorded data and the veterinary observations were studied to see wether sickanimal scoul d bedetecte d ata nearl y stage.

72 Results Behaviourobservation s

Inth egroup so f 15animals ,th ecalve squickl ybecam eaccustome dt oth eautomate d feeding system.Afte r 4 days moretha n 90%o f thecalve s went toth edrinkin g machineo f theirow n accord.I nth elarge rgroup so f3 0animals ,i ttoo k 14day sbefor e thecalve swer efamilia r with the system. Preputialsuckin gan durin edrinkin gwer erare .Onl ytw oanimal sou to f30 0i n5 trial swer e removed from the group housing because urine drinking was disturbing their growth rate. Tongueplayin gwa sobserve dles si nth egroup-house dcalve stha ni nthos ei nindividua lcrates . Occasionally, tailbitin g wasobserve d inth e group-housed calves.

Productionresult s

Table 1present sth eproductio nresult sfro m bothset so fcalves .Dat afro m threecomparabl e trials werecollated . Theresult s show that thefina l liveweigh t and growth rateo f the group- housed calves was less than that of the calves in individual crates. The differences were consistent in the three trials (P< 0.05). Thefee d conversion of the calves in group pens and the calves in crates were similar. However during the trial with the centralized system for preparation of milk replacer, there was a small statistically insignificant difference between thefee d conversions: 1.81 for thecalve s in grouppen s and 1.75 for thecalves4 ncrates . The results in Table 2 show that fleshiness was, on average, equal for the two housing systems.Howeve rth egroup-house danimal swer eles sfa tan dth ecolou ro fth emea twa sbette r (paler).Th edifference s inmea tcolou rwer e significant (P< 0.05) .

Animalhealt h

Theincidenc eo fillnesse si spresente di nTabl e3 .I twa sinsignificantl y higheri nth egrou p penstha ni nth eindividua l crates.Onl yth enumbe ro fcase so fbucca ldiphtheri awa slowe ri n the group-housed calves. Resultsfro m postmorte mexamination s (Table4 )sho wtha tgroup-house danimal s suffered more from respiratory diseases than thosereare d in individual crates.Thi s concurs with the observations of the animals' health. Ruminai hyperkeratosis was diagnosed more frequently in the group-housed calves butdi dno tsignificantl y affect theircarcas sweigh t atslaughte ri n either housing system.

Healthcontro l

Table 5 presents number and percentage of treated and untreated cases of illness with distinctchange s infeedin g behaviour.Wit hth eexceptio n of feed intake,th erunnin g average percal fwa scalculate dfo reac hparameter .Th eactua lparamete rwa scompare dt oth erunnin g averagefo reac hday .Th eanima lwa sassume dt ohav ebee ndetecte dwhe na certai n empirical threshold was exceeded or when thefee d intake differed from the totalratio n perday .Tabl e 5 showstha tth edrinkin grat ewa sth emos tsensitiv eparamete ri na sick ,o rsickening ,animal . Ifal lth eabov eparameter sar etake nint oaccount ,80 %o fth ecase so fillnes swer eaccompanie d bya chang ei nth eanimal' sfeedin g behaviour.Th epercentag eo ffalse-positiv e detectionswa s rather high(15.3%) .

73 Table 3. Incidenceof illnesses per calffor calveshoused in group pens andin individual cratesduring the fattening period.

Calvesi n Calves inindi ­ group pens vidual crates

Numbero f calves 170 61 Respiratory disease(% ) 0.67 0.38 Diarrhoea(% ) 0.39 0.22 Buccal diphtheria (%) 0.16 0.21 Other (%) 0.14 0.02 Total(% ) 1.36 0.83

Table4. Abnormalitiesfound byexamination of the lungs and rumen after slaughter.

Calvesi n Calves inindi ­ group pens vidual crates

Numbero f calves 170 61 Lungs andpleur a(% ) 24 17 Hyperkeratosis of therume n(% ) 14 10

Table5. Numberof treated and untreated cases of illness accompanied by changes in feeding behaviour.

Treatedcase s (57) Untreated cases (187) n % n %

Drinkingrat e(DR ) 27 47 86 46 Feed intake(FI ) 22 39 67 36 Rewarded visits (RV) 15 26 56 30 Unrewarded visits (UV) 19 33 48 26 DRo rF I 34 60 111 59 DRo rF Io rR V 39 68 129 69 DRo rF Io rU V 44 77 128 68 All criteria 47 83 144 77

Conclusions • The average final liveweight of the group-housed calves was 6-8 kg less than thato f the calveshouse di nindividua l crates.Thi si sdu et oa lowe rintak eo fmil kreplacer .Th efee d conversion of thecalve s in grouppen s andi nindividua l crates wasabou tth esame . • Carcassqualit y wasequa lfo rbot h systemsbu tth emea tcolou ro fth egroup-house d calves was significantly better (paler) than thato f thecalve si nindividua l crates.

74 The incidence of illness was higher in the group pens than in individual crates, probably becauseo f thegreate rpressur e of infection within thegroup . Computerizedrecordin go ffeedin gbehaviou rca nb eusefu li nth edetectio no fsic kanimals . Automatedfeedin go fmil kreplace ri ngroup so f20-3 0vea lcalve sprevent sth eoccurrenc e ofpreputia lsuckin gan dcoul dallo wadequat eproductio n andhealth .Furthe rdevelopmen t isnecessary .

References de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis,Agricultura l University.IMA GWageningen . N.N., 1976.Automatiserin g bij de voedering van vleeskalveren. Proefstation voor de Rund­ veehouderij, report no.4 5 (inDutch) . Smits,A.C .& P.J.M .Ham , 1988.Praktijkonderzoe k groepshuisvesting vleeskalveren.IMA G report no. 105(i nDutch) .

75 Effects of computerized milk feeder on behaviour and welfare of calves1

V. Ferrante *,E . Canali **,M .Verg a* & C .Carenz i* * Istituto diZootecnica Veterinaria, Via Celoria 10,20133 Milano, IT ** I.D.V.GA. CNR, Via Celoria 10,20133 Milano,IT

Summary Thefeedin g system has animportan tinfluenc e onwelfar e andproductio n in group-reared calves. Computer-controlled machines could solve many of the problems associated with group feeding, such as control of individual milk intake and cross-sucking. The aim of this researchwa st oevaluat eth eeffect s ofa computerize dmil kfeede ro nth ebehaviou ran dwelfar e of calves.Suckin gduration ,frequenc y andinterval sbetwee n successive bouts of milkintak e were collected for each calf continuously using a videorecorder system for two weeks. The majority ofth esuckin gsession slaste dles stha n3 min ;the yseeme dt ob eregularl ydistribute d over2 4h .Th eaverag esuckin gfrequenc y was 17time san dth eaverag esuckin gtim ewa s2 6 min 30 sove r 24 h; the duration of sucking periods and intervals between sucking sessions didno t change throughout the2 weeks . Descriptors:calves ; computerized teatdispenser ; sucking behaviour.

Introduction Various studies demonstrate the influence of housing and feeding systems on behaviour and on physiological response of reared calves (Friend & Dellmeier, 1988;d e Wilt, 1985). Group-housing calves, bucket feeding or the use of atea t dispenser seem agoo d solution to theproblem s associated with calvesraise d inindividua l boxes,bu t itcoul d giveris et oothe r problems linked with feeding, i.e. cross-sucking as well as difficulty in the evaluation of individual milk intake and disease control (Mees &Metz , 1984;va n Putten, 1982).Compu ­ terizedfeedin g machinescoul dsolv eman yo fth eproblem sassociate dwit hgrou pfeedin g and seem to give superior feeding efficiency and to reduce the chance of illness (Webster et al., 1986). The aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of a computerized milk-feeding system in terms of sucking behaviour ofcalves .

Materialan dmethod s Fivemal eFriesia n calvesraise d inindividua l boxes werebucket-fe d twice ada y until the ageo f twoweeks .The y werethe n fed by acomputerize d system in agrou ppe n (5m x 6m) , onconcret efloo r with strawbed ,an dwer eobserve dfo rtw oweek swit h avideorecorder . The recorder began filming every time a subject entered the feeding station. The computerized feeding machine was programmed to distribute aportio n equivalent to 500 g in aperio d of abouttw ohour s (5g/min) ,u pt oa maximu m of 2500g eac htime .Durin gth efollowin g 24h , theanimal scoul dea tu pt ohal f thetota lamoun to fth emil kratio n notconsume dth epreviou s

1 Thiswor kwa s carriedou ti ncollaboratio nwit h theExperimenta lFar m'V . Tadini',Garig ad iPodenzano , PiacenzaItaly .

76 day.Th emilk-replace rpowde r contained 29%protein .Th eamoun t of milk fed daily toeac h calf was 7 1 the first week and 81 the second week, the powder concentration was 100g/1 . Individualbod yweight swer erecorde da t 15an d3 0day so fage .Numbe ro f suckingsessions , intervals between sucking sessions and theirdistributio n throughout the 24h wer e evaluated ascumulativ efrequencies . Moreover,successfu l andunsuccessfu l attemptst oente rth estatio n when already occupied by another calf, wererecorded . Data were analyzed by least-square- means analysis of variance.

Results The average number of sucking sessions andth eaverag eduratio n of sucking sessions per day were 17± 10time s and 26mi n 30 s± 15mi n 30 srespectively .Averag e daily gainwa s 603g ± 103g ,whil eth eaverag eamoun to fmil kfe d was6. 8± 0.41 .Th emajorit y of sucking periods (75%)laste d less than 3minute s (Figure 1). The distribution of intervals between sucking sessions is shown in Figure 2. The most frequent intervals were between 5mi n and 10s (17%) and between 90 min and 120 s(9%) . Whilei n theothe r intervals, the beginning of ane w sucking session was random, according toHammel le t al. (1988). Thedistributio n ofth esuckin g sessions throughoutth e2 4h i s showni nFigur e3 . Sucking sessionsar edistribute ddurin g the2 4h bu ttw opoint so fhighe ractivit yar eeviden ti nth elat e morning andi nth e afternoon. , Figure4 show sth eduratio no fsuckin gsession sove rth e2 4h ,whic hagree swit hth ediurna l fluctations in the time spent on meals found by Hammell et al. (1988). In some periods,th e durationo fsuckin gwa shighe rtha ni nothers .Eac hcal fseeme dt ohav edifferen t suckingtime s

'T

i*..

12..

8-

in^in^iritr-ii |r-ltr-»||-H H—h 15 30 45 80 90 120 15) 18021 024 0 270 3d) 330 350 390 42045 0 490 510 540 60066 0 660 SUCKING TIME (sec) Figure1. Distributionof the duration of sucking sessions.

77 10

9 1 = intervals 15se c e 2 = intervals 60 sec 3 = intervals 300 sec F 4 = intervals 180 0 sec 5 = intervals 360 0 sec :* 6 = intervals 7 200 sec

t N 5 C Y .

id CUSSES Of TI« INTERVALS |Ht)

Figure2. Distributonof the duration ofthe intervals between suckingsessions.

r n n R E 5.. 0 U E * N C y 3 s

o |1 1(1 i(l l|l l(l )|l Ijl l|l l|l 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 ltl 1,1 l(l 1,1 |,l l,| 1,1 |,| ty 1,1 1,1 |( 12 34 56 7 89 10 U 12)3» 15 1 f 18 B 20 '/l 22 13 24 HOURS

Figure3. Distributionof the sucking sessionsduring the24 h of the day.

78 Ol t t t I I I I I I I I I t—I I ' I I t ' t * < 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 111 2 13 141 51 61 7 181 92 02 12 22 3 24 HOIRS

Figure4. Dailyfluctuations in time spent sucking.

andinterval sbetwee nsuckin gsessions .Th eduratio no fsuckin gperiod san dinterval sbetwee n sucking sessions didno tchang e throughout the 14day s (P< 0.05). In 157o f 1175suckin g sessions (13%),a cal f triedt oente rth e stationwhe n itwa s already occupied.I n6 4case s (38%)thes eattempt swer esuccessful . Thepercentag eo fthes eagonisti c interactions at the feeding station did not change during the 14 days and fights were bi-directional in agreement withHafe z &Bouisso u (1975) and Canali et al. (1986).

Conclusions Thecomputerize dfeedin g machineallow sa distributio no fsuckin gsession sove r2 4hours . The duration of sucking periods and intervals between sucking sessions did not change throughout the2 weeks . Sincecalve snormall yreceiv e4-1 0feeding sfro m theirdam s(Webste re tal. ,1986) ,i tseem s thatthi ssyste mcoul dpermi tsuckin grhythm sclose rt oth enatura lone sa sth eaverag enumbe r of sucking sessions was 17 ± 10 times. Howeverfurthe r studies areneede do ncross-sucking ,agonisti c interactions atth e feeding station and onproductio n traits.

References

Canali, E., M. Verga, M. Montagna & A. Baldi, 1986. Social interactions and induced behavioural reactions in milk-fed female calves. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 16:207-215. de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis Agricultural University.IMAG ,Wageningen ,NL . Friend, T.H. &G.R . Dellmeier, 1988.Commo n practices andproblem s related to artificially rearingcalves :a nethologica l analysis.Applie dAnima lBehaviou r Science20:47-62 .

79 Hafez, E.S.E & M.F. Bouissou, 1975.Th e behaviour of cattle. In: E.S.E. Hafez (Ed.): The behaviour of domestic animals.3r dedition .Baillier eTindall ,London ,p .203-245 . Hammell,K.L. ,J.H.M .Met z& P . Mekking, 1988.Suckin gbehaviou ro fdair ycalve sfe dmil k adlibitu m bybucke to rteat .Applie dAnima lBehaviou rScienc e20:275-285 . Mees,A.M.F .& J.H.M .Metz , 1984.Saugverhalte nvo nKälber n- Bedürfni s und Befriedigung beiverschiedene n Tränkesystemen. KTBL-Schrift 299:82-91. van Putten, G., 1982.Welfar e in vealcal f units.Veterinar y Record 111:437-440. Webster, J. 1984.Cal f husbandry, health andwelfare . Granada,London . Webster, J., C. Saville &D .Welchman , 1986.Improve d husbandry systems for veal calves. Report Department of Animal Husbandry, University of Bristol, School of Veterinary Sciences,Langford , Bristol.

80 Health ofvea lcalve si n4 system so findividua l housing during thefirs t weekso fth efattenin g period

E.te rWe e* ,H.K . Wierenga *,LP . Jorna **& A.C .Smit s *** * ResearchInstitute for AnimalProduction 'Schoonoord', P.O. BoxSOl, 3700AM Zeist,NL ** Gardenbroeks's Veevoederfabriek 'Navobi'B.V., P.O.Box 1,8075 ZG Elspeet, NL *** Instituteof Agricultural Engineering, P.O. Box43,6700 AA Wageningen, NL

Summary

The aim of this study was to investigate ways of reducing disease in group-housed veal calves bydifferen t types of individual housing during thefirs t weekso f thefattenin g period. Two hundred and forty calves were assigned to one of the following housing systems in eacho ffou rconsecutiv eexperiment s: tetheringwit ha chai nt oth efeedin grac k (l),ababy-pen (2), ahalf-close d baby-pen (3),a crat e(4) . Thepercentag e of calves with diarrhoea did not differ between the systems.Th e duration of diarrhoea was significantly les in System 4 than in the other systems. The percentage of calves with aclinica l symptom of arespirator y disorder and theduratio n of such a symptom were similar in the four systems.Ther e were no significant differences betweerith e systems inmedica l treatment.Th eresult s of theexaminatio n of thefaece s for oocystso fCryptospori­ diumwer e similar in thefou r systems. The health of the calves in the four systems studied was similar. So veal calves can be housed in any of thesefou r systems during thefirs t weekso f the fattening period. Descriptors:vea l calves;health ; diarrhoea; respiratory disorders; Cryptosporidium; housing.

Introduction

Of thevea lcal f population in theNetherlands , 10%i shouse d ingroups .Grou p housingi s analternativ et otraditiona l housingi ncrates ,wit hrespec tt owelfar e (deWilt , 1985) andpro ­ duction (Smits & Ham, 1988). One problem in group housing of veal calves is the slightly higher losses than in individual housing (de Wilt, 1985; van der Mei, 1987; Smits &Ham , 1988).Ther ear eindication s thatdiarrhoe a (vande rMei , 1987)an drespirator y disorders(va n derMei , 1987;Smit s& Ham , 1988)ar eimportan tcause so fth ehighe rlosse si ngrou phousin g comparedt oindividua lhousing .Bot hdiarrhoe aan drespirator ydisorder soccu rmainl ydurin g the first weeks after the calves' arrival at the fattening unit (Postema, 1985). Group-housed calves are generally tethered to the feeding rack and separated by wooden partitions during thefirs t 6t o 10weeks . The aim of this study was toinvestigat e whether it waspossibl e toimprov e the health of thecalve s bychangin g thetyp eo fhousin gdurin g thefirs t weekso fth efattenin g period.Fou r systems of individual housing were compared.

81 Materialan d methods Animals

In eacho f four consecutive experiments,24 0blac kan dwhit ecalve s were studied. Allth e calveswer emales ,excep t forfou r females inth e secondexperiment .Durin gth eexperiment s 24 calves died or were culled. The results of the females, and of the dead and culled calves wereexclude dfro m theresults .

Housing

For seven weeks,th ecalve s werekep tindividuall y inon eo f thefollowin g ways:tethere d with chains to the feeding rack(l), in a baby-pen (2),i n a half-closed baby-pen (3), or in a crate (4).I ngeneral ,group-house d vealcalve si nth eNetherland s aretethere d witha chai n to the feeding rack as in system 1durin g the first weeks of the fattening period. The chain of System 1wa s 0.6 m long.Woode npartition s (0.9m hig h and0.5-0. 9m long) separated the calves.Th epe n of System 2looke d like ababy' splaypen .Thi s baby-pen was surroundedb y arailin g(0. 9m high )an da feedin grack .Th ehalf-close d baby-penha dtw opartl yclose dside s (System 3).Th eside s weremad eo fwoo d (0.6m high )an da railin g (0.3m high) . Ofth evea l calves in the Netherlands, 90% are kept individually and are housed in solid-sided crates as inSyste m 4.Th e sides of thecrate si n System 4 were 1.1m high.Th e stando f System 1 was 0.6m wide .Th epen so f Systems 2,3 and4 were 1.4 mlon gan d0. 6m wide .

Datacollectio nan dstatistic s

Thehealt ho f thecalve s wasrecorde d as follows: • diarrhoea: from day 1 untilda y22 ,th ecalve s wereexamine ddail yfo r diarrhoea(yes/no) . Thefaece s of acal f withdiarrhoe adeviate d from thenorma l consistency orcolour . • respiratorydisorders :laboure drespiration ,coughing ,nasa ldischarg ean dwater yeyes .Th e symptoms for each calf wererecorde d daily from day 1 until day 50.A cal f had aseriou s respiratory disorder (SRD)i fi t showeda laboure drespiratio n orcoughed . • individualmedica ltreatments . • faecal sampleso f20 4calve swer escreene dfo roocyst so fCryptosporidium ever yothe rda y from day 1 upt o2 3durin gfirs t threeexperiments . Theresult swer estatisticall y analysedexcep tfo r theresult so fth efaeca l samples.Th eexperi ­ mentswer edescribe dextensivel y inTe rWe ee t al.(1989) .

Resultsan d discussion Diarrhoea

In this study 62%o f thecalve s haddiarrhoe a (Table 1)i n thefirst week s after arriving at the fattening unit. Thepercentag e of calves with diarrhoea in these experiments was similar toth e3 8t o62 %mentione db yPostem a(1985 )fo rvea lcalve shouse di ncrates .I twa sexpecte d thatfewe r calves in System 4 (thecrates )woul d getdiarrhoe abecaus eo f the limited contact between the calves in this system than in the other systems.Th e mean percentage of calves with diarrhoea was lowest in System 4 and highest in System 1.Howeve r the difference in percentages ofcalve swit hdiarrhoe a wasstatisticall y significant onlybetwee n Systems2 an d 4.

82 Table1. Frequency(% of calves)and duration of diarrhoea, external symptomsof serious respiratorydisorders (SRD) andmedical treatment for diarrhoeaand for respiratorydisorders duringthe first seven weeks. Theresults are presented by system and in total. Thesystems are describedin the text.

System Mean 1 2 3 4 Diarrhoea recordings calves (%)* 65 63a 62 58a 62 duration percal f (d)* 3.1a 3.2b 3.0C 2.5abc 3.0 treatment calves (%) 53 51 48 50 51 duration percal f (d) 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.2 3.0 Respiratory disorders recordings calves SRD (%) 49 49 52 54 51 duration SRDpe rcal f (d) 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.4 treatment calves(% ) 33 33 39 36 35 duration percal f (d) 5.0 4.8 4.6 5.3 4.8 * in weeks 1 to 3 a,b,cdifferenc e between twosystem s withth e same superscripti s significant (P< 0.05) .

The mean duration of diarrhoea was 3.0 days. The duration of diarrhoea was shortest in System4 .Th edifference s betweenSyste m4 an dth eother swer esignificant . Systems 1,2an d 3 did notdiffe r significantly (P> 0.05). Ofth ecalve s5 1% weretreate dfo rdiarrhoe afo r 3.6days .Despit edifference s between the systems in the recordings of diarrhoea, no differences were found in medical treatment for diarrhoea between thefou r systems.

Respiratory disorders

Overth ewhol eexperimenta lperiod ,th efou r systemsdi dno tdiffe r significantly inth eper ­ centage of calves with external symptoms of serious respiratory disorders (SRD) or in the duration of SRD(Tabl e 1).Neithe rwer ether e significant differences between the systemsi n thetreatmen tfo r respiratory disorders.

Cryptosporidium

Ofth ecalves ,90 %she doocyst so fCryptosporidium durin gth esamplin gperio d (Table2) . The results showed no differences between the four systems. The percentage of calves sheddingoocyst s wasmuc h highertha n the60 %foun d in another experiment with4 5calve s housed incrate s (deVisser , 1987).Th eestimate d duration for sheddingoocyst s was7. 2day s (2x 3.6 sampling dayspe r calf). Thefou r systems did notdiffe r in theduratio n of shedding oocystso f Cryptosporidium.Th eduratio n wassimila rt othos ereporte dfo rnaturall y (Ander­ son, 1981; deVisse re t al., 1987) andexperimentall y (Pohlenz, 1987)infecte d calves.

83 Table2. Percentageof calves shedding oocysts of Cryptosporidium during the first three weeks and durationof sheddingbased on sampling everyother day. Thesystems are described in thetext.

System Mean 1 2 3

Calves with oocysts(% ) 93 84 92 90 90 Duration of sheddingpe r calf (d) 7.6 7.0 6.6 7.2

Conclusion

Theexperiment s showed that,excep tfo rth eduratio n ofdiarrhoea ,th eteste dsystem swer e similarwit hrespec tt oth eoccurrenc e andth emedica ltreatmen to f diarrhoea andrespirator y disorders. The shedding of oocysts of Cryptosporidium was also similar in all four syterns. Thetyp eo findividua lhousin gha donl ya mino rinfluenc eo nth eoccurrenc eo fdiseases .Thes e results seem tocontras twit hth eproblem snote dfo r grouphousin gi nearlie rresearc h (vande r Mei, 1987;Smit s &Ham , 1988). Howeverva nde rMe i(1987 ) suggested thatth e differences inth etreatmen to frespirator ydisorder si ncalve si ncrate san di n groupswa sno tcause db ya difference in the occurrence of respiratory disorders but was related to a difference in the detection of calveswit hrespirator y disorders byth e farmer. Itca nb econclude dtha tvea lcalve sca nb ehouse di nan yo fth efou r systemsstudie ddurin g thefirs t weeks of thefattenin g period.

References Anderson, B.C., 1981. Patterns of shedding of Cryptosporidial oocysts in Idaho calves. JAVMA 178:982-984. Bietz, G., 1987.Anbindehaltun g von Kälbern mit Grabnerketten in Vergleich zurEinzelhal ­ tungunte reinstreulos eBedingungen . MünchnerVeterinär-Medizi n 42:352-357. de Visser, N.A.P.G, HJ. Breukink, EG. van Zijderveld & P.W. de Leeuw, 1987. Enteric infections in veal calves: a longitudinal study on 4 veal calf units. Veterinary Quarterly 9:289-296. de Wilt, J.G., 1985.Behaviou r and welfare of veal calves in relation to husbandry systems. Thesis AgriculturalUniversity , IMAG,Wageningen . Moon,H.W .& W.J .Bemrick , 1981.Feca ltransmissio n ofcal fCryptosporidi a between calves andpigs .Veterinar y Pathology 18:254-255. Pohlenz, J.,1987. Die Kryptosporidiose beiMensche n und Tieren.Deutsche s Tierärtzlichen Wochenschrift 94:67-70. Postema, HJ., 1985. Veterinaire en zoötechnische aspecten van de kalverhouderij. Thesis Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht. Smits,A.C .& PJ. MHam , 1988.Praktijkonderzoe k groepshuisvestingvleeskalveren .IMAG - report 105,Wageningen . terWee ,E. ,H.K .Wierenga ,I.PJorn a& A.C .Smits , 1989.Gezondhei de ngroe iva nvleeskal ­ verengedurend ed eeerst ezeve nweke nva nd emestperiod ei nvie rsysteme nva nindividu ­ elehuisvesting . IVO-reportB-333 ,Zeist . van der Mei, J., 1987.Ee n vergelijkend onderzoek naar de gezondheid en de produktie van vleeskalveren gehouden in boxen en in groepshuisvesting. IVO-report B-304, Zeist.

84 Applicability ofnatura l ventilation in veal-calf houses: a theoretical approach

A. van 't Ooster Departmentof Agricultural Engineering andPhysics, AgriculturalUniversity ofWageningen, Mansholtlaan 12,6708 PA Wageningen,NL

Summary

This paper presents an evaluation of the applicability of natural ventilation in veal-calf housesbase dupo nmode lcalculations .Th ecompute rsimulatio n model,NAT_VENT ,descri ­ bes the heat, moisture and carbon dioxide balance of the house and the natural ventilation mechanisms in detail. The theoretical backgrounds of the mechanisms for air exchange are discussed briefly, as well as thermal responses of veal calves to indoor climatic conditions. Current naturally ventilated housing systemsi nth eNetherland s weremodelle d andthei rper ­ formance was compared. This specifically concerned sections of modern veal-calf houses holding40-5 0calve swit h theridg eopenin geithe rparalle lo rperpendicula r toth ecrat erow s or group pens. Model responses to animal density, outside air temperature, wind speed and wind direction as well as responses to opening sizes were computed and compared with required ventilation rates. Finally applicability of current opening sizes and the effects of control ofopenin g sizesi sdiscussed . Descriptors:vea l calves;natura l ventilation; heat production.

Introduction Natural ventilation is mostly considered as a ventilation system that holds risks for controllability ofth eclimat ei nagricultura lbuildings .I nparticula rventilatio ncapacit y during hotweathe rcondition s andit sabilit yt okee pfluctuatio n ofth eindoo rclimat ewithi n accepted limits are often questioned andi s certainly insufficient when inadequate control systems are used. Yet know-how in this area has increased significantly during the last two decades. Physical processes acting asa drivin gforc e for natural ventilation aredescribe d well enough tob euse da stool si ndesig nan dcontro lo fnaturall yventilate d livestockhouse s (Bruce,1986 ; Brockett &Albright , 1987;va n 't Ooster &Both , 1988). The applicability of natural ventilation in veal calf houses is evaluated by means of a computermode l andreporte di n thispaper . Thecompute rmodel ,NAT_VENT ,describe sth e heat, moisture andcarbo n dioxide balanceo f alivestoc k building andth e natural-ventilation mechanisms indetail .I tca nb euse da sa too li njudgin g theperformanc e andeffectivenes s of ventilation opening configurations in animalhouses .

Modelledbuildin g

The typeo f building building for the model calculations was of the most common design for calf housing in the Netherlands. It was described by Smits et al., (1986). The house has separatedcompartment sfo r4 0t o5 0calve si ncrate so rgrou ppens ,connecte db ydoor si nth e mainpat hway . Thecrat eo rpe nrow sar eperpendicula rt oth elon gaxi so fth ebuildin g(Figur e 1).Mode lcalculation swer edon efo ra compartmen ti nth emiddl esectio no fthi styp eo fhouse ,

85 Figure1. Sectionof the modelled house types, Housetype 1 (right) andHouse type 2 (left).

Table 1.Variants onthe house design for modelcalculations.

House type Opening sizes small large

1 Ridgeparalle l tocrat erow s Ridge height 4.38 m;effectiv e openingwidt h 0.10m -.0.20 m Side-wall openings in thedoor s (areape ropening ) 0.54 m2 2.00 m2

2 Ridgeperpendicula r tocrat erow s Ridge height 5.30 m;effectiv e opening width 0.40m 0.40m Side-wallopening s in thedoor s (areape r opening) 0.54 m2 2.00 m2

containing 40calve si n crates wide7 0 cm.Tabl e 1list s 4 variants on this design, which are calledHous e type 1o rHous e type2 wit h smallo rlarg eopenings .

Ventilation requirementsfo r vealcalve s

Ventilationrequirement s werecalculate dfro m thehea tan dmoistur ebalance so fth ehous e usingcriteri afo rth eindoo rclimate .Calculation swer ecarrie dou tfo rtw oextrem eliveweight s (LW) in the Dutch veal calf industry, 50 and 250 kg. For these two categories, ambient temperaturei st ob ekep t atleas t at 15an d3 °C,respectively , andincreas efreel y upt o2 3° C in both cases (Vermorel, 1987). At high outdoor temperatures, causing indoor temperatures higher than 23 °C,i t isreasonabl e to allow avariabl e temperatureris einsid e the house with respect to external temperature, which is dependent on the outdoor temperaturel. This temperature rise wascalle d summer temperature tolerance and was sett o4,3,2.5, 2 and 1.5 °Cfo r external temperatures of upt o 21, above2 1u pt o24 , above2 4u p to2 7°C ,abov e2 7 up to 31an dove r3 1 °C,respectivel y (CIGR, 1984).Anima l heatproductio n wascalculate d after Roy (1980a,b) andva nE s &va nWeerde n (1970). Formaximu m relativehumidity ,tw ocriteri awer eevaluated .I nth efirs t criterion, advised by CIGR (1984), maximum relative humidity in the house is set at 90% minus internal temperaturei n °C.Th e secondcriterio ni s thatindoor srelativ ehumidit y shouldb ekep t ato r below 85%. If these humidity criteria wereno t met, a tolerance factor for absolute humidity (i.e. absolute humidity indoors minus absolute humidityoutdoors) of 2 g/kg dry air was activated automatically. If the ventilation requirement for removal of moisture or heat from thehous e wasver y low,minimu m ventilation raterequire dwa scalculate dfro m amaximu m concentration allowedfo r carbon dioxide,31/m 3.Carbo n dioxide concentration can beuse d

86 as an indicator for air quality in the house.Figur e 2 shows the ventilation requirement for a housecompartmen to f 40calve so f5 0k go r250 k gfo rth eclimat ecriteri astate d above.Thi s can becompare d with theadvic et oinstal l aventilatio n capacityo f atleas t 150m 3/hpe rcal f placei n mechanically ventilated housing systems (Smitse tal. , 1986). The requiredventilatio nrat eshow sa variatio no fbetwee n8. 6 and 50.6 m3/h.calffo ryoun g calves (LW =5 0kg ) andbetwee n28. 5 and 161.2m 3/h.calffo rcalve sa tslaughte rweigh t(L W = 250kg) .I f a group-housing system with standard group-housing pens (Smitse t al., 1986) wereapplie di nth e samecompartment , itwoul dallo wth ehousin g of 50 calvesinstea do f 40. Ventilation required would then range from 31.2 to 163.7 m3/h.calf for calves at slaughter weight.Th efluctuativ e behaviouro f the curvesa texterna l temperaturesabov e 18° Cresulte d from thediscontinuousl y decreasing summer-temperature tolerancefacto r andth edecreasin g

Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf]

- -^a^;;;;;;::;;;^ ( J F_req;CIGR-adv .

S J? F_req;RH i < 85% 50 1 J F_tb; CIGR-adv. A Fjb; RHi < 85% -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 80 25 30 Outside air temperature [° C]

Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf] aoo

4 150 - 3

100 F_req; CIGR-adv. F_req; RHi < 85% 50 F_tb; CIGR-adv. 2 F_tb; RHi < 85% -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Outside air temperature [" C]

Figure2. Requiredventilation ratefor young calves(LW = 50 kg) (above)and calvesat slaughterweight (LW = 250 kg) (below): curves 1 & 2;Maximum ventilation bystack effect only,with indoorclimate conditions as given inFigure 3: curves3 &4. House type1 with smallopenings (fully opened).

87 sensible-heat production byth ecalve s atincreasin g ambient temperature.Thes efigures als o show that the CIGR advice for maximum relative humidity indoors is the more stringent criterion over the full temperature range. CIGR criterion could only be kept for external temperatures up to about7 °C,bot hfo r young andolde rcalve s (Figure 3, below).A t higher outdoor temperatures, thehumidit y tolerancefacto r was activated, because the CIGR advice was not arealisti c criterion for the given circumstances. The second humidity criterion was validunti lth ehea tbalanc eforme d amor estringen tcriterio nfo rth erequire dventilatio nrate . Figure3 (above ) showsth eidea lindoo rtemperatur econtro lwit hus eo fsupplementa l heating foryoun gcalve sa t1 5°C fo ra slon ga sthi si spossible .I tals oshow sth efre eincreas eo findoo r temperature up to 23 °C (for both liveweight categories) and the activation of the variable summer-temperature tolerances when external temperature is higher then 23 °C minus the valid summer-temperature tolerancefacto r of 3° Ca tthi s temperature.

Inside air temperature [°C] (ti)

I LW= 50kg ;CIGR-adv . 2 LW = 50 kg; RHi < 85%

~ Sî y'^ 3 LW =25 0kg ; CIGR-adv. 4 LW = 250 kg; RHi < 85% 5 ti = te

Outside air temperature [°C] (te)

Rel. humidity inside air [%]

1 LW = 50kg ; CIGR-adv. -1 LW = 50 kg; RHi < 85% J LW = 250kg ; CIGR-adv.

50 A LW = 250 kg; RHi < 85% -15 -5 0 5 10 15 ao 30 Outside air temperature [° C]

Figure3. Averagetemperature indoors(above) and relative humidity indoors (below) related tooutdoor temperature when requiredventilation rates(Figure 2) were achieved.

88 Ventilation ofth ecal fhouse s Theventilatio nperformanc e ofth evariatiant so nth ebuildin gdesig ngive ni nTabl e 1 were evaluatedwit htheoretica ldescription so fth eair-exchang emechanism sfo rtherma lbuoyancy , wind ventilation and the combined effects of these two driving forces. The modelled theory wasdevelope do nth ebasi so fBruc e(1986 )an dcharacterize di nvan' tOoste r& Bot h(1988) . Thewors tweathe rcondition s for naturalventilatio n systems aregenerall y thosefo rwhic h windspeed approaches zero.Th eventilatio n systemmus tthe nru n ontherma lbuoyanc yonly . Almost thesam eca nhappe n whena buildin gi swel l shelteredfro m wind.Figur e2 show sth e performanceo fth ethermal-buoyanc ymechanis mfo rth etw ohumidit ycriteri aan dth eextrem e live-weights, under the assumption that indoor climate is as given in Figure 3. Ventilation capacity decreases with rising external temperature, mainly because temperature difference between indoors and outdoors air decreases. For young calves, the ventilation capacity of House type 1 with smallopening s isjus t satisfactory. Soa goo dcontro l system could always create an acceptable climate for thesecalves .Fo rcalve s at slaughter weighti n Housetyp e 1, the criteria are violated atjus t over 10 °C for the CIGR advice and at about 17 °C for the criterion of fixed maximumrelativ e humidity.I f thecalve s atliveweigh t 250k gwer ehouse d in House type 1 with large openings, theventilatio n capacity, openings fully opened, would be over 150m 3/h.calf until external temperature exceeds 20 °C. At temperatures exceeding 20°C ,th ecriteri acanno tb emaintaine d anymore ;howeve rth ecapacit y at2 5° Ci sstil labou t 125m 3/h.calf. Sincesupplementa l heatingi shardl yeve ruse di nclimat econtro li nveal-cal f houses,apar t from thefirs t weeks of growth,th eventilatio n rates giveni nFigur e 2ar eno tver yrealistic .A better approach was obtained when the heat balance of the building and heat loss through ventilation were brought into equilibrium, thus simulating an unheated building with given opening sizes. This gave a good indication of the severity of the violation of the climatic criteria. Calculations wereo nHous etyp e 1 withsmal lan dlarg eopening s ando nHous etyp e 2 with large openings for thehighe r temperature range, all house types holding 40calve so f 250 kg. Wind speed was kept low, 1m/s . Figure 4 shows a slow decline in ventilation rate with increasing outdoor temperature for all three types. The curve marked as 1 shows ventilation rates significantly below 100m 3/h.pe rcalf .Th eothe r twocurve s areclos et oth e minimum ventilation capacity required for mechanical-ventilation systems (150 m3/h.calf).

Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf]

—— 3 House type 1; small openings Housetyp e 1; | ___^ I large openings House type2 ; large openings 20 35 Outside air temperature [°C]

Figure4. Ventilationrate due to thermal buoyancy and wind (1 mis);House type 1 (small and large openings) and2 (large openings). Openingsfully open.

89 Very important is thereactio n of theindoo r climate in these cases. Theinterval s in which indoortemperatur e (fj), relativehumidit y (RHj) andth e summer-temperature tolerance factor (Afs) varied are listed below: 1. House type 1(smal lopenings) :21. 2< t x < 32.3 °C;Af s:2.3-5. 1°C ;7 6< RH ;< 82% 2. House type 1(larg eopenings) : 18.9< t { < 31.6°C ;Af s: 1.6-3.2°C ; 69< RH ;< 80% 3. House type2 (larg eopenings) : 18.5< t i < 31.4 °C;At s: 1.4-2.8°C ;6 8< RH ;< 80% Temperaturean dhumidit y criteria,apar tfro m theCIG Radvice ,wer eobeye di nth ethir dcas e and showa ver y bigger anda smal lviolatio no fth e temperature criterion only (Afsshoul db e inrang e2- 3 °C)i nth efirst an dsecon dcase .

Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf]

J^~"~~~~^

1 Outsideai rtemp . -10'C 2 Outsideai rtemp .0' C 3 _ Outsideai rtemp .10' C 20 4 Outsideai rtemp .20' C 5 Outsideai rtemp .2 5' C 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.1 Height of door openings [in]

Inside air temperature [°C] 35 30 25 Outsideai rtemp . -10*C 20 15 Outsideai rtemp .0' C 10 Outsideai rtemp . 10"C 5 Outsideai rtemp .20' C 0 -5 Outside airtemp .25' C 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Height of door openings [m]

Figure 5A (above). Controllability curvesof the ventilationrate for House type 1(small openings)using the side-wall door openings as controllable openings. Thermal buoyancy only.

Figure 5B (below). Expected indoor temperature resultingfrom theventilation curvesin Figure5A andanimal heat production.

90 Controllability ofth eventilatio nrat ea tver ylo wwin dspee d

To indicate the controllability of the ventilation rate the effect of closing the side-wall openings was calculated for House type 1wit h small openings and calves of 250 kg under windless conditions at five outdoor temperatures. Figure 5A gives the relation between the heighto fth eside-wal lopening san dth eventilatio nrate .Th eridg ewa skep tfull y opendurin g theprocess .Th eventilatio nrat eca nb econtrolle dove ra wid erang eb yadjustin g theside-wal l openings only. Figure 5B gives theindoo r temperature resulting from the ventilation curves inFigur e 5A. Indoor temperature can be significantly affected atlo w outdoor temperatures. Thisrang ei sdecreasin gwit hincreasin goutdoo rtemperature ,mainl yb ya decreasin g sensible heatproductio n from the animals.Unde rth e given climaticconditions , absence of wind,th e criteriase tfo rinterna ltemperatur ecoul dno tb ekep ta thig htemperature sfo rth egive nopenin g configuration, as already concluded.

Combinedeffect s ofwind-drive n ventilation and thermal buoyancy

Theadditiona l ventilation rateinduce d byairflo w aroundth ebuildin gi shighl y dependent onth ewind-pressur epatter nan do nwhethe rpressur edifference s overopening sdu et otherma l buoyancy and wind ventilation reinforce or neutralize one another. Tostud y these combined effects, datao nwind-pressur ecoefficient s forth etw obuildin gshape sconsidere dwer ederive d from Moran (1980),ASHRE A (1989)an dPringl e (1981) andliste di nTabl e 2V Figure6 show sa nexampl eo fwind-pressur ecoefficient s withpoo rrespectivel y significant effect on the ventilation rate with increasing windspeed. Total ventilation rate due to the combinedeffect s of thermalbuoyanc y andwin ddoe sno tequa lth esu mo fth erate sgive nb y both mechanisms individually. As mentioned before, the sum of the pressure differences induced by the individual effects is responsible for the ventilation rate achieved by the combinedeffects .Th econtributio no ftherma lbuoyanc ydecrease swit hincreasin gwin dspeed . At wind speeds above4 m/s,win deffec t only gives amoderat e estimate, within 10%,o f the totalventilatio nrate .

Table 2. Windpressure coefficients around the calf houseat differentwind angles.A wind angleof0° implies a windnormal to thelong axis of the building. Houseplaced inan open field.

Wind angle Housetyp e 1 House type 2 upw. downw. ridge upw. downw. ridge face fece face face 0 small 0.35 -0.37 -0.13 0.35 -0.37 -0.60 large 0.40 -0.37 -0.13 0.40 -0.37 -0.60 30 small 0.35 -0.30 -0.40 0.35 -0.30 -0.58 large 0.35 -0.37 -0.40 0.35 -0.37 -0.58 60 small 0.09 -0.15 -0.40 0.10 -0.15 -0.57 large 0.09 -0.20 -0.40 0.10 -0.20 -0.57 90 small -0.10 -O.10 -0.60 -0.10 -0.10 -0.13 large -0.10 -0.10 -0.60 -0.10 -0.10 -0.13

91 Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf] 250

200

- Thermal 150 z buoyancy 100 Combined effects 50 3 Wind ventilation 12 3 4 Windspeed at réf. height (10m) [m/s]

Ventilation ra te [m3/h.calf 250 a ^^^ 200 ^^^ Thermal 150 buoyancy 100 Combined

1 effects 50 Wind ventilation 0 12 3 4 5 Wind speed at ref. height (10m) [m/s]

Figure6. Combinedeffects, stack and wind effect as afunction ofwind speed with internal climatic conditions inequilibrium with thecombined effect ventilation. Housetype 1 (above) andHouse type 2 (below). Smallopenings fully open.Wind dir. 0°.

Figure7 indicate s theeffec t ofwin ddirectio n upon thetota lventilatio nrat efo r bothhous e typeswit hsmal lopenings .Win dparalle lt oth eridg edecrease sth einfluenc e ofth ewin dupo n ventilation heavily.Howeve ra nangl eo f30 °an dmor et oth eridg eimprove s this.Hous etyp e 1 showed aclea r influence of wind direction upon theventilatio n ratefo r wind speed over2 m/s.Thi si srelate dt oth eroo fstructure .Hous etyp e2 showe dlittl einfluenc e ofwin ddirectio n uponth eventilatio nrat efo rwin ddirection sno tparalle lt oth eridge. Apar tfro m windparalle l to the ridge, model calculations always indicated a higher ventilation rate for House type 2. Inbot htypes ,th eopening swer econsidere dt ob efull y open.Win dspee dan dt oa lesse rexten t also wind direction thus had an important influence on the control curves of the openings (Figure 5A). With wind speed, the range in which the ventilation rate can be controlled increases.Therefor e iti snecessar y tohav ea goo dunderstandin g of themechanism s of wind

92 Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf]

4

200 ^^^^^ 3 ^ ^ 150 Wind angle 0' 100 Wind angle30 ' 50 Wind angle 60'

0 Wind angle 90' 12 3 4 Wind speed at réf. height (10 m) [m/s]

Ventilation rate [m3/h.calf] 300

250 ^^2002^12.$ 200

150 i Wind angle 0' 100 Wind angle 30' 50 Wind angle60 '

0 Wind angle 90' 0 12 3 4 Wind speed at réf. height (10m) [m/s]

Figure 7. Combined-effect vemtilation as afunction of windspeed and wind directionfor Housetype 1 (above) and2 (below) with smallopenings fully open.

ventilation and thermal buoyancy and their combined influence to achieve an appropriate control of the ventilation rate. Controllability of allopening s is also preferable for this goal. Acompute r model containing aprope r description of these mechanisms can contribute toa bettercontro l of thenatura l ventilationprocess .

Conclusions

• Thecompute rsimulatio nmode lNAT_VEN Ti sa nimportan ttoo lt oestimat ean dcompar e theventilatio n performance ofdifferen t housedesigns . • Themode lresult sindicat efairl y wellth eapplicabilit yo fnatura lventilatio ni ncal fhouses , butvalidatio n with measureddat ai snecessary .

93 After validation, themode l can beimplemente d incontro l systemsfo r control of opening sizes. 3-4 cm2/kg live weight inlet area and2.9-3. 3cm 2/kgliv eweigh t outlet area seems tob e satisfactory for house designs (Figure 1). Relatively low air speed in inlet openings (to reduce the chance of draughts at animal level) can be achieved by choosing an inlet area of 5 cm2/kg liveweight and an outlet area of 2.5 cm2/kg liveweight. In a group housing system ora compartmen t with asmalle rcrat e size,maximu m openings shouldb elarger . Under poor wind conditions higher temperaturerise s than indicated by the summer-tem­ peraturetoleranc efactor s havet ob eallowe di nth edescribe dhous etype swit hsmall-ope ­ nings (Table 1). In areaswher ever y low wind speeds arerare , awel lcontrolle d natural ventilation system canb ea goo dalternativ et oa mechanica lventilatio nwit ha capacit yo f 150m 3/h.calf,wit h respect to the airexchange rate of the building. However topological aspects and built environmentca nb eo fgrea tinfluenc e andals oai rmixtur einsid eth ehous eneed sattention . Under Dutch climatic conditions, relative humidity can be kept within accepted limits duringwar m days (65-89%).T okee p theCIG Radvic ei nho tweathe r isimpossibl e with anyventilatio n system ifoutsid e airhumidit y isno t very low.

References ASHRAE(America nSociet yo fHeatin gRefrigeratin g andAi rConditionin gEngineers) ,1989 . Airflow around buildings.In :R.A . Parsons (Ed.):Handboo k of fundamentals. SIEdition . Chapter 14. ASHRAE,Atlanta ,Georgia ,US . Brockett,B.L .&L.D .Albright ,1987 .Natura lventilatio ni nsingl eairspace dbuildings .Journa l of Agric.Engng .Res .37:141-154 . Bruce, J.M., 1986. Theory of natural ventilation due to thermal buoyancy and wind. In: Proceedings CIGR Section II seminar on pig housing, rabbit and small birds species housing,Rennes ,FR . CIGR (Commission International du Genie Rurale), 1984. Report of working group on climatization of animal houses, Section II (Farm Buildings). Scottish Farm Buildings Investigation Unit,Aberdeen ,GB . Moran,P. , 1980.Full-scal e experiments to acquirewin d loading datafo r usei n thedesig no f agricultural buildings.Journa lo f Agric.Engng .Res .25:287-297 . Pringle,R.T. , 1981.A desig n guidet omechanicall y ventilatedlivestoc khousing .Bulleti nno . 26.Nort h of Scotland Collegeo f Agriculture,Aberdeen ,GB . Roy, J.H.B., 1980a. The calf andit s physical environment In:Th e Calf.4t h edition. Butter- worths,London ,p . 147-198. Roy,J.H.B. , 1980b.Th enutrien trequirement s ofth ecalf-appetite , water,energ y andprotein . In:Th eCalf .4t h edition. Butterworths,London ,p .221-252 . Smits,A.C. ,T .v.d .Brin k &G.A .Toren , 1986.Huisvesting . In:H.J.C.M . Sturkenboom& L . Pelser (Ed.):Praktisch evleeskalverhouderij . PR,Lelystad ,NL .p .23-36 . van Es, A.J.H. &E.J . van Weerden, 1970.Ka n de groei van gezonde mestkalveren worden voorspeld uithe topgenome n rantsoen?Landbouwkundi g Tijdschrift 82:109-114. van 't Ooster, A. & A.J. Both, 1988.Toward s a better understanding of relations between buildingdesig nan dnatura lventilatio ni nlivestoc khouses .In :E .Barbe r(Ed.) :Proceeding s ofth ethir dinternationa l livestockenvironmen t symposium.ASAE ,St .Joseph ,Michigan , US.p . 8-21. Vermorel,M. , 1987.Effect s ofclimati ccondition s onenerg ymetabolis m andperformanc e of calves. In: M.W.A. Verstegen; A.M.Henke n (Ed.):Energ y metabolism in farm animals: effects of housing, stress anddisease .Nijhoff , Dordrecht, NL.p . 180-198.

94 Purification of veal calf manure

P.J.W.te nHav e *,H.C .Willer s *& W.G.J.M .va nTongere n ** * Instituteof Agricultural Engineering IMAG, P.O. Box 43,6700 AA Wageningen,NL ** NetherlandsOrganization for AppliedScientific Research TNO, Division of Technologyfor Society, P.O. Box342, 7300AH Apeldoorn,NL

Summary

Inth eNetherlands ,vea lcal fmanur eha sbee npurifie d incentralize dactivated-sludg eplant s since 1976.Apar tfro m BODreduction ,N i sremove db y(de)nitrification . Shortly,simultane ­ ousprecipitatio n ofP i spractise di ntw one wplants .I norde rt oremov e solublemateria l from veal calf manure and effluent from biological treatment, experiments with reverse osmosis have been carried out. Data are presented on the performance and the costs of both the biological and themembran e systems. Descriptors:vea lcal f manure;nitrification ; phosphate;revers eosmosis .

Introduction Sinceth e 1960si tha sbee ndifficul t todispos eo fth emanur eproduce di n arçaswit h ahig h concentration ofvea lcalves .Man yo fth eunit s whichfee d calves for vealo rbee f production, do have little cultivated land. This problem has resulted in the practice of treating veal calf slurry in biological purification plants (VCPP) since theen d of the 1960s (ten Have, 1971). Initially, this was done on the farms. But the results were poor, and this caused the Veluwe WaterAuthorit y toforbi d on-farm purification in 1972.I n its area abouthal f theDutc h veal calf production islocated .A sa nalternative ,th eManur eBan ko f Gelderlanderecte d acentra l purification plant (Elspeet Old) with an annual capacity of 1800 0m 3 in 1976.Th e capacity ofthi splan tha smeanwhil ebee nraise dt oapprox .2 7000 m 3pe rannum .I n 1985a ne wVCP P (ElspeetNew ) wascommissione d ata distanc eo f5 k mfro m thefirst one .Th ene wplan tha s a much larger annual capacity of about 8000 0 m3. Athir dplant , which is nearly identical to Elspeet New VCPP, was erected in Putten in 1986.Plan s exist torais e the total processing capacity in theVeluw eare at oapprox .65 000 0m 3pe ryear .I n 1989a volum eo f 183 000m 3 manure with anaverag eo f 1.55% dry matterwa s purified. This paper describes several aspects of treatment and performance. Furthermore, the concentration of vealcal f manure andeffluen t from aVCP Pb yrevers eosmosi s isdiscussed .

Biologicaltreatmen t The procedure in the plant is as follows: the slurry is trucked in by tanker and unloaded into a reception tank. Ascree nretain s any parts over 15mm .Then , the slurry is stored in a balancing tank. Once daily the batch of slurry to be treated ispumpe d intoa n aeration tank, ina perio do fabou ta nhour .Aeratio ni sstarte dt oprovid eoxyge nt oth ebacteri ai nth eactivate d sludgean dt omi xth econten to fth etank .Som e2 1hour slater ,aeratio ni sswitche dof ft oallo w the sludge to settle. After a 2-h sedimentation period, the supernatant liquor is drained for anotherhour .Next ,th ecycl ei srepeated .Throug ha balancin gtank ,th eeffluen t isdraine d off gradually into the water authority's sewerage system. Sludge from the aeration tank isregularl y pumped into a sludge tank to be concentrated, by gravity, toa dr y matter (DM)conten t of about 5%.Th esupernatan t liquorfro m this stage

95 1286 "O" COD o o o o îoee TT

Start of line dosage

t »o oo OJ + + g 46e m ooo° o r ~+ * + + -t A « \ -ft V+-H-4-4J 4 •+" +++MU ïea zee Day nufiber in 1388

Figure1. Changesin the concentration of COD and P after the start of the dosage ofCa(OH)2.

Table 1. ElspeetNew purification plant, average results in 1987.

Influent Effluent Reduction % COD mg/1 13 000 850 93.5 BOD mg/1 6 500 91 98.6 Nkj mg/1 2 800 99 96.5 NH4-N mg/1 ca 240 0 62 97.4 N02-N mg/1 0 24 N03-N mg/1 0 102 Ntota l mg/1 2 800 225 92.0 Ptota l mg/1 520 380 27.0 K mg/1 3 100 3100 0.0 CI mg/1 2 600 Dry matter mg/1 15 000 ca 1000 0 Ash mg/1 9 500 ca 8 000 pH 7.6 7.7 isreturne dt oth eaeratio n tank.Tanker sremov eth esurplu s sludget ob euse di nagricultur ea s a fertilizer.

96 Reductiono fth eBO D(biologica loxyge ndemand )an dremova lo fth eNH 4b y nitrification and denitrification are theprimar y aims of a veal calf slurrypurificatio n plant. Besides, two ofth ethre eexistin gplant shav eadopte dth epractic eo fdosin gCa(OH) 2(lime )int oth eaeratio n tanki n order tofurthe r reduce thephosphat econtent .Th ehydrauli cretentio n timei nth etw o latest VCPPs is about 20 days; the load is about 0.05 kg BOD/(kg sludged) and 0.02 kg 3 NH4-N/(kgsludged )a ta n average sludgeconcentratio n of 7kg/m . Table 1show s theaverag emanur ecompositio n before andafte r treatmenti nElspee tNe w VCPPi n 1987.Th ereductio nperformanc ei sals ostated .Th eCO D(chemica loxyge ndemand ) and N reductions were more than 90%.O f phosphate only a minor part was removed, and soluble salts,suc h asK , wereno tremove d atall . 3 In the course of 1988 adding 2-2.5 kg Ca(OH)2 per m manure was initiated. As can be seen from Figure 1,thi s did not only cause the Pconcentratio n to fall considerably, but also theCOD .Flocculatio n of organic matteri slikel yt ohav ecause dthis . Infutura l plants anumbe ro fchange so f thepresent-da yprocedur ear epossible .I nth efirs t place, the discontinuous process can be changed into a continuous one, with separate tanks for nitrification, denitrification and sedimentation. This change will contribute to a better handling of certain problems caused by inadequate denitrification due to too low a COD:N ratio in the manure. Furthermore, the odour emission will be conceivably lower compared with that experienced when slurry is pumped into the aeration tank in a very short period. Finally,i twil l beeasie r tolin k theplan t toa continuou s sludgedewaterin g system. A second possible change is further dewatering the surplus sludge. It was found in experiments thati ti sno teas y todewate r this sludge (DHV Consultants, 1988).Tw otype so f poly-electrolyte (pe) are required to condition sludge formed in simultaneous phosphate precipitation, andth edosag eo f thesear erathe rhigh ,namel y some5 g cationi cpe/k g sludge and some 2 g anionic pe/kg sludge. The use of a belt press did not prove to be possible. Provisionally, decanting centrifuges have been chosen, because they provide the possibility of thickening the sludge upt o 10-11% DMwithou tmuc h supervision.A produc t of thisD M content can still bepumped . Therei s a need for further thickening because thedirec t appli­ cation to cultivated land is likely to suffer from the competition from other manure types.I t isexpecte dtha t amajo r portion ofthi ssludg ei st ob eprocesse d inmanur eprocessin gplants , whichgenerall yimplie s thati ti st ob esubjecte d totherma ldehydration . Themai n market for the final product will have to be found abroad. Thermal dehydration being expensive, it is consideredt oadop tdewaterin gi nexistin gan dne wVCPP swit hcentrifuges . Intha t situation, ofeac h tonneo f vealcal f slurry with 1.5% DM,som e0.1 1o fsludg ewit h 10%D Mwil lnee d further processing.Withou t transport andoverloa dcosts ,treatmen t isestimate d tocos tabou t NLG 14pe rtonn eo fslurr ya ta capacit yo f 18000 0m 3/yr. Theinvestmen twil lb eabou tNL G 9 million.

Reverseosmosi s

Experiments have been carried out to concentrate veal calf slurry and effluent from the abovebiologica lpurificatio n byrevers eosmosi s(RO) .Tubula rmembranes ,manufacture d by PCI(typ eAF C99) ,hav ebee nuse dbecaus ethes ear eno tver ysusceptibl et ocloggin gan dca n becleane deasily .Th eexperiment s withvea lcal f slurrywer etentativ e anddi dno tlas tlonge r than 1-3 days each.Wit h effluent, prolonged research wascarrie dou t which took aboutfive months(va nTongeren , 1990). First of all,mos to f the suspended solidshav et o beremove dfro m vealcal f slurry,e.g . by sedimentation. The NH4 content of thepermeate , theliqui d separated byrevers e osmosis,i s considerably reduced as aresul t of lowering thep H value (withHC lo rH 2S04) to about pH =6 .Th emaximu machievabl econcentratio nfacto ri sabou t3.5 ,whic himplie stha tth evolum e of theconcentrat e isabou t 30%o f thevolum eo f thesettle d manure.Unde r theseconditions ,

97 Table 2. Applicationof reverse osmosison settled veal calf manure; 1 Concentrationfactor 2 3.5; Acidification with H2SO^.

Raw Settled Permeate manure manure reverse osmosis

COD mg/1 15 000 10000 200 BOD mg/1 7 500 5000 50 Nkj mg/1 2 800 2700 100 NH4-N mg/1 240 0 240 0 100 Ptota l mg/1 600 270 3 K mg/1 3000 3000 100 CI mg/1 2 500 2 500 150 pH 7.8 7.8 ^62 6.5 Relative volume1 % 100 90 65

Table 3. Applicationof reverse osmosis oneffluent from biological treat­ 1 2 ment; Concentrationfactor 55; Acidification with H2S04.

Effluent Permeate reverse osmosis

COD mg/1 600 15 BOD mg/1 100 <5 Nkj mg/1 80 5 NH4-N mg/1 50 5 P total mg/1 40 0.2 K mg/1 300 0 100 CI mg/1 250 0 100 8^62 6 pH 1 volume % 100 82 Relative a flux across the membrane of 10-12.5 l/(m2 h) can be taken into account. The total concentration factor, due to sedimentation andrevers eosmosis ,i sabou t3 . Table 2 gives the composition of raw manure, settled manure and permeate, as may be expectedunde rpractica lconditions .Despit eth eacidification , theBO Dan dNk jconcentration s in thepermeat e are stillrathe r high sotha t water authorities in theNetherland s areno t likely toaccep ti tt ob edirectl ydischarge dint oope nwater .So ,th epermeat ewil lhav et ob edispose d of intoth e sewero rb esprea d on land. Themixtur eo f sediment andconcentrat ei si nfac t nothingels etha n vealcal f slurry which has been thickened three times. The lower moisture content makes it more attractive as a fertilizer and reduces the transport costs per unit quantity of the original slurry. The same appliest oth eprocessin g costs in adryin gplant . Acidification top H= 6 (about 1.51I^SO^m 3) alsoha sfavourabl e effects onth e effluent from aVCPP ,i n this caseo nth eflux . Underpractica l conditions, about. 30l/(m 2h) may be

98 taken into account, witha maximu m concentration factoro f 5.5.I ti spossibl e tocontinu e the processing for 1-2 weeks without intermediate cleaning. Table 3 shows how the effluent composition improves asa resul to f membrane filtration. The application of reverse osmosis on effluent from biological treatment improves the qualityo fth efina leffluent , buto nth eothe rhan dincrease sth evolum eo fsubstance sfo rwhic h anoutle t has tob efoun d by about0.1 5 m3/m3manure . The costs of reverse osmosis are estimated at 5-15 NLG/m3 water removed. The lowest costsappl yt oeffluen t treatmenti nth eVCPP ,th ehighes tt ofarm-scal e concentratingo fslurry . Thesecost s dono tinclud e thoseo fmarketin g andprocessin g theconcentrat e andpermeate .

Final remarks Biologicaltreatmen to fvea lcal fslurr yi nth eNetherland si sbase do nrelativel yman yyear s' experience.I tca n beclaime d tohav eprove d itspractica lvalue . Plants still to be erected or expanded, will see changes which are partly based on the experience acquired, such asth esplittin g upo f anumbe ro ffunction s (nitrification, denitrifi- cation, sedimentation).Othe rchange s andexpansion s arecause d byever-increasin g environ­ mental demands. Examples of these are the measures taken to control odour emissions and solutionsfo r theproblem s ofho wt ofin d environmentally sounddestination sfo r themineral s containedi nmanure .I tma yb eexpecte dtha ti na fe w years'time ,als osalt san dothe rresidua l substances willhav et ob eremove dfro m theeffluent . Itha sbee nprove n thatth elatte rca nb e achieved bymean s ofrevers eosmosis ,bu tevaporatio n seemst ob eanothe rprope r technique for this.

References DHVConsultants , 1988.Slibontwateringsonderzoe k opd ekalvergierzuiveringsinrichtin gaa n de Knardersteeg tePutten . Report 1-4061-19-01. tenHave ,P. , 1971.Aerobi cbiologica lbreakdow n offar m waste.In :Livestoc kwast emanage ­ ment and pollution abatement. Proc. Int. Symp. Livestock Wastes, Columbus, Ohio. p. 275-278. vanTongeren ,W.G.J.M. , 1990. Omgekeerdeosmos eva neffluen t vanee nbiologisch eka lver ­ gierzuivering (duurproeven).TN Orepor t No90-098 .

99 4. Health and care Control of infectious disease in housed veal calves

A.J.F.Webste r Departmentof Animal Husbandry, Universityof Bristol, Langford, Bristol,BS18 7DU, GB

Summary Epidemiological surveys of mortality and morbidity in units rearing calves for veal emphasise theoverridin g importance ofdiarrhoe aan dpneumonia .I ngenera l theincidenc ei s higher in calvesreare d in groups andreceivin g milkreplace r adlibitu m from nipple feeders. A more mechanistic approach to disease incidence suggests that diarrhoea is related to excessive consumption of milk replacer (however fed) and denial of digestible dry food. Pneumonia can belinke d toover-intensiv e stocking and stresses of concurrentinfection , e.g. enteritis. Veal calves can be reared without incurring these stresses. In these circumstances their health is asgoo d astha to f conventionally reared animals. Descriptors:vea lcalves ;infectiou s disease;housing ; management.

Introduction The health status of veal calves is not satisfactory. Infectious diseases impose a severe economic burden on the vealindustr y through deaths,reduce d performance and the costso f treatment. These problems are compounded by increasing public concern that veal calves should bereare d 1. in groups,thu s potentially increasing theris ko finfectio n and 2. without regularprophylacti c medication, thus potentially increasing the severity of infec­ tion. Ihav eargue delsewher etha tI conside rgoo dhealt ht ob eparamoun tamon gth e 'fivefreedom s' thatconstitut eacceptabl ewelfar e standardsfo rfar m animals(Webster ,1987) .I believ eequall y strongly that a system which canonl y achieve 'good' health through the continuous admini­ stration of antibiotics is not good husbandry. This paper will examine factors affecting mortality andmorbidit yi nvea lcalves ,compar ethe mwit hothe rartificia l forms ofcal frearin g and explore ways in which they may bereduce d without medication by attention to housing and management.

Mortalityan dmorbidit yi nvea lcal funit s

Table 1summarize s the results of an analysis of mortality and morbidity in 4417 calves reared for veali n Holland in individualpen s or group housed (van deMei , 1987).Mortalit y ratei nbot hgroup swa s3.7% .Cullin grate ,incidenc eo fdiarrhoe a andlosse sfro m pneumonia were significantly higher in group housed calves but morbidity rates for pneumonia and the extent of lung consolidation were unaffected by rearing system. This suggests that group housing may exacerbate infectious diseases, especially diarrhoea andpneumonia . However, the animals designated 'group housed' were,i n fact, tethered and bucket-fed to 10week so f age, which doesno tcompar ewit h calves that areunrestraine d and share access tomil k viaa teat dispenserfro m the time of their arrival on the unit.Thi s comparison is given in Table2 which summarises the incidence of diarrhoea and pneumonia in 794 early-weaned and veal calveson affected farms (Webstere tal. , 1985a,b). Heregrou prearin gfro m thetim eo f arrival significantly increased the incidence of diarrhoea from 0-6 weeks of age in veal calves but noti nearl yweane dcalve swhic hwer eals ogive nacces st odr yfoo dcontainin gdigestibl efibr e

103 Table1. Morbidityand mortality data for 4417 calves reared for vealindividually or in groups. Fromvan der Mei (1987).

Incidence(% ) Individual Group- Significance pens housed1

Mortality 3.7 3.7 Cullingrat e 2.4 3.9 * Diarhoea, morbidity 14.6 18.6 * Respiratory disease losses 0.7 1.5 * morbidity 25.9 25.3 severelun g consolidation 19.6 20.9 numbero f treatment periods 1.6 1.5 * 1 groups of four calves -tethere d to 10week s ofage .

Table2. Effectsof rearing system on the incidence of disease in calves on units where disease waspresent. FromWebster et al. (1985).

Calves treated on affected farms (%) Diarrhoea Pneumonia

0-6w 6-12 w 0-6 w 6-12 w

Early weaned individualpen s 36 nil 28 12 group reared 34 nil 35 10 Vealcalve s individualpen s 32 12 54 27 group reared 57 13 64 34

thatwoul dente r andstimulat edevelopmen t of therumen .Weanin geffectivel y eliminatedth e problem of diarrhoea. The incidence of pneumonia was higher in veal calves at all ages and there was a suggestion that the problem was worse in group-reared calves, although this difference was not statistically significant. Waltner-Toews et al. (1986),a t Ontario Veterinary College,hav e conducted amos t com­ prehensive epidemiological analysis of effects of farm management policies on disease in calves.Data , summarised in Table 3,ar efo r 1968 artificially-reared and early-weaned dairy calves but the morbidity rates for diarrhoea andpneumoni a are broadly similar to those for veal calves.Odd s ratios define therelativ e probability of disease for each pair of treatments undercomparison . Rearingcalve sou to fdoor si nindividua lhutche s asdistinc tfro m indoors in adjacent pens produced a 4.5-fold reduction in diarrhoea and a 25-fold reduction in pneumonia! There was, however no difference between group and individual penning for housed calves. The incidence of diarrhoea wasreduce d byprovidin g salt ad lib. Medication reducedth eincidenc eo fpneumoni a buteffect s ondiarrhoe awer einconsistent . Adli bacces s to water reduced the incidence of pneumonia but minerals increased it. These effects are inexplicablean dintroduc ea not eo fcautio nint oan yattemp tt ointerpre tepidemiologica ldat a inisolation .Nevertheless ,ther ewa sclea revidenc etha tth eattemp tt oinduc epassiv eimmunit y todiarrhoe ai n thesecalve sb yvaccinatin g theirmother s (vaccinesunspecified ) wasdecidel y counterproductive. The final observation of note is that calves which had previously been treated for diarrhoea werethre etime s morelikel y subsequently tocontrac t pneumonia.

104 Table 3. Effectsoffarm managementpolicies on morbidity in1968 artificially-reared dairy calvesin Ontario. FromWaltner-Toews etal. (1986).

Overall Diarrhoea Pneumonia

Morbidity (%) 35.0 20.5 15.4 Oddsratios 1 hutches vs.pen s 0.25 0.22 0.04 group vs.individua l pens antimicrobials vs.non e 0.30 inconsistent 0.40 milkreplace r vs. whole milk 6.59 - - pail feeding vs.nippl e feed 0.16 - - water adli bvs .non e 0.24 salt adli bvs .non e 0.22 minerals adli b vs.non e 5.35 anticour vaccinet oco w vs.non e 5.47 4.71 4.64 treatmentfo r scoursv .non e 3.00 1 Odds ratios define the relative probability of disease for each pair of treatments under comparison. The 'overall' and 'pneumonia' columns refer to probabilities of farms expe­ riencing significantly above-median treatment days per calf, the 'diarrhoea' column to whether orno tfarm s experienced atleas ton eepisod e of scours. /

The epidemiological data given in Tables 1-3, interpreted with due caution, confirm the high incidence of diarrhoea andpneumoni a in housed, artificially-reared calves, suggest that diarrhoea is affected both by the nature of access to milk powder and the provision of solid food andfurthe r suggest thatdiarrhoe a isa predisposin g factor topneumonia .Thes e associa­ tionsrequir e amechanisti c interpretation.

Managementan denteri cdiseas e

Thetw omos tlikel ycause so fenteri cdiseas ei ncalve s (inth eUK )afte r arrivalo na rearin g unit at 1-2 weeks of agear eRotavirus andSalmonella. Unless the origin andhealt h statuso f the calves on arrival is known, these diseases are impossible to eliminate. Despite Table 3, there is now good evidence that Rotavirus can be controlled by vaccination of the dam (Snodgrass et al., 1982). For this to be effective, however, calves must receive not only colostrum butals oa continuin g supplyo fmil kfro m theirvaccinate dda mt oensur econtinue d supplyo f antibody toconfe r localimmunit y atth emucosa lsurfac e ofth egut .Th e technique is therefore most applicable to suckler calves and of doubtful benefit to the veal industry. Continuous medication is undesirable and cannot guarantee protection, e.g. against all sero­ types ofSalmonella typhimurium. Since thecontro l mechanisms of elimination, vaccination and medication are all, for one reason or another, suspect, the only remaining options are attention tohygien e anddiet . Theincarceratio no f vealcalve swithi n individualcrate s thatden y them,whe n young,an y physical contact with their immediate neighbours, wasmainl y intended toreduc e the spread of infection by contagion. Wathes et al. (1988) have demonstrated thatSalmonella typhimu­ riumca nb etransmitte dbetwee nmic ean dcalve sa tleas ta seffectivel y byinhalatio no faerosol s asb yora ladministration .A recent ,a sye tunpublished ,epidemiologica lstud yo f salmonellosis in individually crated calves by Hardman &Wathe s has shown that only 40% of infections can belinke d toth edirec t proximityo f aninfecte d neighbour.Thi s studydoe s not apportion

105 Table4. Comparison of theperformance andhealth of Hereford x Friesianfemale calvesat the University of Bristol. FromWebster et al. (1986).

Rearing system

Quantock Access

Numbers red 82 63 Milkpowde rconsumptio n (kg) 194 178 Dry food consumption (kg) nil 30 Weight atslaughte r (kg) 162 168 Liveweight gain (kg/d) 1.09 1.12 Killing out (%) 57.2 57.0 Relative incidence (%) deaths and culls 11 nil enteritis 35 8.0 pneumonia 18 3.2

the transmission of the remaining 60% between aerosols and vectors but it does clearly demonstrate thatindividua l crates confer noguarante e against the spread of entericdisease . Tables 1-3 confirm clinical impressions thatth eincidenc e(i fno tth eseverity )o f diarrhoea ishighe r in group-reared vealcalves ,especiall y when they drinkfro m acommo n teat,bu t is nogreate rtha ni ncrate si fcalve sar ereare dmor econventionally ,i.e .give nrestricte d amounts ofmil kreplace ran dearl yacces st odigestibl edr yfoo ds oa st oencourag erume ndevelopment . Amajo r survey by Thickett et al. (1983) confirmed that the health of group-reared, teat-fed butearl y weaned calves in theU K was quite asgoo d as that of individually penned, bucket- rearedanimals .Take ntogether ,thes eobservation s suggesttha tgrou prearin gma yincreas eth e risk of exposing calves toenteropathogen s buttha t thisma yb eoffse t by attention todiet . Diarrhoea is nearly always a consequence of damage to the absorptive villi of the small intestine and this is nearly always (there are exceptions) caused by antigens from viruses, bacteria or food itself (or a combination of all three) which have escaped destruction in the rumen and abomasum. When abomasal pHi s below4 mostmicrobe s arekille d before entry toth eduodenum . Theprobabilit y that antigens willescap edestructio n mustb erelate d toth e amounto fmateria ltha tleave sth eabomasu mi na mediu mwit ha p Hhighe rtha n4 .On ewoul d therefore, from first principles,predic t calves tob e atgreates trisk fro m diarrhoea when 1. they take very largeliqui d feeds directint oth eabomasu m twicedail y or 2. they have ad libitum access to liquid feed from an automatic dispenser, especially in the first few weeks of life when appetite control has not developed and when there is no alternative supply of palatable food. Disease surveys in veal calves would confirm thist o beso . Table 2 showed that the problem of diarrhoea in artificially-reared calves disappeared after weaning. Now anything entering the mouth first enters the rumen where it is fermented or degradedi n ananaerobi c medium bycommensa l non-pathogenic microorganisms which not only serve as the major suppliers of energy and protein to the host animal but also kill, or inhibit,orall yingeste dpathogens .Entrepreneur swishin gt omak ea mor eo rles shones tlivin g outo fth eproble mo fdiarrhoe ai nvea lcalve shav esough tt omarke tprobioti cmicroorganism s whichwil lcompetitivel y inhibitenteropathogens .Th ecal freare rmigh tthin ki tmor esensibl e todevelo p that ultimateprobiotic ,th erumen .

106 Themos tsuccessfu l ofou rapproache st oth edevelopmen to fimprove dhusbandr y systems for veal calves we named the 'Access' system (Webster et al., 1986). Calves were given computer-controlled access to a two-compartment feeding station which delivered either regulated amounts of milk via atea to r asourc eo f palatable digestible dry feed. This waso f a composition likely to encourage normal rumen development andrestricte d to a maximum of40 0g/da ys oa sno tt oinhibi tappetit efo rmilk .Clea nbarle y strawwa sprovide da sa naddi ­ tionalsourc eo flon gfibre .Tabl e4 compare s'Access 'wit hth e'Quantock 'syste mwher ecalve s weregroup-reare d on adlibitu m milkreplace rwit h straw asth eonl y sourceo f dryfood . The Access system produced similar growth rates at lower feed costs. More important in this context, rates for mortality, enteritis and digestive disorders were greatly reduced, to aleve l thatwoul db econsidere drespectabl ei na conventiona lcalf-rearin g enterprise.Th enumbe ro f calves involved in our University-based 'Access' trials was small, mainly because the price ofcalve sha smad ealmos tal lform s ofvea lproductio nuneconomi ci nBritain .I tdi dhowever , provide sufficient confirmation offirs tprinciple s topermi t ust oconclud etha t 'nocal f should be deprived access to palatable, digestible dry food after two weeks of age'. Similar clauses have been incorporated into British legislation effective from 1st January 1990 and draft legislation before theCommissio n of theEuropea n Communities.

Management, housingan d respiratory disease

The aetiology of calf respiratory disease is toocomple x to consider here. It is necessary, however,t orecognis etw odistinc ttypes .Th efirst include scondition ssuc ha sinfectiou s bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) where exposure of susceptible animals to a specific pathogen carries a high probability of disease but where vaccination is effective. The second, broader category includes the family of diseases broadly referred to ascal f pneumonia. This may involve one ormor eo f amultiplicit y ofmicroorganisms ,man yo fwhic hca n berecovere dfro m therespi ­ ratory tracts of healthy animals -whic h may succumbt odiseas e ata late rdate .Th epresenc e of the organism is no guarantee of disease orindee d of immunity. Whether or not this equi­ librium stage proceeds to disease appears to require some disturbance which increases the magnitude of thechalleng e from theenvironmen t orreduce s theresistanc eo f the host. Sinceeliminatio n ofcal f pneumonia incommercia l vealunit si simpossible ,medicatio n is expensive and unpopular and vaccination has, to date, been rather unpromising, control becomesonc eagai na questio no fhousin gan dmanagement .Thi sha stw oprimar y objectives: 1. tominimis e thechalleng e toth e lowerrespirator y tractfro m primarypathogen s andothe r substances likely toirritat e epithelial surfaces, 2. toavoi d stresses thatma y impair theimmun e andothe rdefence s of therespirator y tract.

Challenge- ai r quality invea lhouse s

Acal f may inhale 1. primarypathogen s (virusesan dbacteria )whic hma ycolonis eth erespirator ytrac tprovide d that they arealiv ean di n afit stat et od oso . 2. allergens (e.g.funga l spores) which mayinduc einflammator y responses whether deado r alive. 3. 'nuisance' dusts and gases which may not directly damage the lung but compromise its resistance topathogens . The factors that influence the magnitude of the challenge are illustrated in Figure 1. The concentration C( ncm -3)o fan yparticl ei nai ri sdetermine db yit srat eo freleas efro m animals and the rest of the building (Ra. and Rb, n cm-3 h_1) and their clearance, principally by _1 ventilation and death in situ (qv andq d, h ).

107 „^»exhaust ventilation

inlet

short-range transmission

Figure1. Pathwaysfor release, transmission andremoval of infectious organisms within the airof an animal building. Re andRb are release ratesfrom animalsand the building (ncmr 3 1 1 h" ), qv, qs andq d (hr ) areclearance ratesby ventilation, sedimentation anddeath in situ. FromWebster (1984).

Therelativ eimportanc eo f qy andq Adepend so nth enatur eo f theorganism .Funga l spores are allergenic whether deado r alive soclearanc ei s effected almost entirely by ventilation. It isimportan t toremembe r howevertha tth econcentratio n of suchparticle s (ornoxiou s gases) inai ri srelate dt oth ereciproca lo fventilatio nrat es oincrease s sharply atventilatio nrate sles s than4 airchange spe rhou r (Webstere tal. , 1987). The situation with regard to viable infectious microorganisms is more complex. Most of the organisms that can be recovered from the air are non-pathogenic although if present in sufficient numbers may contain enough endotoxin to cause damage. Very small numbers of primarypathogen s arerecovere dfro m airsample seve nwhe nsubstantia lnumber so f infected animals are in the building. This is because their survival timei n airi s very short. The life expectancy of most individual organisms within most species of respiratory tract pathogens inai ri sprobabl yles stha non eminute ,althoug hth ever yfe w (ca 1%) whichsurviv eth einitia l shocko faerosolisatio n mayliv efo rhours .However ,deat hi nsit u(q d)i susuall ya muc hmor e effective modeo fclearanc efo rinfectiou sorganism stha ni sventilatio n(q v). Figure2 compare s theeffect s ofchangin gventilatio n (

108 3000

, 2000 . ir I E 2 1000

-I 10 20 30 40 Ventilation, air changes per hour

Figure2. Effectof space allowance per calf(m 3)and ventilation rate (fr1) onthe concentra­ tionof airborne bacteria in a calfhouse. Theintervals XYand XZ indicate, respectively, the effectsof increasing spaceallowance from 5-10m?lcalf(XY) and increasing ventilation rate from 4-40 airchanges per hour(XZ). From Webster (1984). the primary pathogen and certainly cannot compensate for effects of overstocking. I have arguedelsewher etha tai rqualit yi nhouse sfo rvea lcalve sreare dt oa weigh to fabou t 180-200 kg begins todeclin e very sharply when air spacepe rcal f falls below 15m 3 (Webster, 1984). Thisma yb econsidere da nuneconomicall y generous spaceallowanc eb yth eindustr ybu ttha t does notalte rth efact s of thecase . The other way of reducing the challenge from pathogens is to ensure that calves are introduced in groups into buildings that have previously been depopulated, disinfected and rested. The most dangerous environment is probably that which contains recovered carriers ofinfection . Iti s alsoi n theinterest s of thegrou pt oremov e sick animals tohospita lpens .

Resistancet oinfectio n withinth erespirator y tract

Undoubtedly the most effective counter to a single infectious agent is the presence of sufficient, specific antibody andth ecompetenc et orecrui tth eful l barrageo fimmun e defence mechanisms. If effective vaccines could be produced against all the primary pathogens implicated in calf pneumonia the health,i f not the welfare, of veal calves could probably be ensured in environments as polluted as those which exist in poultry houses. Meantime, however,w ehav en oalternativ ebu tt otr yt ominimis ethos estresse sliabl et oimpai rresistance .

109 a.Ag e2 month s b.Ag e1 yea r

key

> 1% m > 5% A and B are gamma - counting positions at nose and lung •B

Figure3. Regionaldeposition of3\im microspheres in thecalf lung at 2 monthsand 1 year ofage. The numbersdefine the percentage of total deposition within each region. FromDavies (1990).

Effects of the thermal environment on immune mechanisms in calves are complex and equivocal(Kelley , 1980) buti ti s mostunlikel ytha tchange si n thephysica lenvironmen twithi n therang elikel yt ooccu ri nvea lcal funit swil lhav ean yeffect s onth eimmun e system. More severe stresses such as concurrent infection may well be immunosuppressive and this may explainth eassociatio n between diarrhoeaan dsubsequen tpneumoni a (Table3) . There are several waysb ywhic h theenvironmen t may affect thenon-specifi c defences of the lung. The major pathway for clearance of inhaled particles is the mucociliary escalator whichmechanicall yremove snearl y all particlesdepositin gwithi n the bronchioles. It is known thatmucociliar yclearanc erate sar eimpaire db ysom evira linfection s andthi sma ypredispos e toattac kb y secondary bacteria.W eals ohav eevidenc etha tmucociliar yclearanc ei simpaire d in somecalve s below 3month s of agefo r reasonsunrelate dt oinfectio n (Davies &Webster , 1987).Thes e individuals may beparticularl y susceptible toprimar y or secondary infection; thisneed sfurthe r investigation. Perhaps the most intriguing, unexplained feature of calf pneumonia isit s predeliction for therigh t apicallobe . Thiscanno t have animmunologica l explanation. Sincethi slob e arises directly,an dobliquel yfro m thetrache abefor eth ebifurcatio n ofth ebronchi ,man y (including myself) assumedi t to be apredelictio nsit efo rth e depositiono frespirabl eparticle scontainin g pathogens and/or pollutants. However, recent studies with 99m,Tc-labelled aerosols has revealed that most inhaled particles travel down the most direct route to the diaphragmatic lobes (Figure 3) which are leastpron e to pneumonia (Davies, 1990). The right apical lobe receivesth eleas tparticles ,whic himplie sals oth eleas tai ran dbecaus eanoxi awithi nth elun g

110 tends to reduce blood flow, the poorest blood supply. These relatively poor conditions of pulmonary ventilation andperfusion , greatly exacerbated byextrem e confinement inindivi ­ dualcrate stha tpermi t almostn omovement ,ma yfavou r theloca lmultiplicatio n ofpathogen s whichente rth elun gi ninspire d airor ,mor eprobably ,b ymovemen tdow n thetrache aagains t theactio no f themucociliar y escalator.

Conclusions Thehig hincidenc eo fdiarrhoe a andpneumoni a invea lcalve sremain sresistan t tocontro l byvaccinatio n andmedication .I tca nhoweve r berelate dbot h epidemiologically andmecha ­ nistically to aspects of feeding, housing and management that are peculiar, if not unique, to vealcalves .Diarrhoe aca nb elinke dt oth eexcessiv econsumptio n of milkreplace ran ddenia l ofdigestibl edr yfood .Pneumoni aca nb elinked ,i npart ,t oover-intensiv e stockingan di npar t to the stresses of concurrent infections such as enteritis. We have demonstrated that calves can bereare d for veal without incurring these stresses andtha tth ehealt h of such animalsca n bemaintaine d without the needfo r constant medication. The 'Access' system is notth eonl y wayforwar d buti tdemonstrate s thatprogres s ispossibl e if theindustr y isprepare d toaccep t radical change.

References ' Davies,CR , 1990.Depositio n andclearanc e ofinhale dparticle s ofdifferen t sizei ncalve so f two ages.Journa l ofApplie d Physiology (inpress) . Davies, C.P. &A.J.F . Webster, 1987.Depositio n and clearance of monodisperse aerosols in thecal f lung:effect s ofparticl e sizean da mucolyti c agent,bromhexine .Canadia n Journal of Veterinary Research,51:306-391 . Kelley, K.W, 1980. Stress and immune function: a bibliographic review. Ann. Rech. Vet. 11:445-478. Snodgrass, D.R., L.K Nagy, D. Sherwood & I. Campbell, 1982. Passive immunity in calf diarrhoea.Vaccinatio nwit hK9 9antige no fenterotoxigeni cEscherichia coli und Rotavirus. Infection and Immunity 37:586-591. Thickett, WS., N.H. Cuthbert, T.D.A.Brigstocke , M.A. Lindeman &P.N . Wilson, 1983. A noteo nth eperformanc e ofan dmanagemen to fcalve sraise do ncol dacidifie d milkreplace r fed adlibitum . AnimalProductio n 36:147-150. vande rMei ,J. , 1987.Healt h aspects of welfare research invea lcalves .In :M.C . Schlichting &D . Smidt (Ed.):Welfar e aspects of housing systems for veal calves and fattening bulls. CEC,EU R 10777EN. Waltner-Toews,D. ,S.W .Marti n &A.H .Meek , 1986. Dairycal f management.Morbidit y and mortalityi nOntari oHolstei n herds.3 .Associatio n ofmanagemen twit hmorbidity .Preven ­ tiveVeterinar y Medicine 4:137-158. Wathes,CM. ,W .A.R .Zaidan ,G.R .Pearson ,M .Hinton ,& J.N .Todd , 1988.Aeroso l infection of calves andmic ewit hSalmonella typhimurium. Veterinary Record 123:590-594. Webster,A.J.F. , 1984.Cal f husbandry,healt h andwelfare , Collins,London . Webster,A.J.F. ,C .Saville ,B.M .Church ,A .Gnanasakth y &R . Moss, 1985.Som eeffect s of different rearing systems on health, cleanliness and injury in calves. British Veterinary Journal 141:249-264. Webster,A.J.F. ,C .Savill e& D .d eB .Welchman , 1986.Improve dhusbandr y systemsfo rvea l calves.Universit y of BristolPress . Webster,A.J.F. , 1987.Mea tan dright, farmin g asi fth eanima lmattered . Canadian Veterinary Journal 28:462-466.

Ill TT

Webster, A.J.F.,A.F .Clarke ,T.M . Madelin &C.M . Wathes, 1987.Ai r hygiene in stables. 1. Effects of stable design, ventilation and management on the concentration of respirable dust.Equin e Veterinary Journal 19:448-453.

112 Ruminai drinking in vealcalve s A.va nWeeren-Keverlin gBuisma n* ,Th .Wensin g* ,HJ .Breukin k* & J.M .V.M . Mouwen** * Departmentof Large Animal Medicine and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universityof Utrecht, Yalelaan 16,3584 CM Utrecht,NL ** Departmentof Pathology, Facultyof Veterinary Medicine, Universityof Utrecht, Yalelaan 16,3584 CM Utrecht, NL

Summary

Twoexperiment s are described to enhance theknowledg e of thepathogenesi s of ruminai drinking (RD) in vealcalves .I n thefirst , acal f model wascreate d in which up tohal f of the milkratio n wasgive ndirectl yintraruminally .Clinica l symptomso fR Dwer epresent ,bu tles s obvious than in RD patients. Pathological symptoms include villar atrophy in the proximal jejunum, andhyperkeratosi si nth erumen .Ther ewa sa sever edro pi np Ho fth erumina i fluid probably caused by theproductio n of lactate and volatile fatty acids.I n the recovery period complete restoration of thejejuna l andrumina i mucosai s observed. Inth esecon dexperiment , temperature sensorsi nth elume n ofrume n andabomasu m were usedt orecor dchange si ntemperatur e inth edifferen t stomachcompartments ,whil edrinkin g milk at4 1°C .I n this way,th eclosur eo f thereticula r groove whiledrinkin g could bedeter ­ mined indirectly. Adistinc t difference is found between theresult s of drinking/or suckingo f the same amount of milk,eve n in healthy calves! Descriptors: veal calf; ruminai drinking; ruminai hyperkeratosis; jejunal villus atrophy; temperature sensors.

Introduction Ruminai drinking (RD)i nvea lcalve sca n beresponsibl e for greateconomi c losses,an di s the result of a disturbance in the reflex closure of the reticular groove while drinking milk. This causes an accumulation of large amounts of milkreplace r in the forestomachs. Clinical symptoms include inappétence,recurren ttympany ,abdomina ldistension , growth retardation andclay-lik efaeces .Thes efaece shav ea highe rdr ymatte rconten tan da nincrease dpercentag e of free fatty acids,compare d tothos eo fnorma lvea lcalves .Radiologica l studiesdemonstrat e that the ingested milk is retained in the rumen for periods up to 48 hours. Post mortem examinations revealcachexia , hyperkeratosis inth erume n andvillu s atrophy inth eproxima l small intestine. The syndrome appears to be related to'al lkind s of stress situations or may often be secondary todisease so f otherorga n systems (Breukink etal. , 1988). For therapy,tw odifferen t approaches canb edistinguished . In thefirst , the reconditioning therapy,th eR Dcal fi sencourage dt osuc k smallamount so fmil kfro m thefarmer' sfingers o r through afloatin g nipple. Thesecon d techniquei s towea n thecal f abruptly and turn itint oa ruminating calf (deVisse r& Breukink , 1984;Breukin k etal. , 1988). In thispaper , twoexperiment s aredescribe d toenhanc eknowledg e of thepathogenesi so f RDi nvea lcalve s andt oprovid e ametho dfo r determining theclosur eo f thereticula r groove whiledrinking .

113 Experiment 1

Materialan dmethod s

Sixclinicall ynorma lmal eF Hcalve swer eused :5 o fthe mwer einclude di nth eexperimen ­ talgrou p and the6t hwa s thecontro lcalf .I nth e4t h weeko fth efattenin g period, aT-shape d fistula wasimplante di n theproxima ljejunu m of4 o fth ecalves ,includin gth econtro lcalf ,t o allowrepeate dbiops y samplingo fth ejejuna lmucos a (vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buismane tal. , 1988a).I nth e6t hwee k a rumen fistula was placed in all6 calve s toadministe r part ofth e milkratio ndirectl yintraruminally ,an dt oobtai nsample so fth erumina ifluid .I nthes esamples , pH,lactat econcentration ,tota lconcentratio no fvolatil efatt yacid s(VFA) ,an dth eVF Apatter n wasdetermined . Besides,thi sfistul a allowedmorphologica l studyo fth erume n mucosawit h an Olympus fiberscope (CF,typ e 1T10L, Tokyo) (vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman et al., 1990a). ' For theexperimenta l calves,th efattenin g period wasdivide d intothre eperiods : a. thepre-inductio n period (lst-6th week),i nwhic hth eoperation s tookplac ean dth ecalve s werefe dtwic ea da y from abucke t b. theinductio nperio d(fro m the7t hwee kon) ,i nwhic ha graduall y increasingamoun to fth e dailymil kration ,u pt o50% , wasinfuse d directlyint oth erumen .Thi swa scontinue dunti l thefaece s became clay-like c. therecover yperiod ,i nwhic hal l milkwa sagai ngive nfro m abucket .

Resultsan ddiscussio n

The clinical signs ofR D which appeared inth einductio n period were, although present, lesssever ei nthi scal fmode ltha ni nR Dpatients .A reductio ni nappetit ewa ssee ni nonl yon e calf.Howeve r allcalve s showedrumina i tympany after intraruminal milk administrationan d producedclay-lik efaece s after 3t o7 weeks .I non ecalf ,diarrhoe awa spresen tfo rth elonge r part of therecover y period, which isals o frequently observed inreconditione d RD patients (vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman etal. , 1988b). Biopsieso fth eproxima ljejuna l mucosareveale dvillu satrophy ;a tth een do fth einductio n period,vill ilengt hwer eonl y41-47 %o fth einitia llength .Thi swa sprobabl y theresul to fth e intraruminal milk-feeding procedure itself, asn opathogeni c micro-organisms were isolated from faeces inthi sperio d (vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buismane tal. , 1990b).Th eexac tpathoge ­ nesis of the villus atrophy still remains to be solved, but could be caused by an altered composition ofth echym eo rmicrobia l flora inth esmal lintestine . Therume nflui dshowe ddistinc tbiochemica lchange safte rth eintrarumina lfeedin go fhal f ofth emil kration :ther ewa sa sever edro pi np Hfro m 7.00t oabou t5.0 0i n6 0minute s (Figure 1). This wasmos t probably theresul t of a rise in lactate concentration (with a peak at6 0 minutes)an da slowe rincreas ei nVF Aconcentratio n(pea ka t18 0minutes) .I nth eVF Apattern , there was arelativ e decreasei nacetate , andrelativ e increases inpropionat e andbutyrate . Of these,butyrat eespeciall y wasthough tt ob eresponsibl efo rth eobserve dhyperkeratosi s inth e rumeno fth eexperimenta lcalves ,du et oit smitogeni ceffec t onth erume nepitheliu m (Sakata &Tamate ,1978) .Th erume nmucos ao fth econtro lcalf ,whic hwa sfe dorall ydurin gth eentir e fattening period,retaine dit snorma lappearance . In therecover y period, villi in theproxima l jejunum increased to almost their original length, and the hyperkeratosis of the rumen mucosa disappeared completely. Also inR D patients, a successful recovery is described (vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman et al., 1988b), although thereconditionin g therapy doesinvolv e someextr atim e andlabour . Sothi s RDmode lprovide s useful information aboutth epathogenesi s ofth e symptoms of RD in veal calves, although the pathological changes are more distinct than the clinical symptoms.

114 pH rumen

7.50 • control calf ( B ) • mean + SEM of 5 7.00 experimental calves (A. E. o. H.o-L. »• S, o. W) 6.50

6.00 •

5.50 •

5.00

4.50 0 30 60 120 180 240 300 min. time

Figure1. RumenpH of theindividual calves before (t =0) and after drinking (control calf) or intraruminalfeeding (experimental calves).Mean values (± SEM) of the experimental calves arerepresented by the solid line. Significantdifferences from valuesfound att = 0 are indicatedby an asterisk (P < 0.001).

Experiment2 Material andmethod s

Three normal veal calves between 4 and 11week s old were used. In two of them, two temperature sensors (self-made constructions usingLM3 5 sensors, National Semiconductor Corporation) were introduced from the left side into the rumen and abomasum. In the third calf, the sensors were introduced from therigh t side.A simpl eelectroni c circuit was used to record thechange s in temperature of the rumen and abomasal contents on a Brush-Gould 6 channel recorder, type 660. Recordings were made either during drinking or sucking of the normal amount of milkreplace r at4 1° C(va nWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman etal. , 1990c).

Resultsan ddiscussio n

In the two calves operated from the left side, the temperature sensors functioned well for 1-2 monthsbut ,i nth ethir dcalf ,th erume nsenso rbecam edislodge dafte r oneweek .Thi swa s probably theresul to f thepositio n of theconnectin g wireo fthi s sensorbeneat h theabomasa l corpus,whic h becamerathe r distended after intakeo f 6-8.5 litres of milk replacer.

115 8.5L milk Température from bucket Idegrees Celsius! r

! . 1 temperature in ———r-' i rumen • 1 ! i i i temperature in abomasum

Time (minutes)

8.5 I milk by lloatinrj nipple

39

Figure!. Temperaturerecordings in rumen and abomasum while drinking 8.5 litres milk from abucket in 74 s (above) and the same amount of milk in 157 s through a floating nipple (below). Datafrom one healthy veal calf, 13weeks old.

Recordings

During theintak eo f 8.5litre s ofmil kreplace ra t4 1°C ,a clea rdifferenc e wasobserve di n therecording so feithe rdrinkin g from anope nbucke to rsuckin gthroug h afloatin g nipple. In the last case, only the sensor in the abomasum recorded a temperature increase of about 1.5 °C, while drinking from an open bucket resulted in a similar temperature increase in the abomasum, but alsot o alesse r extent in therumen . Besides,th e intake timewa s almost half aslon ga swit hsuckin g(Figur e2) .I tseem stha ta substantia lpar to fth emil kratio nenter sth e rumen with this method of feeding, even inhealth y vealcalves . Using temperature sensors seems to be a promising technique to evaluate the effect of different feeding systemso rmanagemen t measuresfo r thepreventio n ofrumina i drinkingi n vealcalves .

116 References Breukink,HJ. , Th.Wensing ,A .va nWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman,E.G .va n Bruinessen-Kap- senberg& N.A.P.C .d eVisser , 1988. Consequenceso ffailur e ofth ereticula rgroov erefle x in vealcalve s fed milkreplacer .Th eVeterinar y Quarterly 10(2):126-135 . de Visser, N.A.P.C. & H.J. Breukink, 1984. Pensdrinkers en kleischijters. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde 109:800-804. Sakata,T .& H .Tamate , 1978.Rume nepithelia lcel lproliferatio n acceleratedb yrapi dincreas e inintrarumina l butyrate.Journa l ofDair yScienc e61:1109-1113 . vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman, A.,H.J . Breukink &M.A .va nde rVelden , 1988a.A simpl e and effective biopsy technique of the small intestine in the calf. Journal of Veterinary MedicineA 35:152-156 . vanWeeren-Keverlin g Buisman,A. ,E.N .Noordhuizen-Stassen , H.J.Breukink ,Th .Wensin g & J.M.V.M. Mouwen, 1988b. Villus atrophy in ruminai drinking calves and mucosal restoration after reconditioning.Th eVeterinar yQuarterl y 10(3):164-171. vanWeeren-Keverlin gBuisman ,A. ,Th .Wensing ,T.S.G.A.M .va nde nIng h& H.J .Breukink , 1990a. Intraruminal administration of milk in the calf as a model for ruminai drinking: Clinical aspects and biochemical and morphological changes in the rumen. Journal of AnimalPhysiolog y andAnima l Nutrition 63:255-266. vanWeeren-Keverlin gBuisman ,A. ,J.M.V.M .Mouwen ,Th .Wensin g& H.J .Breukink ,1990b . Intraruminal administration of milk in the calf as amode lfo r ruminai drinking: Morpho­ logical andenzymatica l changesi n thejejuna l mucosa.Veterinar y Research Communica­ tions 14:129-140. van Weeren-Keverling Buisman, A., R. Kuiper, P. Gootjes, M.A. van der Velden & H.J. Breukink, 1990c. Temperature sensors in the rumen and abomasum to study reticular grooverefle x invea lcalves .Journa lo fAnima lPhysiolog y andAnima lNutrition ,i npress .

117 Abomasal ulcers in veal calves: pathogenesis and prevention

H.J.Breukin k *,Th .Wensin g *& J.M.V.M .Mouwe n ** * Departmentof Large Animal Medicine andNutrition, University ofUtrecht, Yalelaan 16,3584 CM Utrecht, NL ** Departmentof Pathology, Facultyof Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, Yalelaan 16,3584 CM Utrecht, NL

Summary Localiaztion and incidence of abomasal lesions in veal calves have been studied and the influence ofroughag e supplyan dtreatmen twit hclenbutero lo ntha tincidenc ewa sinvestiga ­ ted. Descriptors:vea l calves;abomasa llesions ;roughage ;clenbuterol .

Introduction Theincidenc e of abomasal ulcers in calves atweanin g hasbee nreporte d tob efairl y high (Jubb et al., 1985). Ahig h incidence of abomasal ulcers has also been found in veal calves (Welchman& Baust , 1987).I nth epathogenesi so fpepti culcers ,th edisturbanc eo fth ebalanc e factors between agressive and defensive decides whether an ulcer will develop or not. A stress-mediated increase in acidan dpepsi nproductio n cancaus eulce rformatio n inman ,th e pathogenicpathway s of which canb evarious . The stereotypic behaviour of vealcalve s in confinement isconsidere d to berelate d toth e occurrence of peptic ulceration in veal calves (Wiepkema, 1985). German workers have suggested that abomasal ulcers in vealcalve s mayb ecause db y localischaemi a followed by focal necrosis as aconsequenc e of strong contractions of the wall of the antrum pylori when largevolume so fmil k areconsumed . (Krauser, 1987).Besides ,a ninadequat e mucous barrier predisposes calves for mucosaldefect s (Lourens, 1985). In this paper, the results of a number of studies on the pathogenesis of abomasal ulceri n vealcalve s willb e summarized.

Materialan dmethod s Thelocalizatio n of ulcers anderosion s in 150vea lcalve s atslaughte r was compared with thelocalizatio n of bleeding abomasal ulcers found in 141dair ycows . Ina nexperiment ,differen t typeso froughag epellet swer eoffere dtwic edail yt othre egroup s of veal calves receiving a standard diet of milk replacers. Acontro l group was fed on milk replaceronly .Th eroughag esuppl ywa sstarte di nth e7t hwee kwit h2 5g/ dwhic hwa sincrease d slowly to 100g/ di n the 16th week. At slaughter, the abomasum of all calves was inspected forth epresenc eo fmucosa llesion s(erosion san dulcers) .Muci nconcentration swer eestimate d usinghistochemica ltechnique s(Laurens) .I na secon dexperiment ,a beta-agonist ,clenbuterol , was given to some of the calves fattened in a commercial fattening unit with a history of a highincidenc eo fabomasa llesions .Th eclenbutero lwa sprovide ddail ywit hth emil kreplace r from thebeginnin go f thesevent hwee ko fth efattenin gperio dunti lth een do fth e23r dweek . The abomasa of all calves were examined at slaughter for the presence of lesions (erosions andulcers) . Erosion: superficial defect of mucosa. Ulcers: deepdefec t of themucos aan da clea rlos so f mucosa.

118 Results Invea lcalves ,th elesion swer epredominantl ylocate di nth eto po fth etoru spyloru s (Figure 1A) .Th elocalisatio no fulcer san derosion si ndair ycow si sshow ni nFigur e IB.I nadul tdair y cows,th e abomasalulcer s werelocate di nth efundi c parto f theabomasum . Abomasalulcer s in adultcow s frequently developed intobleedin gulcers . The results obtained in calves supplemented with different types of roughage pellets demonstratedtha tth enumbe ro fabomasa llesion swa ssignificantl y higherin all the receiving roughage groups than in thecontro l group (Figure2) . Inaddition ,th enumbe ro fabomasa lulcer si nth ecalve ssupplie dwit hth ecorn-silag epellet s wasfoun d tob e significantly higher than in thegrou pfe d on the barley-strawpellet san d the lucerne-hay pellets. The mucin concentration was lowest at the places where the mucous membrane exhibited defects. The mucus concentration varied clearly between different abomasa. No significant differences in mucus concentration could bedemonstrate d between thegroup s (Figure3) .

Figure 1. Thelocalisation of abomasal lesions in veal calves (A), and in dairy cows (B). PrG. propergastric gland;Py.: Parspylorica;Du.: duodenum.

number bd 14 12 10 8 bc 6 bc 4 h ab 2 1 control barley straw corn silage lucerne hay group pellets ,B S pellets,C S pellets, LH. n-19 n-19 n = 19 N-18

Figure 2. Number of abomasal ulcers in threegroups of veal calves supplementedwith differenttypes of roughage pellets and in a control group (alb and eld: difference is statistically significant, t test).

119 Themea nnumbe ro ferosion si nth eclenbuterol-treate dgrou pwa sth esam ea si nth econtro l group (mean 3.4 erosions/calf) wheras the number of ulcers was significantly lower in the clenbuterol-treated group0. 4an d 1.4,respectively .I nth eclenbutero lgroup ,n oabomas awer e found with moretha n 1ulce r (Figure4) .

i il in I II III i n n milk replacer milk replacer milk replacer milk replacer glenbuterol. roughage pellets roughage pellets glenbuterol. - histochemical estimation

'I : superficial +foveola r ;1I: glandules (proxl ;III: glandules (dist.I

Figure3. Themean amount of mucins* (+range) abomosi in groups of veal calves fed different rations.

40 38 36 1 34 13 2 | 30 z 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 XL 1 2 3 >3 1 2 3 >3 erosions ulcers

Figure4. Thenumber ofabomasums withone or more erosions or ulcersin a group ofveal calvestreated with clenbuterol and in a control group.

120 Discussion Stress-mediated abomasal ulcers in adult cows are mainly located in the proper gastric (fundic) glandare a(Aukema , 1971).I ndair ycalve sa swel la si nvea lcalve sunde rcondition s that stress can be involved, these ulcers were also located in the proper gastric gland area (Burato, 1984). The observation that in veal calves the lesions were almost exclusively restricted to thepylori c part of the abomasum was in agreement with the findings of others (van der Mei, 1985) and indicated thai-stress was not an important factor in the etiology of abomasal ulceration in vealcalves . Thefac t thatth eadditio no froughag epellet st oa mil kreplace rdie tincrease dth eincidenc e of abomasal ulceration has frequently been reported (Welchman &Baust , 1987). Jubb et al. (1985) reported that theincidenc e of abomasal ulcers and erosions in calves atweanin gwa s fairly high (80-95%), indicating that theintak e of roughage causes damage of the abomasal mucosa.Th eulcer swer eflat , irregulardefect s andmos theale dafte r awhile .Scarrin gma yb e evident at6 mont h of age. The literature suggests that thepathogenesi s of erosions and ulcers of thepylori c mucosa of vealcalve si scause db ya permanen toverloadin go fth eabomasum .Th efillin g capacityo f theabomasu mi slimited .Thi sresult si nstron gperistalti ccontraction si nth epar spyloric awit h long-lasting closureo f thepylori csphincter .Th eresultin gcompressio n ofth emucos ai smos t pronouncedo nan daroun dth etoru spylori ,i nth efunnel-shape d parspylorica .Thi sma yinduc e hypoxic lesionsdu et ocirculator y disturbances withsubsequen tdevelopmen t oferosion s and ulcers (Degen, 1982;Krauser , 1987).Th e fact that most ulcers were located atth e top of the torus pylori supported this hypothesis. Roughage particles enhance the occurence of the lesions,especiall y with longstanding compression of themucosa . Clenbuterol treatment decreased the number of ulcers as heas been found by others (Marcato, 1985), whereas the number of erosions was the same both in the treated and the control group, suggesting that clenbuterol prevents the development of erosions into ulcers. Iti sunlikel ytha tclenbutero lca npreven tth eloca ldamag eo rischaemi awhic hKrause r(1987 ) suggested toinitiat e abomasal mucosaldamage .Perhap s alac ko fmucin si n theare ao f focal necrosisi sa predisposin gfacto ri nabomasa lulceratio n (Wensinge tal. , 1986b;Pearso ne tal. , 1987).

References Aukema, J.J., 1971.Ee nonderzoe k naarhe tvoorkome n vanlebmaagbloedinge n ten gevolge van lebmaagulcera bij runderen uit de omgeving van Steenwijk. Thesis, University of Utrecht,NL . Buratto,L. , 1984.L'abomasit e ulcerosade lvitell od elatto .Obiettiv i Veterinari 5:15-19. Degen,B. , 1982.Pathologisch ,anatomisc hun dhistologisc hUntersuchunge nzu rPathogenes e derPyolurgeschwür ebe i Mastkälbern. Inaugural lecture,Berlin . Jubb, K.V.F., P.C. Kennedy & N. Palmer, 1985. Pathology of domestic animals. 3rd ed. Academic Press.London . Krauser, K., 1987.Untersuchunge n zurPathogenes e derPylorusulzer a beim Mestkalb.Berl . Münch.Tierärtzlich eWochenschrift , 100:156-161. Lourens,J.M. ,J.F .va n derWa l& J.M.V.M .Mouwen , 1985.Th e gastricmucosa l barrieran d abomasal ulcersi n vealcalves .Tijdschrif t voorDiergeneeskund e 110:755-761. Marcato,P.S. ,G.J . Darsie, E.W. Salamon &A . Briganti, 1985.Ulcer e abomasali nei vitelli. Alcunepreliminar i osservazioni sperimentali.Attidell a SocietàItali ad iBuiatric a 17:327. Pearson, G.R., D. de B. Welchman & M. Wells, 1987. Mucosal changes associated with abomasal ulceration in vealcalves .Veterinar y Record 121:557-559.

121 van der Mei, J., 1985. Zur Einwirkung des Haltungssystems und der Beifütterung von Rauhfutter aufda sAuftrete n vonLabmagenläsione n beiMastkälbern .Deutsche ,tierärtzli - cheWochenschrift . 92:463-465. •Welchman, D. de B. & G.N. Baust, 1987. A survey of abomasal ulceration in veal calves. Veterinary Record 121:586-590. Wensing, Th., S. van Dijk, J.M.V.M. Mouwen &HJ . Breukink, 1986b.Proceeding s of the 6th International Conference on Production Disease in Farm Animals, Belfast, Northern Ireland,p . 141-145. Wiepkema, P.R., 1985.Th e significance of behavioural disturbances in farm animals. Tijd­ schrift voorDiergeneeskund e 110:12-20.

122 Thermal demand of one-week-old calves at two feeding levels

J.W.Schram a *,W .v.d .He l *& M.W.A .Verstege n ** * Departmentof Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University Wageningen, P.O. box338,6700 AH Wageningen,NL ** Departmentof Animal Nutrition, Agricultural University Wageningen, P.O. box338, 6700 AH Wageningen,NL

Summary Energybalanc etrial swer econducte di norde rt odefin eth etherma ldeman do fyoun gcalve s in relation to feeding level. Heat production of ten 5-day-old Holstein-Friesian calves was measured during a7 da yperiod .Th ecalve swer efe d attw ofeedin g levels andwer e exposed to various ambient temperatures (from 18 to 6 °C). At the low feeding level (319 KJ ME kg-°-75d_1), the critical temperature of 1-week-old calves was higher compared to the high feeding level (638 KJ ME kg"0-75 d-1)(15 and 12° Cresp.) .Belo w the critical temperature, theextr ahea tproductio n wasestimate d at5. 7 KJkg -0-75 °C_1 d_1an dwa s similar atth etw o feeding levels. Descriptors:calves ;hea tproduction ; thermaldemand ;feedin g level.

Introduction Growingcattl ear eno tver ysensitiv et ocol dconditions .Onl yyoun gcalve sunde rsi xweek s of age arelikel y to suffer from theeffect s of coldenvironment s (Webster, 1976).Th e effects ofcol dclimate so n 1 to8 wee kol dcalve shav ebee n studied byGonzalez-Jimene z& Blaxte r (1962), Holmes & McLean (1975) and Webster et al. (1978). In these studies lower critical temperatures of 8 to 10° C were found. These studies were all performed on calves fed at a highlevel ,whic hrange d from about 750t o95 0K Jo f metabolizable energy (ME)pe rkg 0-75 perday .Thes efeedin glevel swer eabou t1. 7t o2. 2time smaintenanc erequirement .I npractica l vealcal fproduction ,feedin g schedulesbegi na ta muc hlowe rfeedin g level.Usuall ythi sleve l isbelo wth emaintenanc erequirement .Thi si sdon et opreven tth eris ko fdiarrhoe adurin gth e first weeks. The lower critical temperature of homeothermic animals is dependent upon the feedingleve l(Robertshaw , 1981).Th eai mo fth epresen texperimen twa st omeasur eth eeffect s of various low ambient temperatures onth ehea tproductio n ofHolstein-Friesia n malecalve s aged5 t o 12day s attw ofeedin g levels(on ebelo w andon eabov emaintenanc erequirement) . Itwa sals odecide dt omeasur ehea tproductio n atlo w ambienttemperature s after arelativel y small (4°C )an d arelativel y largetemperatur echang e (9°C) .

Materialan dmethod s Ten 5-day-old Holstein-Friesian male calves were housed for 7 days individually in an open-circuit indirect climatic respiration chamber (Verstegen et al., 1987). Six calves were kepta ta lo wfeedin g levelan dfou r calveswer ekep ta ta hig hone .The ywer eoffere d 319an d 638K JM Ekg -0-75d _1o fa mil kreplacer ,respectively .Ambien ttemperatur ewa skep tconstan t withineac hmeasurin gperio do f2 3hours .Eigh tcalve s( 4o fth elo wan d4 o fth ehig h feeding level)wer eexpose dt oa nambien ttemperatur etha tchange dstepwis ewit h3 ° Cbetwee ndays . Ambient temperature ranged from 9 to 18 °C at the low and 6 to 15 °C at the high feeding level.Tw ocalve so f bothfeedin g levels started andende da tth elowes t ambient temperature (9 and 6 °C,respectively) .The yreache d the highest ambient temperature (18 and 15° C) a t

123 Table 1. Meansand statistical significance ofindividually measuredtraits duringthe whole experimentalperiod of young calves at a low (FL) orhigh (FH) feeding leveland at stepwise (TS)or fluctuating (TF)ambient temperatures betweendays.

Trait Temp,change s & Significant effects feeding level TS TF s.d. feeding temp. FL FH FL level changes Number 4 4 2 Initial age (d) 5 5 5 Initial weight (kg) 42.9 45.3 36.5 Rate of gain (g/d) -271 279 - -443 187 *** n.s. HP (KJkg-°-7 5d" 1) 511 579 537 19.0 *## n.s. ER (KJkg- 0-75d" 1) - 193 33 -209 30.7 *## n.s. ETH (KJkg- 0-75 "C-1 d-1) - 6.0 - 5.4 - 3.7 n.s. - HP heat production s.d. standard deviation ER energy retention *## P< 0.01 ETH extra thermal heat production n.s. not significant P >0.1 0

Table 2. Heatproduction (in KJ kg~°- 75 dr1) andnumber of observa­ tions(between brackets) ofyoung calves at various ambient tempera­ tures bylow (FL) andhigh (FH) feeding leveland by stepwise (TS) andfluctuating (TF)changes inambient temperature between days.

Ambient Temp,change s& feeding level temperature (°C) TS TF FL FH FL

6 595 (6) 9 532 (6) 584 (8) 565 (6) 12 511 (8) 570 (8) 15 498 (7)1 568 (6) 18 506 (5)1 517 (8) s.d. within temp. 20.9 27.0 22.6 1 observation excluded from themean ,bein g an outlier. day 4 of the experimental period. Twoothe r calves at both feeding levels started and ended withth ehighes tambien ttemperatur ean dreache dth elowes tambien ttemperatur ea tda y4 .I n addition,tw ocalve so fth elo wfeedin gleve lwer eexpose dt oa fluctuating ambien ttemperatur e with9 ° Cbetwee n days.Thi s schemerange dfro m 9t o 18° Can dstarte d at 18 °Co nda y 1 of theexperiment . Calveswer eweighe d atth estar tan den do fth eexperimenta lperiod .Gaseou sexchang eo f C02 and 02 wasmeasure d continuously.Hea tproductio n (HP)wa scalculate dfro m gaseous exchange of C02 and Q2 in 18mi n periods during each 23 hours.H Pwa s expressed per 24 hours. Energy retention (ER) was calculated as the difference between the calculated ME contento fth efee d (1 8 KJM Epe rgra mmil kreplacer )an dHP . Extratherma lhea tproductio n

124 (ETH) of each individual calf was calculated by regression of HP on ambient temperature. TheH Po fth ehighes tambien ttemperatur ewa sexclude di nthi scalculatio no nth eassumptio n that this temperature was above the lower critical temperature. Mean data per animal of the whole experimental period were statistically analysed by a two-way ANOVAmode l for the effects of feeding level and the effect of temperature treatment (fluctuating or stepwise changing ambient temperatures between days). Additionally mean HP per animal at each temperaturewer euse dt ocalculat eth estandar ddeviatio n between animalswithi ntemperatu ­ res.

Resultsan d discussion

Resultso ftrait sa sa mea ndurin gth eexperimenta lperio dar eliste di nTabl e 1.Rat eo fgain , heatproductio n(HP )an denerg yretentio n (ER)wer esignificantl y influenced byfeedin glevel , butno tb yth etyp eo ftemperatur echange s(stepwis eo rfluctuating) . Calvesa tth elo w feeding level lost weight and at the high feeding level they gained weight. The difference in rate of gain between high andlo wfeedin g levelwa s55 0g d _1 (P< 0.01) .H Pwa s6 8K Jkg -0-75d _1 higher at the high feeding level compared to the low (P< 0.01). ER was clearly negative at the low and slightlypositiv e at thehig hfeedin g level.Th edifferenc e was 226K Jkg~°- 75d_1 (P< 0.01) .Althoug h thetyp eo ftemperatur echange swa sno tsignificant , rateo fgain ,H Pan d ER tended to be negatively influenced by fluctuating ambient temperature. Treatments with low rate of gain had lowered ER. Change in ER between treatments, however, do not correspond wellwit h changei nrat eo f gain.A tth elo wfeedin g level,th edifferenc e inrat eo f gain between stepwisean dfluctuatin g ambienttemperature swa s 172g d -1 andth e difference inE Rwa sonl y 16K Jkg -0-75d _1.A tth ehig hfeedin gleve lan dwit hstepwis echangin gambien t temperatures,E Rwa s3 3K Jkg -0-75d _1.Thi svalu ei slo wcompare dt oth erat eo fgai no f27 9 g d_1. This discrepancy might be caused by differences in deposition of protein and fat and theirratio .Furthermor eM Econtent so fth emil kreplace rwa scalculate dfro m itscomposition . It was assumed furthermore that metabolizability of feed was identical in all treatments and periods.An ydeviatio n of thesevalue swil lalte rth ecalculate dRE . Meandat ao nH Pa tdifferen t ambienttemperature s aregive ni nTabl e2 .A tth elo w feeding level and stepwise changing ambient temperature,tw oH Pmeasurement s of one animalwer e excluded from the results, being outliers.H Pwa s elevated both at the low and high feeding level at the lowest compared to thehighes t ambient temperature (26 and 27 KJ kg-0-75 d_1, respectively). At the low feeding level,H Pwa sincrease d at ambient temperatures below 15 °C and at the high feeding level at increased ambient temperatures below 12°C . At thelo w feeding level, average HP during the experimental period was 26 KJ kg-0-75 d_1 higher at fluctuating temperaturestha nstepwis echangin gambien ttemperature s (notsignificant ) (Table 1).Thi sdifferenc e inmea nH Pbetwee nth etw otemperatur e treatments wasmainl ycause db y anextr ahea tproductio n with3 3K Jkg -0-75d _1 at9 ° Cwit hfluctuatin g ambient temperature compared to9 °Cwit h stepwisechangin g ambient temperature. At stepwise changing ambient temperature no significant effect of feeding level was apparento nextr athermoregulator y heatproductio n (ETH). Themea no fET Ha tbot h feeding levelswa s5. 7K Jkg-°- 75°C- 1d" 1(s.d .= 3. 7K Jkg-°- 75"C" 1d" 1) .Thi svalu ei si nagreemen t with the 5.3 KJ kg"0-75 "C"1 d"1 which Webstere t al. (1978) calculated from the difference in HP between 15 and 5 °C. On the other hand, based on data of the calculated thermal insulation, Webster et al.(1978) and Holmes &McLea n (1974) found an increase of 18an d 13 KJkg -0-75d -1,respectively ,i nH Ppe r° Cdecreas ei nambien ttemperatur ebelo wth elowe r critical temperature. According to Webster et al. (1978), the difference between the two methods of calculation isrelate d to thefac t thatth e lowercritica l temperature is arang eo f5 °C.Fro mth eresult so fth epresen texperiment ,th elowe rcritica ltemperatur eseem st ob emor e a rather distinct value. The estimation of ETH from HP at different ambient temperatures

125 showeda larg estandar ddeviation.Thi sma yexplai nth edifference s inresult sobtaine db yth e twomethod s of calculation. From the HPmeasuremen t at various ambient temperatures, it is clear (Table 2) that the lower critical temperature is increased at the low than at the high feeding level. The lower criticaltemperatur ewa s about 15° Cfo r calvesa tth elo wan dabou t 12° Ca tth ehig h feeding level.Th elowe rcritica ltemperature sobtaine di nth epresen texperimen tar ehighe rcompare d toth evalue s of 8t o 10° Cfoun d byGonzalez-Jimine z& Blaxte r (1962),Holme s &McLea n (1975) and Webster et al. (1978). In the latter experiments, however, the feeding level was much higher thani n thepresen t study and on average the calves in our study were younger. Thefeedin g leveli simportan ti nassessin gth etherma ldeman do fyoun gcalves .I ti sals over y important to evaluate the way in which young calves adapt to cold conditions. It is not well known, however, how calves adapt. This mayb ever y important for energetic efficiency and occurrence of stress.Fro m thepresen t resultsi ti s concluded that thetherma l demand (lower criticaltemperature )o fyoun gcalve sage d1 weeki sabou t1 2t o1 5° Cdependin go nth efeedin g level.Th e extra heatproductio n per °C below the critical temperature is estimated at 5.7 KJ jjg-0.75OQ- 1 jj-1^independen t of feeding level.

References Gonzalez-Jiminez,E .& K.L .Blaxter , 1962.Th emetabolis m andtherma lregulatio no fcalve s in the first month of life. British Journal of Nutrition 16:199-212. Holmes,C.W .& N.A .McLean , 1975.Effect s ofai rtemperatur ean dai rmovemen to nth ehea t produced byYoun gFriesia n andJerse ycalves ,wit h somemeasurement s of theeffect s of artificial rain.Ne w ZealandJourna l of Agricultural Research 18:277-284. Robertshaw, D., 1981.Th e environmental physiology of animal production. In: J.A . Clark (Ed.):Environmenta l aspects of housing for animalproduction . Butterworths,London ,p . 3-17. Verstegen, M.W.A., W.va n derHel ,H.A . Brandsma, A.M.Henke n &A.M .Bransen , 1987. The Wageningen Respiration unit for animal production research: a description of the equipment. In: M.W.A. Verstegen & A.M. Henken (Ed.): Energy metabolism in farm animals.Martinu s Nijhoff, Dordrecht,p .21-62 . Webster,A.J.F. , 1976.Th einfluenc e of theclimati cenvironmen t onmetabolis m incattle .In : H. Swan & WH. Broster (Ed.):Principle s of cattle production. Butterworth, London, p. 103-120. Webster,A.J.F. ,J.G .Gordo n& R .McGregor , 1978.Th ecol dtoleranc eo fbee f anddair ytyp e calves inth efirs t weeks of life.Anima lProductio n 26:85-92.

126 5. Welfare legislation 7

Proposed legislation by the European Community on protection of calves

A.J.Wilso n ECCommission, Brussels, BE

Summary Aproposa lfo r acounci lregulatio no nminimu m standardsfo rth eprotectio no fcalve skep t inintensiv efarmin g systems is currently underdiscussio n in theCounci lo f Ministers of the European Community. The proposal is based on the principles set out in the European Convention for theProtectio n of Animals kept for Farming Purposes.I t sets outrule s called fori nth eEuropea n Parliament's Resolutiono nAnima lWelfar ePolic yo fFebruar y 1987,an d contributes toth ecompletio n of theinterna l market in theEC . Descriptors:calves ; protection; European Community.

Introduction Public concern for the welfare of farm animals mounted during the 1960s and 1970s,an d in 1976,th eCounci lo fEurop e( abod yquit edistinc tfro m theEuropea n Community)opene d for signature the European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes.Th eCounci lo fMinister so fth eEuropea n Community (EC)formall y approvedthi s Convention by CouncilDecisio n 78/923/EEC(E C 1978) andth eCommunit y became acon ­ tracting party by signature of the Convention ten years later, after allE C member states had ratified it. In the meantime, two other important developments occurred in the EC. The European Parliament was taking an increasing interest in animal welfare, and in June 1986 the Parlia­ ment's Agriculture Committee heldpubli chearing s oncurren t issuesi nfar m animal welfare, including intensive rearing of veal calves. Evidence was heard from producers, welfare organizations andscientists ,an da repor twa sdraw nu pwhic hwa sth ebasi so f theResolutio n on AnimalWelfar e Policy,adopte d byth eParliamen t inFebruar y 1987 (EC 1987). Theothe rsignifican t initiativea tCommunit yleve lwa sth epublicatio ni n 1985o fth eWhit e Papero ncompletin g theinterna l market.Thi s setou ta detaile d timetablefo r dismantling the many trade barriers which had developed over the years and which were impeding the establishment of a Common Market in Europe. Among those barriers were differences in animal welfare legislation which created unequal conditions of competition and lead to pressurefo r economic protection.

TheEuropea nConventio n Contracting parties toth e Convention areoblige d togiv eeffec t tocertai n basic principles offar m animalwelfare .Fo rexample :'Animal s shallb ehouse dan dprovide dwit hfood , water andcar ei na manne rwhic h- havingregar dt othei rspecie san dt othei rdegre eo fdevelopment , adaptation anddomesticatio n - isappropriat et othei rphysiologica l andethologica l needsi n accordance with established experience and scientific knowledge.' General requirements were also laid down for appropriate space,freedo m of movement, environmental conditions andinspection .

129 The 'traditional' veal production system, which had been established during the previous forty years, did not meet the criteria of the Convention in respect of space, freedom of movemento rdiet .A narro wcrat etha tdoe sno tallo wa cal ft otur nround ,groo mitsel fo reve n to adopt all normal lying postures cannot, however broadly the word 'appropriajeJ-may be interpreted, be said tomee t physiological andethologica l needs.Moreover , thebehaviou r of calvesdurin gconfinemen t insuc hcrates ,th elim bweaknes ssee nwhe nthe yar erelease dan d theirabnorma lsusceptibilit yt otranspor tstres sindicat etha tthe yar ebein gcause dunnecessar y suffering andinjury , which isals obanne db y the Convention. Similarly, feeding ona die tdeficien t iniro nan dlackin gan yroughag ei sno ti naccordanc e with the Convention. It is also, incidentally, unnecessary: experience has shown that veal produced from calvesfe d amoderat e amounto froughag ei sindistinguishabl e from 'traditio­ nal'veal , andi sperfectl y acceptablet oth emos tdiscernin gconsumers .

TheParliamentar y Resolution

The Resolution called on the Commission to make legislative proposals on the intensive rearingo fvea lcalve swit ha vie wt oabolishin gth epresen tsyste mo ffeedin go na nexclusivel y liquid dietan dhousin g innarro w crates.I tcalle dfo r abalance ddiet ,includin groughag e and adequate iron, room to stand up, lie down, turn around and adopt a comfortable sleeping posture, and,fro m theag eo f 6weeks ,grou phousing .

Theinterna l market SomeE C member states have legislation, or proposed legislation, which banso r restricts the 'traditional' veal production system, and imposes extra requirements on their farmers compared tofarmer s inothe rmembe rstate swhic hd ono thav esuc hlegislation .Thi sno tonl y givesris et ounequa lcondition so fcompetition ,bu tha salread yle dt odemand sfo rimport so f veal into those countries to be banned from countries with lesser welfare standards. Under Article3 6o fth eTreat y ofRome ,a membe r statema yjustif y prohibitions ontrad ewit hothe r member states on certain specified grounds, as long as they do not constitute arbitrary dis­ crimination ora disguise dtrad erestriction .Amon gthos eground s arepubli cmorality , public policy and the protection of health and life of animals. In order to avoid distortion of competition and possible disruption of intra-Community trade,i t is necessary to have Com­ munityrule so nth ematter .I nfact , theMinister so fAgricultur eo fsevera lmembe rstate shav e calledfo r suchlegislatio n ona numbe ro f occasionsdurin gth elas t tenyears .

TheCommissio n proposal

Forth ereason s mentioned above,th eE CCommissio n hasmad ea proposa lfo r aCounci l Regulation concerning minimum standards for the protection of calves kept in intensive farming systems (EC 1989), based on scientific evidence on the welfare of calves. Acal f is defined asa bovin e animalu pt oth eag eo f 6months ,an da nintensiv efarmin g system isde­ fined as asyste m in which calves are housed and arefattene d mainly by thefeedin g of milk ormil k replacer without theus eo f theirdam so rnurse-cows . It ispropose d thatfro m 1Januar y 1992,ne wproductio n systemsmus t provide for group housing of calves after the age of 8weeks .Unti l 8weeks ,calve s may be kept in individual boxes or tether stalls, but boxes and stalls must be at least 80 cm wide and 180 cm long. Group-housed calvesmus t havea tleas t2 squar emetre so f unobstructedfloo r spacepe rcalf .

130 Existing production systems must meet the same conditions from 1 January 1999, i.e. an adjustment period of 7years . Aperio d of 8week s duringwhic h calvesma yb eindividuall y penned waschosen ,instea d of the 6 weeks mentioned in the Parliamentary Resolution, in view of research work, particularlyi nth eNetherlands ,whic hindicate s thatbehaviora lproblem s areusuall yresolve d by8 weeks ,bu tma ycommonl y persistbeyon d 6weeks .Whe n theproposa l wasbein gdraw n up in working groups, by experts from the member states, there was much discussion on dimensions for individual boxes and stalls. Some wanted a specified measurement, while others considered that thesiz eo f thebo x shouldb erelate d toth e sizeo f thecalf , such asth e height at the withers. It was eventually decided topropos e a measurement, partly because it iseasie rt ocheck ,bu ti tshoul db erealize dtha tthi si sa minimu mmeasuremen t andtha ta late r requirement in theAnne x toth eRegulatio n statestha tcalve smus talway s haveenoug hroo m toli edown ,rest , standu p andgroo m themselves without difficulty. Anotherpoin tcalle dfo ri nth eParliamentar yResolution ,i nrelatio nt ofar m animal welfare in general,wa s thatth e Commission launch apublicit y andinformatio n campaign for consu­ mers.Ou rproposa lenvisage sa broade rinformatio n system,wit hscientific ,technologica lan d other relevant information being collected by the Commission and disseminated to the competentauthoritie so fth emembe rstate san dt o'othe rintereste dpartie s' ,wh owoul dinclud e producers, consumers andlegislators . Alo to fresearc h anddevelopmen ti sbein gcarrie d outi ncal f husbandry,an di twa sconsi ­ derednecessar y tokee pthi swor kunde rreview .I ti spropose dt omak ea repor tt oth eCounci l and theParliamen t before 1 January 1994o n thewelfar e of calves kept in intensive fanning systems, accompanied by any appropriate proposals for adjustments to the Regulation. This reviewproces s shouldensur etha tth eRegulatio n takes accounto ftechnica lprogres san ddoe s not hinder theintroductio n of any new systems thatcoul dimprov e thewelfar e ofcalves . Another important feature of the proposal, and one which was stressed by the European Parliament,i sth erequiremen tfo rinspectio nan denforcement . Aswit hal lsuc hE Clegislation , the primary responsibility for enforcement rests with each Member State, and the proposal contains an obligation for them tomak e systematic inspections of intensive farming systems inthei rterritory ,an dt orepor tth eresult st oth eCommission .I naddition ,ther ei sa requiremen t for veterinary experts from the Commission tomak e inspections in the Member States,wit h avie w toensurin g thatth erule s areapplie di n aunifor m way across the Community. Appended to the Regulation, and an integral part of it, is a technical Annex containing detailedrule so nhousing ,care ,feedin g andwatering .I nparticular ,i ti spropose dtha tth efoo d must contain sufficient iron to provide apositiv e state of health and well-being and growth rate, and that each calf after the ageo f twoweek s shallhav edail y access toa tleas t 100g of dry food containing digestiblefibre.

Conclusion

Theproposa lha sye tt ob edebate db yth eEuropea nParliamen tan dth eCounci lo fMinisters , andth elegislatio ntha tfinall y emergesma yb esomewha tdifferen t fromtha twhic hi sproposed . Nevertheless, it will, for the first time, lay down rules on a Community-wide basis for the welfare of intensively farmed calves.

References OfficialJournal of the European Communities, Vol. L323,17.11.1978 ,p . 12. OfficialJournal of the European Communities, Vol.C 76,23.3.1987 ,p .185 . OfficialJournal of the European Communities, Vol.C 214,21.8.1989 ,p .2 8

131 Intended welfare legislation on veal calves in West Germany

G.Baumgartne r FederalMinistry ofFood, Agriculture andForestry, P.O.Box 140270, D-5300 Bonn 1, DE

Summary TheFedera lMiniste ro fFood ,Agricultur ean dForestr yi sempowered ,whereve rnecessar y in order to protect animals, to issue, subject to the approval of the Bundesrat, regulations specifying indetai lrequirement s concerning thekeepin go f animals. When adopting the amended AnimalWelfar e Acti n 1986,th eNationa l Parliament asked theFedera l Government • toissu esuc hregulation sespeciall yfo rth ekeepin go fcalves ,pigs ,poultr y andfu r animals, takingint oaccoun t scientific evidenceo f ethology • toinsis t onharmonizatio n of welfare legislation in theEuropea n Community. After intensive discussions, theFedera l Minister of Agriculture elaborated aregulatio n with detailedrequirement s for calves: • requirements for thespac ei npen s orboxe s • grouphousin g for vealcalve s older thaneigh tweek s • roughage for calves older than twoweek s • sufficient light,iro netc . Thisdraf t wasadopted ,bu tpreparin git sow nproposal ,th eE CCommissio n askedth eFedera l Government topostpon eth e implementation of thisnationa l legislation. Descriptors:Federa lRepubli co fGermany ;Anima lWelfar eAct ;anima lwelfar eo nvea lcalves ; animal welfare onrearin g calves

Introduction In theFedera lRepubli co fGermany ,th eproductio n of vealcalve si sno ta simportan t asi n France,Ital yo rth eNetherlands .I n1988 ,th enumbe ro fdair ycow swa sher eabou t5. 2millions , thenumbe r ofvea lcalve sproduce d wasonl y about 560000 . As in other member states of theEuropea n Community, the majority of those veal calves arekep t individually in crates or boxes;boxe s which were planned and constructed when it wasusua lt oslaughte rthos eanimal sa tth eag eo fabou tthre eo rfou rmonths .I nth emeantime , following new production schemes, the animals are kept up to six months, reaching a live- weight of up to25 0kg . From thepoin t of view of animal welfare, it is necessary that allcalve s can lie down and getu peasily , stretch outthei rleg swhe n lying,groo m themselves andtur nround .Bu tfo r the time being, most veal calves are hindered from doing so. This development leads to severe animal welfare problems. For calves older than about 8 weeks, some farmers have,therefore replaced individual housing systems by group housing. Group housing for veal calves beyond 8 to 10week s is practised in some large calf-fattening farms in northern Germany but also in some smaller farms in southern Germany.

132 Legalsituatio n TheAnima lWelfar eAc to fth eFedera lRepubli co fGerman yrule stha tan yperso nkeeping , caring for orrequire d tocar efo r an animal • mustprovid e theanima lwit hfood , carean d housing appropriate toit s species,need san d behaviour, • mayno trestric tth eanimal' sfreedo m ofmovemen tt osuc ha nexten ta st ocaus eth eanima l paino ravoidabl e suffering orharm . TheFedera lMiniste ro fFood ,Agricultur ean dForestr y isi ncharg eo fAnima lWelfar e andi s empowered, wherever necessary to protect animals, to issue, subject to the approval of the Bundesrat,regulation s specifying ingreate rdetai lth erequirement s concerningth ekeepin go f animals.

Politicalsituatio n

When adopting the amended AnimalWelfar e Acti n 1986,th eNationa l Parliament asked theFedera l Government • toissu esuc hregulation sespeciall y for thekeepin go fcalves ,pigs ,poultr y andfu r animals takingint oaccoun t scientific evidenceo f ethology • toinsis t on harmonization of welfare legislation in theEuropea n Community. Based on intensive discussions, the Federal Minister of Agriculture elaborated a regulation with detailedrequirement s for calves.Th eillega l useo f hormones in vealcalves ,whic hwa s detected in 1988, and which in many cases was linked with poor welfare of those animals, turnedthi site mint oa proble mo fgenera lpubli cconcern .A tth ebeginnin go f 1989,thi sanima l welfare regulation was adopted but, preparing its own proposal, the Commission of the European Community, basedo n thedirectiv e 88/182/EEC,aske d theFedera l Government to postpone this national legislation at least for one year. Until now, implementation has been postponed and wear e urgingth e Councilo fMinister s toimplemen t theEuropea n legislation assoo na spossible .Fro mth epoin to fvie wo fanima lwelfare ,i ti sreall ynecessar y toimprov e the situation.

Mainelement so fth eGerma n draft

Based on the relevant scientific publications and on the discussions of the Standing Committee of the European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes and also based on a field study, prepared for the Commission of the European Community, theGerma n draft, elaboratedi n 1988,follow s the same line as theE C proposal of 1989.Th emai n elements are • requirements for thespac ei npen so r boxes • grouphousin g for vealcalve s oldertha neigh tweek s • roughage for calves oldertha n twoweek s • sufficient light,iro netc . Theregulatio nshoul db eapplicabl efo rvea lcalve su pt oa liveweigh to f25 0k gan dfo rrearin g calves up to six months of age. If calves are kept with cows, only the general rules of the AnimalWelfar e Actar eapplicable . The design, construction and maintenance of buildings and equipment must be such that they limit theris k of disease or traumatic injuries toth ecalves .Floor s shall not be slippery, they shall besuitabl efo r the sizean dweigh to f theanimals ,an dfor m arigi d even and stable surface. Calves must have sufficient space for their basic needs of movement and to adopt theirspecifi c sleepingpostures .Fo rth edifferen t groupso f age,th eminimu m spacerequire -

133 ments aredefined . For new-born calvesu pt o2 weeks theboxe smus t bea tleas t 80c mwid e and 120c mlong .Beddin go f strawo rcomparabl emateria lmus tb eavailabl efo r thoseyoun g calves.Calve solde rtha n2 week sma yb ekep to nslatte dfloors .Th erequirement sfo rth eslat s and themaximu m width between the slats arelai ddow n in theregulation . Calves between 2 and8 week sma yb ekep tindividuall yo ri ngroups .Close dboxe smus tb ea tleas t 100c mwid e and 180c m long. If as is usual, thetroug h is outside thebox , the length may bereduce d to 160cm .W ethin k thatthos efigure s arenecessary ,i fcalve sbetwee n2 an d 8week sar et ohav e sufficient freedom of movement and to be able to adopt species-specific sleeping postures, and freely stretch their limbs, to be able to rise and to lie down without difficulty. If those calvesar ekep ti ngroups ,a nunrestricte dfloo rare ao fa tleas t1, 3m 2pe rcal fmus tb eavailable . The spaceo f such ape n must bea tleas t4 m 2. As arule , after atransitor y period, calvesolde rtha n 8week s shallonl y bekep ti ngroups . Foreac hcalf ,th eminimu m floor areamus tb e 1.5 m2, thewhol epe nmus thav ea tleas t5 m 2. If kepti n groups,calve sove r 8week so f agema yonl y betethere do ryoke dfo r amaximu m period of 1 hourdurin g and after feeding. Torea r calves on smallfarms , where there areno t enoughcalve so fth esam eag et okee pthe mi ngroups ,a nexemptio n ismad efro m thegenera l rule of group housing. The need for social contact in those cases may be partly fulfilled by intensivecar eo f the stock-keeper. Allcalve s shallreceiv e of sufficient light (atleas t 50lux ) for atleas t 8hour spe r day.Ai r velocity,relativ e humidity, levels oftoxi cgase s anddus tshal lno t affect adversely.th ehealt h of thecalves .Th etemperatur e in the lying area shouldb ebetwee n 5an d2 5 °C. Calvesmus tobtai n sufficient availableiro n tomaintai nthe mi nhealt h andal lcalve solde r than2 week smus thav eacces st oappropriat eroughag ean dwater .Calve sshal lno tb emuzzled . For veal calves between 2 and 8 weeks, the quantity of roughage must be at least 100g per day,fo r vealcalve solde rtha n 8week s atleas t20 0g ar enecessary .Rearin gcalve solde rtha n 2week smus t have access toroughag e adlibitum . Having in mind the importance of good stockmanship and regular inspection, it will be ruled that the animals shall be cared for by a sufficient number of workers with adequate theoretical andpractica lknowledge ,an dth eanimal smus tb einspecte d atleas ttwic edaily .I f necessary, theperso nresponsibl efo r them shalltak e appropriate action. Onfarm s with more than 50 veal calves, the results of the daily inspection must be recorded. The competent authority isempowere d tochec kthi s documentation.

Finalremark s Being convinced, that these requirements are really necessary and in the interest of the animals,I hop etha ta tE Clevel ,th eCounci lo f Ministerswil lsoo nfollo w theproposa lo fth e Commission of theEuropea n Communities, atleas t inprinciple , and adopt anE C directive. If acommo n solution cannotb ereached , wewil lhav et oimplemen t ournationa l legislation.

References

Amended version of 18Augus t 1986o f theGerma nLa wo nAnima l Protection. European Conventiono nth eProtectio n ofAnimal skep tfo rFarmin gPurpose s (March 1976). Recommendationconcernin gCattle .Standin gCommitte eo fth eEuropea nConventio nfo rth e Protection of Animalskep t for FarmingPurpose s (October 1988). Schlichting,M.C .& D .Smidt ,(Ed.) , 1987.Welfar easpect so fhousin gsystem sfo rvea lcalve s andfattenin g bulls.Commissio n of theEuropea n Community. Verordnung zumSchut zvo nKälber n beiStallhaltun g (Kälberhaltungsverordnung), Bundes­ ratsdrucksache 634/88.Noc h nichti nKraf t getreten.

134 French view on a veal calf legislation

P.L eNeindr e* & J . Wintergerst ** * InstitutNational de la Recherche Agronomique, Theix, 63122Ceyrat, FR ** Ministère del'agriculture etde la forêt, Direction générale deV alimentation, Service vétérinaire dela santé et de la protection animales, 175,rue du Chevaleret, 75646Paris Cedex 13,FR

Summary Vealcal fproductio n inFranc ei so fgrea timportanc e both sociallyan deconomically , since itprovide s alivelihoo d for 8800families . There are variousproductio n methods, andcalve s can bereare d with their mothers or artificially. The white meat still favoured by consumers imposesconstraint s of atechnica l nature.N o specific French legislation existsfo r vealcalve s and anyimprovemen t in animal welfare can bemad eonl y byreferenc e togenera ltexts .Ne w legislationwil lhav et oevolv efro mE Crecommendation san dmus thav ea fir m scientificbasis . Descriptors:France ;legislation ; welfare;vea lcalves .

Vealcal f production

Any specific legislation on production must take into account both social and technical factors.Vea li straditionall ya luxur yproduct :i tshoul db eligh ti ncolour ,tende ran dhav esom e fat. In 1988,19%o fcattl emea tcam efro m vealcalves .Befor e 1960,mos tcalve swer ereare d withthei rmother san dslaughtere da tliveweight srangin gfro m 100t o 150kg .Sinc ethen ,mil k replacer hasmad e ane w 'industrial'productio n processpossible .Now ,o f the3 10000 0vea l calves produced, 35000 0 arereare d by theirmothers ,an d 2 35000 0 arereare d on intensive farms. The mean carcass weight hasrise n steadily from less than 90kg , and was 112.4k gi n 1985.Thi s has been achieved bybette rfeedin g management and alonge rrearin g period. French consumers beartw oconsideration s inmind . • Thequalit yo fth emeat :th etast eo fth emea tan dit s 'healthiness' arecriticized .Th eus eo f antibiotics and growth promoters has been questioned. Since 1988, the latter have been banned. • Rearing conditions: the separation of the calf from itsda m andofte n from congeners,th e restricted space allowedt oth eanima lan da milk-onl ydie tar e allfactor s thataffec t public opinion about veal. Towha texten t arerearin gcondition s affected byth edemand s of consumers and producers? • Consumerspa y for —whit e meat. The difference in price between white and pink meat is great (at least 3.5 FRFpe rkg) .T oproduc ewhit emeat ,calve smus thav ea lo wiro nintake ,whic hrender s them weak; —fa t of good quality. The flavour of the meat is due mainly to the fat obtained by consumptiono fmil kproducts .Th ewhitenes s ofth emea ti sno tnecessar y toobtai nthi s quality buti tindicate s that thecal f hasbee n fed with milk. • Producers areals osubjec t to specific constraints andi nparticula r they useby-product so f thedair y industry: —Mos t calves on intensive veal farms are from dairy herds.The y use milk products not destinedfo r human consumption. As aresult , calves are rather weak and require close supervision. Although the mortality is low,morbidit y is stillquit ehigh ,th emos tcommo ndisorder s beingdigestiv e andrespiratory . Toachiev e theconsiderabl e growth desired, theenergy ,protein , mineral andvitami n content

135 of the rations must be well balanced and there should be a large milk intake. Calves do not usually receive extra water and solid food. Housing must be designed to provide optimum temperature andhumidit y anda slittl evariatio n in thesetw oparameter s aspossible . As calf rearing gives a smallprofi t any newrestriction s willresul t in the closure of many farms anda nincreas ei nsiz eo fth erest ,creatin ga situatio ntha twil lno tfacilitat e improvement inwelfar e conditions. Farmers have tried to improve their product, in particular by increasing carcass weight, buti n themeantim epe n sizeha sno tincreased .

French regulations onanima l welfare

Calf welfare could be improved by keeping consumers and producers better informed. A considerable change could be achieved, for exampleb y informing thepubli ctha tth equalit y ofth emea tdoe sno tdepen do nit scolour .A secon dwa ycoul db et opromot ehusbandr ysystem s withbette rwelfar e conditions.I nparticular ,calve sreare db ythei rmother susuall yhav ebette r welfare conditions than artificially reared ones. This traditional production which is part of theFrenc h 'LabelRouge ' schemecoul d bepromote d more vigorously. However, someregulation s arerequired , sincen ospecifi c legislation existsfo r calvesan d for vealcalve si n particular.

Generallegislatio n on welfare

Law76-62 9i sth emai nla wdealin gwit hth eprotectio no fanimals .Articl e9 acknowledges that theanima l has aspecifi c status: 'an animal isa sentien t being andshoul d bekep ti ncon ­ ditionscompatibl ewit hth ebiologica lneed so fit sspecies' .Articl e 10specifie s thatan yperso n mayow n animals if hefulfil s thecondition s of Article9 an di f heuse s the animals underth e conditionsprovide dfo ri nArticl e27 6o fth e'cod erural' ,subjec t toth eright so fothers , safety andpubli c health requirements and theprovision s of thepresen t law. Article27 6o f the 'coderural 'a scite di nLa w76-62 9 givesregulation s toprotec t animals againstba dtreatment ,imprope rus ean dt opreven tsufferin g duringrearing ,handling ,penning , transport and slaughter. Theseprovision s of Article 276 werepublishe d in the amended decreenumbe r 80-791o f 1Octobe r 1980an di nparticula r in Clauses 1 and2 . Clause 1: Any person, whofo r anyreaso n raises,look s after orkeep s domestic animals or tamed orcaptiv e animalso fnon-domesti c species is forbidden: 1. todepriv e theseanimal s of thefoo d andwate rnecessar y for thephysiologica l requirementso fthei rspecie san dfo rthei rstag eo fdevelopment ,adaptatio nan d domestication; 2. toleav e a sicko rinjure d animal without careo r attention; 3. toplac ean dkee pa nanima li nhousin g conditionso ri na nenvironmen t which, becauseo fexiguity ,climati ccondition so rinadequat eequipmen to rfitting ,ma y be thecaus eo f suffering, injury or accident; 4. to use, when not absolutely necessary, any device for tying or restraining, or fences orcage sno tadapte dt oth especie so rlikel yt ocaus einjur y or suffering. If, through bad treatment or lack of care and attention, any domestic animal or tamed orcaptiv e animal of anon-domesti c speciesi s found in verypoo rphysio ­ logicalcondition sth e'Commissair ed el aRépublique 'ca ntak eth enecessar ystep s to reduce the animal's suffering to a minimum. He can order the animals to be slaughtered if hethink s theirstat eirremediable .

136 Clause 2: Cattle,sheep ,goat s andequida emus t notb ekep t outdoorsi f 1. there are no installations to prevent animals suffering from the results of climaticvariations ; 2. the lack of man-made or natural fences or of devices for tying or restraining may cause an accident. Animals kept, reared,o r fattened in high-altitude enclosures are subject to these measures only outside thenorma l grazing season. The samedecre e (80-791) allows newclause s tob epublishe d by ministerial orders from the 'Ministre del'Agricultur e etd e laFort ' andwhe n necessary co-signed byothe rministries . Theinterministeria l clause of 25Octobe r 1982i s one such new clause.I t defines outdoor management and housing for non-intensive rearing conditions.Howeve r therule s defined in thisclaus e haven o quantitative standards and arerathe r general. With this series of legislative measures,i ti spossibl e topunis h infringement by sanctions provided for under the law against bad treatment of anyanimal . These regulations are supplementary toDecre e 78-1085 of the text of 2 November 1978, which is the application in France of the text of theEuropea n Convention on the Protection of Farmed Animals published by the Council ofEurope . Theonl y sanctions provided for by thistex tfo r breakingth e law arelo w fines.

Newspecifi cregulation so n welfare

All new regulations will be introduced from the European framework proposals and translated intoclause s tocomplemen t thedecre eo f 1 October 1980. Thiswa srecentl ydon efo rhen si ncage san di si nth eplannin gstag efo rcalves .Thes estep s shouldcomplet eFrenc hlegislatio no nba dtreatmen to rimprope rus eo fanimals .Howeve rth e new legislation must take into account not only biological considerations but also economic requirements. Needso fanimal sshoul db edetermine dfro m welldesigne dexperiment sprovidin gclear-cu t results and if possible duplicated by several independent researchers. The scientific basis of any conclusion should be firmly established before the publication of any regulation for a production processa simportan t asproductio n ofvea lcalves .Certai ntopic sstil lrequir emor e experiments: size of calf pen, floor characteristics, use of feeds others than milk, group and individual housing.

137 Current state of veal calf welfare discussions in the USA and Canada

S.E. Curtis AnimalSciences Department, Universityof Illinois Urbana, IL 61801, US1

Summary There isreaso n to believe that theU S Congress willenac t enabling legislation on animal welfare before thetur no f thecentury .T odetermin evea lcal f welfare objectively, theneed so f the calves and the effects of different production systems on their well-being should be documented scientifically tomak ea soundbasi s for governmental regulation of animalhus ­ bandry. In Canada, the various parties interested in veal calf husbandry came together in 1988 to formulate recommended codes of practice for the production of special-fed veal calves. Becauseo f thesecodes ,ther ei sn onee dfo r legislation atthi stime . Descriptors:USA ; Canada; vealcalves ;welfare ; legislation.

Introduction People want assurances that veal calves are being treated humanely. The valid way to determine this is to document scientifically the effects different production systems haveo n thevariou selement so fth ecalves 'well-bein gan dthe nt omak esom erationa lestimat eo fthei r overall well-being, taking into account all of the calves' needs and feelings. Otherwise, one person's opinion is asgoo d asth enex tone's , andprogres s will notb emade . Wehav ehear do fbehaviora ldifference s amongcalve si nvariou sproductio n systems. Still: What does avea lcal f need?Ultimately , animalwelfar e dependso n animalfeelings . Wemus t pursue scientific research thatlet s the animal tellu sho wi t feels. Casual observations will not suffice. What do wekno w about how the veal calf actually feels? Where should the lines bedrawn ? "Perhaps thebigges tdange ri stha ta dissatisfie d publicma ydeman dchange stha teliminat e whati sdislike d but thatresul t in eithern oimprovemen t oreve n areductio n inth ewelfar e of the animals involved". Thati swha tBritis h animal scientist Colin Spedding saidno tto olon g ago.An di tseem stha tth emeasure dpac ea twhic hregulatio no ffar m animalcar ei sdevelopin g inNort h Americareflect s thisattitude . Tob esure ,far m animalwelfaris m hasbee npoliticize di nbot hth eUnite dState san dCanada . But in both countries, the prevailing opinion among legislators is to base regulations on a sounder scientific basetha n isno wa thand .Again ,th ehandwritin g iso nth ewall .Regulatio n of farm animal care seems inevitable.Bu tno trigh t away.

1 Present address: Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 324Hennin g Building,Pennsylvani aStat e University,Universit yPark ,P A 16802,USA .

138 TheUnite d Stateso fAmeric a Several sophisticated, nationwide surveysi nrecen tmonth s haveyielde d similar findings: • roughly 3 in 4 Americans believe animals are being treated humanely on US farms and ranches,th e strikingexceptio n being special-fed vealcalves ,fo r which theratio i s 1 in2 ; • 2i n 3American s wouldfavou r Federal Governmental regulation of animal careo n farms andranches . InNovembe r 1988,areferendu m washel di nth eCommonwealt ho fMassachusetts . Amajority yea vote on thereferendu m would have resulted in the establishment of a state commission on farm animal care that would have licensed farms as suitable for producing animals. The referendum failed ~ 29% yea, 71% nay.Bu t it is important torecogniz e that this failure did not result from a debate on the merits of the proposal per se.Agricultura l interests chose to play their strong suit, and their campaign slogan was:"Sav e the family farm, vote no".Th e seriousness of theMassachusett s challenge sent agriculture another clearmessage . For several years, there have been state legislative initiatives on veal calf husbandry, in particular in California, New York,an dMaryland .Hearing s have been conducted, but so far no action hasbee n reported from committee. Iti sexpecte d thatlegislativ e action willcom efirs t atth efedera l level,an dtha tthi s willi n effect make these activities redundant at the state level. Congressman Charles Bennett of Jacksonville,Florida , introduced H.R. 84, theVea lCal f Protection Act,i n theOn eHundre d FirstCongress .Basically ,thi sbil li fenacte dwoul ddirec tth eDepartmen to fAgricultur et ose t and enforce regulations for vealcal f husbandry that wouldrevolutioniz e our special-fed veal industry.I nparticular ,th etether-stal lmean so faccommodatio n wouldb eoutlawe d altogether. Precedent-setting hearingso nH.R . 84wer econducte d on CapitolHil l on 6Jun e 1989. At theen d of alon g day,Congressma n Charles Stenholm, whochaire d thehearing , said: "This is an extremely important matter. It is one of which we have felt that a hearing was needed in order to establish for the record that there are differing viewpoints. In some cases,ther e is scientific basis andi n other cases there arepersona l opinions.Bu t also, there is therealizatio n for allo f usi n production agriculture that theconsume r is alwaysright .Tha ti s something weshoul dneve r forget". Therei sreaso n to believe that the Congress will enactenablin g legislation before the turno f the century having tod owit hregulatio n of husbandry of allagricultura l animal species.Th e Departmento fAgricultur ewoul dthe nembar kupo na regulation-settin gprocess ,whic hwoul d probably not be completed before the year 2010. This first generation of regulations will probably becrud ean dfrankl y notalway si nth ebes tinterest so fanima lwell-being ,give nou r grosslyincomplet eunderstandin go f whati ttake st oensur etha ta nanima lfeel s well,an dthi s willthe n spawnth esuppor tfo r theresearc ho nanima lwelfare , andespeciall y onth eanimals ' consciousfeeling s ofsufferin g andwell-being ,tha ti ss osorel yneede da sth ebasi sfo rgovern ­ mentalregulatio n of animal husbandry.

Canada AgricultureCanad aissue drecommende dcode so fpractic efo rth eproductio no f special-fed veal calves in 1988.Thes e voluntary codes resulted from several meetings over a period of almost ayea r of representatives of Agriculture Canada, the agricultural industries, academe, and the Canadian Federation ofHuman eSocieties . Inth eend ,th esyste mrecommende d andagree dt ob yal lpartie sincorporate d anindividua l tethered accommodation. For calves weighing up to 200kg , the minimum stall dimensions wererecommende d tob e6 5c m x 165cm . The cooperative nature of the various parties interested in veal calf husbandry in Canada has been admirable. At present, all parties reportedly believe that progress on common ob-

139 jectives has been made. There is no legislation pending at either the provincial level or the federal in Canada at this time. People having divergent viewpoints have come together and resolved theirdifferences , atleas tfo r the timebeing .

140 6. Marketing Review of veal consumption in France

J.Y.Corolle r *& Y . Toulhoat* * * ScicaOuest Elevage, P.O. Box68,29260 Ploudaniel, FR ** Groupe Even,P.O. Box 67,29260 Ploudaniel, FR

Summary TheFrenc h are traditionally big veal eaters (greatest consumption per capita in theEC) . Howevervea lconsumptio ni sdeclinin g (8.3k gpe rcapit ai n 1963,5.4k gpe rcapit ai n 1989). Thisdownwar dtren daccelerate ddramaticall yi n198 8an d 1989,whe nth edeclin ei ndomesti c consumption was 11.5% and 14.0%. This trend occurred at a time when all other meat consumption was increasing (by 30.0%betwee n 1963 and 1978 and by 5.6% between 1978 and 1989).Th emai nreason s for veal'sdecline a are • growing scarcity of supply, and an increase in the cost of production (+13.8% in 1988, +13.0% in 1989); • anincreas ei nretai lpric e(+7.9 %i n 1988,+15.9%in 1989)higherthanthatforothermeats; • adeclin e inth econsumer' s imageo fvea l (media),makin g advertising difficult; • the current imageo f veal beingou t of step withcurren t trends towards increasing 'health and fitness'; • strong competition from other meats, especially turkey. Turkey consumption (5 kg per capitai n 1989)i s currently approaching thato f veal. To counteract this trend, the following steps must be taken. The high cost of veal can be justified, provided that its taste and health-giving qualities are first class. Action should be taken to disseminate information and reassure consumers about the consumption of veal (certification policy). Then, more efficient advertising campaigns than in the past could be undertaken, basedo n • thewel lknow ndieteti cqualitie so fveal ,whic har eadvantageou sfo rlow-cholestero ldiets ; • culinary qualities ofveal ,whic h makemen u diversification possible. Descriptors : France; veal; consumption.

Introduction History reminds ustha tvea lha s always been among thebes t of foods: • thefatte d calf slain for theprodiga l son; • the golden calf theJew s worshipped during theExodus . Thefestiv e nature of thismea ti swel lvouche d for. Whati sit s statusno wi n France?

Consumptiondat a Actual consumption

TheFrenc har estil lth ebigges tvea lconsumer si nth eEC ,5. 4k gcarcas spe rcapit ai n 1989 (Table 1).

143 100

63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 ••

Figure1. Average annualconsumption of veal (left axis) undall meats (rightaxis) inFrance per capita. Source: SCEES.

%Marke t share

Butchers Super Hyper Others Markets

§ .1980 • .1987

Figure2. Vealsales by kind of retail outlet. Source: SECODIP.

144 Table 1. Averageannual consumption per capita in the EC (kg), source: EUROSTAT, estimate in 1989.

France Italy Benelux Netherlands WestGerman y

1980 6.7 3.8 3.0 1.2 1.9 1989 5.4 3.8 2.9 1.4 1.1

Veali nFrance :a declinin gmarke t

InFrance ,mea tconsumptio n percapit aan dpe ryea rincrease d strongly between 1963an d 1978 (about +30%) and then toa lesse rexten t between 1978 and 1989 (+5.6%).Sinc e 1963, vealconsumptio n hasdecline dcontinuously , 15.7%betwee n 1963an d 1978,22.9%betwee n 1978 and 1989 (Figure 1). From accounting for 12.24% of allmea t consumption in 1963,vea l fell to 10.2%i n 1970 and then to 5.8% in 1989.Thi s downward trend accelerated dramatically in 1988 and 1989 and was confirmed by the SECODIPconsumers ' panel. According to this panel, household consumption of fresh vealfel l by 14%i n 1989afte r falling by 11.5%i n 1988.

Retailoutle ttrend s

The share of vealpurchase d by households from modern retail outlets (supermarkets and hypermarkets) isrising ,bu t butchers'trad ei sdeclinin g (Figure2) .

Mainreason sfo r declinei n consumption

Growingscarcit yo fsuppl yplu sincreas ei nth ecos to fproductio n

Veal production has experienced huge difficulties since 1988 because of changes in the economic and legislative environment: • the bano n theus eo f growthpromoters ,an dth e shift toanaboli c steroids; • amodificatio n ofE Cregulatio n 1725(stipulatin ga leve lo fskimme dmil kpowde ran dpro ­ vidingfo r adenaturatio n subsidy); • therepercussion s ofmil k quotas onyoun g calves andmarket s for skimmed milk powder. As aresult , production costs increased (+13%i n 1989i nFrance ) and supply dropped steeply (Figure3) .Frenc hproductio n ofvea lfel l by 11%i n 1989. Thati smor etha n thedeclin ei nE C production (9.6%i n 1989).

Retail priceo fvea l

In 1989,th eretai lpric eo f vealincrease di nth esam ewa ya sth eproductio n cost (Table2) . This increase was much stronger for veal than for other meats. Itwa s also much highertha n theaverag epric einde x(Tabl e3) .Thes epric etrend spartl yexplai nth edeclin ei nvea lconsump ­ tion inrecen tyear s (Figure4) .

145 1 136 I 1 ; i i } 1 1 1 Icü • 1 1 < A

118 1' /f \ 1 N ' A f l ' ! KV*/ i AJ '» i /x /A löö ' ht A 1 IM' A V 1 i \ A i \ / \> 98 \A ! „! Bö' i ! / k i i i i i i . ! *- -! 7fl • f FT F i-.i • M »»»••i i i 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure3. Comparison of trends in level( —) and cost( — ) of vealproduction. Basis 100: average1980. Source: SCEES- INSEE- OFIVAL.

Table 2. Comparison oftrends inproduction costand retail price; J estimate.

1987/1986 1988/1987 1989/1988

Production cost + 3.3 +13. 8 +13.01 Retailpric e + 5.4 + 7.9 +15.91

Table 3. Comparisonof trends inretail prices for variousmeats (%). Source:INSEE.

1987/1986 1988/1987 1989/1988

Averagepric einde x + 3.1 + 2.7 + 3.5 Food (excl. beverages) + 2.1 + 2.0 + 4.3 Beef + 3.0 + 3.4 + 8.0 Pork + 1.6 + 1.4 + 9.4 Poultry,rabbit , game - 1.0 - 1.0 + 1.5

Tarnishedimag e

j Primalimage of veal

We recently did a qualitative consumer study. We found that the predominant elements constituting the imageo f veal are • simplicity • fragility • countryside.

146 "i—r~—i—r—i 1 r*—i—i r—f r • i i 1—i—i—i—i—r 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89

Figure 4. Relativeprice (-•— )and relative consumption (--*--) ofveal. Basis 100: average 1980. Source:INSEE - SCEES, estimate in 1989.

So,ideally , acal f sucks from itsmother , livesi n thefield s and ishouse d on straw atnigh t likeit smother .

Attackson the imageof veal

Modernrearin gtechnique s aremovin g vealawa yfro m thisidylli cvision .The ymad ei ta n easy victim of attacks byth emédiat . • In 1980an d 1984,ther ewa sa frenc h boycotto nvea lconsumption :th econsequence s were drops of7.0 %an d4.4 %i nconsumption , respectively. • German beta-agonist scandals (Aug. and Sept. 1988) were reported extensively in the Frenchpress . • Arecen tBrigitt e BardotT Vbroadcas t 'SOS animauxd eboucherie' .Thi s broadcast wasa 'success': - 15%audience ; - 10000 0Minite lcalls ; - 94%o f thecaller spledge d they wouldneve r again buyindustria l meat; - 44%pledge d they wouldneve r again eatmea t (source:RI AJan . 22,90).

Imageat odds with 'health and fitness' trends

In today's affluent society, the consumer has the power to be more understanding and demandingwhe nh emake shi schoice .Henc eth econsume ri sincreasingl yconcerne dwit hth e mediuman dlong-ter m consequenceso ffoo do nhi shealt han dfitness .Vea lseem sno tt o fulfil allrequirement s on thispoin t (Figure5) .

147 20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13 h H 1 1 f 1979 1981 1982 1983 1984 1986

Figure5. Proportionof French housewives notbuying veal for fear thatveal is less sound thanother meats. Source: ARC survey for IFAA.

1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 6. Comparative consumption ofveal and turkey inFrance. Source: SCEES.

148 Advertisingveal

Advertising isrisk y when production does notoffe r sufficient guarantees of safety.

Competitionfro mturkey s

In order todevelo p this meat,turke y processors haveuse dvea lcut s anddesignation s (i.e. 'escalopes,oss obuco ,rôtis ,blanquette') .Accordin gt oSECODIP ,thes ecut srepresente d86 % ofhousehol dturke yconsumptio ni n 1987.Thi si sth ereaso nfo rth ebi gmarke tshar eo fmoder n retailbusines si n domestic consumption of turkey (73% in 1989) .Thi smor eaffordabl e meat is aneas y substitute for veal.It smarke ti scontinuin g togro w (Figure6) .

Howt oac tt ofac eth e future

Breakingthroug hrestraint s

Highcost

Iti spossibl e tojustif y thehig hcos to fvea lprovide dtha tit squalit yi sfirs t class andmeet s consumer demands (colour,tenderness , flavour).

Soundhealth

Thefollowin g points mustals ob eobserved : strictaccordanc e withregulations ,consume r information; product certification. Claims made about veal must bereassurin g and not open todoubt .

Enhancingqualit y

Dieteticqualities of veal

In atim eo f mediapreoccupatio n with cholesterol, this can be awinnin g card. According toa CREDO C(1988 ) survey,47 %o fth eFrenc hpopulatio ni sconcerne do rdeepl yconcerne d about their diet.

Culinaryqualities

Veali s easyt ocook , can beuse di na grea tvariet yo frecipe s and somake s diversification of themen upossible .I ti su p tovea lproductio n nott o spoil these great assets byusin g drugs (especially beta-agonists), that altermea tquality .

Conclusion

As statedabove ,vea lha scertai n assetst oovercom e thedowntur n init sconsumption .I ti s nowu pt ovea lproducer sno tt ospoi lthes easset sb yusin gdrug stha taffec t themea tan dmak e vealcalve s somekin do f bullcalves .Th econsumer' simag eo f vealshoul d berespected .

149 Marketing strategies and quality control for veal in the United States

ArthurFollenweide r Sr. SwisslandPacking Company, Ashkum, IL, US

Summary

Todevelo pa successfu l veal-marketingplan ,fiv efactors , besidesa company' spersonality , areo fmajo r interest:quality ;supply ; sales;shipping ;an dprofit .I ti simportan tt odevelo pan d control each of these factors to create and keep a healthy marketing position. This paper describes themarketin g strategieso f aveal-packin g company inth eUnite d States. Descriptors:foo d processing;veal ;Unite dStates ;marketing .

Introduction Mostmarketin gplan shav eman ysimilarities .Wher ethe yvar yi si nproduc tan d frequency of sales.Th etric ki st ofind an dus eth eon etha tfit s youbest .Wit hthi si nmind ,le tu sexplor e some factors thatar eo f basic importance. The first thing is to develop a personality for your company. This is probably the most important factor in long term success orearl y failure. Personality is described as 'habitual patterns and qualities of behaviour of any individual or group as expressed by physical and mental activities'. The key words are physical and mental activities.A personalit y thatfeature s astron gdesir et owor k hard and have awinnin g attitude will succeed. Acompan y emulatesit s leader. Start with a sharply reacting organizedproductio n facility where allemployee s are proud to say that they work. Keep this facility hygienically clean, andrepai r andreplac e whatever needs care in the plant. This personality should be fully displayed by all employees of the company. Theprope rpersonalit y will have a strong and lasting effect on present and future customers. Thisstrong ,optimisti cattitud ei na company' spersonalit ywil lals oinstil la positiv e feeling inth e special-fed-calf suppliers.Thi s feeling that theyar ebringin g theircalve s toa compan y thatca n pay them andmerchandiz e the meatproduct s ata toppric e adds tothei r security. It is extremely important to be positive about the future. In the United States, those involved, whetherthe y are supplierso rcustomers ,hav eonc eagai ncom et orealiz eth eimportanc eo fa strongly organized company.

Marketing ofvea l

There arefiv e major ingredients in asuccessfu l veal-marketing plan: 1. quality 2. supply 3. shipping 4. sales 5. profit.

150 Quality

You cannot discuss marketing of veal in the United States without mentioning Aut Groenevelt.H estarte dth evea lindustr yi nth eU San dwa sinstrumenta li nth edistributio n and circulation of finished products throughout theretai l market andrestaurant s in the United States.Becaus eth estarte rcalve swer eplentifu l andlo wprice d andth efee dwa sstrong ,a cal f of thehighes t imaginable quality wasproduced . Withoutthi squalit yrepea t orders wouldno t havefollowed , andth eprogramm ewoul dno thav esucceeded .Confirmatio n wasoutstanding , colourwa sbeyon dcompare ,an dqualit y wass ogoo dtha tyo ucoul dno ttouc hth e foreshanks together. The result wastha t those people who tried theproduc t liked it andcam e back for more. TheAmerica n public hasbecom e aware ofwha t quality veal isan dtha t iswha t they wantan d will accept. TheEuropean s areresponsibl efo rintroducin g thisqualit yproduc t and wemus t allliv ewit h thisresult . Qualityi smarketable . Onth esubjec t ofqualit ycontrol ,I ca nexplai nwha tw ea tou rcompan yd ot omaintai n our programme.I ti sa nextensiv equalit ycontro lprogramm ean di tal lbegin swit hplan tsanitation . Safe food products takeprecedenc eove ral lothe ractivitie sa tou rplant .Th efirs t movei nth e morning is for the quality control manager in conjunction with the Federal Government inspector to doa pre-inspection tour throughout theplant . Whatever does notmee t proper criterion insanitatio n isrecleane d and sanitized.Whe n iti sascertaine d thateverythin g is go, theplan t begins operation and quality gradingan d selection then takeover . Thekill-floo r workershav ebee nhighl ytraine dt oproduc eth ebes tpossibl eproduct .Fro m stickingt ohid eremoval ,a distanc ei skep tt ogiv eeac hworke ra chanc et od ohi sjo b without interruption.Tha tinclude sstartin gth edehidin gan dopenin gth ecalve sa tth erigh tspo to nth e carcass. Thepeopl e who operate thehid e puller realize theimportanc e of producing ahid e with no cutso rblemishes . Offal products aretrimmed , cleaned, andpu to ntray s incooler s tomak e thebes t livers, sweetbreads ,hearts ,tongues ,etc .Carcasse sar eraile dint oth efirs tcoole rafte rth eveterinaria n has inspected andpasse d each calf. Each carcass is trimmed andcleane d tomak e suren o contamination iso nth ecalf . Cutting andtrimmin g according toth eboo k onspecification s isfollowe d toth elette ro n theda yfollowin g slaughter. This insures a fresh quality-controlled product tob eshippe dt o the consumer. Boxes that aresoli d andstrongl y made areused . The cuts arepu ti nvacuu m bagst oinsur ea lon gshelf-lif e byeliminatin gleak si nth evacuum .So-calle dcuttin gfo r profit byleavin gmor eo n theexpensiv e cutsan dles so nth einexpensiv ecut sincur slarg eproblem s for theeventua l consumers.Followin g theregulation s makes lasting customers.Th esam ei s trueo fchea ppoorl ymad evacuu m bagsan dboxes . Packing theprima l and sub-primal cutsb ygrades ,whic h isredon e after the carcassesar e chilled,ensure sconsisten tquality .Immediatel yafte rslaughte ra highl ytraine dplan temploye e quality-gradeseac hcarcass .Th ecalve sar egrade d'super' ,whic hpay sabonus ,'numbe rones' , 'off color', and 'dark'.Th ecarcasse sar eagai ngrade dth efollowin g dayafte r theyar echilled . This isdon e atth ebreakin g area and is toverif y that theprope r grade was assigned toeac h carcass.Th eprimai s and sub-primalsar eagai n graded before boxing.I fther ear edar kcalve s inth egrou pthe ywil lb eboxe da s'numbe rtwo 'product .Thi sproduc ti ssol da treduce dprices .

Supplyan dshippin g

Low-cost starter calves, low-cost feed, large demand, and good profit led to increased supply. It is universally known that youmus t balance supply with demand. Butfo r a long periodo ftime ,w ecoul dno tge tenoug h supplyt omee tth edemand .I ngeneral ,thi s situation isn olonge ralway strue .Throug h manyfactors ,th esuppl y variesfro m situation tosituation . Atthi stime ,Holstei n steersar ei nfashio n andhav ethu sshortene d thesuppl yo fstarte rcalve s andresultin gi nthei rdramati crise i ncost .I ti sfel t thatthi s situation isshort-live d butw ear e

151 not suretha ti t will goaway .Prope r supply withprope r prices areth eke yrequirement s for a strong long-range marketing plan. The secret to success in the veal business is to develop a demand for all the various primal and sub-primal cuts and the corresponding offal products thatcove ryou r supply lines. Thethir d factor is transport (shipping).Th emea tbusines s in theUnite d States moves the vast majority of its product by refrigerated truck. Shipping, though it is confusing, can be accomplished with accuracy and efficiency.

Sales

The sales portion of the discussion variesi n method, style anddirection . One way to get consumers to buy the product is advertising. This is an expensive, but potentially effective method. However, you usually never know the results of advertising. Bright colourful, in­ formative advertisements in trade journals or in retail newspapers are suggested. Menu advertisements wherepossibl e arealway s very good. Another method is telephone solicitation. This was the main method used in the meat business for many years.I twa sno t uncommon for asalesma n to sellt oa custome r for many years and never even know what he looked like.Thi s will no longer suffice. To do thejo b properly, you must meet and discuss your product with thecustomer . Utilization of the mail service in the form of advertising material or informative correspondence can befeffective. Another method ist opromot e yourproduc t in someo f theman yfoo d shows throughout the UnitedStates .I nm yopinion , ittake sa composit eo fal lthes emethod s todevelo p andsustai n a strongmarketin gplan .I ti simportan tt onot etha tmarketin gi sno tonl yessentia li nopenin g new markets but alsoi n maintaining thesemarket s after theinitia l sale. Someproduct s canb emarkete dwithou tbein gconcerne dwit hcontinuin g sales.Thi si sno t the case with veal. Aprogramm e should include trips to customers' facilities. It is equally important to have your customers orpotentia l customers visit theproductio n facility. Some people like to seethei r supplier more often than others.Som elik e to bemor e informed than others. The frequency of these activities can only be determined by the knowledge of the customers'persona l desires.Th e customer isusuall y abrigh t andintelligen t individual, who will eventually see through deception. If there is quality and supply, an informed potential customer should become along-lastin g satisfied customer. In addition, iti salway s imperative tocoordinat e theproductio n department with the sales department.

Profit

If the industry is to flourish in the world market it must be profitable. Profit-orientated companiesmak efo r goodsoli dcompetition .On edoesn' tnee da stron gmarketin gprogramm e to give away a product. Aspecial-fe d vealraise rdepend s on acompan y staying in business andpayin ga fai rpric efo rthei rcalves .Thi scanno tb eaccomplishe dwithou ta profit-orientate d market plan.Th eprofi t mustb epu tbac kint oyou r facilities tokee p them updated andread y toutiliz e new operating methods.

Future outlook: • Personality.Thi s is andwil lb edetermine db yth epeopl einvolved . • Quality.I fee l thatth equalit yo fth efinishe d calveswil lsuffe r throughal lth einsecurit yi n the business atthi stime . • Supply. I think that theUnite d States supply will increase in the near future, probably in thefal l of 1990.

152 Sales.Continuin geffor t willslowl yincreas eth eproductio no fvariou sne wproducts .Thes e newproduct s willhav epric ean d addedvalu e asthei rmai n theme. Profit. This isimpossibl e topredict , buthopefull y wewil lal lhav ea profitabl e future.

153 Market-oriented production of veal: an approach from practice

S.H.M.Met z VeevoederbedrijfALPURO B.V., P.O.Box 1, Uddel,NL

Summary

Market-oriented production of milk-fed veal includes simultaneously market research, product development, and production and marketing of the veal. An important link in this chaini sth eproductio n ofth evea lcalves ,whic hha st ob emodern ,health yan d cost-effective. Asyste m is presented for the daily control and guidance of the production of veal calves on thefarms .Th esyste minclude sa computer-base dfas tadministrativ eprocessin go fdat ao ncal f identity, housing, feeding, daily management and, after finishing calf fattening, also datao n carcass weight and carcass quality. Deviations from standards are daily indicated by the system. Byimplementin g thisinformatio n infar m management adequately,rea lprogres s hasbee n madei n theproductio n of veal calves,an di nmeetin g theconsumers 'demand s for veal. Descriptions: veal; vealcalf ;feeding ; management; information; market.

Introduction Veal is a high-quality, luxurious type of white meat, being extremely tender and highly digestible. Veal is consumed in a large number of countries. However in most of these countries, the proportion of veal in total meat consumption is very limited. Consumers' preferences fortyp eo fvea lsho wgrea tvariation :bot hbetwee nan dwithi ncountries , different markets exist for specific qualities of veal. Consequently a good knowledge of consumers' demands in the various markets is needed andth eproductio n of thevea lcalve s on the farms and the slaughter andprocessin g in themeatwork s hast ob edirecte d tomee tthes edemands . In thispaper , anoutlin efro m practicei sgive n inwha t way market-oriented production of veal operates. Thereafter, adescriptio n is given of a system thati s used toguid e and support vealcal f production onfarms , asa noptimizatio n ofcooperatio n betweenvea lcal fproducers , feed company andmeatworks .

Outlineo fmarket-oriente dproductio no fvea l A practical outline of market-oriented production of veal is presented in Figure 1. The production andmarketin go f the vealinclude s achai n ofconsecutiv e major processes before themea treache s the consumer: • breedingo f young calves • production ofmil kreplacer s • fattening ofvea lcalve s • slaughtero f calves • processing ofvea l • distribution ofveal . Eachproces si slinke dt oothe rprocesses ,bot hb yth eflo wo fgood san dth eflo wo f information. Continuous optimization of the whole production chain is needed for veal production. In practice,thi s isobtaine d bytw omajo r mechanisms:

154 PRODUCTION OF VEAL IN PRACTISE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Product idea

feed company

testin g

product évaluât ion

decision consumer

*•flo w or goods, »-flow of information.

Figure1. Outlineof the market-oriented production of veal.

1. Improvement of the singleprocesse s aswel l asth eintegratio n between theseprocesse sb y adequateflow o f goods and information 2. Market research on consumers' demands for veal and development of new products to strengthen thepositio n inpresen t markets andt ocreat ene wmarkets . In theintegrate d production chain,th efarme r (vealcal f producer),th efee d company andth e meatworkspla yth ecentra lrole .Togethe rthe yar eresponsibl efo rth equalit yo fth evea lcalve s atslaughter , andfo r the slaughter,processin g andmarketin g ofveal .

Asyste mt ocontro lan dt oguid evea lcal f production

The fattening of calves is a process of main concern in the integrated production and marketing of veal, in the short term as well as in the long term. The quality of veal calves arrivinga tth emea twork sha st ofit th eneed san ddesire sfo r veal.Th equalit yo f the fattened vealcalve s includes many aspects,lik e • hygienic qualityo f theliv eanimal ; • weight,type ,conformatio n andfatnes s ofth ecarcass ; • colour, taste andtendernes s of themeat . Theseaspect so fqualit y aremainl y determined byth efarme r through type (breed, sex)o fth e young calves on his farm, composition of the milk replacer, housing system, feeding and management strategies.Th efarme r has to adapt theproductio n of vealcalve s on hisfar m to

155 feed intake (kg/week)

*—• STANDARD

^> age (in weeks)

Figure2. Actualversus standard feed intake.

Table 1. Signalsfor corrective measures (examples).

Week 5 useo fmedicine ;feedin g andlitre scorrect ? Week 11 irregular feeding Week 12 3animal s lost: totallosse s = 2.25% Week 12 litres and/orfeed-to-wate r ratio correct? the customers' demands for quality. He needs to receive the results in carcass classification from the meat works, in order to have a useful tool for further optimization of his farm management. Streamliningth enumerou sdat awit hwhic hth efarme rha st odeal ,an dunitin gth edat aove r a number of farms within the integrated production of veal, requires an easy-handling, standardized recording + indication + communication system. Such a system has been de­ veloped by ourcompany . The system isa computer-base d fast administrative system • forimprovin g theflo w ofinformatio n between thefee d company, thevea lcal fproducers , themeatwork s andth ebreedin g farms; • for controllingan dguidin g theproductio n of vealcalve so n thefarms . Thissyste mi scontinuousl ymanage dan dcontrolle db yth efee dcompan y andcover sbetwee n 400 and50 0veal-cal f producers. Theinpu t and theoutput , which are specific for each farm andfo r each production group of calves withinfarms , include • inputdat ao n - farm equipment (farm size, type of housing, ventilation and feeding system, hygienic control); - calves (breed, sex,dat eo finput ,liveweigh t atinput) , - desiredfeedin g strategy;

156 — daily routine of feeding, management, health control, use of medicines, and losses of animals; —slaughte r data on carcass weight, carcass quality (colour + conformation + type + fatness), andqualit y of the5t hquarter . • output —overview so fth edail yroutin efo rfee dintak e(bot hmomentaril yan dcumulative) ,losse s ofanimals ,us eo fmedicine ; —deviation s from the standard strategyi ncal f fattening (Figure2) ; —signal sfo r corrective measuresdurin gcal f fattening (Table 1); —technica lresult s (growthrate ,fee d conversion,carcas squality) . Thisoutpu ti sgenerate ddaily ,weekl yo ra tlarge rintervals ,dependin go ntyp eo routput .Fro m the time the computer-based system became fully operational (1989), it appears to be an adequate basis for: • continuous controlo fcal f fattening; • optimization of feeding andmanagemen t routineo nth e farms; • evaluation ofth esuitabilit y of typeso f calves for vealproduction ; • continuous evaluation offeedin g +managemen t +housin gstrategies ; • adaptation ofveal-cal f production toth eexpecte d consumers' desires for veal. Theseresult sstres sth eimportanc eo fth ecomputer-base dfas tadministrativ esyste mt osuppor t themarket-oriente dproductio no fveal .I tmus tb eemphasized ,however ,tha to nth efarm s this data-processing system cannotreplac e thefar m manager in optimizing veal-calf production. Although essential, it only remains a useful aid in managing the consecutive processes in market-oriented veal production.

157 Bio-economic model to determine the economically optimum fattening period in veal production

Gerard W.J.Giese n *,Titi aE .Elem a *& A bF .Groe n ** * Departmentof Farm Management, WageningenAgricultural University, Hollandseweg1,6706 KN Wageningen,NL ** Departmentof Animal Breeding, WageningenAgricultural University,NL

Summary

A bio-economic model was designed to determine the economically optimum fattening period invea lproduction .Give n thedail yfee dratio n andstartin gvalue sfo rbod yweigh tan d composition of anewbor n calf, a biological model calculates gain in liveweight and growth ofth ecarcas s andit scomponent s by adeterministi c day-to-day simulation. Startingfro m the calculated performances of theanima l andexogeneou sprices ,a neconomi c model calculates the gross margin atth een d of each possible fattening period. The model allows the calculation of influences of feed intake, biological parameters and prices on the economically optimum fattening period or optimum delivery weight and the resulting grossmargin . Descriptors:vea lproduction ; bio-economic model;optimu m fattening period.

Introduction

Veal production is an important sector of Dutch agricultural production (PVV, 1988). Newborn calves areraise d mainlyo n adie to fcal f milkreplacer s upt oa liveweigh t of about 238 kg in about 184day s (LEI, 1989).I n 1962,vea lcalve s werefattene d up to 151k g (van Home& Sturkenboom , 1986).Liveweigh tan dfattenin gperio dhav eincrease dgraduall ysinc e and are stillincreasing . In the Netherlands, veal production is for the greater part controlled by milk replacer producers. They arrange (by contract) when theirfarmer s have to start fattening new calves and when they have to deliver them. Milk replacer producers repeatedly have to reconsider the economically optimum fattening period or optimum delivery weight of the animals.O f course,farmer s fattening calves atthei row nrisk ar eface d with the same question. The economically optimum fattening period depends on the economic circumstances and theperformanc e of the animals. Themos timportan t economic factors areth eprice so f veal, milk replacers and newborn calves. Important factors determining theperformance s of veal calves arebree d andsex . In thispaper , a bio-economic model ispresente d todetermin e the economically optimum fattening periodi nvea l production.

Model

Themode lconsist so ftw oparts :a biologica lan da neconomi cmodel .Give nth edail yratio n for thetota lpossibl efattenin g period and startingvalue sfo r bodyweigh t andcompositio no f anewbor n calf, thebiologica l modelcalculate sgai ni nlive-weigh t andgrowt h of thecarcas s andit scomponent s(bone ,meat ,fa tan dwast ematter )b ya deterministi cday-to-da y simulation (Knole t al., 1990).Startin g from thecalculate d performances of the animal and exogeneous prices,th eeconomi c modelcalculate s thegros smargi n ateac hpossibl e moment of delivery.

158 Biologicalmode l

The biological model consists of twoparts : (1) themode lo f energypartitio n and growth; (2) the carcassmodel . Figure 1present s the structure of the energy partition and daily gain. For each day, the energy intake is partitioned into energy for maintenance and for protein and fat gain. Partitioningequation suse ddepen do nliveweigh to fth eanimal ,fee dqualit yan dfeedin g level (vanE s &va nWeerden , 1970).Fro m retention of energy inprotei n andfa t tissue,growt ho f body components is calculated. Themode li s dynamic:simulate d full body weight ona certai n day determines theenerg y requirement for maintenance, andenerg ypartitio n and growth of thenex tday . The daily growth of the carcass and its components (bone, meat, fat and waste matter) is also derived. The growth of bone is afixe d proportion of the fat-free gain of the body. The growth of carcass meat andfa t is basedo nretentio n of energy in protein andfa t in thebody . Thereby, theenerg yretentio n of fat ispartitione d intointramuscula r andintermuscula r fat.

Economicmode l

The economic model calculates the gross margin, which is the margin of returns over variable costs, per animal and per weekly period. Returns are calculated according to the payment system (perk gliveweigh to rcarcas sweight ,possibl ycorrecte dfo rquality) .Variabl e costs include costs of newborn calf,feed , interest andothe r variable costs.Losse s as aresul t of failure areals o included in thevariabl e costs. '

gross energy (GE)

Partition of energy metabolizable intake energy (ME)

ME ME protein fat net energy energy heat NE heat NE loss (NE) maint. protein

water anorganic matter empty body weight

full body weight Figure1. Schematic representation ofthe energy partition and growth model.

159 f777)

200

100 *0

Figure2. Simulatedcarcass composition.

Table1. Simulatedeconomic results offattening black-and-white bullcalves.

Age Live Carcass Gross margin (NLG) (days) weight weight percal f percal f (kg) (kg) place year 140 182.2 112.5 41.42 16.68 147 191.4 118.5 58.85 24.83 154 200.5 124.5 72.71 32.07 161 209.5 130.4 83.47 38.42 168 218.4 136.4 88.91 42.63 175 227.1 142.2 91.77 45.76 182 235.7 147.9 91.48 47.37 189 244.0 153.4 87.49 46.98 196 252.1 158.8 81.81 45.50 203 259.9 164.1 74.65 42.95 Assumedprices : vealpric eNLG/k gcarcas s weight 9.3'0 price of newborn calf 400 feed prices (NLG/kg) starting feed 2.76 fattening feed 1 (based on skimmed milk powderpowder) ) 2.72 fattening feed 2 (basedo n whey powder) 1.88

160 The economically optimum fattening period and delivery weight are reached when the 'marginal' gross margin per week of fattening a present veal calf equals the average gross margin per week of starting to fatten ane wcal f (Giesen et al., 1988).Averag e gross margin perwee kan dtherefor eals ogros smargi npe rvea lcal fplac epe ryea rar ethe na tthei rmaximum . Ifn onewbor ncalve sar eavailable ,th efattenin gperio dshoul db econtinue dunti lth emargina l gross marginpe r week equals zeroo rth e grossmargi n of the animali sa tit s maximum.

Modelresult s InFigur e2 ,simulate ddat ao ncarcas scompositio nar epresente dfo ra black-and-whit ebul l calf (birth weight 45kg) .Th efattenin g starts at day 8 after birth. Up to the age of 65days , calvesar efe d on startingfee d (56k gi ntotal) ,fro m 65day sonward sth efeedin g is according toth eso-calle dtwo-bag ssystem :tw ofeeds ,on ebase do nskimme dmil kpowde ran dth eothe r on whey powder, aremixed .Th e dailyratio n isincrease d from 1.65 kga t 65day s up to 3k g from 176day s onwards, thismainl y byincreasin g the last feed. InTabl e 1,th eeconomi cresult sar epresented ,assumin gprice sgive na tth efoo to fth etable . Given theseresults ,a vea lcal f hast ob edelivere d at 175day s of agean d 227k g liveweight, because gross margin per veal calf place is at its maximum then. If no newborn calves are available tostar tu pa ne wfattenin g cycle,optimu m fattening periodi son ewee klonge ru pt o 182day s or23 6k gliveweight . In thatcase ,optimu m fattening period isreache d when gross marginpe r animal is atit s maximum. / Changesi nfee dintak ean dbiologica lparameter so fth enewbor ncal fwil linfluenc e growth and carcass composition. These changes andchange s in economic circumstances will influ­ ence the economic results and may have consequences for the economic optimum fattening period ordeliver y weight.Th e modelpresente d hereenable s these tob e calculated.

References Giesen,G.W.J. ,W.H.M .Baltusse n &J .Oenema , 1988. Optimalisering van hetaflevere n van mestvarkens.LEI-publicati en r3.139 ,De nHaag . Knol,E. ,A.F . Groen &S .Korver , 1990.A biologica lmode lfo r vealproduction . Department of AnimalBreeding ,Wageninge n AgriculturalUniversit y (unpublished). LEI, 1989.Resultate n kalfsvleesproductie 1988(contractbedrijven) . Landbouw Economisch Instituut,De nHaag . PVV, 1988. Kalfsvleesproductie in perspectief. Produktschap voor vee en vlees, Rijswijk. PVV-rapport nr.39 . van Es, A.J.H. &E.J . van Weerden, 1970.Ka n de groei van gezonde mestkalveren worden voorspeld uithe topgenome n rantsoen?Landbouwkundi g Tijdschrift 82:109-114. van Horne,P.L.M . &H.J.C.M . Sturkenboom, 1986.He t optimale aflevergewicht van vlees- kalveren. Proefstation voor de Rundveehouderij, Schapenhouderij en Paardehouderij, Lelystad. Publikatie nr.44 .

161 Model programme for production and marketing of free-range veal

R.A .Brow n FoodAnimal Concerns Trust(FACT), P.O. Box 14599, Chicago,IL 60614, US

Summary

This paperdescribe s production andmarketin g of premium-priced vealfro m dairy calves raisedi ngroup swit hacces st opasture .Th ecalve swer efe dacidifie d milkreplace ran da soli d ration. Limits were placed on use of medicaments. Feed costs averaged $168.50 per calf. Processinginclude delectrica lcarcas sstimulation .Opportunitie san dproblem swit hmarketin g arediscussed . Descriptors:veal ;fre e range;veterinar y drugs; electro-stimulation; marketing.

Introduction Almost all premium-priced veal in the US is produced in crates, anaemic diets without roughage,an dextra-labe l drug usage.Therefore , aprojec t wasinitiate d in 1985t odetermin e how apremium-price d vealcoul db eproduce dan d soldfro m thesam estartin gpoin t (surplus bull dairy calves and milk replacers) but without immobilization of the calves, with solida s well as liquid rations, with normal iron levels, and with limited medication. This paper describes theprojec t asi texist stoday .

Productionpractice s Production is continuous on one farm with afe w calves slaughtered every week. Four to eight calves arepurchase d ata tim edirectl y from neighbouring dairy farms where colostrum was properly administered. Under the standards used, calves may not bepurchase d from an auction barn or dealer as is customary done with 'all-in, all-out' production in crates. By avoiding auction barns and dealers, calves have less exposure to pathogens, less transport stress, and are lesslikel y tohav e been neglected. Calves are housed in small groups of 8 to 12animal s in pens constructed within an old dairybarn ;eac hpe nha sacces st oa grass yyar dwhic hth ecalve sus efrequently .Th emaximu m recommended age difference amongcalve s in agrou pi ste n days.A sth ecalve s maturethe y aremove d through a series of five pensi n thebarn . Calves are trained to suck acidified milk replacer (Richard et al., 1988) with iron from nursingbottles .The yar ethe ntraine dt osuc ka dlibitu mfro m anipple .Acidifie d milkreplace r comes as apowde r form and is mixed with cold water in alarg eplasti c garbage can.Acidi ­ fication retardsspoilag es otha ta simpl einexpensiv etub ean dnippl eca nb eused .Eac hgrou p shouldhav ea tleas ttw onipples ,whic har emounte do nth efencin go fth epen .W erecommen d thatfeedin g cansan dnipple sb ethoroughl ycleane donc ea day . Nipplefeedin g adlibitu m appearst osatisf y thecalve surg et o suckbecaus e cross-sucking andurine-suckin g aren oproblem . Fromth estar tcalve shav eacces st oa grain-base dratio n(Boyaud , 1979)an dhay .Th eratio n initially has 20%protein . At abouteigh tweek s of age,the y areweane d to solidfoo d only,a t whichtim eth eratio n has 16%protein .The yreac ha liveweigh t formaketin go f 160k gi n 20 weeks.

162 Medication Theonl yroutin emedication s usedar evaccines ,wormers ,an dcoccidiostats .A competen t farmer can easily identify sick calves because they are listless and do notplay .Whe n acal f becomes sick,medicatio n ispermitte d under thefollowin g limitations: 1. themedicatio n mustb e specifically approved for calves,ie ,n o extra-label usage; 2. sulfamethazine is not permitted because approval of this troublesome drug may be withdrawn; 3. withdrawal times aredoubled ; 4. anycal f medicatedwithi n 56day so f slaughteri swithdraw n from theprogram . Extra-label drug usage is now a serious problem in the US when calves are raised only on liquids. It has been suspected for some time that calves denied roughage metabolize drugs more slowly.Th eU SFoo d &Dru gAdministratio n confirmed thisi n arecen t study showing thatresidue so f sulfamethazine werehighe rfo r 'fancy veal'(liquid-fed ) thanfo r 'replacement calves' (dairy replacements receiving solidfood ) (Barnes et al., 1989).Fo r instance, onDa y 7, the residue in livers of treated calves was 0.39 ppm for fancy veal and 0.03 ppm for replacementcalves . On2 3Ma y1989 ,FDAme twit hrepresentative so fth evea lindustr yan drule dtha tliquid-fe d calveswoul db econsidere d ane wclas so fanima lan dtha tn odrug s atal lhav ebee n approved forus ewit hthe m (Stefan, 1989).I nothe rwords ,al lmedication suse di nliquid-fe d calvesno w fall in theextra-labe l category, acategor y of questionablelega lstatus .

Farm costs Table 1 presentsth eaverag ecost spe rcal ffo rth efarme ri nMain ethi swinter .No tinclude d arebuildin gan dequipmen tcosts ,electricit yan dwater ,an dth efarmer' s time.Winter si nMain e are severe, so that feed costs would be higher than those shown in summer or in wanner climates.

Table 1. Farmcosts.

Calves $ 130.00 Feed milkreplace r 45.00 solidratio n with 20%protei n 13.00 solidratio n with 16%protei n 108.00 hay 2.50 Medication 8.00 Bedding (wood shavings) 25.00 Trucking to slaughter 6.50 Telephone,postage ,misc . 9.50

Total $ 347.50

163 Processing

Carcassesreceiv e low-voltageelectrica l stimulation immediately after slaughtert olighte n meat colour and improve tenderness (McKeith et al.,undated) .W econside r this processing stepessentia l if agourme t class veali st ob eproduce d using solidrations .

Marketing

Many (but not all) chefs, butchers and consumers prefer this free-range veal to that from confined and anaemic calves,whic h issofte r in texturean d blanderi n taste.Retai l prices are above those for veal raised in crates at other local markets. Based on eating qualities, drug residue problems, and concern for calf welfare, we believe free-range veal produced in this wayha sexcellen tmarke tpotential . Theprincipa lproblem sw ehav eencountere drelat et oth efac t thatth enecessar y infrastruc­ ture for small-scale meatproducer s haslargel y disappeared in theUS .Typica lproblem sare : 1. finding adequateprocessing , including specialcuttin g andCryova cpackaging , when few calves are slaughtered weekly; 2. finding trucking for smallquantitie s atreasonabl eprices ; 3. selling allpart so f thecarcass . Wehav eovercom ethes edifficultie s withou rcurren tcustomer ,th eBrea d& Circu s supermar­ ket chain inMassachusetts , andhav e aneconomicall y self-sustaining demonstration project. In our opinion, the three difficulties would diminish if this product was offered in larger quantities by amea tcompan y with itsow nprocessin g and shipping facilities.

References Barnes, C.J., & J.N. Gelata, 1989. Chemotherapeutic agents and their disposition in food producing animals. 1. Disposition of sulfamethazine in tissues and plasma of bob veal, fancy vealan dreplacemen t calves after oraladministration .DVMR , Centerfo r Veterinary Medicine,Beltsville ,US . Boyaud,D. , 1979.Th eShur-gai nfeedin gprogra mfo rheav yvea lproduction .Canad aPackers , Inc.,Brossard , Canada. McKeith, F.K., J.W. Savell, CE. Murphey & G.C. Smith, undated. Enhancement of lean characteristics of veal carcasses by electrical stimulation. Meats and Muscle Biology Section, TexasA & M University , CollegeStation ,T X77843 ,US . Richard,A.L. ,A.J .Heinrich s &L.D .Muller , 1988.Feedin gacidifie d milkreplace ra dlibitu m tocalve s housed in group versusindividua lpens .Journa lo fDair y Science 71:2203. Stefan, G.E., 1989. Quality control in formula-fed veal production. Center for veterinary Medicine,Rockville ,US .

164 7. Meat quality and growth stimulants Biochemical muscle characteristics and veal quality traits

C.Valin InstitutNational de laRecherche Agronomique -Theix, 63122 Ceyrat, FR

Summary Production andconsumptio n ofvea lar edecreasin gi nFranc. ewher etraditionall y vealha s been highly appreciated. Many factors areresponsibl e for this trend but it generally appears that veal is suffering either from aba d image or atleas t from aba d quality/price ratio.Thi s makes itimportan t toreconside r how thequalit y of thisproduc t could be improved. When grading veal carcasses, colour has always been taken into account as a quality characteristic. The control of this quality parameter is good at the production level and at presentmos to fth efactor s affecting thecolou ro f veal areknown ,eve ni fth einfluenc e ofth e ultimatep Hi signore ddurin g thegradin goperations . The most critical point in terms of veal quality at the consumer level is tenderness. Very often veal is tougher than expected. Taking into account the age of the calf at slaughter, the physical characteristics of muscle collagen do notlimi t tenderness. Vealtendernes s depends of course on the slaughter, chilling and ageing procedures used, but veal toughness is often associatedwit hhig hweigh tlosse sdurin gcookin gbecaus evea lexhibit s alo w Water-holding capacity because of aver y lowultimat epH ,sometime s associatedwit h anaccelerate drat eo f pHfall . Therefore thewa y veali scooke di sparticularl y importantt opreserv etenderness .

Introduction Traditionally, vealconsumptio n inFranc e has been important: around7 kgpe rcapit a per year.Bu tther eha sbee n astead ydeclin efo r severalyears ,an dthi sha sgrav eimplication s for the future. Theyea r 1988wa sparticularl y difficult. Vealproductio n withinth eEuropea n Community fell by8.2% ,mainl ybecaus eprofit s werecu tb ya nimportan tincreas ei nth eproductio ncosts . Theproportio n ofyoun gcalve suse dfo rvea lproductio ndecrease dfro m 27%i n 1987t o25. 6 in 1988,an dthi schang ewa sparticularl yimportan ti nFranc ewher eth eslaughte ro fvea lcalve s fell by 10%i n 1988.Durin g the sameperio d theprohibitio n of anabolic agents was accom­ panied by much illegal use of theseproduct s ando f newmolecules , sohelpin g to give aba d image to theproduc t which was simultaneously suffering from apoo r quality/price ratio.S o in France where the production cost increased by 14% and the retail price by 7.8%, veal consumption fell by 10.1%.Give nthes etrends ,i ti sperhap swort hconsiderin gi nsom edetai l thebasi cvea lqualit y traits: colour andtenderness .

Biochemicalbasi so fvea lqualit y traits

Veali s not cheap for the consumer. So it is vital for theproduc t to improve quality/price ratio, otherwise the consumer will seek substitutes. Colour and tenderness are the most important quality criteria for veal. To date, colour has been important in terms of carcass grading, andtendernes s hasbee n important for consumer acceptability.Flavou r isimportant , butha sno tye tappeare d asa facto r limitingth econsumptio no f thistyp eo f meat.

167 Vealcolou r

The colour of veal and more precisely its luminosity depends on the amount of muscle pigment ando nth eultimat ep Ho f meat.I nth eusua lgradin g system,n ocorrectio n for pHi s usedi nth ecolou rassessmen to f thecarcasses . Usually,vea l carcasses areclassifie d (graded) in afour-clas s grading system: white,light , pink, pink anddar kpink , orred .Withi n aclas s andwithi n acarcass ,ther ei slarg e variability in luminosity and pigment content. Theresul t of the large variability of luminosity within a classmake sth egradin gdifficul t becauseman yoverlap sbetwee nclasse sar epossible ,a sshow n onFigur e 1 where the datahav ebee n transformed into athree-dimensiona l representation of the colour of veal carcasses of the four classes. In these conditions, a small change in the ultimatep Hca ngreatl yaffec t thegrading ,whic hi stheoreticall ybase do nth eamoun to fmuscl e pigment. Indeed,i nth epale rmuscles , sucha sM. longissimus dorsi, theluminosit y is almost equally affected byth eamoun t ofpigment ,th eultimat ep H andth erat eo fp H fall.

LuminosityY

Figure1. Three-dimensionalrepresentation ofveal colour.

168 Thecontro lo fa lo wamoun to fmyoglobi ni nvea lmuscle si swel lachieved ,a si sth econtro l ofiro nsupplementatio n toimprov eth egrowt hrat eo fth eliv eanimal swithou tan ydetrimenta l effects on thecolou r (MacDougall et al., 1973).Bu t during thelas t 20years , the production methodshav echanged .I norde rt oimprov eth egrowt hrat ean dth ecarcas sweight sa tslaughter , anabolicagent swer euse do na larg escale ,an dth eresul ti sa slo wan dcontinuou sshif t towards redder carcasses. The analysis of the effects of these different factors on veal colour is summarized inTabl e 1(Vali ne t al.,1978) . It appears that theus eo f anabolic agents hasn o significant effect on the ultimate pHan d themyoglobin e content.Thi si ssupporte d bymor erecen tresult s (Renerree t al., 1989). Thus thepossibl e muscledependen t effect of anabolic agentso n themuscl e typing, which is very significant inolde ranimal ssuc ha ssteer s(Oual ie tal. , 1988)an dals ovea l(Vali ne tal. ,1984) , has nomajo r effects onmea tcolou r when animals aredeficien t in iron. Colour is significantly affected by age or carcass weight and it appears that this effect is muscledependen t andmuc hmor eimportan ti n theredde r muscleo f thecarcass . The effect of the milk composition on veal colour, even with an iron-deficient feeding system,i svariable .Fo rinstance ,i n ourpreviou s experiments, thecolou ro f vealfro m calves fed with starch-supplemented skim milk was redder than with a feeding based on regular fat-supplemented skimmilk .I ti sdifficul t toexplai nthi sshif t towardsa redde rcolou rbecaus e manyfactor s mayb einvolved , sucha sa chang ei ngu tpH ,whic hcoul daffec t ironabsorption , or achang ei n muscletyping .

Vealtendernes s In general,mea ttendernes s dependso n • the amounto f collagen andth edegre eo fcollage n cross-linking • theproces s of rigor mortis and thepos t mortem ageing both of which are affected byth e thermal treatments applied toth ecarcasse s andb yth emuscl e typing • the cooking procedure andth eweigh tlosse sdurin gcooking . Wewil lfocu s on thespecificit y of vealmuscl etrait s which couldexplai n thehig h variability in muscle tenderness frequently observed with veal. Table 2 (Kopp et al., 1984) relates the effect of sex and anabolic treatment onth echaracteristic s of vealmuscl ecollagen . Both factors affect collagen, but the sexeffec t ismuc h moreimportan t than thehormona l oneo n the amount of musclecollagen . The thermal stability is slightly lower in animals that havebee ntreate dwit hsteriod sa spreviousl yobserve dwit hcalve s(Vali ne tal. , 1978)an dwit h steers (Oualie t al., 1988).Thi s suggests thepresenc e of a slightly less cross-linked collagen in treated animals. But control and treated animals exhibit a high thermal solubility which showstha tcollage ni sno treall y afacto r limitingvea ltenderness .O fcourse ,th eeffec t ofne w growth promoters such as ß-agonists needs tob echecke d before thisresul t is extrapolated. Thebiochemica l postmorte m changeso fvea ldiffe r compared withthos eo fmea to folde r cattle.Regardin gth eagein gproces si ti swel lknown ,vea lexhibit s afasterrat e of ageingtha n meat from older animals.Wit h a slow chilling process, i.e. without any cold shortening, the ageingrat ei sroughl ydoubl etha to fmea tfro m steersa tth esam estorag etemperature ,th epos t mortem tenderization being achieved infou r days (Figure2) . Very often, the meato f calves treated with anabolic agents is tougher than that of control animals.Thi stoughenin galway sappear st ob erelate dt oa decrease drat eo fth eagein gproces s (Valine tal. , 1978,1984;Oual ie tal. , 1988),whic hprobabl ydepend so nth eeffec t ofanaboli c agentso nth etypin go fmuscl efibers ,thi seffec t onth etypin gbein gcorrelate dwit hth eexten t to which the hormonal treatment has boosted the growth rate of the animals. The anabolic treatment is indeed muscle-dependent but in the longissimus dorsi the treatment shifts the typingt oa slower type,whic h couldcontribut e todecreasin g the ageingrat e (Table3) .

169 Table 1. Effect of anabolic agents (steroids),composition of milk and carcassweight at slaughteron ultimate pH andcolour characteristics of veal. Significance: F value 5%: 4.15*; 1% : 750**. Calvesof the Norman breed, slaughtered at carcass weight of 100 to 130 kg (Valin etal., 1978).

F value ultimate haeminic luminosity rednessa pH iron Y

M. longissimus dorsi Factor 1 anabolic agent 2.201 0.033 4.075 0.185 Factor 2 milk composition 0.362 15.568** 4.255* 9.630** Factor 3 carcass weight 17.725** 3.786 44.813** 8.017**

M.pectoralis profundus Factor 1 1.435 0.369 7.656** 0.056 Factor 2 0.064 11.558** 7.153* 0.006 Factor 3 11.734** 4.283* 112.307** 4.285*

Table 2. Effect of sex and anabolic treatment on veal muscle collagencharacteristics. Significance*P< 0.05;* *P < 0.01;*** P < 0.001.

Sex Anabolic treatment male female signif. control exp. signif. w=12 «= 12 n=12 «=12

Drymatte r% 23.5 24.4 *** 24.2 23.7 ** Collagen inD M(% ) 2.1 1.8 ** 1.9 2.1 n.s. Tension (Ncm-2) 135 139 n.s. 148 126.8 * AtfofDM(J/g) 15.5 15.1 n.s. 15.0 15.6 n.s.

Table 3. Effectof anabolic agents on typing ofmuscle fibres in M. longissimus dorsi.

Koppe t al., 1984 Valin et al., 1984 control exp. signif. control exp. sigif.

Myosine isoenzymes (%) IsoI 16.2 16.2 n.s. ' 18.7 12.5 *## IsoII 33.7 32.0 ** 34.3 36.4 * Iso m 38.1 37.8 n.s. 32.6 34.8 * IsoIV+ V 11.9 14.0 * 14.4 16.3 ** Growthrat e (gd _1) 1180 1210 n.s. 1369 1562 *

170 Mechanical index :mea n value LD -TB 30 • LD * TB IV . 20 \ ^^^, . x u

\l 1 . 1 TO L [ Ï ' i i l '

1 1

postmorte m lime(d )

Figure2. Postmortem tenderization in two veal muscles: M. longissimusdor si and M. triceps brachii.

Regarding theproces s ofrigor mortis , veal exhibits a specific behaviour characterized by ahig hfrequenc y oflo wultimat ep Hbelo w5. 5 (Figure3) .Th ekinetic so fth ep Hchange san d the value of the ultimate pH varies between animals. This very low ultimate pH impairs the water-holding capacity ofvea lan dexplain sth ehig hweigh tlosse sdurin gcookin g frequently observedwit hveal .A sw eobserve dpreviousl ywithou tan ycol dshortening ,toughnes so fvea l is closely correlated with weight losses during cooking and the drying of the cooked meat (Valine t al., 1977). The glycolyticpotentia l atslaughte r seemst ob eth emai ncaus eo flo wultimat ep Hrathe r than the buffering capacity which islowe ri nvea l then inmuscle s of oldercattle .Th ehighe r the glycolytic potential at slaughter, the lower the ultimate pH. With a glycolytic potential above 120 |amol/gth e ultimate pHi s less than 5.5 and whatever the muscle type, glycolytic potentialsrangin gbetwee n 150|imol/ gt o 170|imol/ gar efrequentl y observedi nvea lmuscle . In addition tolo w ultimatepH , some veal muscles exhibit rapid rates of post mortem pH fall which could be deleterious for the water holding capacity of meat, especially when this rapid acidification is associated with a slow chilling process as we have been able to check using electrical stimulation to get a rapid rate of pH fall associated with different rates of chilling (Table4.) . If theprotei n denaturation assessed byth eHar t testimprove s thecolou rb y increasingth e luminosity, it also increases the weight loss during cooking. In addition with higher rateso f post mortem pH fall, even without electrical stimulation, it is also possible to observe an increasei nth eextracellula r spacei nth emuscle s(Monin ,persona lcommunication) .Thi sals o depletes thewater-holdin g capacity ofmuscle .

171 "Extracellularspace "

10 12 16 esp.% (final)

Figure3. Relationship betweenextracellular space andpH 4 hourspost mortem.

Table 4. Effectsof chilling rate on protein denaturation ofveal muscle (Legras, 1980); LD, M. longissimusdorsi; TB, M. tricepsbrachii; a,b P <0.05.

LDmuscl e TB muscle ES slow ESrapi d ES slow ESrapi d chilling chilling chilling chilling pHlh 6.02 6.02 6.03 6.03 pHult . 5.45a 5.51b 5.46 5.49 Luminosity 36.5a 30.4b 40.5a 32.3b Hart test 617a 744b 525a 758b Weightlosse s 24.03 20.0b

Veal flavour

Vealdoe sno thav ea ver y strongflavour, bu ts ofa r veryfew-experiment s havebee ndon e toanalys eth ebasi so fvea lflavour .Undoubtedly ,mea tfro m calvesfe do nwhol emil kexhibit s significantly higher organoleptic qualities than thatfro m animals fed onlipid-supplemente d skim milk (Touraille et al., 1983).I n thisexperimen t onFriesia n calves displaying the same amounto fintramusculai rlipid spigmen tan dultimat ep Ha tslaughter ,th emai ndifferenc e was thecompositio n of intramuscular lipids,neutra l lipidsan dphospholipid s andparticularl y the degrees of unsaturation. Given the influence of phospholipids in the development of meat flavours, manipulating lipid composition in veal muscle might be a way of improving the flavour ofindustriall yproduce dveal .

172 Conclusion

Aparfromt poo rprocedure s after slaughter,th echaracteristic so fvea lmuscl eexplai nman y of thequalit y problems with thiskin do f meat. The specificity of veal muscle characteristics has not yet been completely explored but, even on the basis of whati s nowknown ,i tappear st ou stha tvea l quality could beimprove d if wesuccee di ncontrollin g the glycolyticpotentia l ofvea lmuscl e at slaughter.

References Kopp,J. , M.Bonnet , M.Zabari ,J.P .Reno u &C .Valin , 1984.Influence s relatives du sexee t d'un traitementanabolisan tsu rle scaractristique sd umuscl elon gdorsa ld eveau .30t hEur . Meet. Meat Res.Workers ,Bristol ,3:27,145 . Legras, P., 1980. Etude de la couleur de la viande de veau. DESS Universit de Clermont Ferrand. MacDougall, D.B.,I . Bremmer &A.C .Dalgarno , 1973. Effect of dietary iron on the colour andpigmen t concentration of veal.J . Sei.Foo dAgric , 24,1255-1263. Monin,persona l communications. Ouali,A. ,M.Zabari ,J.P .Renou ,C .Touraille ,J .Kopp ,M .Bonne t& C .Valin , 1988.Anaboli c agentsi nbee fproductio n :effect s onmuscl etrait san dmea tquality .Mea tSei. ,24,151-161 . Renerre,M. ,C .Touraille ,P .Bordes ,R .Labas ,M.C .Bayl e& R .Fournier , 1989^. Influence of straw feeding andgrowt h implant onvea l meatquality .Mea t Sei., 26,233-244. Touraille,C .C .Valin ,B .Auroussea u &J .Sornay , 1983.Influenc e dumod ed eproductio nsu r laquali td el aviand ed e veau. Valin, C. A.Lacourt , M. Renerre &C .Touraille , 1977.Influenc e des techniques d'levagee t d'alimentation surl aquali t del aviand ed eveau .L'Alimentatio n etl aVie ,85 ,ni , 3-11. Valin,C , M.Renerre ,C .Touraille ,J .Kop p& J .Sornay , 1978.Influenc e dela form ed'appor t de l'nergie dans la ration et de l'utilisation des anabolisants sur la qualit des viandes de veau.Ann .Nutr .Alim. ,32,857-867 . Valin,C , C.Touraille ,M .Zabar i &J.P .Renou , 1984.Influenc e des anabolisants surl aquali t des viandesd e veau.30t hEur .Meet .Mea tRes .Workers .Bristol ,4:8,176 .

173 Quality control during vealprocessing : an evaluationo f modern techniques

Frans J.M. Smulders Departmentof theScience of Food of Animal Origin, FacultyofVeterinary Medicine, Universityof Utrecht, Utrecht,NL

Summary

The eating quality of veal may be substantially affected by the way calf carcasses are processed inth eabattoir .Fo rlea n light-weight carcasses,th echillin grat eha sbee n identified as a major determinant of several important sensory characteristics. Modern refrigeration systems aimed atreducin g evaporative weightlosses , generally include apre-chillin gperio d ofu pt o2 h a ttemperature sa slo wa s-1 5° Can dai rvelocitie sa shig ha s2 0m s -1.Th eresultin g rapiddeclin ei n muscletemperatur ecause srigo rmorti st ooccu rdurin g aperio do fextensiv e musclecontraction ,causin g aphenomeno nknow na s 'coldshortening' .Th eclassica lcircum ­ stances reported to favour this condition arise when the muscle pH is still higher than about 6.1 andmuscl e temperatures have already droppedbelo w about 12°C .Therefore , operators having adopted high refrigeration rates, have in recent years come to rely on electrical stimulationa sa mean so facceleratin gmuscl eglycolysis ,thereb yavoidin gthes ecritica lcondi ­ tions. Moreover, electrical stimulation is reported to make veal colour appreciably lighter, which provides added market potential. Other abattoirs, relying on moderate chilling rates, haverefraine d from electrical stimulation for various reasons, the major one being thatcol d shortening conditions rarely occur inthei rchill-rooms . Recent observations strongly suggest that electrical stimulation is applied incorrectly in someabattoirs ,leadin gt oseriou squalit yproblems .Ther ei sproo f tootha telectrica l stimula­ tion might be advantageous even at moderate chilling rates, provided a well controlled stimulation procedure is followed. Therational e of adopting electrical stimulation for various veal-processing procedures is discussed. The effects of stimulation on the appearance (colour and water-holding capacity) and tenderness of veal were evaluated and procedures are suggested to provide maximum benefits from electrical stimulation. Descriptors:mea tqualit y control;chillin grate ;electrica l stimulation.

Introduction

The eating quality of veal is determined not only by the animal's genetic make-up or the interactiono fvariou sanima lhusbandr y factors thatar eexpresse di ncarcas smeat-to-fa t ratio. In thepas t decade it has become increasingly clear that calves with apotenia l for supplying high-quality vealma ystil lyiel dmea twit hundesirabl esensor y traits,a sa resul to fill-control ­ led or suboptimal processing. Although many critical factofs have been identified and measuressuggeste dt oovercom eproblems ,thes esuggestion shave ,unfortunately , notalway s been translated into 'Good Manufacturing Practices'b yvea lprocessors . Thispape rfocuse s onon eo fth emos tcritica lprocessin gstep si nvea lproduction ,chilling , ando n themeasure s thatnee dt ob etake nt opreven t adverseeffect s duet oincorrec tchillin g rate. Fordetaile dinformatio n onth eterminolog yan dmethodolog y ofsensor y analysiso fmeat , for quality thereade ri sreferre d toa revie wpape rb ySmulder s (1986).

174 Postmorte mmuscl econtractio nan d chillingrat e

Amuscl ereact st oa nervou simpuls eb yreleasin g Ca2+fro m itsprimar ycellula rreservoir , the sarcoplasmicreticulum .Thes eion scatalys eth ebreakdow n of glycogen byactivatin g the glycolytic enzymes present in the sarcoplasm. During this process, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) isproduced , which is necessary for muscle contraction. After an ATP-requiring Ca2+ pumpha stransporte dCa 2+bac kove rth emembran eo fth esarcoplasmi creticulum ,th emuscl e relaxes again. After an animal has been slaughtered, glycogen is broken down, albeit anaerobically, through theenormou sreleas eo f Ca2'*' after nervousimpulse s atth etim eo f slaughter.Th eH + released during glycolysis accumulate causing the pH to drop.Whe n the muscle cell has no moreATP ,th emyofibrilla r proteinsacti nan dmyosi nca nn olonge rfreel y 'interdigitate'.Onc e thecross-bridge sbetwee n thetw oar eirreversibl y boundt ofor m actomyosin,th emuscl efibr e hasentere drigo rmortis . In the early 1960s, New Zealand meat scientists discovered that certain critically low temperaturescause drigo rmorti si na stat eo fsever emuscl econtractio n (Locker, 1960;Locke r &Hagyard , 1963).Thi sphenomenon ,commonl y knowna scol d shortening,i s characterized by short sarcomeres and increased toughness. A similar effect occurs at high temperatures. Thisheat-shortenin g effect willno tb ediscusse di nthi spaper .Figur e 1 illustratesth eeffec t of several holding temperatures on thedegre eo f musclecontractio n and tenderness. Theoccurrenc eo fcol d shorteningma ylea dt oa four-fol d toughening ofmuscle s (Bouton et al., 1981). Moreover, the 'water-holding capacity' of cold-shortened meat is severely re­ duced.A sa result ,mor ejuice sar elos tfro m themeat ,causin glowe r (cooking)yield san dles s palatable meat (Honikel et al, 1981; Smulders et al., 1986).I t has been calculated thatcol d shortening occurs when the muscle temperature drops below about 12° C and thep H is still highertha n about 6.1(Bendall , 1973).Base do nthes ecalculations ,rule s of thumbhav ebee n devised. Onesuc hrul e (the '1 0an d 10'rule ) statestha ti fa muscl ei sstil lwarme rtha n 10° C 10h pos tmortem ,on enee dno tfea rth eoccurrenc eo fcol dshortenin g(Bendall ,1973) .A serie s ofexperiment si nth eNetherland s hassubstantiated ,however ,tha tcol d shorteningdoe soccu r in vealcarcasse s underman y circumstances thatconfor m toth e afore-mentioned safe condi­ tions (Smulders, 1984).Obviously , therule s of thumb need adjustment.

1.9

E I 3L I 5 O) c i\ T o œ 1.5 o 4 o /I E V , / o o 7 I— CO w NM

1.1 10 15 25 35 10 15 25 35 temperature C°C) temperature (°C)

Figure1. Effectof holding temperature onsarcomere length andshear force oflongissimus muscle(Smulders etal., 1984).

175 Coldshortenin gca n beprevente di ntw oways .Th efirst almos tobviou swa yi st oabando n rapid carcass chilling. However this would not conform to the operator's wish to limit the residencetim eo fcarcasses .Th esecon done ,acceleratin g glycolysis,i sachieve db yelectrica l stimulation.

Electrical stimulation:th eprocedur e

Whena muscl ecel li ssubjecte dt oelectrica lcurrent ,certai ncellula rstructure sar edamaged ; as aresult , Ca2+ isrelease d athig h concentrations, activating glycolysis.Thi s causes arapi d pHdecline .Figur e2 illustrate s thatelectrica lstimulatio nearl ypos tmortem ,sa ywithi n 5 min of slaughter,result si na faste r pHfal l than stimulation ata late r stage.Presumabl y thelos so f conductivity of the nervous pathways is primarily responsible for this.I n practice, it means that stimulation should preferably be conducted as early as possible, but in any case within thehour ,an dtha tmor eelectri c energyi srequire d toproduc e similareffect s ifon echoose st o stimulate late (Chrystall etal. , 1980).

~i i i i i i i i i i i- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 h post mortem Figure2. Effectof electrical stimulation at 5,45, and70 min post mortem on pHfall andthe likelihoodof protection against cold shortening (critical:pH > 6.1atT <12 °C).

176 Various pieceso f equipment,relyin go npotentia l differences, electrical currents, frequen­ cies, duration of stimulation, and operated manually or automatically with various types of electrodes,ar eavailabl ecommerciall y(West , 1982).Al lo fthes esee mabl et opromot ea mor e or less rapid pH fall and may therefore be expected to protect against cold shortening. One mustrealize ,however ,tha tt osafeguar dth esensor yqualit yo fvea li nmoder nprocessin glines , operators must consider more than thepreventio n of cold shortening alone.

Electricalstimulation :effect s onsensor yqualit y traits

Table 1 includes the effects of an extremely rapid pH decline, as effected by intensive electricalstimulation ,o nmajo r sensorytrait so fvea llongissimu smuscle .Tabl e 1 substantiates that electrical stimulation promotes an extremely rapid pH fall, effectively prevents cold shortening, andresult si n vealwit h lowshea rforces , whichi spreferre d tounstimulate dmea t by about 80%o f a tastepanel . The increased tenderness after electrical stimulation does not result from prevention of cold shortening alone. Several additional mechanisms have been reported, amongst them mechanical disruption of the sarcomere structure by the vigorous contractions during stimulation (Savell et al., 1978), increased membrane damage by high temperature and low pH, leading to increased activity of proteolytic lysosomal enzymes (Dutsone tal. , 1980; Wue tal. , 1985),an dincrease dsolubilit y ofcollage n (Judgee tal. , 1980). Through all these mechanisms, the tenderness of meat will be promoted, regardless of the chillingrat eo f thecarcass . ' Anadde d advantage ofstimulatio n istha tcalve swit h similarconcentration s ofplasm aH b and of musclepigmen t (Haematin =H b +Mb ) yieldvea l with an appreciably lighter colour, as assessed both with instruments andb y eye.Severa l mechanisms have been suggested for the increased lightness after stimulation. It may be partly related to a higher oxymyoblobin concentrationdu et oincrease dpenetratio no foxyge nint oth e(disrupted )fibr e structure(Slepe r et al., 1983). In addition, as reflected by the higher transmittance after intensive electrical stimulation (Table 1), it may be caused by an increased denaturation of the sarcoplasmic proteins and aresultin g loss of water-holding capacity. This isclearl y demonstrated inTabl e 1 by theincrease ddri p loss in stimulated vacuum-packaged veal after 7day s of storage.I ti s partly becauseo f this adverseeffec t thatto ointensiv e astimulatio n is discouraged.

Table 1. Effectof intensive electricalstimulation (60s, 85V, 14 Hz) onmajor sensory traits ofveal longissimus, asassessed 7d postmortem (Eikelenboom &Smulders, 1986).

Electric Nosti ­ P-level Stimulation mulation pH (40mi n post mortem) 5.86 6.83 P< 0.0 1 Sarcomere length (|im) 1.7 1.3 P< 0.01 Shear force (kg cm-2) 2.8 4.9 P < 0.01 Panelpreferenc e (%) 79.5 20.5 P< 0.01 Antemorte m plasma Hb(mg/ml ) 8.9 8.9 n.s. Haematin (mg/g) 44.9 40.1 n.s. HunterL valu e (lightness) 49.8 47.9 P< 0.0 1 Transmittance (%) 38.0 27.0 P < 0.05 Drip lossi n 2.7 2.2 P< 0.0 5 vacuum packing (%)

177 Another important argument against 'overstimulation' became apparent in recent studies conducted in the US, in which the tenderness of meat was highest in muscles that had an intermediate glycolytic rate (i.e. ap H at 3 h post mortem in the 5.9-6.1range) ; the muscle tenderness scoresdecline d atbot h sloweran dfaste rrate s(Mars he tal. , 1987;Smulder se tal. , 1990).Thes efinding sonc eagai nindicate dtha telectrica lstimulatio nwa sno tonl yusefu lunde r blast-chilling conditionswher ei tha dalread ybee n accepteda sa routin eprocedure .Operator s relying on moderate chilling might similarly benefit as long as a moderate acceleration of muscle glycolysis be targeted. However, a warning is timely for those veal processors that apply aver y slowcoolin grate ,fo r thiswil laccelerat e the already highrat eo f pHfal l tosuc h an extent that the tissue is significantly toughened. In view of the wide variety of cooling conditions andth ewid erang eo f stimulation equipment, noprecis erecommendation s canb e made tocove r allprocessin g systems.Individua l vealprocessor s arewel l advised, therefore, carefully andregularl y to assess the combined effects of stimulation and chilling procedure on pH fall. Monitoring the pH decline will determine whether stimulation and chilling procedures areproducin g optimum rateo f glycolysis andwar n of thenee dfo r adjustment of the stimulation duration inorde r topreven t overstimulation or understimulation.

Conclusions Rapid chilling of calf carcasses may lead to serious toughening, unless carcasses are electrically stimulated. Stimulation markedly accelerates'glycolysis thereby eliminating the potential for cold shortening. However, overstimulation leads toa nexcessivel y rapid decline inpH ,resultin gi nincrease ddri plosse san doccasionall yi nsligh ttoughening .Vea lprocessor s are advised, therefore, regularly tomonito r musclep Han dtemperatur e profiles.

References

Bendali,J.R. , 1973. The biochemistry ofrigor morti s andcol dcontracture .Proceeding s 19th European Meeting of theMea tResearc hWorkers ,Paris :A/ O1 . Bouton, P.E.,P.V .Harri s &D .Ratcliff , 1981.Effec t of cooking temperature andtim eo n the shearpropertie s of meat.Journa lo fFoo d Science.46:1082 . Chrystall, B.B., CE. Devine & CL. Davey, 1980. Studies in electrical stimulation: post mortem decline in nervousrespons ei n lambs.Mea t Science.4:69 . Dutson, T.R., G.C Smith &Z.L . Carpenter, 1980.Lysosoma lenzym e distribution inelectri ­ cally stimulated ovinemuscle .Journa l ofFoo d Science.45:1097 . Eikelenboom,G .&F.J.M .Smulders , 1986.Th eeffec t ofelectrica lstimulatio no nvea lquality . Meat Science.16:103 . Honikel,K.O. ,A .Hamid ,C Fisher& R . Hamm, 1981.Influence s ofpos tmorte mchange si n bovine muscle on the water-holding capacity of beef: post mortem storage of muscle at varioustemperature s between 0 and3 0 °C Jounal ofFoo d Science.46:23 . Judge, M.D., E.S. Reeves &E.D . Aberle, 1980.Effec t of electrical stimulation on thermal shrinkage of bovine muscle collagen. Proc. 26th European Meeting of Meat Research Workers,Colorad o Springs,J3:74 . Locker, R.H., 1960.Degre e of muscular contraction as a factor in tenderness of beef. Food Res.25:304 . Locker, R.H. & C.J. Hagyard, 1963.A col d shortening effect in beef muscles. J. Sei. Food. Agric. 14:787. Marsh, B.B.,T.P . Ringkob, R.L. Russell, D.R. Swartz &L.A . Pagel, 1987.Effect s of early post-mortem glycolyticrat eo n beef tenderness.Mea tScience .21:241 .

178 Savell, J.W.,T.R . Dutson, G.C. Smith &Z.L . Carpenter, 1978.Structura l changes inelectri ­ cally stimulated beef muscle.Journa l ofFoo d Science43:1606 . Sleper, P.S., M.C. Hunt, D.H. Kropf, CL. Kastner & M.E. Dikeman, 1983. Electrical Stimulationeffect s onmyoglobi npropertie so fbovin elongissimu smuscle .Journa lo fFoo d Science48:479 . Smulders,F.J.M. ,1984 .Electrica lstimulatio nan dth esensor yqualit yo fbee f andveal .Thesis , University of Utrecht,Dissertatio n Abstracts International C46:(1)114 . Smulders,F.J.M. , 1986.Sensor y meatqualit y andit s assessment. Veternary Quartery8:158 — 167. Smulders,F.J.M. ,F .Korteknie ,C.H.J . Woolthuis& G .Eikelenboom , 1984.Th eeffec t ofearl y postmorte mcondition so nth esensor yan dbacteriologica lqualit yo felectricall y stimulated, hot boned beef longissimus. Proceedings 30th European Meeting of the Meat Research Workers.Bristol:75 . Smulders, F.J.M., G. Eikelenboom & J.G. van Logtestijn, 1986. The effect of electrical stimulation on thequalit y of three bovine muscles.Mea t Science 16:91. Smulders, F.J.M., B.B. Marsh, D.R. Swartz, R.L. Russell & M.E. Hoenecke, 1990. Beef tenderness and sarcomere length.Mea tScienc e (inpress) . West,R.L. , 1982.Electrica l stimulation-United States.In :K.R .Frankli n &H.R .Cros s(Eds.) . Proceedings Meat Science and Technology Symposium, Lincoln (NE), Publ. NLMB, Chicago (IL):91. Wu, F.Y., T.R. Dutson, C. Valin, H.R. Cross & S.B. Smith, 1985. Aging index, lysosomal enzyme activities, and meat tenderness in electrically stimulated bull and steercarcasses , Journal ofFoo d Science50:1025 .

179 Integrated quality control in veal production

L.J.M.H. Senden *1,D .Oostendor p *& J .va nde n Berg* * * ResearchStation for Cattle,Sheep and Horse Husbandry (PR), Lelystad, NL ** NationalInspection Service for Livestockand Meat (RVV), Rotterdam,NL

Summary Todevelo p or toimprov e quality guarantees for veal, anintegrate d quality control model was setu p andteste d byth eDutc h vealindustr y andth eDutc h Government. In4 consecutiv eexperiment sdurin g theperio dMarc h 1987t oFebruar y 1989,7064Blac k andWhit e bull calves werereare d incrate s on 6farms . In total, 108calve s died prematurely and 38 calves had to be slaughtered in an emergency. Theremainin g 6918 healthy fattened calveswer eslaughtere da t2 expor tslaughterhouses .O nth ebasi so faberration si nthes ecalves , the current veterinary meat inspection (EC) was compared with a visual inspection (nopal ­ pation orincisions ) (1KB)integrate dwit hadvanc einformatio n suppliedb yth evea l farmers. Advanceinformatio n from theproduce r andseparatio n ofcalve sint oa risk-bearin g group (Bcalve s andemergenc y slaughters) anda health ygrou p (Acalves )giv ebette rguarantee so f preventing thepresenc eo fresidue si nveal ,tha nth epresent-da yinspection .Th eresult so fth e 1KB trial show that the veal sector in the Netherlands has an infrastructure that allows introduction of anintegrate d system ofqualit ycontrol . Descriptors:veal ;integrate d quality control;mea t inspection.

Introduction The quality of veal depends on the quality of the starting product (newborn calf) and treatmentdurin gtransportation ,o nth evea lfar man di nth eslaughterhouse .T omee tincreasin g requirements in quality and product safety, a field trial 'Integrated quality control (1KB)i n vealcal fproduction 'wa sse tu pb yth eDutc hvea lindustr yan dth eDutc hGovernmen t(Senden , 1991). In this project, a model developed for integrated quality carewa s used and testedo n severalvea lfarm s andi nslaughterhouses .Th eai mo fthi sprojec twa st odevelo po rt oimprov e quality guarantees; this involves all the links in theveal-productio n chain. Measuring points werefixe d in thedifferen t linkso f thechain ,wher eth equalit y of theproduc t andth ewa yo f production couldb edetermined .Informatio n onprecedin glink s andfeedbac k wereessential , toachiev equality . The EC system of meat inspection does not incorporate requirements about information supplied by the farmer. It is based on relatively stringent legalrequirements , and theexami ­ nationo fmea tfo rresidue so fveterinar ydrug sma yinvolv edifficultie s intestin gan db ecostl y (Logtestijn, 1984a).Th e efficiency and scientific basis of this inspection arecurrentl y being questionedbecaus eo fdevelopment si nth evea lsector ,ou rincreasin gunderstandin gan dbette r detectiono fanima ldisease san dzoonosis ,an dtechnologica ldevelopment si nslaughterhouse s (Logtestijn, 1984b). Somelink si n theproductio n chaini nth evea lsecto rwer estudie di nthre esubprojects : the quality of the newborn calf, slaughterqualit y and feedback.

1 Presentaddress :Wolf fvlee sNederlan dB.V. ,P.O . Box61,739 2A BTwello ,NL .

180 Quality of newborn calf Materialan dmethod s

Inth esubprojec t 'Qualityo fth enewbor ncalf' , theeffec t ofth equalit yo fth enewbor ncal f was described and the effect of cleaning anddisinfectin g livestock sheds atcollectio n points and cattle trucks was measured. Awa y of systematically checking hygiene during transport wasteste db yth eagar-offprin t methodwit ha violet-red-bile-glucos e (VRBG)nutrien tmediu m (Geräts et al., 1982). To assess the quality of the calves at the collection points, their initial weight and agewer erecorde d andthei rnave l statuswa s classified. Withinth efirs t weeko farriva lo nth evea lfarms ,bloo dsample swer etake nfro m theyoun g calves to measure the amount of immunoglobulin Gj (IgGj) in the blood serum (Price etal. , 1983).A tth esam etime ,haemoglobi n andure aconcentration swer emeasure d (Hellemonde t al., 1979).Th e effect of the levelo f theseindexe s on growth (daily gain) and state of health (incidence of illness) was determined for thefirst 6 week s of the growingperiod . Tod othis , thecalve swer ereweighe d atth eag eo f 6week s andfarmer srecorde d ina 'logbook' thestat e of health and all medicineus eth ecalves . In4 consecutiv eexperiment s (fatteningperiods )durin gth eperio dMarc h 1987t oFebruar y 1989,7064Blac kan dWhit e(HF/FH )bul lcalve swer ereare di ncrate so n6 farm si nth eregio n underth eaegi so fth eRegiona lAnima lHealt hServic eo fth eProvinc eGelderland .Th eaverag e initial liveweight was 44.5 kg. In total 108 (1.5%) calves died prematurely and 38 (0.5%) calves had to be slaughtered in an emergency. The remaining 6918 healthy fattened calves were slaughtered at2 export slaughterhouses in Apeldoorn within theregio n of the National Inspection Servicefo rLivestoc k andMea t(RVV )i nApeldoorn .Twent ycollectio n points for newborn calves and 28cattl etruck swer einvolve d in the1K Bproject .

Results

In spite of a favourable visual judgment the bacteriological analysis showed that the cleaning and disinfection of the collection points and cattle trucks was not optimum. There weresignifican t differences between thecollectio n points andth ecattl etrucks .Cleanin g was rarely followed by disinfection. The effect of cleaning and/or disinfection could clearly be shown. The calves were assessed at the collecting points. Nearly all met the age requirements, except for 5 that wererecorde d as 'too young'. None of these 5 calves died prematurely but theirdail y gain was lower than thato fcalve so f therequire d age.Incidenc eo f lightt o severe navelinfectio n atth e startwa s4.2% . The average daily gain of calves with aligh t aberration of the navel was 39 glowe r than calves without anave l infection; calves with a severe aberration of the navel had an average daily gain 90 g less than calves without a navel aberration. The death rate of calves with a navel infection was higher than calves without anave l infection. The average IgGj, Hb and ureaconcentration s wererespectively , 13.5g/1,6. 8mmol/ 1 and4. 2 mmol/1.U p toa n average of 44.1day s after the start of theexperiment , the averagedail y gain was 536 g.Growt h was significantly influenced byfarm s andexperiments .I tseem stha tth eIgG j andH bconten tha d a significantly positive influence on daily gain after corrections had been made for initial weight, age atweighin g andure aconcentration . Concentration ofIgG j alsoha d a significant positive effect oncullin grat e ando nincidenc e ofrespirator y and enteric infections. About 10%o f the calves had less than 5g/ 1 IgGj. The daily weight gain of these calves was2 0g les stha n theothe rcalves ,thei rdeat hrat ewa s3 t o4 time shighe ran dthe y hada 1.5 to 2 times as high achanc e of contracting respiratory or enteric infections during thefirst 6 weeks of thefattenin g period.

181 Conclusions

On the basis of these findings it is recommended to improve hygiene by taking various measures, such as regular cleaning and disinfecting of sheds at collection points and cattle trucks,an dregula rmonitorin g of thesemeasures .Th eaga roffprin t methodi sver yusefu l for this.I tmigh tb e advisablet oad dbloo dtestin ga sa nextr aqualit ycriterio n toalread y existing qualitycriteri a sucha sbreed , sex,typ e(quality )an dweight ,o rt otak erando m blood samples as a control measure. Blood testing can be anobjectiv e help with selection andvaluatio n of newborn calves.A t dairy farms, the sale of healthy newborn calves of a suitable age should be stimulated (by selection, payment, advisory extension service,regulations , identification andregistration) .

Slaughter qualityan d feedback

Material andmethod s

The main purpose of the subproject 'Slaughter quality and feedback' was to develop an integratedinspectio nsyste mb ymean so fadvanc einformatio n andfeedbac kbetwee nth elink s veal farm-transport-slaughterhouse. In accordance with regulation 86/587/EEC, the current veterinary meat inspection consists of visual inspection, supplemented with incisions and/or palpitation of organs andlymphati c glands and,i f necessary laboratory investigations. In the1K Bproject , amode l wasdevelope d sotha tth emea tinspectio n could use advance information from the veal farm in order to carry out a more appropriate inspection. This information is recorded on aqualit y information card by the veal farmer, thereby providing themea tinspectio n withrelevan tinformatio n thati suse dwhe ninspectin gfo rresidues . Vealfarmer s wereaske dt okee pdetaile drecord si na 'logbook 'o f thestat eo fhealt ho fth e calves and any medicines used. When delivered for slaughter, the animals had tob e divided into those not mentioned in the logbook (Acalves : no illness or medicinal treatment during thelas t 6week so f the growing period) and thoserecorde d in thelogboo k (Bcalves) .Th eA and Bcalve s hadt o bekep t seperate during transport and slaughter. Aswel la scomparin g thecurren t veterinarymea tinspectio n stipulatedb yE Clegislatio n a comparision was made with visual inspection (no palpation and/or incisions of organs and lymphaticglands )(1K Binspection) .An ydisorder san dth einspector s' decision swer erecorde d on aspeciall y developed form. Besides thestatutor y testingfo rresidue so f antibiotics andchemotherapeutic s andhistolo ­ gical examination for hormones,extr a samples weretake na trando m (5% of theA calves , all B calves and any calves that had to be slaughtered in an emergency) to look for residues of inhibitors of bacterial growth.Examinatio n of kidneys for residues of antibiotics andchemo ­ therapeutics was done by the new Netherlands kidney test (NNNT). Urine was tested for residueso fchloramfenico l withth eQuick-car d(CA Ptest) .Researc hfo rresidue so fveterinar y medicinescontainin gnitrofuran e wasdon ewit hmea tan dbloo d samples.I n accordancewit h the Dutch residue-monitoring programme (VREK), samples were taken to test for environ­ mentalpollution . Blood samples were taken from allcalve s for serological (ELISA) testing for the occurrenceo f cysticercosis (Knapen et al., 1979) andtoxoplasmosi s (Knapen, 1984). Thefar m advisorsreceive d the1K B feedback information onth efar m and slaughterhouse phase. The feedback information consisted of an 'individual review of results' and a 'review of thefloc k withregar d toth efar m andK B results'.

182 Results

Apartfrom th eaberration s 'pneumonia', 'spotkidney' , 'muscle bleeding', 'liver trouble', 'injection spot' and 'carcass contamination', very few aberrations, particularly with the A-calves (n= 6392) ,wer efound . Therewer edifference s inth eincidenc eo fpathologica l and anatomicalfinding s betweenherds .I nspit eo fth esimilarit ybetwee nth e1K B andth eE Cmea t inspections, several aberrations were missed by one or both inspections. There was no statistically significant difference between the twoinspection s in the aberration 'pneumonia' amongA calves . Moreaberration s werefoun d inth eB calve s( w= 160)tha ni nth eA calves .I nth eB calves, theaberration s 'spotkidney ' and 'muscleinjuries ' weremor efrequentl y reported by the1K B inspections than by the EC inspection. By contrast, the EC inspection reported more 'liver abscess'an d'injectio n spots'instead.Ther ewer ever yfe wincidence so fresidue so fmedicine s andcontaminants .N opositiv eNNN Tsample swer efoun d inth eA calve sbu t4 positiv eCA P sampleswer efound . Inth eB calves , 1,17an d2 calve sreacte dpositivel y toNNNT ,CA Ptes t andnitrofuran e testingi nth eblood ,respectively .I nth ecalve stha tha dt ob eslaughtere dearly , 1cal freacte dpositivel y toth eNNN Ttes tan d3 calve s toth eCA Ptest .I non eA cal f testedi n accordance with theVRE Kprogramme ,n o levels higher than thelega l limitswer e found. Not all the positive results of the residue testing could be confirmed by the information from thefarmer . Therei sa proble m withresidue so fchloramfenico l invea lcalves ,teste dwit h theCA Ptest . Serologicaltestin gshowe dtha t0. 6% o fth ecalve swer epositiv efo rcysticercosi san d0.7 % for toxoplasmosis. These samples appeared to be spread over time and over farms, which means that they were 'false positives' and thatcysticercosi s and toxoplasmosis do not occur with thisfor m of veal production. The1K Bmode l indicated that thefeedbac k of data about slaughter quality and diagnosed aberrations found by meat inspection from a data bank was practicable. It has yet to be established to whatexten t thisca n lead toimprovemen t of farm management.

Conclusions

The results of the 1KBprojec t indicate that information obtained during fattening can be incorporatedi nmea tinspectio n andth econtro lo nresidue so fmedicines ,zoonosi s andconta ­ minants. Advance information from the producer and separating calves into a risk- bearing group (treated and growth-retarded calves) and a healthy group (A calves) give better guaranteeso fpreventin gth epresenc eo fresidue si nveal ,tha ndoe sth epresen t day-inspection. By using information collected from fattening herds the veterinary meat inspection can be simplified. The absenceo f cysticercosis and toxoplasmosis in veal calves can be guaranteed simply andreliabl y byimmunologica l testing (ELISA).Incision s of themasticator y muscles totrac ecysticercosi s willthe n nolonge rb enecessary .

Postmorte minspectio n ofvea lcalve s

Materialan dmethod s

Anextr astud ywa sdon et osimplif y thepos tmorte minspectio no fvea lcalves .I nthi sstudy , the1K Ban dth eE Cinspectio n werecompare d witha thir dinspectio n (reference or standard) in order toobtai n a better understanding of theinspectio n methods.A t one export slaughter­ house in Apeldoorn, all normal carcasses were inspected by the three inspections for two consecutive weeks.

183 The1K Ban d theE Cinspectio n werecompare d onth ebasi so f aberrations in 8616calve s and decisions werebase d upon these aberrations.Moreover , theresult s werecompare d with thefinding s oftw oexperience dmea tinspector san don eresearche r(standard) .This'standard ' inspection covered about 40% of theanimals .

Resultsan ddiscussio n

Althougho naverag ether ewer edifference s betweenanimal sth eresult so fth eEC ,th e1K B and the standard inspection, the total numbers of each aberration recorded by means of the three inspections were very similar. Moreresearc h is necessary on estimating theris k toth e consumero fvea li nrelatio nt oth eincidenc ean dtracin go faberrations .Palpatio n andincision s seem tob enecessar y for the aberrations 'liverabscess 'an d 'injection spot'.

Conclusion

Onth ebasi so fo nth eresult sobtaine di tca nb estate dtha tvisua linspectio n (1KB)i salmos t asefficien t in tracing aberrations asregula rinspectio n (EC).

References

Geräts,G.E . &J.M.A .Snijders , 1982.Hygienemetin g invarkensslachtlijnen. VVDOrappor t nr.H8202. Hellemond, K.K. & J.E. Sprietsma, 1979. Het verloop van het hemoglobinegehalte en de hematocrietwaardeva nhe tbloe dva nmestkalveren .Tijdschrif t voorDiergeneeskund e 104: 501-510. Price,CR , K.Spenc e& J .Whicher , 1983.Ligh tscatterin gimmunoassa y of specificproteins : areview . Annalso f Clinical Biochemistry 20:1-14. Senden, L.J.M.H., 1991. Integrale keten begeleiding vleeskalveren. Proefstation voor de Rundveehouderij, Schapenhouderij enPaardenhouderij ,Lelystad . Inpress . vanKnapen ,E , 1984.Immunodiagnosi s of toxoplasmosis.Thesis , Amsterdam. van Knapen,F. ,S .Frida s &J.H .Franchimont , 1979.Th edetectio n ofcirculatin g antigensi n Taenia saginata cysticercosis by means of theenzyme-linke d immunosorbent assay (ELI­ SA).RI Vrappor t nr. 179/79. vanLogtestijn , J.G., 1984a.Integral ebewakin gva nd evleesproduktiekete n (1KB). Tijdschrift voorDiergeneeskund e 109:277-278. van Logtestijn, J.G., 1984b.D e1K B end ekeurin g van slachtdieren. Tijdschrift voorDierge ­ neeskunde 109:283-285

184 Use of growth stimulants and residue control in North American veal production

D.M. Kinsman TheUniversity ofConnecticut, Storrs,CT, US 06269-4040

Summary The veal industry in the United States and Canada is not large when compared with the hugecattl e(beef ) andswin e(pork )industries ,bu ti ti snonetheles sa nimportan tfacto ri nNort h American meat production. Approximately 2.5 million calves in the USA and 0.7 million calves in Canada are slaughtered annually for veal. About half of these are special-fed or formula-fed calves. Some growth stimulants are approved for use with feed-lot cattle in both the USA and Canada, but nonear epermitte dfo r vealproduction . Some growth stimulants including antibiotics, hormones and other pharmaceuticals are approved for therapeutic veterinary use with bovines, but not for veal. In general, theUS A and Canada are in harmony in theirrespectiv e programsrelativ e to the approval,use ,levels , tolerances, withholding periods andmonitorin g for allpharmaceuticals . Residue monitoring for antibiotics, sulfa drugs, hormones, heavy metals and^agricultural chemicals is considered for domestic aswel l asfo r imported meats,wit h emphasis onveal . Therei sa lac ko fdefinitiv e information aboutth eus eo fmos tpharmaceuticals , including growth stimulants,o nth epre-ruminan tvea lcalf .Considerabl eresearc hneed st ob econducte d inthi sare at ofurthe r elucidateth econtribution san dsafet y ofthes eproduct s inth eproductio n system andfoo d chain. Descriptors:growt h stimulants;residu e control; veal production.

Introduction Thevea lindustr y inNort hAmeric a (Canada andth eUnite d States)represent s arelativel y smallproportio n ofth elivestoc k industry onthi scontinent , especially when compared toth e hugecattl e(beef ) andswin e(pork )industrie s(Tabl e 1). Thisfac ti sals oreflecte d inth emuscl e food consumption patterns of thesetw ocountrie s (Tables 2 and3) . Nonetheless, veal is an important portion of the livestock and meat industry of North America. In 1988,i n theUSA ,2. 4 million calves wereprocessed , chiefly dairy breeding, for veal:44 %a sbo bvea l (< 150l bo r 68kg) ;42 %wer eformula-fe d vealcalve s (150-400 lbo r 68-180kg) ; 6%non-formula-fe d of thesam eweigh t and 8%wer eheav y calves (>40 0 lbo r 180kg ) (Kinsman, 1989;Slac k &Warner , 1965).

Useo fgrowt hstimulant sfo rvea lproductio n There is adefinit e trend in theUS Aan d Canada toproduc e more lean meat (muscle) and less fat (adipose tissue) without sacrificing quality of product. By growth management, iti s possible toachiev ethi sgoa lb yth eprope rcontro lo fgenetics ,nutritio n andgrowt hregulatio n (Table 4).Genetically , thepatterns ,limit s and typeso f growth can beidentifie d and selected formaximu m growth anddevelopment .Nutritionally ,th erat eo fdepositio n ofprotei n andfa t mayb e controlled.

185 Table1. Numbers of livestockin the USAand Canada in 1989 (in thousands). Data from Birchfleld(1990) and USDepartment of Agriculture (1989a).

Species USA Canada Total

Poultry 5000 000 15000 0 5 15000 0 Cattle 9899 4 11004 109 998 Swine 5379 5 1064 0 6443 5 Sheep 1077 4 730 11504 Veal 250 0 700 320 0

Table2. Consumptionof muscle food per capitain 1988 (carcass basis). Data from American MeatIndustries (1989), Birchfleld(1990) andUS Department of Agriculture (1989b).

Species USA Canada (lb) (kg) (lb) (kg) Beef 102.0 46.0 90.0 41.0 Poultry 85.0 39.0 90.0 41.0 Pork 63.0 29.0 65.0 30.0 Fish 20.0 9.0 21.0 9.5 Veal 1.7 0.8 3.4 1.5 Lamb/Mutton 1.6 0.7 2.0 0.9

Total 273.0 125.0 271.0 123.0

Table 3. Consumption ofmuscle food per capita in1988 (retail basis). Data from American MeatIndustry (1989) andBirchfield (1990).

Species USA Canada lbs. kgs. lbs. kgs.

Beef 72.0 33.0 63.0 29.0 Poultry 80.0 30.0 63.0 29.0 Pork 49.0 22.0 50.0 23.0 Fish 15.0 7.0 16.0 7.0 Veal 1.4 0.6 2.3 1.0 Lamb/Mutton 1.4 0.6 1.5 0.7

Total 219.0 93.0 196.0 90.0

Through the mechanism of growth regulation capitalizing on growth hormones, growth- hormone-releasingfactors ,beta-adrenergi cagonist san dimmunizatio nstrategies ,i ti spossibl e toinduc emor erapi dweigh tgain ,chiefl y muscle,a tearl ygrowt hstage san dproduc ea dramati c increasei nmas s of skeletal musclewhil egreatl yreducin g thefa t content of thebody .

186 Table 4. Growthmanagement. After National Research Council(1988).

Genetics Nutrition Growth regulation

- Patterns ofgrowt h - Rateo f deposition of - Growth hormones - Limits of growth protein andfa t - Growth-hormone-releasing - Typeso f growth factors - Beta-adrenergic agonists - Immunization strategies

Table5. Hormonesthat affect growth. From Mitchell(1989).

1. Growth hormone 2. Insulin 3. Thyroid hormones 4. Glucocorticoids 5. Prolactin 6. Gonadal steroids (androgens and oestrogens)

Table 6. Drugsnot permitted. FromHonstead (1990).

1. Diethylstilbesterol (DES) 2. Chloramphenicol 3. Dimetridazole 4. Ipronidazole

Table 7. Beta-adrenergic agonists (beta- agonists) andsomatotropin. FromYang & McElligot(1989).

Analogues of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine - stimulateprotei n synthesis - decreaseprotei n degradation - stimulate nuclear accretion Somatropin - increases muscle - decreases fat content - improves feed efficiency

The hormones that affect growth (Table 5) have been employed to various degrees with several species of livestock with varying degrees of success. Some are approved for use for beef butno tfo r veal.Som ear eno tpermitte di nan yspecie s (Table6) .Thus ,th eus eo fgrowt h

187 Table8. Immunizationstrategies and othermechanisms. FromNational Research Council (1988).

1. Anabolic implants:growt h promotors, shifting nutrientsfro m fat toprotei n and enhancing growthrates . 2. Synchronize nutrition with animal's needsfo rprotei n growth. 3. Continuous delivery ofrepartitionin g agents in allphase so f growth. 4. Useo f intact males:bul lcalve s (vealproduction) .

Other mechanisms for enhancing desirable growthpatterns .

Bio-assays andcel l structure

1. Differentiation inhibitor: occursdurin gembryoni c myoblast growth. 2. Transferrin (iron-saturated):stimulate sproliferatio n anddifferentiatio n of myotubes. 3. Fibroblast growth factor: stimulates proliferation of myogeniccells .

Table 9. New animaldrug application (NADA) approval process.From Mitchell (1989).

1. Safety in animal andresultan t food. 2. Effectiveness inresearc h andfiel d studies. 3. Manufacturing procedures and facilities before release. 4. Environmental impact analysis 5. Analytical method for residues established. 6. Label information anddirection s for use approved. stimulants is still largely in the experimental stage, although some are in use with beef and porkproductio ni nparticular .Th eimmunizatio n strategiesar ereceivin gth egreates temphasi s today alongwit h the useo f beta-agonists and somatotropin (Table7) .Howeve r noneo f these growth stimulants are approved for vealcal fproductio n in North America. Thepre-ruminan t (veal) calf requires a great deal more research relative to the use of growth stimulants, as opposed to its more mature ruminating brethren destined for beef. This is also true of withdrawal periods for medication andothe r treatments ofpreruminan t (veal)calves . Therear e somene w techniques beingdevelope d bybiotechnolog y thatwil lmeri tconside ­ ration in the future but none of these areye t in useo n apractica l basis (Table 8).Th e intro­ duction of these or any new animal drugs must, of course, go through a rigorous approval process (Table9) .I t should beemphasized ,however ,tha tn ogrowt h stimulants are approved for use with veal in North America (Desgagne et al., 1989; Guide for the care and use of agricultural animals in agriculturalresearc h and teaching, 1988).

Monitoring residuesi nvea ltissue s Allnon-naturall yoccurrin gsubstance sfoun d inou rmea tsuppl yar eeithe rapprove db yth e Foodan dDru gAdministratio n (FDA)o rar ebanned , andtherefor e theproduc ti scondemne d whensuc hsubstance sar efound .Th eFoo dSafet y andInspectio nService s(FSIS )o fth eUnite d

188 Table 10. Surveyof 130 veal farms byFDA in 1983. Data from Hays &Black (1989).

Vealfarm s (%) Antibiotic

Medicated formula feeds: 38 with Oxytetracycline and neomycin 35 with Chlortetracycline 27 with Oxytetracycline

Oral dosage forms: 33 nitrofurazone 26 Chlortetracycline 15 sulfamethazine 12 Oxytetracycline 11 neomycin 11 chlorotetracycline and sulfamethazine

Single animal treatments: 51 penicillin 50 tylosin 35 Oxytetracycline 16 penicillin-streptomycin 15 erythromycin 15 selenium

StatesDepartmen to fAgricultur e(USDA )an dcorrespondin gagencie si nAgricultur eCanada , monitor this program. In general, theresidue-testin gprogra m operates atthre elevels : 1. monitoring, wherein random samples aretake n periodically; 2. surveillance, whenproblem s arefoun d and aconcentrate d sampling is warranted; and 3. exploratory, when new direction or studies are indicated. FSIS is awareo f approximately 400potentia lresidue s from all sourcesi n animal tissues and itregularl y monitors about 100o fthese .Fewes tresidue s arefoun d inou rfeed-lo t (grain-fed) cattle,wherea sth egreate rincidenc eo fresidue si sdetecte di ncul lcows ,hog san dvea lcalves . AWashingto n State University study determined that 85%o f the antibiotics administered to vealcalve s was to20 %o f thecalves ,namel y theproble m calves. A 1983FD Asurve y of 130vea lfarm s (Table 10)identifie d themod eo f administration of antibioticsan dth eprevalenc eo fthes eantibiotic sb yusag ei nvea lproduction .Oxytetracyclin e and Chlortetracycline, alone ori n combination with others,wer e thepredominan t antibiotics used by all systems,althoug h penicillin wasth eprincipa l onefo r injections withillness . The 1989 Canadian annual report on chemical and biological testing showed some interesting datarelativ e toth edecrease d useo rprevalenc eo fresidue si nmea tdurin g thepas t five years.Thi sinclude santibiotics ,heav ymetals ,steroids ,hormona ldrug san dpesticide so r herbicides.Thei r diminished usean dpresenc e in animal tissuei sver y encouraging. Furthermore, they sampled all imported meats, thus monitoring for residues from those sources aswel l (Agriculture Canada, 1989). A 1988 USDA study (Table 11) identified 48 violations among formula-fed veal calves, citing the number and percentage of these violations by antibiotic. These violations reflect dosage aswel la swithdrawa ltime sa spossibl ecause so fnon-compliance .I ngeneral , 10day s isa minimu mperio do fwithdrawal ,wit hsom esubstance srequirin gu pt o9 0day so r 13weeks . Theconcern sb yth econsume rabou tt ofreedo m from drugo rpesticid eresidue so fanimal - derived food products are also of vital interest and importance to allo f us in the food chain: producers,processor s andretailers . Theseconcern sar ereflecte d in theconsumers 'selection s

189 Table 11. USDA violativeresidue profile f or formula-fed calves (1988)(n =48). Data from Geletaet al. (1988).

Drug Violations Rangeo f violations Tolerance number % (ppm) (ppm) Tetracycline 13 27 0.20 - 3.75 0.25 Gentamicin 10 21 0.01 - 14.08 0.0 Neomycin 7 15 3.24 -132.00 0.25 Oxytetracycline 7 15 0.41 - 2.48 0.1 Streptomycin 6 13 2.13 - 4.87 2.0 Penicillin 3 6 0.07 - 0.16 0.05 Sulfamethazine 2 4 0.39 - 1.36 0.1

offood .Consumer stoda yar ebot hnutrition-consciou san dhealth-conscious ,an dthe ydeman d and deserveprope r andresponsibl e useo f any substanceincorporate d intothei r food supply, bei t animal drugs orfoo d additives. Thisi sa mos timportan tissu efo ral lo fu st oaddres swh oar einvolve di nanima lagriculture . Avea lqualit yassuranc eprogra m hasbee ndevelope dt oinsur ecomplianc ewit hFDA ,USD A andEP A specifications.

References

AgricultureCanada , 1989.Annua lrepor to nchemica lan dbiologica ltestin gfo r thefisca l year 1988-89.Ottawa , Ontario K1A1B7. American MeatInstitute , 1989.Mea tfacts .Washington ,D C20007 . Birchfield, G., 1990.Livestoc k inventories and meat consumption. Statistics Canada; Agri­ culture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A1B7. Desgagne,M. ,J .LeCavalie r &I .Malyniwsky , 1989. Anabolicsteroids :us ean dabus e profile in Canada. Bureau ofDangerou s Drugs.Ottawa ,Ontario ,K1 A1B7 . Geleta,J.N. ,C.J . Barnes,G.L .Morris ,J .Matusik ,G.C .Guyer ,L .Frank ,& D.J .Weber , 1988. Chemotherapeutic agents and their disposition in food producing animals. I. Disposition of sulfamethazine in tissues and plasma of bob veal, fancy veal and replacement calves after oral administration. USDA,Divisio n of Veterinary Medical Research Report 290.1- 290.01 (TNADN o4265) ,Beltsville ,M D20705 . Guidefo rth ecar ean dus eo f agricultural animalsi nagricultura lresearc h andteaching , 1988. First Edition, Chapter 11: Guideline s for vealcal f husbandry.Champaign , IL61820 . Hays,V.W .&C.A .Black ,1989 .Antibiotic sfo ranimals :th eantibioti cresistanc eissue .Counci l for Agricultural Sciencean dTechnology , 1989-2,Ames ,Iowa . Honstead, J., 1990. Personal communication regrowth promotants and residue evaluation, USDA,FSIS ,Washington ,D C20205 . Kinsman, D.M. 1989.Veal : meat for modern menus, 50 pp. National Live Stock and Meat Board, Chicago,J L60611 . Mitchell,G.A. , 1989.Prope rdru gus ei nvea lcalves .Presente dt oAmerica nVea lAssociatio n VealHealt h Seminar,Lancaster ,PA . NationalResearc hCouncil , 1988.Designin gfoods :anima lproduc toption si nth emarket-pla ­ ce.Nationa lAcadem y Press,Washington ,DC .p .135-193 . Slack, S.T. & R.G. Warner, 1965. Veal production. Cornell University Animal Husbandry MimeoSerie s No4 ,Ithaca ,NY .

190 US Department of Agriculture, 1989a. Livestock and meat statistics. Economic Research Service. StatisticalBulleti n Number784 ,Washingto n DC2005-4788 . USDepartmen to fAgriculture , 1989b.Livestoc k andpoultr y situation andoutloo k yearbook. Economic Research Services,LPS-38 ,Washington ,D C20005-4788 . Yang,Y.T . &M.A .McElligott , 1989. Multipleaction so fbeta-adrenergi c agonistso n skeletal muscle and adiposetissue .Biochemica l Journal 261:1-10.

191 Multiresidue test for ß-agonists in a variety of matrices

L.A. van Ginkel,R.W .Stephany ,H.J .va nRossu m &J .Farl a Laboratoryfor ResidueAnalysis, National Institute for PublicHealth and EnvironmentalProtection, P.O. Box 1,3720BA Bilthoven, NL

Summary

A multiresidue method for the detection and identification of ß-agonists was developed. The method is based on sample clean-up with multi-immuno-affinity chromatography and detection and identification by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. For salbutamol in urine of vealcalves ,a half-lif e was found of bout2 days . Descriptors:immuno-affinity ; analysis;salbutamol .

Introduction Theus eo f ß-agonists asgrowth-promotin g agentsha sconfronte d analyticalchemist swit h ane wchallenge ,th edevelopmen t ofreliabl ean dsensitiv emethod s suitablefo r thedetectio n andidentificatio n of anumbe ro f analytesi na variet yo f matrices.Previou s workdon ei nou r laboratory (Ginkel et al., 1989) showed that the useo f antibodies (immuno-affinity) for iso­ lating analytes from acomple x mixturei sa ver y suitablemetho d for sampleclean-up .Whe n immuno-affinity chromatography (IAC)i scombine dwit hga schromatography-mas s spectro­ metry (GC-MS),a potentiall y very adequate analytical strategy is available.O n the strategy, wedevelope da metho dfo rdetectio nan didentificatio n ofß-agonist scontainin ga nN- tertbuty l group (Figure 1).

Materialan dmethod s Standard clenbuterol and Carazolol was kindly donated by Boehringer Ingelheim (Ingel­ heima mRhein ,FRG )an dstandard ssalbutamol ,terbutaline ,carbuterol ,pirbutero lan dSotalo l by the National Institute for Quality Control ofDrug s (Leiden,th eNetherlands) .

GC-MSDsyste m

TheGC-MS D system (Model 5970mass-selectiv e detector combined with aMode l 5890 gasChromatograph ;Hewlett-Packard ,Avondale ,PA ,USA )wa suse di nth eselected-io nmode , using aholdin g timeo f 100ms .Th e gasChromatograp h wasequippe d with aSE5 2capillar y column (Machery Nagel, Dren, Swiss) (inner diam. 25 m x 0.25 mm) using helium as the carrierga s ata colum n headpressur e of 70kPa .Th eove n waskep t at 100° Cfo r 3min ,the n thetemperatur e wasraise d to28 0° Ca t2 0°C/min .

Preparationo fth eIA Cmateria l

Theimmunoge nuse dwa sprepare da sdescribe dearlie rb ycouplin gdiazonium-clenbutero l tobovin eseru malbumi n(B SA ,Sigma)(Yamamot oe tal. ,1982) .Th eantiseru muse dt oprepar e theimmuno-affinit y matrix wasobtaine db yimmunizin g arabbi tfou r timesove r aperio do f 5 months,2 m go f theimmunoge n each time.Th eisolatio n of theantiseru m immunoglobulin

192 G (IgG) fraction and coupling of this fraction to the activated matrix (Tresyl activated Sepharose;Pharmacia ) wasperforme d asdescribe dpreviousl y (Ginkele t al., 1989).

HO (

H CH,

HO- -C- -CH—N- -C CH, O I 2 OH CH, / N CH,

OH

•CH,

Figure1. Structureof some N-tertbutyl ^-agonists. Fromtop tobottom clenbuterol, salbuta- mol,terbutaline, pirbuterol and carbuterol.

193 + salbutamol A clmaterol O clenbuterol

120 O

<}__ •—— O o 96 +

+ 72 - A- >. " A~~ >(1) O ' b. ü - (D 48 /h A\

A~ 24 -

-•

O i i i 1 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50

pH

Figure 2. Optimizationof ion-pairextraction for some fi-agonists.

TIC of DRTR:02DE02.D il D 00 8.0EB- 3 P^ m (1 h S ID ' •*

3 (M Ol n 7.0E6- «J Ol •- co OD n G.0ES- * \. (M in Q) -. N U 5.0EG- 1 in c co m i fo Ol 4.0EG- JM IV . in l\. 3 m Ol SI 1 3.0EG: in Œ S 2.0EG: 1 1.0E6: —. ^- Hl .i \ li 'v<>-—~-^vJ --—_À 0J u 10 1 Z 14 IG IG 20 T i me (min. )

Figure3. GC-separationof ^-agonists and related compounds (10.49:isoprenaline-tri-TMS; 11.08:terbutaline-tri-TMS; 11.78: carnuterol-di-TMS; 11.85: clenbuterol-TMS; 12.36: cima- terol-TMS; 12.66:salbutamol-tri-TMS; 15.52:Sotalol-di-TMS; 15.73:sotalol-TMS; 19.80: carazolol-TMS;20.72: carazolol-di-TMS).

194 Analyticalprocedur efo rurin e

Extraction

Usuallyclenbutero li sextracte dunde rbasi cconditions .Howeve rsinc emos to fth eagonist s tested arephenoli c compounds,thes econdition s cannotb euse dfo r multi-analyteextraction . Therefore we tried ion-pair extraction, previously used by,fo r instance, Brand et al. (1982) for the extraction of terbutaline. We used sodium dodecyl sulphate, since this counterion proved to be suitable in the HPLC analysis of clenbuterol and cimaterol (Courtheyn et al., 1988).Figur e2 show sth eresult so fap Hoptimizatio nexperimen tfro mwhic hi twa sconclude d that the best results are obtained atp H7.8 .Th e useo f bis(-2-ethyl)hexyl resulted in slightly lowerrecoverie swherea sn osignifican t differences wereobserve dbetwee n solutions buffered withphosphat e orTris .

IAC

After evaporation of the solvent theresidu e is dissolved in water and applied to the IAC column. After washing the column with water, the ß-agonists are eluted with acetate buffer (0.1 mol/1),saline ,p H4.8/ethano l(1:1 ,v/v) .Th eeluat ei sevaporated ,desalte dan dderivatize d withBSTFA/1 % TMCS (Pierce)t ofor m TMS-derivatives.

GC-MS

Figure 3 shows the GC-separation after derivatization of the five ß-agonists tested and a few additional test compounds. Base-line separation, using GC-MS (TIC) detection, was achievedbetwee nal lcompound swit hth eexceptio no fcarbutero l andclenbuterol ,whic hwer e impossible to separate on the column used. Sotalol and Carazolol formed two different derivatives. Based on the mass spectra obtained, afragmentatio n pattern as shown in Figure 4 is suggested. For clenbuterol and salbutamol the fragments have the following nominal masses:

M0 Md [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] Clenbuterol-TMS 276 348 86 262 243 333 277 187 Salbutamol-triTMS 239 455 86 369 350 440 384 294

M0= molecular weight Mj= molecular weight after derivatization

Resultsan d discussion

Theprocedur e wasfirs t testedb yanalysin g blankurin e samples and samples were spiked with one or more of the analytes. The extraction procedure, performed in duplo for each sample,resulte di na recover yo f90 %o rmore .U pt oa leve lo f 100ng ,n olosse swer eobserve d during theIA Cclean-up .Sample sfro m animals treatedwit h salbutamolwer eanalyse d using clenbuterol asa ninterna l standard. Thevalidit y of this approach wasevaluate d by analysing different volumes (1t o 4 ml) of a sample.Th eresultin g average value (± SD) was 18.0± 2 H.g/1 indicating parallellism between volume analysed and amount of salbutamol detected. Figure 5 shows the salbutamol concentration in urine of veal calves after treatment with salbutamol (salbutamol hemisulphate 32mg ,twic e ada y (Ventolin 4 ex. Glaxo) for 5days) . FromFigur e5 ,i tca nb econclude dtha tth esalbutamo lconcentratio ni nurin edecline srapidly , T 2.6day s(Anima l 1)an d 1.7 days (Animal2) ,afte r withdrawalo f salbutamolfro m the feed.

195 [B] [A] «, H \ / H H H OH, 1 I I N C Il H ^, /A °, CH. R. U \ CH, CH,

[M-15W

H H H CH. I I I I C C N C B II I ' 10+ H CH,

[E] R, H IfJ

Figure4. GeneralEl-fragmentation pattern of ^-agonists.

310 V2

248 z vx ^M calf 1 YZm calf 2 186 z Z 3 124 Z

62 z v\ Z O JxA V7X/ m 'Ajm s\ irr?r7-\ -5-4-3-2 0 1 2 3 7 14 days after termination of treatment

Figure5 . Salbutamolin urine (miac/gc-msd) duringand after treatment with salbutamol.

196 Two weeks after treatment, salbutamol concentrations were in the range of the limit of detection of the method. However the limit of detection did not represent the limit of identification. Within the EC, there were criteria for identification of residues of hormones andrelate dcompound swhic hha dt ob efulfille d toallo wpositiv eidentificatio n withGC-MS . Duet oth esever efragmentatio n withelectron-impac tionization ,i twa sno tpossibl et oidentif y ß-agonists inaccordanc ewit hthes ecriteri a(4-ion swit hcorrec trelativ eabundance )a tth elo w ppb level.Wit hothe rionizatio n techniques orcombination s or techniques andderivatives , it is possible to circumvent these problems, if necessary (Ginkel et al., 1990). The procedure described wasals ouse d (with appropriatemodification s for theextraction ) for feed, stomach contents and liver and hasprove d tob ea reliabl e and veryflexibl e multiresiduemethod .

References

Brandts,P.M. ,R.A.A .Maas ,J.F .Leferink , CL.d eLign y& G.H.E .Nieuwdorp , 1982.Ion-pai r extraction of some sympathomimetics. Description of an extraction model for terbutaline andinvestigatio no fsom efactor sinfluencin g therecover yo fsympathomimetics .Anal ytic a ChimicaAct a 135:82. Courtheyn R.,R . Verne,R . Schilt,H .Hooijerink , C.Desaeve r &V . Bakeroot, 1988.Detecti e enidentificati e vanclenbutero le ncimatero lme tHPLC .Benelu xWorkin gGrou p"Hormo ­ nes and anti-Hormones", Brussels,documen t SP/LAB/h (88)43 . van Ginkel L.A., H. van Blitterswijk, P.W. Zoontjes, D. van den Bosch & R/W. Stephany, 1988.Assa yfo rtrenbolon ean dit sreduce dmetabolit e17oc-trenbolon ei nbovin eurin ebase d on immunoaffinity chromatographic clean-up and off-line high-performance liquid chro- matography-thin layer chromatography, Journal of Chromatography 445:385-392. van Ginkel L.A., R.W. Stephany, H.J. van Rossum,H.M . Steinbuch, G. Zomer, E. van der Heeft & A.P.J.M. de Jong, 1989. Multi-immunoaffinity chromatography: a simple and highly selective clean-up method for multi-anabolic residue analysis of meat. Journal of Chromatography 489:111-120. van Ginkel L.A., R.W. Stephany et al., 1990.I n preparation. Yamamoto, I & K. Iwata, 1982.Enzym e immunoassay for clenbuterol, a beta-2-adrenergic stimulant. Journal of Immunoassay 3:15.

197 8. Nutrition: protein sources Introductory remarks:som easpect so fskim-mil k replacement by other protein sources inveal-cal f diets

GJ.M. van Kempen &J .Huisma n ILOB-TNOInstitute for AnimalNutrition and Physiology, P.O.Box 15, 6700AA Wageningen, NL

Summary

Different limitations forreplacemen t of skim milk byothe rprotei n sources are discussed. Themajorit y ofalternativ eprotei n sourceshav ea lowe rprotei n digestibility than skim-milk- powder. Most ofthes eprotein s dono t clot in theabomasum . Theabomasa lpassag erat eo fnon-clottin g whey andsoy aprotein si smuc hfaste r thantha t of skim-milk protein. Curd formation may beessentia l for optimum protein digestibility.Fa t digestibilitywa sdecrease d when skimmil ki sreplace db yothe rprotei nsources .Th epossibl e relation of lower fat digestibility with non-curd formation, emulsifiers, carbohydrates and somemineral si sdiscussed .Othe r subjects mentioned areconten to favailabl eiro n andamin o acidrequirement . Descriptors:vea lcalves ;digestibility ; protein sources;passag erate .

Introduction

The veal calf industry in Europe was established in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a consequenceo fth eincreas eo fmil kproductio ni nEurope .Sinc etha ttime ,vea lcal fproductio n has alwaysplaye d animportan trol ei n theeconomic s ofdair y industry and meat production. The success of the veal calf industry was based on the fact that industries succeeded in composing amil kreplace ri nwhic h thebutterfa t wasreplace db yothe rfats .I n the 1950san d 1960sdiet swer ebase dmainl y on skim-milkpowder , somewhe ypowde ran d non-butterfats. In thisperiod ,researc h intofa t quality andemulsifier s wereimportan t areas (Huisman &va n Weerden, 1984;Toulle ce t al., 1980).Later , when milkprotein s increased strongly inprices , researchint oth epossibilitie st oreplac esubstantia lpart so fskim-mil kpowde rb yothe rprotei n sources was initiated.However , it soon became clear that there were serious limitations for these replacements. In the following, some aspects of these limitations are discussed and suggestions forresearc h toreduc ethes e limitations are given.

Digestibility ofprotei n andfat s inrelatio n toabomasa lpassage , contentso fantinutritiona l factorsan d antigenicity

The protein digestibility of the majority of alternative protein sources is lower than for skim-milk powder (Table 1).A n exception is wheat gluten.I ti s not clear what thereaso n is for this difference in digestibility. But, it is striking that skim-milk powder curdles in the abomasum and also wheat gluten has some clotting ability.Othe r proteins remain unclotted in the abomasum. This suggests that thestructur e ofprotei nma y be animportan t factor. The following topics were studied:

201 Table 1. Faecaldigestibility of various protein sources with scpas single-cell proteins (scp).

Protein source Meanprotei n digestibility Skim-milk powder 95 Wheatglute n 96 Soyaconcentrat e andflou r 80- 85 Fishprotei n concentrate 80 Yeast scp 80-85 Bacterial scp 92- 94 Potatoprotei n 80

• duodenalpassag eo f protein andfa t invea lcalve s fed ondifferen t protein sources; • digestibility ofprotei n andfa t indiet si nwhic h asubstantia lpar to f theskim-mil k powder wasreplace d byothe rprotei n sources; • influence of antigenicity of proteins onperformanc e and digestion. Duodenalpassag ewa smeasure dwit hdiet scontainin gth efollowin gsol eprotei nsources :ski m milk protein, whey protein (mix of whey powder and whey concentrates), soya concentrate andsingl ecel lproteins .Eac hdie tcontaine d about25 %o fon eo fthes eprotei n sourcesa sth e sole protein source. The dietary fat content was 18-20%. The fat mixture consisted of 35% beeftallow ,35 %lard ,25 %coconu to rpal mkerne loi lan dabou t5 %emulsifiers . Criteriawer e thepassag e of protein, fats, carbohydrates, pHcours e andbuffe r capacity. As anexampl e in Figures 1an d 2, the duodenal passage of protein and fat obtained with skim-milk powder, whey powder and soya concentrate aregiven . Theskim-mil k protein passed the duodenum ata relativel y constantrat edurin g thewhol e day,wherea s whey andsoy aprotein spasse d ata muc hfaste rrate .Withi n aboutsi xhours ,th e main part of whey and soya proteins passed the duodenum. The same pattern was observed for crude fat. Arelativel y constant fat-passage rate with skim-milk protein-based diet was observedan da fas tfat-passag erat ewit hth ewhe yan dsoy aprotein sbase ddiet .Thes edifferen ­ cesi npassag erat eo fprotei nan dcrud efa tma yb eattribute dt oth efac ttha tcasei nha scurdlin g capabilities while the other proteins do not have this capacity. With curd formation, fat is includedi nth eclot ,bu twhe yi s squeezed out.Becaus e of this,casei n andfa t areretaine d for alonge rtim ei nth eabomasu mwhil eothe rconstituent spas sth eabomasu mmor erapidly .Thi s information suggests thatcur d formation may beessentia lfo r digestibility for the following reasons: • duet ocur dformation ,th eprotei nremain slonge ri nth eabomasum .Thi simplie stha tprotei n andfa t areexpose d topepsi n andHC lfo r alonge r time.Thi s first pre-digestion stepma y beo fimportanc efo r thefurthe r digestionprocess ; • duet oth e slowerpassag erat eo f skim-milkpowde rbase ddiets ,th esmal lintestin ei smor e regularly filled with protein andfa t thanwhe nwhe y and soya-baseddiet s aregiven ; • thefa t in the skim-milk dieti smor einclude di nprotei n clots.Wit h other proteins,th e fat remainsseparate dfro m theprotein .Whe nnon-clottin gdiet sar egiven ,th efa tpasse srapidl y together with the liquid phase. The structure of the protein and fat in the chyme is thus different from thato f milk; • the structure of clotted protein is different from non-clotting proteins. The structure of protein may beimportan t foroptimu m digestion. As indicated in Table 1mos t alternative proteins have a lower digestibility. These proteins haveon epropert y in common, namely that theyd o notclo ti n the abomasum. Theresult s of

202 o.e

0.4

Skimmilkpowde rdie t

o.i VN^' •• Soyaoonœntxat edie t

ïiieypowde rdie t j_ _i_ 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Timeafte rfeedin g (min.)

Figure1. Duodenalpassage of crude protein.

SkimmiUt powder diet

xv^ "•'•.. N _-«heypowde rdie t Soyaconcentrat edie t

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Timeafte rfeedin g (min.)

Figure2. Duodenalpassage of fat. duodenalpassag eindicat etha tthi sobservatio nma yb eimportant .Fo rplan tprotein sals oothe r factors maypla y arole ,suc ha strypsi ninhibitors ,lectin s andantigenicit y ofprotein .Trypsi n inhibitors can cause reduced (chymo)trypsin activity and losses of endogenous protein by hyper stimulation of the pancreas. Lectins and antigenic proteins can cause gutwall damage resulting in reduced intestinal absorption of nutrients, reduced secretion of brushborder enzymes and enhanced losses of endogenous protein. Moreover intestinal and humoral immunological reactions mayoccur .Som easpect so flectins ,trypsi n inhibitors and antigenic proteins will be presented in this meeting. Inclusion of alternative proteins may effect fat

203 Table 2. Effectof non-milk protein sources onfat digestion.

Amount of product Digestibility of fat Number inth etes tdie t control diet test diet difference of calves 25% soya concentrate 98.0 (0.2) 94.2 (2.5) - 3.8 4 20% soya flour 94.4 (1.3) 88.7* (1.4) - 5.7 4 35% soya flour 96.0 (0.6) 86.7*** (1.3) - 9.3 4

20% bacterial scp 96.2 (0.6) 96.9 (0.3) + 0.7 10 25% lowfa t yeast scp 97.2 (0.8) 94.2* (0.9) - 3.0 15 20%fish concentrat eA 97.4 (0.4) 93.9** (0.6) - 3.5 6

11% fish concentrate B 93.5 (0.6) 85.2*** (1.3) - 8.3 4 22% fish concentrate B 93.5 (0.6) 81.4** (3.0) -12.1 4 * Significantly different from control (P < 0.05) ** Significantly different from control (P< 0.05) *** Significantly different from control (JP < 0.001) Between brackets the StandardErro r (SE)i sgive n digestibility negatively. In various digestibility experiments a substantial part of skim-milk powderwa sreplace db yothe rproteins .I nTabl e2 result so fth efa t digestibility aresummari ­ zed. These data were obtained in experiments with calves of 6 to 10week s of age. The fat mixture in these diets consisted in average of: 35% beef tallow, 35%lard , 25%coconu t or palm kernel oilan d about 5% emulsifiers. With the exception of bacterial scp (single cell protein) the fat digestibilities were lower when a substantial part of the skim-milk powder was replaced by alternative proteins. Different reasonsma y haveplaye da role . • Asalread ydiscussed ,th efac ttha tth eteste dalternativ eprotein sd ono tclo ti nth eabomasu m may effect thedigestio n process,fa t digestion included. This hypothesis was tested in an experiment inwhic hth enon-clottin gwhe yprotei n wascompare dwit h skimmil kprotein . A diet was formulated consisting of delactosed whey powder as the sole protein source. Thefa tmixtur econsiste do f30 %bee ftallow ,30 %lard , 11%coconu toil ,21 %pal mkerne l oil and 8% soya lecithin and was included in the diet at a level of 19%.Th e control diet comprised 70% skim milk and the same fat mixture.Th e diets were further balanced for protein content (25%) and minerals. The digestibility coefficients for the skim-milk and thewhe ydiet swer efo rprotei n9 6an d91 ,respectively ,an dfo rfa t9 6an d89 ,respectively . Theseresult sunderlin eth ehypothesi stha tclottin gi nth eabomasu m mayb eo fimportanc e for thedigestio n process. • Theemulsifier s usedi nvea lcal fdiet sar emainl ydevelope dfo rdiet scontainin gmil kprotei n as the major protein source. With alternative proteins other qualities and properties of emulsifiers mayb enecessary . • Soya and scp's contain carbohydrates which aredigeste d inth elarg eintestin e becauseo f a lack of appropiate enzymes in thecalf' s gastro-intestinal tract. These carbohydrates are digestedinth elarg eintestin eb ybacteria lfermentation .Du et othi sfermentatio n theamoun t of bacteria excreted with faeces, increased. Bacteria contain fat, thus also more fat is excretedwit h faeces.

204 • Fish protein contains relatively high levels of Ca and other minerals. Thomke (1963) demonstrated thatfa tdigestibilit y mayb enegativel y affected when high levels ofC aar e presenti ndiet sfo rcalves .

Content ofavailabl eiro n Forth eproductio no fwhit evea li ti simportan ttha tth econten to favailabl eiro ni nth ediet s is low. Iron content canlimi t thepossibilitie s for useo fprotei n sources forreplacemen to f skim-milkpowder .Th eavailibilit y ofiro n candiffe r markedly between protein sources. Van Weerden et al. (1977, 1978) demonstrated that theavailabilit y of iron infis h is high and in soyaconcentrat elow .Ther ear epossibilitie st oreduc eFe-availabilit ywit hspecia lagents ,suc h asEDT Apreparation s (vanWeerden , 1973,1974).

Aminoaci d requirement Determination ofth e amino acidrequiremen t becomes more andmor e important because of thetendencie s tolowe rth eprotei nconten ti nth ediet san dt oreplac eth eskim-mil kprotei n byothe rprotei nsources .Th ealternativ eprotein shav ei ngenera la differen t aminoaci dprofil e and a lower protein andamin o acid digestibility. Thedifference s in amino acid profilean d digestibilitiesca nb esatisfie d byenrichmen to fth ediet swit hsyntheti camin oacids .However , toachiev eoptima ldiet si ti simportan tt okno wth erequirements .O nbehal f ofth eDutc h veal calf milk-replacer industry experiments arerunnin g forth edeterminatio n ofth e amino acid requirement of the milk fed veal calf. Apar t ofthes e results arepublishe d (van Weerden& Huisman, 1985).

References Huisman, J.& E.J . vanWeerden , 1984.Dietar y fatfo r veal calves. 35th Annual meetingo f theEuropea n Associationfo rAnima lProduction ,Th eHague ,th eNetherlands , 17 pages. Thomke, S., 1963.Di eVerdaulichlichkei t vonn Vollmilch und Milchaustauschfuttermitteln mitZusat zeine sRindertalg-Schmalz-Gemische s bzw.vo nKnochenfett . Züchtungskunde, 35:214-231. Toullec,R. ,M .Therie z& P .Thivend , 1980.Mil kreplacer sfo rcalve san dlambs .Worl dAnima l Review, 33:32-42. van Weerden, E.J., 1973.He tverlage n vand ebeschikbaarhei d vanhe tijze r inhe trantsoe n van mestkalveren. Landbouwkundig Tijdschrift, 85:388-394. van Weerden, E.J., 1974.Lo w fatfis h meali nmil k replacers. 3rd European Symposiumo n theus eo fFis h Meali nAnima lFeeding ,Amsterdam ,NL . van Weerden, E.J.,J .Huisma n &J.E . Sprietsma, 1977.D ebeschikbaarhei d vanhe tijze ri n enkele eiwitrijke voedercomponenten voor mestkalveren. Landbouwkundig Tijdschrift, 89:191-196. van Weerden, E.J.,J .Huisma n &EJ . Sprietsma, 1978.Availabilit y of some iron sourcesi n veal calves. Zeitschrift für Tierphysiologie, Tierernährung undFuttermittelkunde , 40(4): 209-221. van Weerden, E.J. & J. Huisman, 1985. Amino acid requirement of the young veal calf. Zeitschrift fürTierphysiologie ,Tierernährun g undFuttermittelkunde , 53:232-244.

205 Thesurplu s ofmil k proteinsfo r nutrition ofvea lcalve s

E.Hetzne r Milchindustrie-Verband, Schedestr. 11,5300Bonn 1, FRG

Summary

Themil kquot aintroduce d byth eE Ci n 1984,an dth ehormon escandal so f 1988an d 1989 havele dt oles sskim-mil kpowde rbein guse di nvea lcal fnutrition .Unexpectedl yth eresultin g fall inprice sha sno tle dt omor espra y skim-milkpowde rbein gincorporate di nmil kreplacer . Theconsumptio no fskim-mil kpowde rca nb eexpecte dt oworsen ,a sa resul to fdevelopment s inth eEaster n Block. TheE CCommissio nshoul dre-introduc eth eobligator yincorporatio no fskim-mil kpowde r in animal feed and aid should be increased to save the dairy industry from a considerable increaseo fstocks .Th edair yindustr yi sver yintereste di nusin gskim-mil kpowde ri nvea lcal f nutrition. Descriptors:mil kproteins ;E Cpolicy ; skim-milkpowder , vealcal f nutrition.

Introduction

This seminar has so far dealt only with the aspects of thephysiolog y of nutrition in veal calf nutrition. I intend to discuss the market situation resulting from the management of the European milk market. Thegenera l situation isinfluence d onth eon ehan d byth eamoun to f milkproductio n in general, ando n theothe rhan db yth econsumptio n andexpor to f alldair y productstha tcanno tb ereckone da sso-calle dinterventio nproduct s (Figure 1).Th eproductio n of butter and skim-milkpowde ri s aresidua l factor. HereI will concentrate on theproteins .

1UUÜ t

U 'J IB 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 Y U 9 IB 11 12 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 U 9 It) 11 :

Figure1. ECskim-milk powder production anddemand in 1000t with—*— asproduction and asdemand including exports.

206 Availability ofskim-mil kpowde ri nrecen tyear s

Theavailabilit yo f skim-milkpowde ri nth eE Cwa sdrasticall yreduce db yth eintroductio n of the quota system in 1984. The efficacy of the system, which was unsatisfactory at the beginning,wa s intensified in 1986.Sinc ethe n theproductio n of skim-milkpowde r hasbee n reduced by more than 700 0001. In 1987an d 1988,thi sreductio n couldb e compensated for bya massiv ereductio no finterventio nstocks .I n1989 ,thes eamount swer en olonge ravailable . The EC Commission suspended the obligation to incorporate skim-milk powder in milk replacers aspar t of acu ti n subsidies (from 80t o6 0ECU/10 0 kg) before theen d of theyea r 1988.Thi sprocedur ealon eha sresulte di nnearl y40 0000 1les sskim-mil kpowde rbein guse d in vealnutritio n today. Ifth eFedera lRepubli ci stake na sa nexample ,w ese etha tth equantit yo fskim-mil kpowde r usedi nth emixture sfo r vealnutritio nha sfalle n dramatically (Figure2) .Unfortunatel y wed o not havecomparabl edat a (bymonths )fo r thedifferen t member states (Figure3) .

Development ofproductio n dependento nth era w material

The information on intervention measures in the skim-milk powder sector recently pub­ lished by the EC Commission shows that from 1987 to 1989 the use of skim-milk powder declined dramatically. The mostimportan t producer countries France, Italy, the Netherlands and Federal Republic of Germany made great efforts to use less skim-milk powder. But it wouldb eincorrec t tosa ytha tonl yth epercentag ewa sreduced .Th eabsolut econsumptio no f milkreplacer s wasreduce d in aver y clearwa y too,fo r threemai nreasons : • Thequot asystem ,whic hmean ttha tvea lcalve swer egive nth esurplu smil ki nliqui d form, especially atth een do f thequot aperio d toavoi dhavin g topa y aspecia l tax.Thu s theus e ofmil kreplacer s wasreduced . • Fewercalve s because therear efewe rcows . • Thehormon escandal so f 1988an d1989 ,whic haffecte d theconsumptio no fvea lespeciall y inFrance .

2b 64 US 66 67 HB 69 IB 11 12 Ul 02 83 64 85 66 Vi BU 69 16 11

Figure2. Incorporation ofskim-milk powder in milk replacers inWest Germany inper cent.

207 SBB

4BB

3BB

2BB

IBB

Germany France Italy the Netherlands

Figure 3. Incorporation of skim-milkpowder in milk replacers in member states of the European Community in 10001.

600

550

50B

450-

400

350 04 05 06 07 00 09 10 11 12 11 12

Figure4. Averageprices for sprayskim-milk powder in DM per 100kg.

Thehope so fth eproducer so fmil kpowde ri nth eE Ctha tth eimportan treductio no fprice s for spray skim-milkpowde r (Figure4 )woul dlea dt omor eskim-mil kpowde rbein gincorpo ­ rated in milk replacers have so far not materialized. Therefore the EC Commission is considering reintroducing theobligatio n toincorporat e aminimu mpercentag eo f subsidized skim-milkpowde r inmil kreplacers . Thosei nfavou r of thisprocedur ebeiiev etha tconsumptio n could bebooste dt o 100000 - 1500001 , particularly if aid(subsidies ) isincrease d simultaneously. Opponentso f this strategy doubt whetherconsumptio n willincrease .The yexpec t thatth e priceo f milkreplacer s willris eunles s aidi sraise dcorrespondingly . Moreover, higherprice s for vealcalve s andvea lwoul d affect consumption (Figure5) .

208 708 1983 1904 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Figure 5. Consumption of veal in the EC (Community of the ten) in 10001.

Table 1. Anticipated trends in skim-milk powder balance in the EC (Community of the ten) in 10001.

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1990 opti. pessim. Initial stocks 1 100 750 655 858 654 103 107 107

Production 206 0 1915 2 120 1604 1297 1399 1440 1470 Imports 2 5 55 30 50 Available 3 160 266 5 277 5 2 464 1956 1557 1577 1 627 EC consumption total 209 0 1700 1650 1420 1234 1030 1 100 980 without subsidies 220 200 200 270 280 278 300 280 feeding tocalve s 1260 1 140 1 100 1 140 954 752 800 700 special salesfo r pigs 610 360 350 10 0 0 0 0

Exports 320 310 267 390 619 420 400 350 atworl d marketprice s 150 200 157 280 505 336 300 250 food aid programme 170 110 110 110 114 84 100 100

EC stocks 750 655 858 654 103 107 77 297 public 617 520 772 473 0 5 50 130 private 133 135 86 181 103 102 27 167

Changes in stocks -350 -95 203 -204 -551 4 -30 190

209 Exportsa tworl dmarke tprices : trendsi nth econsumptio no fskim-mil kpowde r

The difficult situation facing the EC can be seen once more in the skim-milk powder balance.Tabl e 1show s optimistic and pessimistic trendsfo r 1990. Concerningproductio ni nth epessimisti cversion ,i tmus tb eborn ei nmin dtha tchea pcasei n from theEaster n Block will affect theE Cmarket . Therefore ECproducer s will beunabl e to use the equivalent quantity ofmil k in thecasei n sector andtherefor e more skim milk willb e madeint oskim-mil kpowde rTh esam ehold sfo rth eopenin go fEaster nEuropea nmarket sfo r theproduc titself . If the incorporation of skim-milk powder into milk replacer is not reintroduced, we can expect a further decrease of consumption in the veal sector. This decrease might be less in countries which dohav ea n incorporation of 30t o3 5pe rcent ; thedecreas ewil l begreate ri n countries which use anaverag e of 45t o5 0pe rcent .

Conclusions

The decreasing consumption and exports of skim milk mean that the European dairy industryi sface dwit ha considerabl eincreas ei nstocks .Th eE CCommissio ni soblige dt otak e over only 100000 1o f skim-milk powder byintervention .Fro m now on, skim-milk powder will be threatened by a free fall of prices without any further national aid. This cannot be accepted by thedair y sector asa whole . Youwil lunderstan d thatth edair yindustr yi sdeepl yintereste di nusin g skim-milkpowde r in veal nutrition and thatthi s interest shouldb e shared byE C Commission. The experiences of the past have taught us that most of the stocks are used in the pig sector accompanied by high subsidies.Thi s isundoubtedl y themos texpensiv eo f alloptions .

210 Alternative protein use in calf milk replacers

C.W .Kola r &T . J.Wagne r ProteinTechnologies International, St.Louis, Missouri, US

Summary Traditionally,mil kprotei nha sbee n the standardfo r feeding vealcalves .Recen tchang ei n thecos to fmil k protein has created anee dfo r alternativeprotein s for vealrations .A numbe r ofprotei n sources have been considered for vealrations ,includin g proteins from soya bean, wheat,potato ,pea ,fish , andyeast .Importan tfactor s for assessingalternativ eprotein sinclud e chemical composition, antinutritional factors, digestibility, amino acid content, physical and microbiological properties, economics, and commercial availability. Specially treated soya protein isolate and alcohol-treated soyaconcentrat e appear tob eth ebes t alternative proteins for veal rations. Of the two, specially processed soya protein isolate appears to provide the highest digestibility (88%), with the lowest level of antinutritional factors, and has the best physical (functional) properties. Descriptors:proteins ;calf ;mil kreplacer ; amino acids;digestibility ; antinutritional factors.

Introduction / Traditionally,mil ki nth efor m of skim-milk powderan ddrie dchees ewhe yha sbee n used for the feeding of veal calves. Other protein products from milk such as casein and whey protein concentrate, areals oused .Thes eprotei n ingredients haveestablishe d the standardo f performance forprotei nuse di nth eraisin go fvea lcalves .Howeve rth eincreasin gcos to fmil k proteins, which impacts the cost of growing veal calves, has put increased emphasis on the needt ofin d alternativeproteins .Th epurpos eo fthi srevie wi st oexamin ealternativ eprotein s to skim milkevaluate d by animal nutritionists overth epas t severalyears .

Alternativeprotein san dfactor simportan tt othei rus e

Alternativeprotein s evaluated for feeding calves includeprotei n from soya bean, wheat, potato, fish, pea and yeast. In most cases, the economics of these protein sources are quite good in comparison tomil kproteins .Potentia l drawbacks can include poor digestibility and weight gain, thought to stem from antinutritional factors, and limited commercial supply of the protein ingredient. Also,th eprotei n content of these products can berelativel y low, and other components such as starch orpolysaccharid e may notb efull y utilized. Severalfactor s shouldb econsidere di nth eevaluatio no falternativ eprotei ningredient s for feeding vealcalves .Th emos timportan to fthes einclud enutrien tcomposition , antinutritional factors,digestibility ,physica l(functional ) properties,microbiologica lprofile ,economic swit h regard toth ecos t of weight gain, andcommercia l availability. A protein ingredient that is high in protein (90%) with a minimum of other non-protein components is preferred to allow maximum flexibility of formulation. Lower-protein ingre­ dientscoul db euse dprovide dth eothe rcomponent spresen tcontribut et oenerg yan dar eeasil y utilizedb yth ecalf .Th eiro nconten to fth eingredien tan dbioavailabilit yo fth eiro nar ecritica l andmus t notb e greater thanca n beeffectivel y managed byth evea l grower. Several antinutritional factors have been identified that contribute to the reduced perfor­ manceo f non-milk proteins. The mechanisms involved and economic methods to overcome these limitations require further exploration. Some identified antinutritional factors such as

211 Table 1. Summaryof assessment of proteins for calfmilk replacers.

Protein Protein Anti-nutr. Digesti­ Calf per­ Functional Supply source content factors bility formance property

Milk (SMP) 35% none 95%a excellent excellent commercial

Soyapro ­ 87% low 87-88%bc excellent excellent commercial tein isolate Soyacone . 65% low 80-88%M goodt o fair sus­ commercial excellent pension Soya flour 50% high 63-74%b poor poor commercial

Wheat, soluble 85% unknown unknown unknown fair commercial

Potato 75-85% low 74-82%b good poorsus ­ by-product pension Fish 69-92% low 80-92%be goodt o variable commercial excellent Pea variable high 50-79%bf poor unknown development

Yeast variable low 75-84%b goodt o variable development excellent a Toullec, 1989. d Guilloteau, 1977. b Joussellin, 1988. e Paruelle, 1974. c Tolman, 1988. f Bell, 1974. enzyme inhibitors (e.g. trypsin and chymotrypsin), haemagglutinins (lectins), and antigenic proteins arepresen t inman yplan tprotei n ingredients.Th epresenc eo fenzym e inhibitors not only reduces digestibility, but the binding of proteases causes thepancrea s to produce more of these enzymes, which is a waste of feed-derived amino acids. Haemagglutinins (lectins) have been shown to react with the villi in the intestine, resulting in a disruption of the cell structure.Thi sma ylea dt opoo rnutrien t absorption and,possibly ,th eleakag eo flarg eprotei n moleculesint oth ecirculator ysystem ,causin gantibod yformation ,whic hma yresul ti nallergi c reactions inth egu tan dma yresul ti npoo rfee d andnutrien tutilization .Thus ,i ti sessentia l to havea protei nsourc etha ti slo wi nhaemagglutinin san dha srelativel ylo wantigeni cproperties . High digestibility isdesirabl e asi t allows for maximum utilization of amino acids present inth eprotein .A digestibilit yvalu eles stha no fmil ki sno ta nantinutritiona lfactor , butreduce s the availability of aminoacids ,an dthu sreduce s the valueo f theprotei n to somedegree .I ti s desirable that the amino acid composition of theprotei n ingredient meetth erequirement s of thecalf .I f not,i t shouldb eeasil y andcost-effectivel y fortified. Physicalo rfunctiona lpropertie so fa protei ningredien tca nb eimportan tfo rth epreparatio n of aunifor m fluid milkreplacer . Iti sdesirabl et o have aprotei n ingredient that canb eeasil y combined with the other ingredients usedi n theratio n and, when reconstituted in water, the milk replacer should giveexcellen t solubility, and/or suspension properties similar totha to f skim-milk powder or milk-based ingredients. The ingredient should not settle out or cause otheringredient s to settleou tdurin gpreparatio n orfeedin g of themil kreplacer , asthi scoul d result inth ecal f notreceivin g allo f thenutrient s in theration .

212 The microbiological quality of the ingredients used in milk replacera for young animals must be of food-grade quality. They should have a low total plate count and be free from salmonella and other pathogens, because these micro-organisms can contribute to digestive disturbances, sickness,an dpoo r performance. Obviously,a low-cos tprotei ningredien ti sdesirabl ei nrelatio nt omil kprotein so na protei n basis,a sth ecos tfo r growingth ecal fi scritical .I nadditio nt ocost ,a high-qualit ycarcas smus t beproduce d andmarketed . Finally, the protein should be available commercially, as large amount are required for growing veal calves. Significant time may be required to develop new products that are acceptable for vealfeedin g from existingra wmaterials .Capita l mayb erequire d toconstruc t plants for manufacturing new protein ingredients.Thus , several years maypas s before com­ mercial amounts are available for useb yth evea l industry. The factors outlined as important in the selection of protein ingredients for growing veal calves aresummarize di nTabl e 1. When oneconsider s allth efactor s involvedi n selectinga n alternative protein to milk protein for growing veal calves, soya protein isolate and soya concentrate are protein ingredients that rank highest. These products are manufactured and marketed in largeamounts . Inparticular ,soy aprotei nisolat ei smos tsimila rt omil kprotein ,excep ttha tit sdigestibilit y issomewha tlowe rfo rcalves .Nevertheless ,th eprotei nconten to f soyaprotei n isolatei shig h with the absenceo finsolubl e and solublecarbohydrates . Compared with soyaprotei n isolate thesoy aconcentrat eha slowe rprotei ncontent ,lowe rdigestibility ,an donl yfai r suspendability. Soluble wheatprotei n mayhav esom epromis e asa nalternativ eprotei n to slummilk , asi t isreporte d to have high digestibility, butlittl ei sknow n about itsdigestibility , antinutritional factor content, andperformanc e in calves.Potat o protein is another potential ingredient, but iti sa by-produc to f thepotato-processin g industry andconsequently ,ther ei sa limite d supply of this ingredient. It is probably limited to a low use level in veal rations because of poor suspendability, supply, and digestibility. Several studieso nth evalu eoffis h protein for usei n vealration shav ebee nreported . The qualityo ffish protein ,fro m thestandpoin to famin oacid san ddigestibility ,i sgoo dt oexcellent . However fish protein has distracting factors, such as colour, odour, and variable physical properties, which limitit s usei n calf milkreplacers . Soya flour has been evaluated extensively. Iti s alow-cos t ingredient, has an intermediate protein content, and is available in large amounts.Howeve r it is severely limited by itshig h levelo f antinutritionalfactor s andb ypoo rcal f performance. Thusi ti sno ta viabl e alternative tomil kproteins . Pea protein products are variable in protein content and experimental products have had poor suspensionproperties .Th eantinutritiona lfactor s inth epe aar esignifican t andprocesse s have notbee n developed on acommercia l scale toeliminat e them. Soacceptabl epe aprotei n ingredients areno t available with ahig hprotei n content andwit h low antinutritional factors. Research has been conducted on theus e of yeast and yeastprotei n asa protei n source for veal.Digestibilit y studiesindicat ehig hdigestibilit y andexcellen t calfperformance . However commercial supply and functional properties limitit suse . Afterassessin gth evariou sprotei ningredients ,th emajo rcommercia lsupplie so falternativ e proteins to milk protein for the veal industry are soya protein isolate, soya concentrate, and possibly asolubl e wheatprotei n product. The composition of soya protein isolate, soya concentrate, and soluble wheat protein is shown inTabl e2 .Soy aprotei n isolatei sprimaril ypur eprotein .I ti svirtuall y free from crude fibre, insoluble carbohydrates, or soluble carbohydrates. Soya concentrate is about 65% proteinan dth eremainin gportio no fth esoy aconcentrat ei sprimaril yinsolubl ecarbohydrates , aportio n ofwhic h iscrud efibre . Solublewhea tprotei n isslightl y higheri nprotei n thansoy a concentrate, hasmor elipid s than thesoy aingredient s andcontain s about 5% carbohydrate.

213 Table2. Typicalcomposition of soyaprotein isolate,soya concentrateand solublewheat protein.

Assay Soyaprotei n isolate Soya concentrate Wheatprotei n (%) (%) (%) Moisture 5.0 6.0 7.0 Protein (Nx 6.25)1 87.4 64.9 79.1 Fat 0.5 0.7 7.5 Crude fibre <0.2 4.0 0.4 Ash 4.5 6.0 1.1 Totalcarbohydrates 2 2.5 18.4 4.9 1 Asbasis . 2 Includes crude fibre.

Table3. Typicalamino acid composition of various protein products (gl'100 g protein).

Soyaprotei n Soya Wheat Skim milk isolate3 concentrate1* protein0 powder*1

Alanine 4.3 4.2 2.5 3.5 Arginine 7.6 7.2 3.0 3.7 Aspartic acid 11.6 11.6 3.1 7.7 Cysteine 1.3 1.5 2.1 0.9 Glutamic acid 19.1 19.5 37.5 21.4 Glycine 4.2 4.1 3.2 2.2 Histidine 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.8 Isoleucine 4.9 5.0 4.1 6.2 Leucine 8.2 7.7 6.9 10.0 Lysine 6.3 6.2 1.4 8.1 Methionine 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.6 Phenylalanine 5.2 5.0 5.2 4.9 Proline 5.1 5.2 13.2 9.9 Serine 5.2 5.5 5.0 5.6 Threonine 3.8 4.0 2.5 4.6 Tryptophan 1.3 1.5 1.0 1.4 Tyrosine 3.8 3.7 3.7 4.9 Valine 5.0 5.0 4.3 6.8 Totalsulphu rA A 2.6 2.8 3.7 3.5 Totalaromati cA A 9.0 8.7 8.8 9.9 a Kolar, 1990. b Loders Croklaan B.V.,NL . c Nutr.Div. ,FAO ,1972 . d Posati &Orr , 1976.

The typical amino acid composition for soya protein isolate, soya concentrate, wheat protein, and skimmil kpowde r aregive n inTabl e3 .

214 Table4. Antinutritionalfactors found insoya isolates and soya concentrate.

Analysis Soyaprotei n Soyaprotei n Soya isolate 'A' isolate 'B' concentrate Trypsin inhibitor (mg/g)a 1.22 3.95 2.87 Haemagglutinins (HA)1 < 0.05 0.05 0.2 Antigenicity (LPDB)2D (calf) < 0.4 5.1 5.1 a Tolman, 1988. b Grev, 1989. 1 Haemagglutinating activity (HA)i sexpresse d asth ehighes t dilution of the purified lectin extract producing visibleagglutinatio n divided by 1000. 2 Logprotei n dilution basis;antibodie s to soya flour.

The soya proteins are relatively good sources of amino acids for the veal calf; they are normally supplemented with certain amino acids when combined with skim milk or whey proteinst omee tth eamin oaci drequirement so fth ecalf .Methionin ei suse dwhe nsoy aprotei n isinclude di nth eformula .Whea tprotei nha slowe rlevel s (70%o rles stha ntha to f skim-milk protein) of isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine and valine and is also likely to require additional supplementation. The antinutritional factors present in soya protein isolate can vary from one soyaprotei n isolatet oanother .Th esam ei stru efo rsoy aconcentrates .Informatio n inTabl e4 illustrate sth e difference betweentw osoy aprotei nisolate san da soy aconcentrat ereporte dt ob e antigen-free. Theseprotein s wereevaluate d for antigenicity usingth eELIS Atechniqu e with antibodies to soya flour. Thesoy aprotei nisolat e'A 'wit hth elowes ttrypsi ninhibitor ,haemagglutini n (lectinslevels , andantigenicit y isrecommende d for usei n vealrations ,whil e soyaprotei nisolat e 'B' would notb erecommende deve nthoug hi ti sa high-quality ,foo dgrad eproduct .Th esoy aconcentrat e is an alcohol processed product that isrecommende d for veal feeding. It has slightly higher levels of trypsin inhibitor, haemagglutinins, and antigenicity than the soya protein isolate recommended for vealrations . In summary, a variety of alternative proteins could theoretically be used to replace milk protein inraisin gvea lcalves .Soy aprotein ,solubl ewhea tprotein ,fis h andpotat oprotein sar e used in veal rations. Specially processed soya protein isolate and alcohol-treated soya concentrate are theprimar y alternative proteins used.

References

Bell, J.M., G.F. Royan & C.G. Youngs, 1974. Digestibility of pea protein concentrate and enzyme-treatedpe aflou r inmil kreplacer sfo rcalves .Canadia nJourna lo fAnima l Science 54:355. FoodPolic y andFoo d ScienceServ .Nutr .Div. ,FAO , 1972.Amin oaci dconten to ffood s and biological datao nproteins ,p .42 .Foo d& Agricultur e Organization, Rome,Italy . Grev,A.H. , 1989.Protei n Technologies International.Unpublishe d data. Guilloteau, P., R. Toullec, J. Culioli &D . Le Douaron, 1977.Utilizatio n of proteins by the preruminant vealcalf .Annale sd eZootechni e 26(1):15-28 . Joussellin, W., 1988.Que l veau de produire demain? Association Françaisede s Techniciens Del'Alimentatio n Animale,Renne s Cedex,France ,p .9 .

215 Kolar,C.W. , 1990. Protein Technologies International.Unpublishe d data. Partielle, J.L., R. Toullec,P .Patureau-Miran d & CM. Mathieu, 1974.Utilizatio n of protein byfattenin g preruminant calves.Annale sd eZootechni e23(4):519-535 . Posati,L.P .& M.L .Orr , 1976.Compositio n offoods . Agric.Handboo k No. 81. Agricultural Research Service,U SDepartmen t of Agricultyre,Washington ,DC . Tolman,G.H . &J . Huisman, 1988.ILOB-TN OInstitut eo fAnima lNutritio nan dPhysiology , Wageningen.Unpublishe d data. Toullec, R., 1989. Veal calves. In: Ruminant nutrition: recommended allowances and feed tables.Joh nLibbe yEurotext ,Montrouge ,France .

216 Varying protein levels in veal calf finisher formulations

P.Schneider ,D .Bakk e &D . Bearda Real VealInc., Ixonia, Wisconsin 53036, US

Summary Thepric eo fbo bcalve san ddair yprotei ningredient s havebee n steadilyincreasing ,a tren d which isexpecte d tocontinue .Thi s haslimite d themargi n availablet o thevea lgrower .Thi s study wasdesigne d todetermin eresponse s ofcalve st ovaryin glevel s ofprotei ni nthei rdiet s andprovid eth egrowe rwit halternative si nfeedin gmanagement .Fiv ehundre dan dfou rcalve s were fed on finisher formulations with protein contents ranging from 12.5 to 18.5% from weeks 7 to 16.Bod y weight gains,fee d conversions and carcass grades were highest atth e higherprotei nlevels ,bu tmargin swer ehighes ta tth elo wprotei nlevels .Finishe r formulations withprotei n levels of 12.5%wil lproduc evea lcalve s thatyiel dhighe rmargin st oth egrower . Descriptors:veal ;protei n levels; feed.

Introduction Theprofitabilit y ofraisin gcalve sfo rvea li nth eUnite dState si shampere db ymarke t forces outside the vealindustry . Themean s by which veal growers can increase theirbotto m linei s thus limited. Management, especially feeding management, is oneo f thefactor s thatth evea l grower can actively control. Due to declining numbers of dairy cattle, the price of calves has steadily increased. This trend is likely to continue into the future and to be accelerated by new technologies such as bovinesomatotropi n (BST),geneti cengineering ,an dembry otransfer . Theincreasin gdeman d for calves bybot h thevea lindustr y andth edair y beef industry willkee ppushin g upth epric e of quality bobcalves . Buying low-quality calvesca njeopardiz e a veal operation. Skim milk sold by the US government had been the major protein source for the veal industry until 1988. Since 1988,th e government has not released skim to the veal industry. While available, skim prices had fluctuated with costs well over $1.00pe r kg.Th e price for fresh skim on the open market has averaged slightly higher with amoderat e increase in late 1988 and a huge increase in 1989.Price s have been lower in January and February of 1990. Nevertheless, skim asa sourc eo f protein isexpensiv e andbecomin g scarcer. Whey-protein concentrate has been the focus of attention at Real Veal, Inc. as a protein replacement for skimmilk .Th epric epe rkilogra m averaged $1.25i n 1987an d$1.6 0i n1988 . In 1989,th erang e was from $1.25 toalmos t $1.90. InFebruar y 1990,th efa t substituteSimpless ewa scleare db yFD Afo rhuma nconsumption . Dairy proteins area majo r componento f Simplesse.Thi si scertai nt oincreas e thepressur eo n thevea l industry for dairyproteins . Historically, themarke tpric efo r finished calves hasbee nhig h enoughrelativ et oth epric e of bobcalve s for profitability to befairl y easy. Beginning in 1987,however , thepric eo f bob calves began to climb (Figure 1).Althoug h packer prices increased inresponse , the amount consumers are willing to pay creates a ceiling on what meat packers will pay for finished calves. Protein is the most expensive nutrient in milk replacers. Published protein requirements (NRC, 1988;Roy , 1980)indicat e thatprotei n levels shouldb e atleas t 18%.W edesigne d the following study to determine the response of veal calves to varying levels of protein during the finishing phase. The objectives were to provide the grower with alternatives in feeding management in order tooptimiz e hisprofi t potential.

217 Table 1. Ingredientsof lowand high experimental formulations.

12.5% 18.5%

Whey 63.7 37.0 Skim 12.1 38.1 7/60Fa t concentrate 8.6 8.6 Coconut oil 5.4 5.4 Tallow/Lard 7.7 7.7 CornFlou r 1.2 1.2 Premix 1.33 1.33

Table 2. Composition of lowand high experimentalformulations.

Component Protein (%) 12.5 18.5 Fat (%) 19.40 19.4 Lactose (%) 52 ; 47 Ca (%) 0.55 0.71 P(%) 0.63 0.69 Mg (%) 0.14 0.12 K(%) 1.6 1.4 Na (%) 0.55 0.46 Zn (mg/kg) 26 36 Fe (mg/kg) 6 6 Lysine (%) 0.96 1.4 Methionine (%) 0.35 0.47 V-1; /

Item 12.5 13.5 14.5 16.0 16.5 17.6 18.5

Gain(kg ) 86.9a 89.7ab 91.8bd 96.6ce 944de 95.6ce 98.4C Intake (kg) 171a 171 170 171 169b 170 170 Margin ($) 112a 106a 98b 95b- 93b 82c 78c a b M c cd cd Hgb (g/dl) 8.89 8.34 8.21 7.77 792cd 7.88 7.82 Conversion 1.97 1.93a 1.86 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.73 Carcass 1.67 1.57ab 1.60 1.47 1.37 1.43 1.23 Expt.P < 0.05,trea t x expt.P > 0.05,differen t superscripts inrow :P <0.05 .

218 Bob Calf Price, $ Finished Calf Price, $

170 Î+7 # if 150 4 ti:î ^^^^»^4- +1 130. ^inishedCalf~~*~

110

Bob Calf 50 11111 Ulli 1111111111 iiMiimiiiiiiiiiiiiii Minimin 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989

Figure1. Pricesfor boband finished calves. Bob calfprice basedon 45 kgaverage weight. Finishedcalf price in USdollars per kg liveweight.

Materialan d methods

Threeexperiment s wereconducte d atth eRea l Vealresearc h farm. Each experiment had7 treatments with 24 calves per treatment. Calves were adapted to theirrespectiv e formulation from the starter formulation over 7 days during week 6. Each calf remained on its dietary treatmentfo rth eentir eexperiment ,whic hlaste dfro m week7 o fth efattenin gphas eunti lwee k 16whe n thecalve s were slaughtered ata commercia l meatpacker . Sixexperimenta l treatments wereformulate d tob ea ssimila ra spossibl eexcep t forprotei n (Tables 1an d 2).Th e protein levels were 12.5, 13.5, 14.5, 16.5, 17.5 and 18.5%o n an as-is basis. Our commercial 16% product, Finmelk +, was included as an additional treatment. Ingredient composition of Finmelk + was the same as the experimental treatments. Calves were fed twice a day, and weighbacks were measured daily. Every 2 weeks, calves were weighedan dbloo dwa scollecte dfo r haemoglobin determination. Iron intakean d supplemen­ tation were the same across alltreatment s andexperiments .

Resultsan d discussion

Therewer en odifference s infee dintak eexcep tbetwee ndiet swit h 12.5an d 16.5%protei n (Table 3).Intak e tended to be lowerwit h 16.5%, because of lower intake inExperimen t 3a t this protein level then in Experiments 1 and 2. Feed intakes were higher across all protein levelsfo r Experiment 2tha n in 1 and3 .

219 105 a X Experiment x x -B-1 X 2 -0-3 100 a X a 95 X

90

85

80 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 %Protei n in Formulation

Figure2. Effectsof varyingprotein levelson weightgain in kg for Experiments 1,2 and 3. Supercripts denotedifferences (P< 0.05)between experimentsfor proteinlevels only.

9.5 ii-. Experiment a -.-- -+-1 -# 2 -0-3 9.0 a

8.5

8.0

7.5

7.0 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 %Protei n in Formulation

Figure 3. Effects of varyingprotein levels on haemoglobinvalues (g/dl) at week 16 for Experiments1,2 and3. Superscripts denotedifferences (P <0.05) between experiments for protein levels only.

220 Weight gain increased with increasing protein intakes.Ther e was a decrease in gain with 16.5%protei n parallel to the decrease in feed intake. This decrease occurred only inExperi ­ ments,wher egai nwa ssignificantl y lowerwit h16, 5% tha ni neithe rExperimen t 1 or2 (Figur e 2).Gain swer econsistentl y higherfo rcalve si nExperimen t2 ,a swer efee dintakes .Incomin g body weightswer ehighe rfo rcalve si nExperimen t2 tha nExperiment s 1 and3 .Environmen t may also have been a factor, in that Experiment 2 was conducted during the summer and Experiments 1 and 3 were conducted during late fall and winter. Feed conversion (feed intake/gain) tended toimprov ewit h higher proteinlevels . Haemoglobin values werelowe ra tth ehighe rprotei nlevels .Th edecreas ei n haemoglobin as gain increased probably reflects the higher nutrient requirements of the faster growing animal. Erythropoiesis apparently cannot keep pace with the higher growth rates (Wagner, 1990).Lowe r haemoglobin values alsoreflecte d thehighe r packer grades for animals onth e higher protein levels. In the United States, light-coloured carcasses, as indicated by lower haemoglobin values,receiv e the highest grades.Haemoglobi n values for Experiment 2 also tended to behighe r than values forExperiment s 1 and 3 (Figure3) . Grossmargin swer edetermine dfo rth efattenin gphas eusin gfee dintake ,fee dcosts ,weigh t gainsan da naverag eliveweigh tpacke rpric eo f$2.87/kg .Margin sdecrease dfro m anaverag e of $112pe r calf with 12.5%protei n to $78pe rcal f with 18.5%protein . Thus,despit e lower weight gains,packe r scores andfee d conversions with 12.5%tha n with 18.5%protein , there was apotentia l for higher profits.

Conclusions

Finisher feed with 12.5%protei n provides the veal grower with an opportunity to exert somecontro love rhi sfee dcosts .Bod yweigh tgains ,fee dconversion s andcarcas sgrade sfro m themea tpacke rwer eal lbette ra tth ehighe rprotei n levels.Nevertheless ,gains ,carcas s scores and conversions at lower protein levels were not affected to the extent that margins were compromised. Finisher formulations with protein levels of 12.5% will produce veal calves which yield highermargin s toth egrower .

References

NationalResearc h Council, 1988.Nutrien trequirement so fdair ycattle .Nationa lAcadem yo f Science,Washington ,DC . Roy,J.H.B. , 1980.Th ecalf .Butterworths ,Inc. ,Boston ,M A01801 . Wagner,J.M. , 1990.Persona l Communication. Ixonia, WI53036.

221 Solublewhea t protein inmil k replacerfo r vealcalve s A.D eLaport e &M . Demeersman Amylwn n.v.,Burchtstraat 10, B-9300 Aalst, BE

Summary

Over the last few years, alo t of research has been devoted tofindin g alternative proteins to skim-milkpowde r for veal-calf production. Recently, soluble wheat protein has been introduced as an alternative for high-quality proteins. Soluble wheat protein is acreamy-coloure d powder with aneutra l taste and odour. The product has very high solubility, and has a high emulsifying capacity and emulsion stability. Productconsistenc yan da hig hprotei nconten to f 82%ar eke yadvantages .Concernin gth e essential aminoacids ,th ecomplementarit y with wheypowde ri sremarkable .I ncombinatio n withwhe ypowder ,a nidea lpatter no fessentia lamin oacid sca nb eobtaine di fsyntheti clysin e is added. Theclottin g of theprotei n is animportan t feature, andi s apossibl e explanation for thehig h digestibility of soluble wheatprotei n (95%). Low coloured veal can be produced with solublewhea t protein. Theproduc t contains 30 ppmiron .Du et oth ecomplex-formin g properties, thedigestibilit y ofth etota liro npresen ti n themil kreplace ri s decreased.N oantinutritiona l components orallergi cfactor s areknown . Descriptors :solubl ewhea tprotein ; milkreplacer ; veal;caseinate .

Introduction Over the last few years, a lot of research has been devoted to finding alternatives for skim-milkpowde ra s aningredien t ofmil kreplacer s for veal-calf production. From the technical point of view, caseinates are an excellent alternative but they have become expensive,eve n if costed on aprotei nbasis . As aresul t of one of these new developments, soluble wheat protein is introduced as an alternative to milk protein in calf milk replacers. The production process, composition, and physical and nutritional characteristics are discussed. The results of digestibility tests and growth trials aresummarize d byTolma n& Demeersma n (thisbook) .

Production and composition ofsolubl ewhea tprotei n

Figure 1 givesa globa lovervie wo fth eproductio no f solublewhea tprotein .Afte r cleaning and conditioning, the wheat is ground into flour with a specific milling system. The wheat flour is then mixed with water andhomogenize d to adough . Theprimar y separation results ina starc han da protei nfraction . Transformation andsubsequen tdryin go fth eprotei n fraction results in theproductio n of acreamy-coloure d powder, solublewhea t protein (DeLaport ee t al., 1989). Thetypica l composition of solublewhea tprotei n obtained bythi sproprietar y transforma­ tionproces si sgive ni nTabl e 1. Productconsistenc yi sa ke yadvantag efo r applicationi nmil k replacers.

222 Wheat

f Grinding J

f Doughpreparation J

( Primaryseparation J

Figure 1. Production schemefor soluble wheatprotein.

Table 1. Average composition ofsoluble wheatprotein.

Component Content

Water(% ) 5 Protein (Nx 6.25) (%) 82 Crudefa t (%) 8 Ash (%) 4 Carbohydrates(% ) 1 pH 7 Iron (ppm) 30

223 Table 2. Solubilityand emulsifyingproperties ofsoluble wheat protein, caseinate andsoya isolate(according toDe Lapone etal., 1989).

Parameter pH Soluble Caseinate Soya wheat isolate protein

Solubility (nitrogen solubility index,% ) 7 90 90 50 6 90 85 20 4 10 5 10 Emulsifying capacity (goil/ g product) 7 620 670 290 6 570 530 220 5 470 160 no Emulsifying activity(% ) 7 53 52 56 6 52 51 51 5 53 48 49 Emulsifying stability(% ) 7 100 94 100 6 100 100 100 5 100 100- 95

Table 3. Essential aminoacid composition (as %of protein) of soluble wheat protein, veal, skimmilkpowder andwhey powder.

Veal Skim-milk Whey Soluble powder powder wheatprotei n

Lysine 8.4 8.2 6.4 1.6 Methionine 2.3 2.6 1.4 1.8 Methionine +cystin e 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.3 Threonine 4.3 4.6 5.9 2.6 Tryptophan 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 Isoleucine 5.2 5.6 5.8 4.4 Leucine 7.3 9.8 8.8 7.6 Valine 5.1 6.9 5.5 4.4

Physical characteristics

Soluble wheat protein is a white creamy powder. It has a neutral taste and odour. The solubility andemulsifyin g propertieso fsolubl ewhea tprotei nwer ecompare dt ocaseinat ean d soya isolate by De Laporte et al. (1989). These functional characteristics of soluble wheat protein are comparable to caseinate. Solubility and emulsifying capacity of soluble wheat protein arehighe rtha no f soyaisolat e(Tabl e2) .A 20 % solutiono fthi swhea tprotei ni nwate r hasa Brookfiel d viscosity of4000-800 0 mPa.s.Th ephysica lcharacteristic so f solublewhea t protein are thuscomparabl e tolo wviscosit ycaseinate .

224 Nutritional characteristics

Qualityo fth eprotei n

Soluble wheat protein has a high and constant protein content of 82% on average. This wheat protein isrelativel y rich in arginine, histidine, sulfur amino acids and aromatic amino acids. After supplementation with synthetic lysine, an ideal essential amino acid pattern can beobtaine d in combination with wheypowde r (Table3) . Digestibility ofdr ymatter ,organi cmatte ran dcrud eprotei nar efoun d tob emor etha n95 % (Tolman & Demeersman, this book). A possible explanation for this high digestibility of solublewhea tprotei n isth eflocculatio n atp H =4. 5 (DeLaport ee t al., 1989).

Ironconten tan davailabilit y

Solublewhea tprotei nha sa lo wiro nconten to fonl y3 0pp mo naverage .Digestibilit ytest s andgrowt htrial sindicat e aver ylo wdigestibilit yo firo n (Tolman& Demeersman , thisbook) .

Antinutritionalan dallergi cfactor s

Consistency of faeces, good health of the calves and the absence of diarrhoea in feeding trialswit hdiet scontainin geve nu pt o20 %o fsolubl ewhea tprotei n are strongindication s for theabsenc eo fantinutritiona lcomponent san dallergi cfactor si nsolubl ewhea tprotein .Liene r &Kakad e(1980 )indee dmentione dth eabsenc eof , forinstance ,flatulenc e factors andlectin s in wheat.

Energy value

Themetabolizabl eenerg yconten to fsolubl ewhea tprotei n is 1732 7kJ/kg .Thi svalu eca n becalculate d as follows: ME= 0.8 2 x 1880 0x 0.95 +0.0 8 x 3725 0x 0.9 = 1732 7kJ/kg .

Conclusion By aproprietar y process, solublewhea tprotei n can beproduce d from wheat.Thi sprotei n is acreamy-coloure d powder with ablan d taste.Th etw omai n characteristics of thisproduc t are a high protein content (82%) and a very high solubility. Soluble wheat protein is a good emulsifier. Amil ktha tremain s stablei nemulsio nca n beproduced . By adjusting with about 7% synthetic lysine-HCl,a goo dpatter n of essential amino acids can beobtaine d because of the complementarity with other protein sources. In combination with whey powder and synthetic lysine-HCl, the essential amino acid requirements for veal calvesca nb emet .A sa rul eo fthumb ,3 part so f skim-milkpowde rca n bereplace d by 1 part of solublewhea t protein and2 part s of whey powder (pluslysine) . Solublewhea tprotei nflocculate s atacidi cpH .Thi sma yexplai nth ever yhig hdigestibilit y (95%) of this wheatprotein . It can alsoexplai n whyth e fat digestibility in the milkreplace r remains high,contrar y towha ti sobserve dwit hothe rnon-mil kprotein s (Troccon &Toullec , 1989).Th elo wconten tan davailabilit yo firo nar eremarkable .Finally ,unlik emos tothe rplan t proteins,n o antinutritional components areknown . As a result of the above mentioned properties, soluble wheat protein is an alternative to high-quality proteins, such as skim-milk powder, caseinate, whey protein concentrate, soya isolateetc .i ncal fmil kreplacers .Fro mit sphysica lproperties ,i tca nb econclude dtha tsolubl e wheatprotei n could bedescribe d as 'vegetable caseinate'.

225 References DeLaporte , A.,Ph . van Tornout, V.Anteuni s &J . deMeester , 1989.Oplosbaa r tarwe-eiwit: functionaliteit en toepassingsmogelijkheden. Voedingsmiddelentechnologie 22(18)22-24 LienerI.E .& M.L .Kakade , 1980. In:Toxi cconstituent so fplan tfoodstuffs . I.E.Liene r(Ed.) . AcademicPres s Inc.,Ne wYork . p.7. Troccon J.L. & R. Toullec, 1989. Aliments d'allaitement pour veaux d'élevage. INRA ProductionAnimale .2(2)117-128 .

226 Digestibility and growth performance ofsolubl ewhea t protein for vealcalve s G.H. Tolman *& M .Demeersma n ** * ILOB-TNO.P.O.Box 15,6700 AA Wageningen, NL ** Amylurn n.v., Burchtstraat10, B-9300 Aalst, BE

Summary Thesuitabilit y of solublewhea tprotei n inmil kreplacer s for vealcalve swa s investigated. Milkreplacer s containing upt o20 %o f solublewhea tprotei nremaine d stablei nsolutio n and hadn ooff-odours . Feedintak eb ycalve swa sals ogoo dan dfaece so fth eanimal swer enormal . Thedigestibilit y coefficients ofsolubl ewhea tprotei nfo rdr ymatter ,organi cmatte ran dcrud e proteinwer eestimate da t95 %each .The ywer eindependen to fth eamoun to fth ewhea tprotei n incorporated (10% and20 %o fth ediet) .Th eperformanc e ofcalve sfe d on acontro ldie twit h 20% of soluble wheat protein and wheypowde r wascompare d in a growth trial with thato f calvesfe do na die tcontainin g66 %o fskim-mil kpowder .Unde rthes ever yextrem econditions , average liveweight, average weight gain and average feed conversion were about 4% better for the group fed on the diet with 66%skim-mil k powder than for the group fed on the diet with 20%o f soluble wheatprotein . Meatiness,mea tcolou r and fat covering of thecarcasse s forbot hgroup swer ecomparable .Give nth eexceptiona lperformances , partialreplacemen to f milk proteins by solublewhea tprotei ni s already inuse . Descriptors: soluble wheatprotein ;mil kreplacer ; veal;digestibility ; growth trial; skim-milk powder.

Introduction For application in milk replacers, ingredients musthav e very specific characteristics. For instance, good quality milk replacers must have a good solubility, and have to be stable in emulsion.Th emil k alsoha st ob ereadil ydrun k byth ecalves .Base do nit sphysico-chemica l characteristics (De Laporte & Demeersman, this book), soluble wheat protein can be an alternativet omil kprotein si nmil kreplacer sfo rvea lcalves .Whe nconsiderin gth eamin oaci d composition,i ti sclea rtha tskim-mil kpowde rca nb ereplace do na theoretica lbas eb ysolubl e wheatprotei n andwhe y powder, iflysin eand ,t oa lesse rextent , threonine,ar eadded . Nutritionally, thedigestibilit y of solublewhea tprotei n has tob edetermine d for optimum formulation ofdiets .Finally ,th erea lnutritiona l valueo f aproduc tca nonl yb edetermine di n growth trials. Toobtai n unequivocal results,th e experimental diet should differ by only one ingredient from thecontrol ;degre eo fincorporatio n hast ob ea shig h aspossible . To determine the applicability of soluble wheatprotei n in milk replacers for veal calves, theprotei n wasevaluate d in 3 phases: • evaluation ofmil kreplace rcontainin g solublewhea tprotein ; • digestibility of solublewhea tprotein ; • comparativegrowt htria lbetwee ncalve sfe dwit hskim-mil kpowde ro rwit hsolubl ewhea t protein baseddiets ,respectively .

227 Table 1. Ingredients andcomposition ofthe diets El andE2.

Diet El DietE2

Ingredients (%) solublewhea tprotei n 10 20 skim-milkpowde r -fa t concetrate 50 18 wheypowde r 15 10 fat - 10.5 lactose/dextrose 19 31.3 starch 2 2 others 4 8.2 Composition crudeprotei n (%) 22.5 24.0 crude fat (%) 18.2 18.0 metabolizable energy (kJ/kg) 560 1855 2 Dietswer ebalance dfo ramin oaci dcompositio nb ysupplementin gwit hsyntheti camin oacids .

Table 2. Ingredients andcomposition ofexperimental diets Dl, D2 and D3.

DietDl DietD2 DietD3 60% skim-milk 10% soluble 20% soluble powder wheatprotei n wheatprotei n

Ingredients(% ) soluble wheatprotei n - 10.0 20.0 skim-milkpowde r -fa t concentrate 53.0 47.7 42.4 skim-milkpowde r 24.5 22.0 19.6 whey powder 10.0 9.0 8.0 lactose/dextrose 9.1 8.2 7.3 starch 1.0 1.8 1.6 others 1.4 1.3 1.1 Diet composition1 drymatte r (%) 96.4 96.0 95.5 ash (%) 6.3 6.0 5.8 crudeprotei n (%) 22.5 28.0 33.8 fat (%) 16.8 15.8 14.8 iron (ppm) 66 54 50 1 Valuesb y analysis.

Materialan dmethod s

Experiment 1: Evaluationo fmil kreplace rcontainin gsolubl ewhea tprotei n

Two experimental milk replacers containing 10 and 20% soluble wheat protein were evaluatedusin g2 group so f3 mal eDutc hFriesia n xHolstei nFriesia ncalves .Th ecalve sha d an ageo f about 8.5 weeks anda weighto f about 80kg .Durin g the trialperio d of 5days ,th e calves were bucket-fed twice a day with 6 1 of milk replacer (12.5% d.m.). The diet was

228 switchedfrom a traditiona lmil kreplace rt oth eexperimenta ldiet si n2. 5days .Th ecompositio n of both experimental diets is given in Table 1.Th e methods of evaluation are described by Tolman (1988).

Experiment 2:Digestibilit yo fsolubl ewhea tprotei n

Theapparen tfaeca l digestibility ofdr ymatter ,organi cmatte r andcrud eprotei n of soluble wheat protein was determined with 3 groups of 5 male Dutch Friesian x Holstein Friesian calves, aged about 8 weeks and with a weight of about 70 kg. The calves were bucket-fed twice a day with dietsprepare d separately percal f at each feeding time.Th e apparent faecal digestibility was determined according to an indirect measurement of digestibility during 5 days (Tolman, 1989a). In apre-tes t period of 11 days, acommercia l diet was fed to the calves. The calves were then dividedint o3 group s withsimila raverag eweigh tan dhaemoglobi n concentration ofth e blood.I n thepre-tes tperio d 2o f7 days ,th ecalve s wereaccustome d toth eharnesse s andth e diets. In the testperio d of 8days ,th e 3experimenta l diets were fed. Theingredient s andth e composition of the diets are given in Table 2. The Reference Diet Dl contained 60% of skim-milkpowde ran d 10%o f wheypowder .Fo r formulation ofth etes tdiets , 10%an d20 % of the Reference Diet wasreplace d by solublewhea tprotei n (DietD 2 andDie t D3,respecti ­ vely).

Experiment 3:Comparativ egrowt htria l /

In agrowt h trial,th eperformanc e ofcalve sfe d ona die tcontainin g 20%o f solublewhea t protein and 57%o f whey powder (Diet G2) wascompare d with that of calves fed on adie t containing 66%o f skim-milk powderan d 12%o f lactose(Die tGl) . In the startingperio d at age 0-6 weeks, a commercial diet containing 55% skim-milk powder was fed to the calves (maleDutc hFriesia n xHolstei n Friesian calves).Th ecalve s werebucket-fe d twice aday .A t an averageag eo f sixweeks ,th ecalve s weredivide d into2 group so f2 0animal s with similar average weight, average weight gain in the starter period and haemoglobin concentration of theblood . Duringth eadaptatio nperio d (2x2 weeks),th ecalve so fth ereferenc e groupwer efe dwit h DietGl . Thecalve so fth etes tgrou pwer echange d graduallyfro m DietG l with stepso f 33% per2 week s toDie tG2 .I n thefattenin g periodo f 16weeks ,th e animalsreceive dth eExperi ­ mentalDiet s Gl orG2 .Th etria lwa sdescribe di ndetai l byTolma n (1989b).Th e ingredients and thecompositio n of thediet s aregive n inTabl e3 .

Resultsan d discussion

Experiment 1

Milk replacers containing soluble wheat protein and/or skim-milk powder and/or whey powderwer eprepare d andfe d tocalves .A stabl eemulsio nwa sforme d without settling,eve n formil kreplacer scontainin gu pt o20 %o fsolubl ewhea tprotein .Th eartificia l milkcontainin g thisprotei n hadn ooff-odour s andha da typica lflour y smell.Th ecalve sha dnorma ldrinkin g behaviourwit h anorma ldrinkin gtim eo f2- 3minutes .Ther ewer en oadaptatio nproblem so r feed refusals. The amount andconsistenc y of faeces werenorma li n allcases ;th efaece s had a green to brown colour (Tolman, 1988).

229 Table3. Ingredientsand composition of diets Gl andG2.

Diet Gl DietG 2 66% skim-milk 20% soluble powder wheat protein

Ingredients(% ) solublewhea tprotei n - 20.0 skim-milkpowde r - fat1 85.5 - whey powder - fat1 - 71.4 fat 1.2 4.4 lactose 12.3 - L-lysine-HCl - 1.28 L-threonine - 0.16 others 1.0 2.7 Composition (%)2 dry matter 96.4 97.0 crude protein 22.9 25.2 crude fat 17.1 19.6 ash 5.6 6.5 gross energy (kJ/kg) 2068 2 21070 metabolizable energy (kJ/kg)3 18 405' 18 418 lysine 1.85 (1.86)3 1.68 (1.82)3 methionine +cystin e 0.80 (0.94) 0.99 (1.06) threonine 1.00 (1.02) 0.94 (1.02) tryptophan 0.38 (0.22) 0.28 (0.25) 1 mixtures contain 20%fa t 2 values by analysis 3 calculated values;fo r amino acidscalculate d valus are given in brackets

Table 4. Composition of faeces of calves fed diets Dl, D2 and D3 (means ± standard deviation).

Faeces composition DietDl Diet D2 DietD3 60% skim-milk 10% soluble 20% soluble powder wheat protein wheat protein

Dry matter (%) 12.3 ± 2.0 14.4 ± 2.2 13.7 ± 2.0 Ash (%) 2.4 ± 0.4 2.6 ± 0.4 2.5 ± 0.4 Crudeprotei n (%) 5.1 ± 1.2 6.3 ± 1.1 6.1 ± 1.2 Fat (%) 3.1 ± 1.1 2.6 + 0.8 2.3 ± 0.8 Iron (ppm) 212 ± 41 210- ± 41 174 ± 30

230 Experiment2

Thedigestibilit y testwa sperforme d withouttechnica lproblems .Health , drinkingbehavi ­ ouran dfaece s werenorma lfo r allthre egroups .Ther ewer en ofee drefusals . Disturbancesi n thedigestiv eproces s were notnoticed ; thecompositio n of thefaece s is giveni n Table4 . The digestibility coefficients of the various components of the experimental diets ando f solublewhea tprotei n aregive ni nTabl e5 (Tolman , 1989a). Thedigestibilit y ofcrud eprotei n of solublewhea t protein wasfoun d tob e96% ,whic h iscomparabl e with theprotei ndigesti ­ bility of skim-milk powder. An interaction between the level of soluble wheatprotei n in the diet (10 and 20%) and the digestibility of the components was not observed. The high digestibility of the soluble wheat protein might be explained, at least partially, by the flocculatingpropertie s(D eLaport e& Demeersman ,thi sbook) .Moreover ,inclusio no fsolubl e wheatprotei ni nth ediet sdi dno tinfluenc e thedigestibilit yo ffat ,contrar y towha ti sobserve d sometimes with other vegetable proteins (Troccon &Toullec , 1989).Ther ewer e indications thatth eabsorptio no firo ni nth esolubl ewhea tprotei nwa sremarkabl ylow .Thi swa si naccor ­ dancewit hth ecomparabl ecours eo fth ehaemoglobi n concentrationo fth ebloo di ncalve sfe d with 60% skim-milk powder (Diet Dl) and calves fed with diets containing soluble wheat protein (DietsD 2 andD3) .

Experiment 3

During the experiment, one calf of both groups died, and one calf was excluded because ofpoo rhealt h (DietG2) .Th efaece so fth epreruminan tanimal swer enorma ldurin gth ewhol e experiment,whic hdemonstrate stha tn oseriou sdigestibilit yproblem soccurred .Som eanimal s of both groups had drinking problems after 15weeks . After improvement of the ventilation system,th eproblem s withfee d intakedecrease d gradually.Thus ,thes efee d refusals wereno t related toan yo f thediets . The results for growth performances, slaughter quality and meat quality are summarized inTabl e6 .Th egrowt hperformanc e ofcalve sfe d ona non-skim-mil k dietcontainin g 20%o f soluble wheat protein was about 4% worse than that of calves fed on the Reference Diet containing 66%skim-mil kpowde rfo r theperio d6-2 6weeks . In total, 13 and9 calve sfe do n Diet Gl and G2,respectivel y had feed refusals. The number of calves that had feed refusals of more than 2% was 5 and 4, respectively. When these calves were excluded, the growth performance could bedetermine d for the 2tes t groups with 14calve seach .I n this way, final weight for the animals fed with Diets Gl and G2 was 237.2 ± 9.7 kg and 231.8 ± 12.0kg , respectively. The cumulative weight gain over the period 6-26week s was 1240± 70/ d and 1204± 91g/d,respectively . The cumulative feed conversion for the same period was 1.78 ± 0.1kg/k gan d 1.84 ± 0.15 kg/kg,respectively . Meatiness, meat colour and fat covering were comparable for both groups. The decrease and the final concentration of haemoglobin was also comparable for the two diets. The relatively redcolou r for both groupsca n beexplaine d byth e supplementary iron added from week 14 towee k 21.

Conclusion

Onth ebasi so fit sfunctionalit y andhig hdigestibilit yan dbase do nth egrowt h performance of calves fed diets with 20% soluble wheat protein, this protein is a non-milk protein that appears to be able to compete with skim-milk powder or caseinate. Thus,dependin g on the marketsituation ,hig hqualit yprotein sca nb ereplace db ysolubl ewhea tprotein .Today ,partia l replacement ofmil kprotei n by solublewhea tprotei n is already inuse .

231 Table 5. Apparentfaecal digestibility coefficientsof various components.

Faeces composition DietDl Diet D2 DietD3 60% skim-milk 10% soluble 20% soluble powder wheatprotei n wheatprotei n

Diets1 dry matter 96.6 ± 0.7 96.8 ± 0.9 96.0 + 1.0 organicmatte r 97.1 ± 0.6 97.2 ± 0.8 95.5 ± 0.9 crudeprotei n 94.1 ± 1.0 95.3 + 1.1 94.9 ± 1.6 fat 94.9 ± 1.8 96.5 ± 1.5 95.6 ± 1.8 carbohydrates 99.1 ± 0.3 98.7 ± 0.4 98.1 ± 0.2 iron 13.7 +26.3 20.3 ± 7.3 3.7 ±16.7 Soluble wheat protein2 dry matter _ 98.7 + 5.1 93.5 ± 2.7 organic matter - 98.1 ± 4.4 94.1 ± 2.3 crudeprotei n - 98.2 ± 2.0 95.7 + 1.6 1 mean± standard deviation 2 -mea n± standarderro r ofmea n

Table 6. Resultsof comparative growth trial.

Diet Gl DietG 2 66% skim-milk 20% soluble powder wheatprotei n

Growth results numbero f calves 19 18 initial age (weeks) 6 6 final age(weeks ) 26 26 initial weight (kg) 64.4 ± 2.81 64.2 ± 2.8 final weight (kg) 236.2 + 9.9 227.5 ± 13.5 averageweigh t gain (g/d 1235 ± 71 1 175 + 98 feeding schedule (kg) 321.5 321.5 actualfee d intake (kg) 303.6 ± 4.0 304.3 ± 5.0 feed conversion (kg/kg) 1.77 + 0.10 1.88 ± 0.15 haemoglobin content (mM) 5.2 + 0.7 5.3 ± 0.8 Qualityresult s dressing percentage (%) 61.0 ± 2.6 59.9 ± 1.8 meatiness (%) R 10 0 O 74 67 P 16 33 meatcolou r (%) 3 11 11 4 79 72 5 10 17 fat covering (%) 1 5 0 2 26 61 3 69 39 mean ± standard deviation

232 References

Tolman,G.H. , 1988.Toepasbaarhei d van oplosbaartarwe-eiwi t inkunstmel k voorvleeskal - veren.Fas e 1.Beoordelin gva noplosbaa rtarwe-eiwi tbevattend ekunstmelk .ILO Brappor t 188P-3626 ,Wageningen ,NL . Tolman,G.H. , 1989a.Applicabilit y of Kalpro Si n amilk-replace rfo r veal calves.Phas e 2. Digestibility of KalproS .ILO Brepor tNo .189-36 3la ,Wageningen ,NL . Tolman,G.H. , 1989b.Nutritiona lvalu eo fKalpr oS i nmil kreplace rfo r vealcalves .Phas e3 . Comparative growth trial.ILO Brepor tNo .189-3670a ,Wageningen ,NL . Troccon, J.L. & R. Toullec, 1989. Aliments d'allaitement pour veaux d'élevage. INRA ProductionAnimal e2(2) :117-128 .

233 9. Nutrition: antinutritional factors Nutritional significance of dietary soya antigens in milk substitutes for calves

J.W.Sisson s *& H.E .Pederse n ** * AFRCInstitute for Grasslandand Animal Production, Shinfield, ReadingRG2 9AQ GBX ** AarhusOliefabrik AIS, Aarhus, DK

Summary

Suitable sources of protein alternative to skim milk must be found to meet the present demands for veal production. Amongst various vegetable proteins, soya has attracted most attention. So far, however, attempts to use soya protein as a complete replacement for milk proteinhav eno tprove d successful. Fundamental studieso fdigestiv efunctio n incalve shav e indicated thatth einferio r nutritional valueo f soyaflou r to casein islinke d with agu t hyper­ sensitivereactio nt oantigeni cglobulin so fth esoy abean .Commercia ltreatment swhic hrefin e thesoy aprotei nan ddestro yit simmunologica lactivit yhav eprove dbeneficia lfo rcal ffeeding . The purpose of this paper is to present evidence that calves areintoleran t to unrefined soya productsbecaus ethe y suffer from agastro-intestina lallergi creactio nt oth eprotein .Th epape r willals odiscus sth erol eo f systemic anti-soya antibodies in mediating thedisorder .' Descriptors:calves ;soy aantigens ;systemi c IgGantibodies .

Introduction Althoughski mmil ki sth echoic eprotei nfo rfeedin g toyoun gcalves ,ther ear etime swhe n iti si n shortsupply .Fo rthi sreason ,ther ei smuc hinteres ti nreplacin g alarg epar to f themil k protein with otherprotei n sources.Mos tattentio n hasbee ngive n toth eus eo f soyaproducts . Compared with other non-milk sourceso fprotein , soya beans asa commodit y areusuall yi n constantsupply .Also ,i nrecen ttimes ,th esoya-processin gindustr yha sdevelope dtechnolog y forconcentratin gth eprotei n aswel la sreducin gth eharmfu l effects ofsevera l anti-nutritional factors. However published digestibility studies indicate that, despite fat extraction and toasting, it is not possible to replace large amounts of the milk protein with soya products without severe depression in animal performance (Table 1).Clearl y factors other than heat- labilecomponent s mustinfluenc e thenutritiv e valueo f soyafo r thecalf .

Intestinal hypersensitivity

Studies of digestiveprocesse s inpreruminan t calvesreporte d by Sissons and co-workers (see review Sissons, 1989) have shown that heated and defatted soya flour is capable of inducing anadvers e intestinalreactio n which results in abnormalpassag e of digesta, impair­ ment of nitrogen absorption and watery diarrhoea. Further detailed studies revealed thatth e digestivedisorder s werelinke d withmucosa ltissu edamage ,cryp thyperplasi a andexudatio n offibri n casts.

1 Presentaddress :Protei nTechnologie sInternational ,Checkerboar dSquare ,St .Louis ,MO ,63164 ,US .

237 Table 1. Antigenicity and apparentdigestibility of nitrogenby calves of milksubstitutes containing soyameal, flour or concentrate. Digestibility datafrom Sissons (1989).

Soyaproduc t Typical Proportion Age Digestibility antigenicity of milk of of total (ELISAlog 2 protein calves nitrogen titre) replaced (days) of thedie t

Full-fat unheated meal 15 0.43 15-19 0.53 (42% protein)

Defatted andheate d flour 15 0.35 21-26 0.76 (52%protein ) 0.50 21.-26 0.68

Ethanol-extracted and 3 0.70 21-28 0.82 heatedconcentrat e (65% protein)

Thesechange s together with aconcomitan t rise in circulatory IgG antibodies specifically against themajo r globulins,glycini nan dB-conglycinin ,le dt oth eide atha tcalve sfe d certain soyaproduct s may suffer from hypersensitivity orallerg y toth esoy aprotein . Indirectevidenc ei n supporto fth eallerg ytheor yi sdraw nfro m studieso fdigestibilit y and growth performance of calves fed on products that were treated to destroy the putative allergens.Treatin g soyamea lwit hho taqueou sethano l ora combinatio n ofhea tan dpressur e (extrusion) alters the protein structure sotha t it is notrecognize d byrabbi t antibodies raised against native protein. It is supposed that such products are 'antigen-free' and interestingly they were found to be better utilized than toasted soya flour by young calves (Stobo et al., 1983). Moreover such products did not induce digestive disorders or cause villous atrophy whengive n aschalleng e feeds tocalve swhic h hadbee norall y sensitized toheate d soya flour (Pedersen, 1986;Sissons ,unpublishe ddata) .

Systemicimmun erespons e

In immuno-physiological studies of soya fed calves (Kilshaw &Sissons , 1979), aris e in systemic anti-soya antibody titrewa sfoun d tocorrespon d with amarke d increasei n digesta flow through the small intestine which wasindicativ e of digestive malfunction. Barratte t al. (1978)attribute dth emucosa linjur y seeni ncalve sfe do nsoy at ocomple xformatio n between circulatory IgGantibodie san dsoy aantigens .Howeve ri tremain st ob edemonstrate dwhethe r a systemicimmun erespons et osoy aprotei ni sdirectl yresponsibl efo r thedigestiv e malfunc­ tion. In a recent study (Heppell & Sissons, unpublished) soya-naiv e calves were passively sensitizedwit hseru mcontainin gIg Ganti-soy aantibodie sraise di nothe ranimal sgive na soya - flour-based diet. An ELISAreveale d that high titres of antibody had been transferred into the blood of the recipient calves, but abnormalities in gut motor function (measured electromyographically) anddiarrhoe aonl ydevelope d after repeatedora lchalleng ewit hfeed s containingheate dsoy a flour, whilst the serum level of soya specific IgG andIgG l subclassdi dno tchange .Thus ,i t appearstha tthi sclas so fantibod yi sno tdirectl yresponsibl efo r theadvers eintestina lreactio n

238 Table2. Effectof passive transfer of anti-soya IgG antibodies and oral challenge with heated soya flour (HSF)on the occurrence ofmigratory myoelectric complexes(MMCs) along the smallintestine. Migratory myoelectric complexes are the basis of muscular contractions which propagatedown the small intestine. Meanvalues are givenfor 5calves.

Ordero fgivin g Soya-specific antibody Numbero f challenge feeds titre (ELISAlog2 ) MMCs between 0-6h after IgG IgGl feeding mean s.e. mean s.e. mean s.e. Casein (before transfer) 6.0 0.4 2.8 0.5 5.0 0.5 HSF 1st feed 11.9 0.6 8.8 0.3 5.0 0.4 HSF2n d feed 4.4 0.4 HSF 5tho rmor e feeds 11.0 0.4 8.4 0.5 10.0 0.7 Casein 5.2 0.4

to soya(Tabl e2) .Bu ti tcanno t be assumed thatth e transferred antibodies hadpenetrate d the mucosal tissuewhic hcoul d bea prerequisit e fora n adverseimmunologica l reaction. Althoughth edirec tinvolvemen t ofIg Gantibodie si ngu tdysfunctio n isuncertain ,the yar e indicative of 'immunological stress' which is thought to disturb intermediary metabolism. Recently Klasing (1989)observe di n chicks thatinjection s ofbacteria l immunogens reduced themethionin ean dlysin erequirements .H epropose d that stimulationo fth eimmun esyste m mayalte rth epartitionin go fdietar ynutrient sawa yfro m tissueaccretio ni nfavou ro fmetaboli c processes needed to support theimmun eresponse . Theconcep to f 'immunological stress'raise sth equestio n ast owhethe rth eleve lo fth eIg G antibody response relates directly to growth performance. Asmentione d earlier, treatments which reduce theantigeni c activity of the native soya protein have been linked with a low systemic immune response and improvements inth enutritiona l value of the product forth e calf. But,suc h benefits from useo fnitroge n mayno thav e been entirely due toa nalteratio n in immunological activity. Forexample , treatment with aqueous ethanol mayimpar t some advantagefo rdigestibility . Furthermorefailur e todetec tsystemi cantibodie s againstundena - tured soya protein after feeding a soya product cannot be taken to mean that an immune response was absent. Thesensitivit yan dspecificit y ofth eassa ywil laffec t theantibod ymeasurements .Als one w antigens could arise from thetreatmen to rthroug h partial digestioni nth e gut. Besides IgGantibodies ,other so fth eIg Eclas shav eals obee n detectedi nth eser ao fsom e calvesfe do nheate dsoy aflou r (Kilshaw& Sissons ,1979) .Ig Eantibodie sar eknow npassivel y to sensitize mucosal mast cells. Indeed feeding on soya flour has been found to increase substantially theproliferatio n of these cells (Pedersen, 1986). Iti s thought that subsequent reactionswit hantigen sa tth emas tcel lsurfac eca ntrigge rth ereleas eo fintracellula rgranules . These granules contain substances which acta smediator s ininflammatio n of the guttissue . Some successha s been achievedi npreventin gdiarrhoe ai n soya sensitive calves throughth e useo f an anti-inflammatory drug given shortly before oralchalleng e with heated soya flour (Duvaux &Sissons ,unpublished) .Whethe rsuc htreatmen tca nb eo fbenefi t inimprovin gth e digestiono fsoy aprotei ni s unknown. In conclusion, antigenic components ofth e soya bean appear tolimi t theamoun t ofmil k protein that can be replaced bysoy ai ncow' s milk substitutes forcalves .Th e severity ofth e gut disorder mayb edose-dependen t since substitution of less than about 20% of themil k protein istolerate db yth ecalf ,whils thighe rlevel sgreatl yincrease dth eris ko fdiarrhoe aan d

239 depressed growth. Further understanding of the roleo f systemic antibodies in mediatingdi ­ gestivemalfunctio n ando f thesurviva lo fantigeni c structuresi nth egu ti sneede dt oimprov e thecommercia lprocessin go fsoy aan dt oincreas eth evalu eo flaborator yassay sfo rpredictin g thesuitabilit y of new soyaproduct sfo r calf feeding.

References Barratt,M.E.J. ,P.J .Strache n &P.Porter , 1978.Antibod ymechanism simplicate di ndigestiv e disturbances following ingestiono fsoy aprotei ni ncalve san dpiglets .Clinica lExperimen ­ talImmunolog y 31:305-312. Klasing,K.C. , 1989.Nutritiona limplication so fa nimmun eresponse .Proceeding so fth e10t h Western Nutritional Conference, September 1989,Saskatoon , Canada,p . 193-202. Pedersen, H.E., 1986. Studies of soyabean protein intolerance in thepreruminan t calf.Ph D Thesis,Universit y of Reading,England . Kilshaw,P.J .& J.W .Sissons ,1979 .Gastrointestina lallerg yt osoyabea nprotei ni npreruminan t calves.Antibod yproductio nan ddigestiv edisturbance si ncalve sfe dheate dsoyabea nflour . Res.Vet .Sei .27:361-365 . Sissons,J.W. , 1989.Aetiolog y of diarrhoea inpig s andpreruminan t calves.In :W .Haresign ; D.J.A. Cole (Ed): Recent advances in animal nutrition. Butterworths Scientific Press, London, p.261-282 . Stobo, I.J.F., P.Ganderto n & H. Conners, 1983.Effect.ó f level of inclusion of antigen-free soyaprotei n concentrate in awhe y based milk substitutefo r calves. AnimalPro d38:557 .

240 Soyaantigen s and anti-soya-antibody formation in calves

G.H.Tolma n ILOB-TNO,Institute for AnimalNutrition andPhysiology, P.O. Box 15, 6700AA Wageningen,NL

Summary Development of serum anti-soya-IgG was studied in young veal calves fed on diets containing soya.Calve sreceivin gdietar ysoy aflou rdevelope dwithi n 1 to4 week shig hseru m levels of anti-soya-IgG. Development of serum anti-soya-IgG did not differ between calves fedever yda ya die tcontainin gsoy aflou rfo r severalweek so rcalve sfe d atinterval so f7 day s for two days the diet containing soya flour. IgG antibodies were measured by an ELISA. Microtitreplate s werecoate d withprotei n from soyaflour. Calve sreceivin gdietar y 'antigen- free' soya concentrate developed moderate serum levels of anti-soya IgG. Development of serum antibodies specific todietar y antigens is notnecessaril y correlated with disappointing performance incalves . Descriptors:calves ; soya;antigens ; antibodies.

Introduction x Substances thatinduc eth eformatio n of antibodiesafte r oraladministratio n arecalle d feed antigens.A fee dantige no rdietar yantige nca nb edefine d asa macromolecul eo fdietar yorigi n that, after absorption, isrecognize d byth eimmun e system asforeign , and that stimulates the immune system toproduc e antibodies toeliminat e theantigen .I n general,thi sreactio n ofth e immune system is anorma l beneficial phenomenon andth eantige n isinnocuou s (Roitte tal. , 1985). Proteins and glycoproteins are potent antigens, polysaccharides are weak antigens whilstpur e lipidsneve r stimulate theimmun e system toproduc e antibodies (Perlman, 1980). Although dietary antigens generally are innocuous, much work has been published about deleterious effects of soyaproduct si ncalve s arisingfro m intestinalhypersensitivit y reactions provokedb ydietar ysoy aantigen s(Sissons , 1989;Toulle c& Guilloteau , 1989).I tis , therefore important to determine the antigenicity of feedstuffs in vitro and to assess which products cause antibody formation. Todetermin e the antigenicity offeedstuff s invitro, iti s preferable to use specific antibodies raised against the antigens in the species under investigation. Such antibodies can beraise d in two ways:b y theparentera l route or theora lroute . Theoretically, the advantage of oral immunization is that serum antibodies are produced with the particular property of combining with those antigens that pass the mucosal barrier, whilstparentera limmunizatio ninduce sth eproductio no fantibodie sraise dagains tal lantigen s present in thefeedstuff . Therefore, antibodies produced after oral administration of antigens might be more selective and useful for determining the antigenicity of feedstuffs than antibodies produced after parenteral immunization. The aim of the present study was to test whether feeding regime influences systemic formation ofanti-soya-IgG .A nexperimen twa sconducte dt oproduc eanti-soy aIg Gb yfeedin g calves on adie t containing lightly toasted soya flour. Twofeedin g regimes were applied: 1. feeding onth e soya-flour-based dietfo r severalweek s 2. feeding alternately for 2 days on the soya-flour-based diet and for 7 days on amilk-pro ­ tein-based diet. Asecon dexperimen t wasconducte d toexamin eth e systemicimmun erespons e toa commer ­ cial 'antigen-free' soyaconcentrat e (hot-aqueous-ethanol-extractedsoy a flour).

241 Materialan d methods

Experiment 1

Theexperimen twa scarrie dou twit hmal evea lcalve s(Friesia nDutc hx Holstei nFriesian) . Sixnewl ybor ncalve swer efe do na milk-protein-base dcontro ldie t(23 %protein )fo r3 weeks . Thereafter the animals were divided into 2 groups of 3 calves. All calves were gradually switched (25% everyday )fro m themil kprotei ndie tt oa soya-flour-base d testdie twit h30 % lightlytoaste ddefatte d soyaflou r (PDI= 70 ;crud eprotei n( Nx 6.25 )= 52% ;SBT I= 2 1 mg/g; HA= 40) .Thi sdie tcontaine d about66 %o fth eprotei n assoy a flour. After theswitch ,calve so f theon egrou p (Group 1) remainedo nth e testdiet , whilecalve s of theothe r group (Group 2)wer e given thecontro ldiet .Seve nday slater ,calve s ofGrou p 2 wereagai ngraduall y switchedi ntw oday sfro m thecontro ldie tt oth etes tdiet . Subsequently, thesecalve swer ereturne d to thecontro l dietfo r7 days.Thi s feeding protocol wasrepeate d 5 times.A t the end of the feeding programme, the calves were about 10week s old. Jugular blood was sampled from the calveso n arrival, 3 weeks laterjus t before introducing the test diet and weekly after introducing the test diet. Serum anti-soya IgG level was measured in duplicate in each sample by an ELISA procedure. Briefly, microtitre plates (Costar) were coatedwit hprotei nextrac to fth esoy aflou r at3 g/1 . Plateswer eblocke dwit ha nexces so f 3% BSA t opreven tan ysubsequen tnon-specifi c bindingo fprotein san dwer ethe nincubate dwit h 5 doublingdilution s of test sample starting at 1/75,followe d byincubatio n withperoxydase - conjugated rabbit anti-bovineIgG .Peroxydase-substrat e (o-phenylenediaminei npresenc eo f 0.01% hydrogen peroxide) wasadde dand ,afte r incubation, absorbancewa smeasure d at49 2 nm.Antibod y level wasexpresse d asabsorbance u ata dilutio n within thelinea rrang eo f the titration curves. In this experiment, antibody level was determined at 1/1200.Weigh t gain, rectaltemperatur eafte r theevenin gmea lan dqualit yo fth efaece s (consistency,smell ,colour ) wereobserve d throughout theexperiment .

Experiment2

Four newly born male veal calves (Friesian Dutch x Holstein Friesian) were on fed a milk-protein-based control diet (23% protein) for 1week . Thereafter, calves were gradually switched from the control diet to a soya-concentrate-based test diet. The test diet contained 15% 'antigen free' soya concentrate (crude protein (N x 6.25) = 66%). About 43%o f the protein in the test diet was derived from the soya concentrate. Blood samples for the deter­ mination of serum anti-soya-IgG level were taken on arrival of thecalves , 1wee k laterjus t before introducing the test diet, and weekly thereafter. Microtitre plates were coated either witha protei nextrac to flightl yheate dsoy aflou r (asi nExperimen t 1)o rwit ha protei nextrac t of the soya concentrate. Other parameters measured were weight gain, feed conversion and quality of thefaece s (consistency, smell,colour) .

Results

Experiment 1

Figure 1show sth e soya-specific serum IgGresponse .Befor e introduction of thetes t diet, the response was, as expected, very low for all animals. One week after introduction, the responseo f Calf 1(Grou p 1)an dCal f 5(Grou p2 )wa shigh .Th erespons eo f Calf 4an dCal f 6 (both Group2 )increase ddurin g aperio do f 3t o4 week s after introduction of soya flour. Twoweek s after switching to the test diet, the condition of Calf 3 was poor and this calf was transferred from Group 1 toGrou p 2.Th e samehappene d to Calf 1abou t4 weeks after

242 1.75

1.50

CS at -*— 3

a •*•- 4 a

<

4 5 6 7 10 Age (weeks)

Figure 1. Developmentof anti-soya IgG in serumof preruminant calves fed on soyaflour (serum dilution 1:1200).Arrow represents switch to soyaflour. Blocks representdays of feeding calvesof Group 2 (Calves 4,5, 6)on the soya-flour diet. Calves of Group 1 (Calves 1,2,3) werefed onthe soya-flour diet for allmeals.

Table 1. Weightgain, rectal temperature and time with rectal temperature > 39.5 °C or > 40.0 °C,respectively), feed refusals (number) andtime with diarrhoea.

Calf Weight Rectal Timerecta l Feed Diarrhoea gain temperature temperature> t( d) refusals (d) (glà) (°C) mean sd 39.5 °C 40.0 °C

1 293 39.3 0.3 12 1 _ _ 2 372 39.2 0.3 8 0 13 2 3 419 39.5 0.5 18 8 17 2 4 744 39.3 0.6 14 6 3 - 5 781 39.0 0.2 0 0 7 1 6 870 39.1 0.2 2 0 - -

switchingt oth etes tdiet .Poo rconditio n wassee na slistlessness ,almos tzer oweigh t gainan d anelevate drecta ltemperatur e (only Calf3) .Nevertheless ,bot hcalve sdi dno tdevelo p severe diarrhoea (Table 1).N odistinc tdifferenc e inanti-soy aIg Grespons e betweencalve so fGrou p 1 and Group 2 was detected. Table 1show s weight gain, rectal temperature and number of feedrefusal s ofth ecalve sa swel la sincidenc eo fdiarrhoe adurin gth etes tperio d (4—10week s of age). Calves of Group 1 hada lowe r weightgain , somewhathighe rrecta l temperature and more feed refusals than calves of Group 2.Th e higher average rectal temperature of Calf 4

243 Ol

O c • lm O «I

Figure 2. Development of anti-soya IgG in serum of preruminant calvesfed on soya concentrate (serumdilution 1:300; microtitre plate coated with soya flour). Arrowrepresents switchto soya concentrate.

E c

CM 01

Oe m n mm O m

Figure 3. Development of anti-soya IgG in serum of preruminant calvesfed on soya concentrate(serum dilution 1:150; microtitre plate coated with soya concentrate). Arrow representsswitch to soya concentrate.

244 was mainly duet oa perio do f6 day si nwhic hrecta l temperature washighe r than 40.0°C ;i n this period, the calf showed signs of pneumonia and was treated with an antibiotic. It was remarkable that Calf 1 never showed anyfee d refusal, incontras t tofee d refusals of Calves2 and3 ,whic hwer efe d throughouto nth etes tdiet ,an dth efee drefusal s of Calves4 e n5 whe n thesecalve swer efe d onth etes tdiet .Th ecalve sfe d onth etes tdie tproduce dmor ean d suffer faeces than theothe r calves.Th e smell of thefaece s of Calf 1wa sunpleasant . The incidence of diarrhoea was very lowan dprobabl y notassociate d with hypersensitivity.

Experiment 2

Figure 2 shows the soya-specific serum IgG response by ELISA where microtitre plates were coated with the protein extract of lightly heated soya flour. As in Experiment 1, the response wasver y lowfo r allcalve s before introduction of thetes t diet. Surprisingly, after introduction of the test diet, 3ou t of 4animal s showed aclea r increase inanti-soy a IgGlevel .Onl yon e (Calf 20)afte r feeding an 'antigen-free' concentrate, showed noclea rincrease .Cal f 4firs t showeda nincrease ,bu ta ta n ageo f 5weeks ,th eIg Grespons e decreased. Although the average absorbance 4 weeks after introduction of the test diet was similar to that in Experiment 1,anti-soy a IgGrespons e was much lower because serum was diluted only 1:300 whereas in Experiment 1seru m was diluted 1:1200.Figur e 3 shows the soya-specific serum IgG response according an ELISA where microtitre plates were coated with theprotei n extract of the 'antigen-free' soyaconcentrate .Hence ,formatio n of anti-soya IgG is far less distinct, although serum was diluted only 1:150.Th e results of Experiment 2 indicated that feeding an 'antigen-free' soya concentrate can induce formation of anti-soya IgG and that these antibodies were detected more readily by coating microtitre plates with lightly heated soya flour than bycoatin g withethanol-treate d soya concentrate. Table 2 shows weight gain and feed conversion of the calves. Health of the animals was excellent and no diarrhoea occurred. Faeces seems to be a little suffer than from milk-fed calves.A correlatio n between anti-soya IgGleve l andperformanc e wasapparentl y absent

Table 2. Weightgain (g/d) andfeed conversion (feedintake (kg) /weightgain (kg)) from 2 to8 weeks of age.

Calf Weightgai n Feed conversion

4 543 1.75 12 690 1.40 19 657 1.44 20 757 1.21

Discussionan d conclusions

Experiment 1 showstha tfeedin go nsoy aflou rcontinuousl yfo rsevera lweek so ralternatel y for 2day s followed by milk protein for 7 days, seems tohav e no effect on the development or level of anti-soya IgG response. Adistinc t effect of feeding regime on weight gain and to a lesser extent on rectal temperature and consistency and amount of faeces was observed. Calves fed continuously on the test diet showed a lower weight gain,produce d more faeces than theothe r calves (indicating alowe rdigestibilit y of the test diet) and had slightly higher rectaltemperatures ,suggestin gtha tth etes tdie tma yhav einduce dsom edigestiv e malfunction possibly linked with inflammation of the gut mucosa (Sissons, 1989).Nevertheless ,Experi -

245 ment 1showe d that anti-soya IgGleve l wasno tnecessaril y correlated with health or perfor­ mance. Experiment 2 showed that feeding an 'antigen-free' soya concentrate can induce formation anti-soyaIgG .S oth eter m' antigen-free 'i sno tappropriate ,althoug hth eantigenicit y ofth eproduc tin vitro byELIS Awa sver ylow .Th eantibodie s weredetecte dmor ereadil yb y coatingmicrotitr eplate swit hlightl yheate d soyaflou r (with ahig hantigenicit y invitro) than by coating with ethanol-treated soya concentrate,indicatin g thatth e seracontaine dimmuno ­ globulins with greater avidity for soya flour than for proteins of the soya concentrate. This implies thatonl y afe w soyaantigen s arerequire d toactivat eth eimmun e system. Ethanoldenaturatio n of soyaprotei n (i.e.unfoldin g ofth eprotei nmolecule ) seems insuffi­ cient toproduc e an antigen-free protein. Probably the only way toproduc e an 'antigen-free' soyaprotei ni st ohydrolys eth eprotei nt olo wmolecula rpeptide shavin gn oantigeni cdetermi ­ nants. Anotherpossibilit y ist oproduc e aprotei ntha ti shighl y digestible,s otha ti nth edigestiv e tractth emacromolecule s arehydrolyse dquickl yan dantigeni cdeterminant sar ebroke ndown . However,i tremain s questionable how far aproduc t needs tob e 'antigen-free'. In agreement with Sissons & Pedersen (this book) and Toullec & Guilloteau (1989), the findings of the present experiments show that the development of systemic antibodies specific to dietary antigensi sno tnecessaril ycorrelate dwit hperformanc e incalves .I tremain suncertai n towha t extent adversereaction so fth edigestiv e system to soyaprotei n arerelate dwit hanti-soy aIg G formation.

References Perlman, F., 1980. Allergens. In: I.E. Liener (Ed.): Toxic constituents of plant foodstuffs. Academic Press,Ne w York.p .295-327 . Roitt, I.M., J. Brostoff &D.K . Male, 1987.Immunology . ChurchillLivingstone ,Edinburgh ; Gower Medical Publising, London. Sissons,J.W. , 1989.Aetiolog y of diarrhoea in pigs andpreruminan t calves. In:W .Haresig n &D.J.A . Cole (Ed.):Recen t advances in animal nutrition, London, p.261-282 . Toullec,R .& P . Guilloteau, 1989.Researc hint oth edigestiv ephysiolog yo fth emilk-fe dcalf . In:E.J .va nWeerde n &J .Huisma n (Ed.):Nutritio n andDigestiv ePhysiolog y inMonogas - tricFar m Animals.Pudoc ,Wageningen , p.37-55 .

246 Newdevelopment s inanalysi so fantinutritiona l factors

M.G.va n Oort,R.J .Hame r &G.H .Tolma n TNOCereals, Flourand Bread Institute, Wageningen, NL

Summary Methods were developed for detection and quantification of antigenic soya proteins (by immunoblotting) andlectin s(b yFLIA) .Th eantigeni csoy aprotein swer eselectivel ydetecte d byantibodie s obtained from calvesorall yimmunize d against soyaproteins .I n this way,anti ­ bodies wereraise d only against theantigeni cproteins . The functional lectin immunoassay (FLIA) selectively measured pathogenic lectins in feeds, sinceth electin swer edetecte d bya combinatio n offunctio n andidentit y measurement. Descriptors: antigenic proteins; allergenic proteins; soya proteins; lectins; lectin analysis; immunoblotting.

Introduction Allergenico rantigeni cprotein s

Food hypersensitivity or allergy forms aseriou sproble m in the feeding of young animals ascalve s andpiglets .Allerg yca nb eacquire db yanimals ,althoug h inheritancema y alsopla y arole .Th e mechanism of acquirement isno tcompletel y understood atthi s moment. When young calves are fed with slightly toasted soya flour, they will form antibodies ina relatively short time against the antigenic soyaprotein spresen t in the soya flour. Ane wmetho d ofanalysi swa sdevelope d toassa y theantigenicit y of soyaproduct s andt o identify the antigenic proteins present in these products. In this test, use was made of the antisera from theorall y immunizedcalves . The identification of these antigenic soyaprotein s waspossibl e through acombinatio n of electrophoretic separation of theprotein s followed byimmunologica l identification.

Lectins

An importantpar t in animal bioprocessing is theresorptio n of nutrients.Fo r thispurpose , theanima l hasit s gut wallconsitin g of villousfingerlik e structures.Thes e structures provide amaximu mresorptiv esurface .I ti swel lknow ntha tlectin s(whic har esugar-bindin gproteins ) candamag eth egu twal lresultin gi nles so fthes efingerlik e structures andreducin gresorptiv e capacity. Lectins are present in legumes and cereals. Detection of lectins is difficult with a traditional haemagglutination assay. In this assay, lectins must contain at least two binding sitesfo rreliabl edetection .Onl ywhe n twobindin g sitesar epresen ti sagglutinatio no f there d bloodcell spossible .Lectin swit honl yon ebindin gsit ewil lno tagglutinat eth ere dbloo dcells . Toovercom e this problem, wedevelope d ane wlecti n assay, theFLIA .Thi s test detected lectins byfunctiona l carbohydrate bindingfollowe d bysensitiv e and specific immunological detection and quantification.

247 Materialan d methods Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis wasperforme d ona Biora dMin iProtea nI IDua lSla bGe lElectrophoresi s apparatus,usin g 15%SD SPolyacrylamid e (PAA),0.4 %bisacrylamid e(BAA ) gels(1 0c m x 0.8 cm,0. 8 mm thick) essentially according toLaemml i (1970). For separation oflower-mo -

SSSHESS

; antibody \ carbohydrate ; lectin 'peroxidase ry-9jrv^ty^

antibody carbohydrate lectin peroxidase

Figure1. Schematicpresentation of the FL1Aprinciple.

Figure2. SDS-PAGEpatterns of differentsoya proteins andsoya products. Fromthe leftto the right:Lane 1, MW marker;Lane 2, SBA; Lane 3, KSTI;Lane 4, glycinin; Lane 5, $-conglycinin;Lane 6, soya concentrate; Lane 7, soya isolate; Lane 8, enzymatically treated soyaflour; Lane 9, toastedsoya flour; Lane 10,untreated soya flour.

248 lecular-weight protein bands (2000-20 000D) , similar 15%PA Aan d 0.4% BAAgel s were used,wit h 15%ure aadde d toth erunnin gge lsolutio nbefor e polymerization.

Blotting

The separated proteins were blotted onto nitrocellulose paper (Schleicher & Schuil) by semi-dry electroblotting with aPharmaci a Multiphor II 2117-250NOV ABlo t system and a Pharmacia ECPS 2000/30Powe r supply.Th eblottin g wascarrie d outa t0. 8 mA/cm2 for 1 h atroo m temperature.

Immunoblotting

Theprotei n blots werewashe d andblocke d with 5%casei n solution for 2 h at3 7 °C.Th e calf antiserum and the rabbit antiserum were diluted 50-fold and 2500-fold, respectively, in dilution buffer (1% bovine serum albumin (BSA), 0.1% Tween-20i n PBS).Th e blots were incubatedi nth eantiser aovernigh ta troo mtemperatur ewit hconstan tagitation .Afte r washing, the rabbit antiserum blots were incubated with a second antibody, i.e. goat-ana' rabbit IgG antibodies conjugated to horse-radish peroxidase and the calf antiserum immunoblots were incubated with rabbit-anti-bovineIg G antibodies conjugated toperoxidase .Finall y theblot s were stained with 0.6 ml of diaminobenzene (DAB) and 4 ml of chloronaphtol in 44 mlo f PBS containing 20 (J.1 of hydrogenperoxide. ,

FLIA

Theassa y wascarrie dou to n96-wel lmicrotitreplate s essentially accordingt oHendrik s et al. (1987).Th eprincipl e of the assay is schematically shown in Figure 1.Th e first step was the binding of a carbohydrate matrix to a solid support. The second step was the incubation of samples containing lectin on this coating.Onl y thefunctionall y active lectins can bindt o the carbohydrates. The third step was the detection of the bound lectins by the antibodies (coupled to a peroxidase molecule) and finally the fourth stepwa s the quantification of the bound antibodies bya colour-formin g reaction. Incontras tt oELIS Awher eth eamoun to ftota llecti ni smeasured ,th eFLI Ameasure donl y the functional lectins, since the first step can only be accomplished by functionally intact lectins.A sa carbohydrat e matrixi nthi sassay ,a preparatio no fth esmal lintestin eo fpig swa s useda scoating .Wit hthi sgut-wal lpreparation ,th eso-calle dbrush-borde rmembrane s(BBM) , wecoul d mimic the actual situationi n theanimal .

Resultsan d discussion

Byth eelectrophoreti c technique,sodiu m dodecylsulphat ean dPolyacrylamid egelelectro - phoreses (SDS-PAGE),th esoy aprotein swer eseparate daccordin gt othei rmolecula rweight . Theresul t of such aseparatio n is showni nFigur e2 . This technique showsal lprotein spresen ti nsoy aflour . Theintensit y ofth eband s givesa n indication of the abundance of each protein, but no discrimination is made between the antigenicity orharmfulnes s of theproteins . In suchelectrophoresi , theprotein sar emor eo rles slocke di na nacrylamid ematrix .I nthi s matrix, theprotein s cannot bereache d by antibodies. Sofo r immunochemical detection, the proteins have to be removed from the inside of the gel to the surface of a nitrocellulose membrane.Thi s transfer iscalle d 'blotting'.Afte r theblotting ,th eprotein s onth e surface of the membrane can be identified with antibodies. The total of transfer followed byimmuno ­ chemicaldetectio n iscalle d 'immunoblotting'o r 'Western blotting'.

249 For immunoblotting detection, use was made of antibodies from the serum of the orally immunized calves. This results in thefollowin g pattern (Figure 3). Aver y important fact in thisfigur e is thatth eintensit y of theband s is anindicatio n of theantigenicit y andno to f the abundanceo fth eproteins .Th eband stha tca nb esee nar eprotein srecognize db yth eantibodie s in the calf serum and thus areprotein s which are antigenic. Iti sremarkabl e that soya lectin, SBTI and the glycinin proteins were not or were hardly detected and were therefore not or werehardl yantigenic .Th eß-conglycini nproteins ,o nth eothe rhand ,wer estrongl yantigenic . This can be seen byth eintens e bandso nth eimmunoblot .

* -*.t * * . *

^y-).

Figure 3. Immunoblot. Detectionand staining withcalf antibodies. Samesoya proteins and soyaproducts as shown in Figure 2.

J~AX ;~-^:^

Figure4. Immunoblot.Detection and staining withrabbit antibodies. Same soya proteins and soyaproducts as shown in Figure 2.

250 The soyaconcentrat e and the soyaisolat e both contained anumbe r of antigenicproteins . Theseprotein s werelargel y ß-conglycininproteins .Als osom evagu eband sfro m theglycini n proteins can be seen. Asecon d remarkable fact is the presence in the soya products of very intense protein bands in therang e of MWo f 15-20 000D .Thos eband s were hardly visible onth eSD S gelbu twer estrongl yfortifie d onth eimmunoblot . Thismean stha tthes eprotein s are strongly antigenic. In the enzymically treated soya product, no antigenic bands were visible.S otha ttreatmen tseem ssuccessfu l indecreasin gth eamoun to fantigeni cproteins .Th e toasted and untreated soya flour look almost the same on this immunoblot. Difference in solubility of theprotein s cannot bedetecte d with this technique. Iti so f course alsopossibl e torais eantibodie s against soyaprotein si nrabbits .I n fact, this isth eusua lwa yo fobtainin gantibodies .Howeve ri nthi sway ,antibodie swil lb eraise dagains t allprotein s injected into therabbit s andno tonl y against theantigeni cproteins .Us eo f rabbit antibodies resultsi nFigur e4 . With these antibodies, aver y intenserespons e isobtained . Although therabbi t antibodies were used in a 500 timesmor edilute d form than thecal f antibodies, therespons e wasmuc h better.Thi sindicate stha tth eora limmunizatio no fcalve si sa les seffectiv e wayfo rproductio n of antibodies. Asecon dremarkabl e fact istha t allprotein s visibleo nth eSD S gelar e alsovisibl eo n this immunoblot. Theintensit y ofth eprotei n bandswa s againa nindicatio n ofabundanc e andno t ofth eantigenicity . SBA,SBT Ian dth eglycini nprotein s wereals odetected .Furthermore ,th e veryintensel y antigenicprotein sbetwee n 15 and2 000 0D see no n thecal f immunoblot were hardly visible. The conclusion is that rabbit antibodies are very useful for the sensitive detection of soya proteins, but for detection of antigenic proteins antibodies from orally sensitizedcalve s havet o beused . Quantitativeanalysi so f antigenicsoy aprotein si sals opossibl e bya sandwich-typ eELIS A procedure (results not shown). In this procedure too, the calf antibodies can be used. The advantage of ELISA was that standardization was possible with a reference sample. A disadvantage wastha tonl ywater-solubl eprotein sca n bequantified . Incombinatio n with the immunoblotting method,ELIS Aprove d very useful.

Vicia - a - Glyciue Pisum Phaseolu faba max sativum vulgaris

1.20 '

S 0.801 o

0.40 - ~r""»T 0.00 64K 32K 16K 8K 4K DILUTION (-FOLD)

Figure5. Responseto FLIA-BBM of four differentlegume lectins.

251 Lectins Theresult o f FLIAfo r lectins from different legumes is shown schematically inFigur e 5. It appeared that P. vulgaris lectins were sensitively detected. Also soya-bean lectin was sensitivelydetected .Vicia faba lectin swer eals odetected ,bu tsensitivit ywa smuc hlower .Th e Pisumsativum lecti nfinally, hardl yboun dt othes ebrush-borde rmembranes .Obviously ,thes e lectinsha donl yver y lowaffinit y for thecarbohydrat ematri xo f thegu twall . Work is now in progress to develop these kind of FLIA with synthetic carbohydrate coatings. Although synthetic coatings are possibly less interesting than the BBM, they can very well be used for optimization of FLIA and for turning the principle of FLIA into a commercially available testkit .

References Hendriks, H.G.C.J.M., J.F.J.G. Koninkx, M. Draaijer, J.E. van Dijk, J.A.M. Raaijmaker & J.M.V.M .Mouwen , 1987.Quantitativ edeterminatio no fth electi nbindin gcapacit yo fsmal l intestinal brush-border membrane. An enzyme linked lectin sorbent assay (FALSA). Biochimica &Biophysic a Acta905:371-375 .

252 Intolerance tope aprotei n inth epreruminan t calf

R.S.Bush 1,R .Toullec ,I .Caugan t &P .Guillotea u Laboratoire duJeune Ruminant, LNJiA., 65rue de Saint-Brieuc, 35042Rennes Cédex, FR

Summary Five2-month-ol dpreruminan tcalve swer efitted wit ha re-entran tileo-caeca lcannula . Two milk-substitute diets whoseprotei n wasprovide d eitherexclusivel y by skim-milkpowde ro r partially (34%) by a dehulled raw pea flour, were given to the calves for 1 and 4 weeks, respectively.Durin g the 1stweek , the apparentilea ldigestibilit y waslowe r with thepe adie t than with thecontro l diet (means± SEM:0.8 9± 0.01 instead of0.9 3+ 0.01fo r totalN ;P < 0.01). Four of the calves exhibited intolerance to the pea diet, resulting in much lower digestibility duringth e4t hwee k (0.78± 0.0 5fo rtota lN) .Th ecalve sdevelope dhig h titreso f systemicantibodie s againstth emai ntw oglobulin so fpe a(legumi nan dvicilin) .Legumi nwa s found tosurviv edigestio n in the smallintestine ,i namount s generally equivalent to 1-3% of intake. Descriptors:vea lcalf ;pe a flour; intolerance;ilea l digestibility; antibodies;legumin .

Introduction Replacing milk protein by heated soyabea n meal in the milk-substitute diet given to the preruminant calf hasbee n shown tocaus edigestiv edisturbance s includingdiarrhoea ,decrea ­ sed nutrient utilization and alteration of intestinal mucosa, resulting in increased absorption of macromolecules (review by Sissons, 1982).I n sensitized calves,th ehig h concentration of anti-soya antibodies inbloo dplasm a andth erapi d alteration of gutmotilit y inducedb y ates t meal of adie t containing heated soya bean meal suggest thedisturbance s to beo f allergenic origin.Treatment sdenaturin gth emajo r globularstorag eprotein so fsoy abea nmea l (glycinin and ß-conglycinin) suppressed thedevelopmen t of anti-soya antibodies anddigestiv e distur­ bances. Calves given adie t containing raw pea flour were also found to develop antibodies against the main globulins of pea (legumin and vicilin) (Nunes do Prado et al., 1988). The present study was conducted to measure the changes with time in the ileal digestibility of a dietcontainin gra wpe aflou r andth esurviva lo f legumin atth een d of theileum .

Materialan dmethod s Five 2-month-old Holstein calves were fitted with a catheter in the abomasum and a re-entrant cannulawhic hha dth eproxima lpar tinserte di n thedista lileu m and thedista lpar t in the caecum. Two experimental milk-substitute diets, whose protein was provided either exclusivelyb y skim-milkpowde r (controldiet )o rpartiall y (34%)b ya dehulle dra wpe a flour of commercial cultivar Amino (peadiet) ,wer ecompared . Theconten t of skim-milk powder was 686 and 428 g/kg in the control and thepe adiets ,respectively , while the content in the powder of pea flour was 354 g/kg in the pea diet. The control diet contained in dry matter crude protein 255an dfa t 213an d thepe adie tcrud eprotei n 254an dfa t 186g/kg .Th ediet s

Presentaddress : AgricultureCanada , ResearchStation ,P.O . Box20280 ,Fredericton ,N.B. , Canada,E3 B 4Z7.

253 wereinfuse d intoth e abomasum twicedail y (at08:3 0an d 16:30hours) ,a ta tota lD Mrat eo f 58 gkg- 0-75d- 1. Thecalve swer egive nth econtro ldie tfo r1 wee kan dth epe adie tfo r 4consecutiv eweeks . Threeo f them started withth econtro ldie tan d2 wit hth epe adiet .Th eilea ldigestibilit y was measureddurin gth e 1stwee ko fdistributio nwit hbot hdiet san dals odurin gth e4t hwee kwit h the pea diet. There was a 1-week recovery period on the control diet between concurrent collectionso nth econtro lan dpe adiets .Th eshift s from onedie tt oanothe rwer emad edurin g the 1stfou rmeal so fth eweek ,startin go nFrida yevening .Th ere-entran tcannul awa sopene d for the weekend and the ileal digesta were totally collected for 4 d beginning on Monday morning. The collection flasks contained 240 ml IM NaOH (2calves ) or 60-100 ml 0.2M HgCl2 (3calves ) tolimi tmicrobia l metabolism.Th eflask s wereplace d on amagneti c stirrer

Table 1. Apparentdigestibility at the end of the ileum (means± SEM);AAN as total nitrogen ofassayed amino acids;values followed byunlike letters differedsignificantly (P< 0.05).

Component Controldie t Pea diet week 1 week 1 - Week4 Totalnitroge n 0.93±0.01a • 0.89 +0.01 b 0.78 ±0.05 AAN 0.94±0.01a 0.91±0.01b 0.82 ±0.05 Fat 0.96±0.01a 0.90±0.01b 0.70±0.11 Nitrogen free extract 0.94±0.01a 0.76±0.01b 0.71 ±0.02 Threonine 0.90±0.0 1 0.86±0.0 1 0.76 ±0.04 Valine 0.95±0.01a 0.91±0.01b 0.82 ±0.05 Cystine 0.83±0.02a 0.76+ 0.03 b 0.58 ±0.06 Methionine 0.97±0.00a 0.95±0.00b 0.89 ±0.03 Isoleucine 0.95±0.00 3 0.90±0.01b 0.81 ±0.05 Leucine 0.96±0.00 3 0.93±0.01b 0.86 ±0.03 Tyrosine 0.96±0.00 3 0.94±0.01b 0.90 ±0.02 Phenylalanine 0.96±0.01a 0.92±0.01b 0.85 ±0.03 Lysine 0.95±0.01a 0.93±0.01b 0.87 ±0.03 Histidine 0.95±0.01a 0.92±0.01b 0.83 ±0.04 Arginine 0.95±0.0 1 0.94±0.0 1 0.91 ±0.01

Table2. Aminoacid composition of the diets and ileal digesta (gl 100 g assayed amino acids); SAAas sum of assayed amino acids (gl 16 g nitrogen); values followed by unlike letters differed significantly (P<0.05).

Amino Pea Control Pea Digesta acid flour diet diet control pea, week1 pea,wee k 4

Threonine 3.5 4.1 4.0 7.6±0.5a 6.2±0.3b 5.9±0.5b Serine 5.1 5.2 5.2 6.2±0.4a 5.6 + 0.1 4.8±0.5b Proline 4.5 9.5 7.7 5.8±0. 4 5.9+ 0.1 6.8±0. 8 Glycine 4.3 1.9 2.7 4.7±0.1a 5.5 + 0.2b 6.3±0. 5 Arginine 8.8 3.3 5.2 3.2±0. 3 3.6±0. 2 2.9 ±0.4

SAA 99.5 102.7 101.0 77.8 ±1.2 85.0+ 5.2 82.1±4. 7

254 andchange dever ymorning .Fou ro fth ecalve swer euse dfo ra nextr acollectio nda yafte rthe y had been given the pea diets for 3,4 , 1an d 1week(s) ,respectively . Digesta were collected hourly for 10 h after the morning meal, in vessels containing 0.2 M HgCl2 and 0.09 M phenyl-methyl-sulphonyl fluoride (proteaseinhibitor) ,i namount scorrespondin gt o2 an d1% , respectively,o fth eexpecte dvolume so fdigesta .Plasm asample swer eobtaine dfro m ajugula r vein on days0, 7 and2 8o f thepea-feedin g period. Legumin was extracted with borate buffer (0.15 M NaCl, 0.1 M NaB03, pH 8) from the peaflou r andth edigesta ,excep ttha tcollecte di nNaOH .Extract so fsample scollecte ddurin g the4t h andth e 8th houro f theextr acollectio n day were separated by gelfiltratio n througha Sephadex G-200 column calibrated with pure legumin, vicilin, bovine serum albumin and ovalbumin (molecularweigh t 330,130,68 and42. 5kDa ,respectively) .Th econcentratio no f legumin in theextract s andth e separatedfractions , aswel la sth eantilegumi n andanti-vicili n antibody titres in theplasma s weremeasure d by theELIS Amethod s described by Nunesd o Prado et al. (1989a). Samples of the experimental diets,pe a flour andilea l digesta collected for 4 d were analysed for amino acids (AA) by ion-exchange-resin chromatography as previously reported (Guilloteau et al., 1986).Statistica l significance was assessed bypaire dt test analysis since the values during the4t h week on thepe a diet weredirectl y related toth e results of the 1st week. The AA composition s of digesta and diets were compared by the distance ofx 2 (Guilloteau etal. , 1986).

Resultsan d discussion During the 1stweek , theapparen tdigestibilit y waslowe r (P< 0.05 ) with thepe a diettha n with the control diet for total nitrogen, amino nitrogen of assayed AA,fa t and nitrogen-free extract (Table 1).Also ,th e apparent digestibility was lower for all the essential AA, except threonine and arginine. Four of the calves exhibited intolerance to the pea diet, resulting in muchlowe rdigestibilit ydurin gth e4t hweek .Howeve rbecaus eo flarg eindividua lvariations , changes were not significant. Assuming that the apparent digestibility of milk nitrogen was thesam ewit h thetw odiet s (0.93),th evalu ecalculate d for peanitroge n wasfoun d tob e 0.83 and0.5 2durin gth e 1stan dth e4t hweek ,respectively .Nune sd oPrad oe tal .(1989b )measure d the ileal digestibility of adie t similar toth e pea diet used here,excep t that the pea flour had been pregelatinized. Although digesta were collected during the 3rd week, digestibility was higher than during the 4th andeve n the 1stwee k of the present experiment (0.92 instead of 0.78 and 0.89 for total nitrogen; 0.80 instead of 0.71 and 0.76 for nitrogen-free extract). Pregelatinization probably facilitated starch digestion. It also denatured theprotei n since the concentration of immunoreactive legumin was only 1% of total protein in the treated pea instead of 21% in thera w pea. With either diet, the AA composition of digesta protein was very different from that of dietaryprotei n (Table2) ,whic hresulte di nlarg edistance so fX 2:188betwee ndigest aan dmil k protein with the control diet, 178an d 254 between digesta andpe aprotei n with thepe a diet during the 1stan d the4t h week,respectively .Th eresult sobtaine d with thecontro l dietwer e in agreement with the observations of Guilloteau et al. (1986) showing that in the milk-fed calf,protei no filea ldigest awer eexclusivel yo fendogenou san dbacteria lorigin .Wit hth epe a dietdurin g the 1stweek ,digest aprotei n containedles sthreonin e andmor eglycin e thanwit h the control diet. However the differences were small since the distance of x2 was only 23. Similarly,th eaverag edifference s between the 1stan dth e4t hwee ko fpe afeedin g weresligh t (X2= 19).S owhol epe aprotei n didno t appear toconstitut e alarg eproportio n of thedigest a protein ineithe r period. Inth edigest acollecte dove r4 d ,immunoreactiv elegumi nwa sfoun di namount sequivalen t to 0.8 ± 0.3 and 1.2 ± 0.6% of intake during the 1st and 4th week, respectively. The corresponding values for the extra collection day were not very different for 3 of the calves

255 (0.9,2.1an d3.0% ,respectively )bu twer emuc hhighe rfo rth e4t hcal f(2 6%) .Legumi nstarte d to appeari n digesta during the3r dhou r after feeding. Itcontinue d tob epresen t until theen d of thecollection ,bu t theflo w ratewa s alwaysver ylo wdurin g the 10thhour .A smal lpar to f thisundigeste dlegumi nwa sapparentl yintac t(33 0kDa) ,bu tmos to fi twa spartiall ydegrade d (mainlyfraction s ofabou t 160,90an d5 0kDa) .Therefore , someo fth elegumi nescape dwit h only partial digestion in the small intestine, like glycinin in calves given a diet containing heatedsoy amea l(Sisson s& Thurston ,1984) .Assumin gtha tth eproportio no ftota lundigeste d pea protein was similar to that of the undigested legumin (about 2% of intake, according to thevalue srecorde di n thefirs t 3calve suse dfo r theextr acollectio n day),pe aprotei n can be calculatedt oconstitut e7 an d4 %o fdigest aprotei ndurin gth e1 s tan dth e4t hweeks ,respective ­ ly.Thes eestimate s arei n agreementwit hth elo wvariation sobserve di nth eA Acomposition . Thelowe r anddecreasin g apparentdigestibilit y ofth epe a dietappeare dt o bemainl ydu e to an increase in losses of endogenous and bacterial protein; these losses could be a factor 1.6 and3. 1 ashig hi nth e 1stan d4t hwee kwit hth epe adie ta swit h thecontro ldiet . Thecalve s developed high systemic antibody titres against legumin and vicilin (0.9± 0.4 and0. 4+ 0. 1initially , 5.4± 0.9 and5. 6+ 1.5o nda y7 o fpe afeeding , 8.3± 0.4 and9. 4± 0.6 on day 28;P ^ 0.5 between the initial and theothe r values).A simila r pattern was observed by Nunes do Pradoe t al. (1988) in calves given adie tcontainin g raw pea flour. Also, these authors showed thepresenc eo fimmunoreactiv elegumi n inbloo dplasma .Thes ephenomen a could havebee n favoured by the long contact between immunoreactive proteins andth e gut wall. Inconclusion , thedevelopmen to fintoleranc et ora wpe aflou r couldhav eresulte dfro m a gastro-intestinal allergicreaction .However , adverse effects of lectins oro f micro-organisms presenti n theproduc t cannot beexcluded .

References Guilloteau,P. ,R .Toullec ,J.F .Grongnet ,P .Patureau-Mirand ,J .Prugnau d&D .Sauvant ,1986 . Digestion of milk, fish and soya-bean protein in the preruminant calf: flow of digesta, apparent digestibility at theen d of theileu m and amino acid composition of ileal digesta. BritishJourna lo f Nutrition 55:571-592. Nunes doPrado ,I. ,R .Toullec ,J.P . Lalles,L .Hingan d &J .Guéguen , 1988.Anticorp s contre les protéines alimentaires et perméabilité intestinale aux macromolécules chez le veau préruminant recevant de la farine de pois.Reproduction , Nutrition et Développement 28 (supplément 1):157—158. Nunes do Prado,I. , R. Toullec,J.P . Lalles, J. Guéguen, J. Hingand &P . Guilloteau, 1989a. Digestion desprotéine s depoi s etd e soja chez le veau préruminant. I. Taux circulants de nutriments,formatio n d'anticorpse tperméabilit é intestinale auxmacromolécules .Repro ­ duction, Nutrition andDevelopmen t 29:413-424. Nunes doPrado , I., R. Toullec,P . Guilloteau &J . Guéguen, 1989b.Digestio n des protéines depoi se td esoj ache zl evea upréruminant .II .Digestibilité "apparent eà la fi n del'iléo ne t du tubedigestif .Reproduction , Nutrition andDevelopmen t 29:425-439. Sissons,J .W. ,1982 .Effect s ofsoyabea nproduct so ndigestiv eprocesse si nth egastrointestina l tract ofpreruminan t calves.Proceeding s of theNutritio n Society 41:53-61. Sissons, J.W. & S.M. Thurston, 1984. Survival of dietary antigens in the digestive tract of calvesintoleran t tosoyabea nproducts .Researc hi nVeterinar y Science 37:242-246.

256 Screeningtes tfo rtrypsi n inhibitor

J. Mol& J . Meijer DenkavitNederland B.V..P.O. Box 5,3780 BA Voorthuizen,NL

Summary

Skimmil kpowde rha sbee nth emai nsourc eo fprotei ni nmil kreplace rdiet sfo rvea lcalve s during thepas t 35years .Du et oth eincreas e inpric e andth edecrease d availability ofski m milk powder, alternatively other sources ofprotei n getmor e attention andapplication . This includes mainlyprotein s from vegetableorigin . Withinth e availabilityi n theworl dmarket , soyaproduct s canb econsidere d asa potentia l sourceo fprotein .B ynatur esoy aproduct scontai nanti-nutritiona lfactors ,i nparticula rtrypsi n inhibitor,whic h activity can bereduce d by aprope r heat treatment. Theinternationa l method todetermin e theactivit y oftrypsi n inhibitor isknow n underth e nameKakad emetho do radaptation so fthi smethod .Thi sanalytica lprocedur ei stim econsu ­ ming andno tadequat e forproces s monitoring norfo ra routin e check for themilk-replace r industry. Moreover the appliedp Hi s irrelevant. The proposed method reduces thetim e for analysis toabou t 30minute s andth eapplie d conditions aremor ei nharmon y with thephysiologica l parameters ofth evea l calf. Descriptors:trypsi n inhibitor; processed soya;vea lcalf .

Introduction Milk replacers for fattening white veal calves were introduced in Holland in 1955. The productdevelope drapidl yi nth eE Ct oabou t 1.8millio nton spe rannum .Fro mth e beginning skim-milkpowde r has been themai n sourceo fprotei n inmilk-replace r dietsfo rvea lcalves . Throughout theyear sther eha sbee n aregula rincreas e inpric efo rskim-mil kpowder ,relate d to the Intervention system and the feed aid for skim-milk powder incorporated into milk replacers.Durin gth epas tyear sth eavailabilit yo fskim-mil kpowde rha schange ddramaticall y from asurplu s toa shor tposition , mainlya sa resul to fth eE Cpolicy . Although researchers have been looking for replacement of skim-milk powder by other protein sourcesdurin gth elas t2 0years ,skim-mil kpowde rretaine dit spositio ni nmos to fth e member states of theEC .I nth eNetherland s thesituatio n isdifferen t anddu et oit sleadin g positioni nthi sparticula rmarket ,th eapplicatio no falternativ eprotein si so fgrowin ginterest . Thisinclude s mainlyprotein s from vegetableorigin . Within theavailabilit y inth eworl dmarket , soyaproduct s canb econsidere da sa potentia l sourceo fprotein .B ynatur esoy aproduct scontai nanti-nutritiona lfactors ,i nparticula rtrypsi n inhibitor,o fwhic h theactivit y can bereduce d by aprope rhea t treatment. The aimo f this paper ist opresen t ametho d for determining trypsin inhibitor activityt o monitor process technology and toassur ea prope rquality ,fitte d forincorporatio n intomilk - replacers forvea lcalves .

Soyabea n trypsininhibito r(SBTI )

Kunitz (1947)first describe d theisolatio n ofSBTI .I ti sa protei no fth e globulin typean d a part of the2 Sfractio n with a molecular weight of 21 500an dshowin g twodisulphide s bridges.Th eKunit zinhibito ract so ntrypsi n andt oa lesse rexten to nchymotrypsin .Tan-Wil ­ sone tal .(1985 )describe da tleas t 10inhibitor soccurrin gi nra wsoy abeans .Th eBowman-Bir k

257 inhibitorcontain s 7 disulphide bridges and asa resul t thispolypeptid ei smor ehea tresistant . Itact so nbot h trypsin andchymotrypsin .Racki se tal .(1985 )reporte dlevel so f 3-4% trypsin inhibitors inra w soyabeans . Trypsininhibitor sloos emos to fthei ractivit yb ydenaturatio nunde rhea ttreatment ,wher e theke yfactor s aretemperature ,tim ean dhumidity .On eshoul deliminat eoverheatin gi norde r topreven t alos si n the availability of certain aminoacids . Inth epast ,ureas eactivit ywa smainl yapplie dt ocontro lth ehea ttreatmen to fsoy aproducts . From ourow ninvestigations ,i twa sfoun d thatureas eactivit yi sno ta goo dguid et omonito r process conditions.

Method Kunitz (1947)firs t applied casein asa substrat e toanalys eth eSTB Iactivity .Kakad ee tal . (1969),introduce d asyntheti c substrateMx-benzoyl-DL-arginine-4-nitroanilid e (BAPA)an d achievedbette rresults . Collaborative studieshav eresulte dint oa ninternationa lmetho d(A.O.C.S .B a 12-75). The disadvantages of thisprocedur eare : 1. High pH (9.5) at extraction. Such a high pH does not occur in the digestive tract, so the obtainedfigur e does notprovid ephysiologica l implications. 2. Timeconsuming , which makesi tunsuitabl efo r practicalapplication . Ametho d wasdevelope d toarriv ea t amor epractica lprocedure .

Screeningtes tfo r trypsin inhibitoractivit y insoy aproduct s

1. Definition:Thi smetho ddetermine sth eresidua ltrypsi ninhibito ri nsoy aproduct sunde r thecondition so f thetest . 1.1. Scope:Applicabl et oprocesse dsoy aproducts . 2. Principle: The substrateMx-Benzoyl-DL-arginine-4-nitroanilid ei sdigeste d by a defi­ ned amount of trypsin.Unde r similar conditions an extract of soya is added. From the rateo fchang ei nS E. Th einhibitio ni scalculate dan dexpresse da sm go ftrypsi ninhibite d by 1 kgo f soyaproduct . 3. Equipment. 3.1. Spectrophotometer, fitted witha cel lholder ,thermostatte da t2 5°C ,wit h 1 cmcuvettes . 3.2. pHmeter . 3.3. Beakers 100ml . 3.4. Graduated cylinder 25ml . 3.5. Magnetic stirrer, stirringrod ,glas . 3.6. Graduated pipette 10ml . 3.7. Filters,Watma nn o5 o r 6. 3.8. Flasks,volumetric ,50,100 , 500,1000ml . 3.9. Waterbat h at2 5°C . 3.10. Pipettes 0.1,0.2,1.0 and2. 0ml . 3.11. Capillator. 4. Reagents. 4.1. Hydrochloric Acid:HC l0. 5mol/1 . 4.2. Hydrochloric Acid:HC l0.00 1 mol/1. 4.3. Sodium hydroxide:NaO H 2,0mol/1 . 4.4. Triethanolamine-HClp.a . (TRA),Merc k 8357. TRAbuffe r solution:Dissolv e 18.6g Triethanolamine-HC lint o45 0m ldeionize dwater . Add3.6 8 gCaCl 2.2H20 and9.3 1g EDTA . Dissolveb ymixing .Adjus t top H7. 8 with

258 NaOH2. 0mol/1 .Dilut et o50 0m lwit hdeionize dwate ran dmix .(Stor ei nth erefrigerato r at4°C.) 4.5. Calcium chloride.Merc k2382 . 4.6. EDTA,Merc k8418 . 4.7. Trypsin, 1000 0U/m g (substrateBAEE) ,Merc k 24581. Trypsinsolution :Dissolv e7. 5m gtrypsi nint o 100m lhydrochlori caci d0.00 1 mol/1an d mix. This solution contains 15|i g trypsin per0. 2 ml.Th e trypsin solution should bekep ti n therefrigerato r at4 °C(wil l last3- 4weeks) . 4.8. Afa-benzoyl-DL-arginine-4-nitroanilide-hydrochloride (BAPA),Fluk a 12920. BAPA solution: Weigh 100 mg BAPAint o a flask of 100 ml. Add 80 ml hot (80°C ) deionizedwater .Hea ti na wate rbat ha t8 0° Cwhil emixin g untilcomplet e dissolution. Temperature should not arise above 90 °C, otherwise the BAPA decomposes. After dissolution iscompleted , cooldow n andfil l upwit hdeionize d water andmix . (Storea t room temperature.) 5. Samplepreparation. Most of the commercial available products show a particle size of 75 p.m. Products exceeding 150(i mmus tb egroun d undermil dconditions . 6. Procedure. 6.1. Weigh 2.50-5.00 g of sample into a 100 ml beaker, add 25 ml (Vj) deionized water, suspendmanually ,adjus tth ep Ht o6. 5( V 2)an dagitat eo na magneti cstirre rfo r5 minute s at room temperature. Add dropwise 0.5 mol/1 HCl (V3)t o pH 3.4 and so much 0.001 mol/1 HCl (V4)t o arrive ata tota lvolum e (Vl+V2+V'i+V4) of 40 ml.Le t it separate for 3 minutes andfilte r through Watman 5/6 toobtai n aclea r filtrate. 6.2. Condition arequire d volumeo f theextract , theTR Abuffer , theBAP Asolutio n andth e trypsin solution in awaterbatc h at2 5°C . Condition the spectrophotometer, cell holder at2 5°C . 6.3. Add the conditioned cuvette 0.2 ml trypsin solution, 1.65 ml TRAbuffe r and 0.15 ml extract. Condition 7 minutes,ad d 1.0 mlBAP Asolution , mix andrea d8 £/ 5 mjn from minute 2til lminut e 7. 6.4. Execute a blank 8£/ 5 mm using 0.15 ml deionized water. The blank should not drop below0.225 ,otherwis e afres h trypsin solution mustb eprepared . 6.5. Calculation: 8E /5 min blank - 8% min sample _F_ _ 8 % minblan k W |i.g/go rmg/k gtrypsi n inhibited by 1 kg soyaproduct .

40 =tota l volumeo fextrac ti nm l 0.15 =m li n test 15 =g trypsini n test W =sampl ei n g

References

Kakade, M.L., N. Simons & I.E. Liener, 1969. An evaluation of natural versus synthetic substrates for measuring the antitryptic activity of soybean samples. Cereal Chemistry 46:518-526.

259 Kakade,M.L. ,J.J .Rackis ,J.E .McGhe e& G .Puski , 1974.Determinatio no ftrypsi ninhibito r activity of soy products: a collaborative analysis of an improved procedure. Cereal Chemistry 51:376-382. Kunitz, M., 1947. Crystalline soybean trypsin inhibitor. Journal of General Physiology 30:291-310. Rackis, J.J., M.R. Gumbmann & I.E. Liener, 1985.Th e USDA trypsin inhibitor study. I. Backgroundobjective s andprocedura ldetails .Qual .Plan tFood sHum .Nutr .35:213-242 . Tan-Wilson,A.L. ,S.E .Crosgriff ,M.C .Duggan ,R.S .Obac h& K.A .Wilson , 1985.Bowman - Brikproteinas e isoinhibitor complements of soybean strains.Journa l of Agricultural and Food Chemistry33:389-393 .

260 Influence of conditions ofprocessin g soya beans on the content of antinutritional factors

N. Dubbeldam LodersCroklaan B.V., P.O.Box4,1520 AA Wormerveer,NL l

Summary Heat stabilityo f trypsininhibitor s andantigenicit y of soyabea nprotein s havebee nteste d by using three types of processing equipment: a vertical conditioner, a twin screw extruder and asingl e screw extruder, undervariou sconditions . Descriptors: processing conditions; antinutritional factors; trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA); antigenic activity.

Introduction Soya protein concentrates, if manufactured by an aqueous ethanol extraction, generally show a low content of antinutritional factors (ANF)conten t with selected processing condi­ tions. • Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA)i sreduce db yhea ttreatmen t (toasting) after carbohydrate extraction; • Antigenicityi sinactivate db yethano ltogethe rwit hhea ttreatmen t(temperatur e maximum 80°C) ,(Fukushima , 1969;Sissons , 1982). Inactivation of the antigenicity of glycinin and betaconglycinin without the presence of ethanol,i sreporte d totak e place athig h temperatures only,i n therang eo f 145-170 °C.Th e positiveeffec t ofth epresenc eo fethano l(Tabl e1 )i sdu et oth echemica lstructur eo fth eprotei n molecule which shows hydrophillic properties on the surface, and hydrophobic properties insideth emolecule .A sglycini nan dbeta-conglycini nar efoun d inth ecentr eo f themolecule , ethanol willb eabl e toeliminat e theactivity .

Table 1. Antigenicactivity ofsoya protein products.

Soyaprotei nproduc t Antigen-titre1 glycinin betacon­ glycinin

Whiteflake s (untoasted soya flakes 50%protein ) 13 13 Toasted defatted soyaflou r (protein 50%) 11 11 Water-extracted soyaprotei n concentrate (protein 70%) 6 1 Water-ethanol-extracted soyaprotei n concentrate (protein 70%) <1 <1 Water-ethanolsoy aprotei nconcentrat e (lowtoasted ;protei n 70%) 3 1 Low-heat-treated soyaprotei n isolate (protein90% ) 6 8 1 Valuesar eexpresse d asth ehighes t dilution (log2)whic h inhibits agglutination by antiglycinin and antibetaconglycinin.

1 Presentaddress :Eurodun aRohstott eG.m.b.H. ,P.O .Bo x 1143,2202Barmstedt ,DE .

261 Table2. Rawmaterial used in the tests.

Raw material defatted untoasted soya flakes Protein content (%) 50.7 Protein dispersibility index (PDI)(% ) 68.0 Moisture (%) 9.0 TIAi nproduc t (mg/g) 21.5 Antigenicity 11.0

Table 3. Differenttest conditions in processing witha twin-screwextruder (type Berstorff).

Temperature intest s (°C) 2

Stage 1(entrance ) 23 24 25 Stage2 25 26 '-' 27 Stage3 26 28 31 Stage4 47 58 70 Stage5 72 83 86 Stage6 118 128 145 Stage7 102 110 119 Die (outlet) 142 152 152-160

Addition of water (%) 20.5 18.4 14.4

Table4. Moisturecontent, PDI, TIA and antigenicity of the soya product after processing with a vertical conditioner, processing temperature 70 °C (above)and 90 °C (below) inmixer; outlettemperature 20 °C.

Time Moisture PDI TIA Antigenicity (minutes (%) (solubility) (mg/gproduct ) (Table 1) 0 12.0 62 21.0 11 15 12.0 60 21.0 11 30 11.8 62 21.0 11 45 11.9 59 21.0 11

0 13.1 51 18.0 11 15 12.8 40 14.0 11 30 12.3 34 11.0 11 45 11.6 30 10.0 11

262 1

Thereductio n ofTI Ai srelate dt ohea tan dmoistur eonl y(temperatur emaximu m 120°C) . Withethano lfollowe d bya hea ttreatment , mosto f theprotei ni scompletel ydenature d atth e endo f theproductio n process (Figure 1). Asoverheatin g ofth eprotei nwil lmostl ydamag eth eles sheat-stabl e aminoacids ,suc ha s lysine, this paper determines the influence of a moderate heat treatment of soyaprotein s on solubility, measured asprotei n dispersibility, antigenicity andTIA .

Materialan d methods Defatted untoasted soyaflake s wereprocesse d by three typeso fprocessin g equipment: • avertica l conditioner (mixer)wit h open steam injection. • atwin-scre w extruder • asingle-scre w extruder For alltests ,th e samera w material (Table2 )wa suse d andprotei ncontent ,moistur e content, protein dispersibility index (PDI),TI Aan dantigenicit y weredetermined . Thefirs t test was done with the vertical conditioner atprocessin g temperatures of 70an d 90° Ci nth emixe ran dwit ha noutle ttemperatur eo f2 0°C .Th etwin-scre wextruder ,consiste d of7 stages ,al lfitte dwit hthermometers .Thre etest swer edon eunde rdifferen t conditionsgive n in Table 3.Th e third test was donewit h acombinatio n of aconditioner , asdescribe d above, anda singl escrew-extruder . Itwa sdecide dt oincreas eth emoistur econten ti nth econditioner , taken intoaccoun t thedisappointin g results of thefirst tes t (Table4) .

original protein hydrophilic peptides

"o o breakdown denaturing breakdown • o byenzyms s by heat, by enzynes (endopetidase) y pH, (exopeptLdase) alcohol, o etc. o«

amino hydrophobic adds peptides

denatured protein

Figure 1. Protein denaturation.

263 Resultsan d discussion

Theresult so fth etes twit hth evertica lconditione r aredescribe di nTabl e4 .A temperatur e of7 0° C showstha teve n after aheatin g timeo f 45minutes ,th etrypsi ninhibito r activity and antigenicity arecompletel y available.I fth etemperatur ei sincrease dt o9 0°C ,th etrypsi ninhi ­ bitor activity starts to show some variability, whereas antigenicity is not decreased by the increaseo f thetemperature . Theresult so fth etes twit hth etwin-scre w extruderar edescribe di nTabl e5 .Becaus eo fth e veryhig houtle ttemperature s of 142° Can d 152°C ,trypsi ninhibito ractivit y andantigenicit y hadbot hver ylo wlevels .Unfortunatel y asa resul to f thehig htemperature ,th equalit y ofth e protein,particularl y the availability of lysin,ma yhav e suffered too. Theresult so fth etes twit hth ecombinatio no fth econditione ran dth esingle-scre wextrude r aredescribe di nTabl e 6.I f compared with thefirst tes t (Table4 )th eincreas eo f themoistur e contenti nth econditioner ,a ta nunchange dtemperatur eha sa ninfluenc e onth estabilit yo fth e trypsininhibito ractivity .Antigenicit yremain sver ystable .Afte rextrusion ,bot hantinutritiona l factors showquit e acceptablelevels ,eve n ata temperatur eo f 120°C .

Conclusions

• With selectiveprocessin gconditions ,th eus eo fa nextrude rmake si tpossibl et oinactivat e soyabea ntrypsi n inhibitor and antigenicity. • A temperature of 120 °C, not much higher than temperatures used in normal toasting processes,i ssufficien t toobtai n lowlevel so fbot hantinutritiona l factors. • Feeding trials have to prove, whether the soya bean proteins, produced by an extrusion process,wil lperfor m bettera sa resul to f abette rcel lstructure .

Table5. Moisturecontent, PDI, TIA and antigenicity of the soya product after processing with a twin-screw extruder.

Test 1 Test2 Test3

Moisture after extruder(% ) 10.3 9.8 8.9 PDI solubility 6.7 6.8 8.9 TIAi nproduc t (mg/g) <1.0 1.2 <1.0 Antigenicity (Table 1) <1.0 <1.0 <1.0

Table6. Moisture content, PDI, TIA and antigenicity of the soya product after processing with a combinationof a vertical conditioner and a single-screw extruder.

Moisture PDI TIA Antigenicity (%) (solubility) (mg/g) (Table 1) Defatted flakes (untoas- 8.4 60 19.6 13 tedbefor e conditioner) After conditioner (70°C ) 17.4 60 6.3 11 After extruder (120°C ) 11.7 10 2.0 <1

264 ^

References Sissons, J.W., R.H. Smith & D. Hewitt, 1982. Prediction of the suitability of soya-bean productsfo rfeedin g topreruminan tcalve sb ya ni nvitr oimmunochemica l method.Britis h Journal of Nutrition 47:311-318. Fukushima, D., 1969.Denaturatio n of soybean proteins byorgani c solvents. Cereal. Chem. 46:156-163.

265 10. Nutrition: supplementation Experimental data onth emode so factio n of probiotics

P.Raibau d *& IP . Raynaud ** * Laboratoired'Ecologie et de Physiologie duSystème Digestif (LEPSD), Centre deRecherches deJouy-etirJosas 78350Jouy-en-Josas, FR ** Fédération Européenne de la SantéAnimale (FEDESA), 1,rue Defacqz, B 1050Brussels, BE

Summary

Manylivin gmicro-organism sreferre dt oa sprobiotic sar euse dtoda yi nanima lfeeds ,eithe r forshort-ter mfeedin ga stherapeuti cagent st opreven to rcur egastro-intestina ldisorder sbefor e weaning or in stressed animals,o r for long-term feeding as growth promoters or topreven t chronic disorders after weaning. Usual claims about the modes of action of probiotics are: colonization of the gastro-intestinal tract,preventio n ofpathoge n overgrowth, neutralization of enterotoxins, modulation of the activity of some bacterial enzymes in the largeintestine , enhancement of the digestive capacity of the smallintestine , adjuvant effect on the immune system.Experimenta l datatoda y dono t allowu st oconclud e thatprobiotic s can colonizeth e gastro-intestinal tract or prevent the growth of intestinal pathogens by production in situ of antimicrobial metabolites. Neutralization of enterotoxins can be demonstrated in vivo with very largenumber s ofprobioti c cells.Controversia lresult s wereobtaine d for faecal ß-glucu- ronidase activity in rats and in pigs fed on probiotics. In contrast, good evidence has been obtained that some probiotics can increase utilisation of lactose in the small intestine. Such resultscoul daccoun tfo r agrowth-promotin g effect ofprobiotics .A nincreas ei nbot hphago ­ cytican dlymphocyti cactivitie sha sbee ndemonstrate dwit hsom eprobiotics ,an dth eclearanc e ofinjecte d enterobacteriaca nb eincrease db yshort-ter mprobioti cfeeding .Thi scoul daccoun t for the therapeutic effect ofprobiotics . Descriptors:probiotics ; mode of action;therapeuti c agent; growth promoter.

Introduction Human beings have always eaten viable bacteria in fermented foods. The idea that such alimentarybacteria ,lacti caci dbacteria ,coul db ebeneficia lfo rhealt hcome sfro m Metchnikoff (1908). He believed that living lactic acid bacteria contained in the yoghurt could improve humanhealt hb ypreventin g metabolism ofpathogeni cmicrobe si n theintestine .Th eearlies t cattle farmers also unwittingly used alimentary bacteria when they fed iE cattle on rumen contentsfro m healthycattle .Toda ysilag ei sa fermente dfoo dtha tplay sa larg erol ei nruminan t nutrition.I n 1974,Parke rdefine dprobiotic sa sorganism stha tcontribut et oimprove dintestina l microbial balance. The probiotic industry is growing extremely rapidly and today many farmers giveprobiotic st omonogastrics ,bird san druminant sfo rtw omai npurposes :a sroutin e feed additives, which are believed toreplac e antibiotic supplements,o r asdrug s for athera ­ peuticpurpos ebefor e weaningo rt ocounterac tstress .Th efirs tpurpos ei sa long-ter mus ean d the main problem is to maintain the probiotics alive in the food during the whole feeding period. The numbero f viablemicro-organism s neededi n generalreache s 106t o 107colony - forming units per gram of food. For the second purpose, the number of viable microbes can be 10time s ashigh ,bu t theyar egive n for ashor ttime .Th elegislatio n onprobiotic s isfa r to beadequate ,sinc eEuropea nla wrecognize sonl ytw oclasses :additive s andveterinar ydrugs . Thus, the same probiotic can fall into one or the other class according to its use. Probiotics canb euse da sbasi cdietar ycomponent so ra sdieteti csupplements ,an dclaim sfo ra beneficia l effect are forbidden ineithe rcase .

269 The aim of thiscontributio n is torevie w some scientific datao npossibl e modes of action of probiotics, in order to understand how they act and thus to gain scientific information so thatw eca n choose andeventuall ycreat e thebes tprobioti c bygeneti cengineering .

Taxonomiepositio no fprobioti cuse dtoda y

Probiotics belong toa variet yo fmicrobia l species.Accordin g toLloyd-Evan s (1989),th e following generaar einvolved :Bacillus ( 8species) ,Lactobacillus (1 2species) ,Streptococcus (9 species), Propionibacterium (2 species), Pediococcus (3 species), Bifidobacterium (7 species), Clostridium( 1 species) and even Bacteroides (4 species), although Bacteroides is non-sporulating,gram-negativ e and strictly anaerobic.Aspergillus (2species ) andSaccharo- myces( 2species ) areals oinvolved .Howeve r thecommo nprobiotic s usedi nEurop abelon g toLactobacillus, Streptococcus andBacillus. Ingeneral ,th epreparation scontai na singl estrain ,mor erarel ya nassociatio no ftw ostrain s belongingt odifferen t genera.Th emai nbacteriologica lproble mo fsuc hprobioti cpreparation s is thenee d for suitable tests for characterization and counting of the strain used. Phenotypic characterizationi softe n unsatisfactory andmus tb esustaine db ygeneti ctraits .Count so fviabl e cells of probiotics in commercial preparation areno t abi gproblem , whereas those in faeces arehar dt operform . Useo fplasmi do rchromosoma lDN Aprobe sseem st ob eth ebes tmetho d to ensure that counts are correct, mainly when probiotics belong to the same genera as indigenous bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria. Other methods can be used, such as slide agglutination with specific antisera or immuno-enzymic techniques like ELISA. Very few worksdea l with thisbasi c bacteriological problem.

Probioticsan d thegastro-intestina l ecosystem

As probiotics are claimed to improve microbial intestinal balance, a brief survey on the gastro-intestinal (Gl) ecosystem isrelevant .Almos t all thehomeotherm s and somepoecilo - thermsharbou ri n theirG Itrac ta hug enumbe ro fviabl emicrobia lcells ,mostl ybacteria .Th e count in fresh faeces in the large intestine surpasses 5 x 1010 per g. More than 190 species havebee nrecorde di nth ehuma nfaeca l flora (Finegolde tal. , 1983).Mos to fth epredominan t bacteria arestrictl yanaerobi c andsom ecanno tb eculture dtoday .I nsom efar m animals,suc h aspig s orcalves ,th e stomach alsoharbour s 5x 108t o 109viabl e bacteriape r go f contents, mosto fthe mfacultativ e anaerobes and someo f themadherin gt oth estomac hwall .Cro pan d rumenals ocontai n alarg ecoun to fbacteria ,10 9an d 1011pe rg ,respectively .B ycontrast ,th e smallintestin e is not aplac e where the bacteria can multiply in healthy state,becaus eo f the transitspee do fth ealimentar y bolus.Whe nbacteri aproliferat e inth esmal lintestine ,ther ear e always greatdisturbances . The microbial colonization of the GI tract is acomple x process,whic h begins few hours after birth and includes several steps.I t depends on multiple factors, namely thehos t andit s dietaryregimen .Scientifi cdat aconcernin gthi ssequentia lcolonizatio nar ever ypoo r(Raibau d &Ducluzeau , 1989). The use of axenic (germ-free) and gnotobiotic animals (axenic animals inoculated with known bacterial strain(s)) provides us with valuable tools for studying the functions of the microbial flora. Comparison between axenic andconventiona l animalsreveal sth erol eo fth e whole flora. Comparison between gnotobiotic and both axenic and conventional animals evidences the specific role of associated bacterial strain(s).Us e of gnotobiotic animals also allows us to study the activities of the bacterial enzymes under various environmental conditions. Such studies show that theexpressio n of bacterial genes can bever y different in vitro, in acultur e tube, andi n vivo,i n the GItrac t (Ducluzeau &Raibaud , 1980).Th e main

270 functions of theG Iflora ca nb esummarize d asfollows : themicrobe sproduc ea hug enumbe r ofmetabolites ,mostl yi nth elarg eintestine ,fro m endogenousmaterial san dfro m indigestible fractions ofth ediet .Som eo f thesemetabolite s canb eabsorbe dfro m thelarg eintestine .A sa consequence, the anatomy of the GI tract is deeply modified, as well as many nutritional parameters,suc ha stransi ttim ean drenewa lo fth eenterocyte .Bot hloca lan dsystemi cimmun e systems are strongly stimulatedb y theintestina l microflora. Bacterial antagonisms represent astron gbarrie ragains texogenou sbacteri a(Ducluzea ue tal. , 1970).Thi sfunction , alsocalle d resistance to colonization (van derWaai j et al., 1971) isprobabl y the main one,becaus eit s maintains a rather stable, though fragile, equilibrium of the microbial flora in adults. The mechanisms involved arepoorl y understood. Frétere t al. (1983) and Yurdusev et al. (1989) stated that a reversible bacteriostasis was induced by the inhibitory strains, which hinder exogenoustarge tstrain sfro m utilizingavailabl eintestina lnutrients .Consequently ,exogenou s bacteria in general pass through the GI tract without any multiplication in situ, butthe y can remain viable, provided that they are not killed by GI secretions. Thus, the count of the population of transient bacteria cannot behigh . It depends on theinitia l number of ingested bacteria, on the rate of death during transit and on dilution due to secretions. From several experiments in our laboratory with gnotobiotic animals, a bacterial strain cannot produce enough antimicrobial substances, such asorgani c acids or antibiotics, topreven t the prolife­ ration ofpathogeni c strains inth eG Itrac ti fit scoun tremain s under 108pe r go f contents.

Usualclaim so nth emode so factio no fprobiotic s

The usual claims on the modes of action of probiotics, as drawn from scientific or commercial articles,ar ea s follows: • probioticscoloniz e thedigestiv e tract • probioticspreven tproliferatio n ofpathogen s • probiotics neutralizeenterotoxin s produced insit u • probioticsmodulat e theactivit yo f somebacteria l enzymes • probiotics enhanceth edigestiv ecapacit y ofth esmal lintestin e • probiotics exert adjuvant effects onth eimmun e system.

Probioticscoloniz eth edigestiv etrac t

Aspreviousl y noted,thi sclai mi sdifficul t toassess .Probiotic s areexogenou s bacteriaan d arethu ssubmitte dt oth emicrobia lbarrie reffects .Aheterofermentativ e straino fLactobacillus, isolated from the pars oesophagea of a piglet stomach was fed to piglets. No permanent establishment wasobserve d in spite of this origin.However , the strain useddi d not improve the growth ofpiglet s (Jonson, 1986).Thus ,thi sclai m hast ob ereinvestigate d with adequate tools. Nevertheless, it is apoo r commercial argument: if the probiotic were to become esta­ blished, no permanent supply would be required; a single inoculum would be enough to improve growtho rpreven tG Idisorders .

Probioticspreven tproliferatio n ofpathogen s

Severalprobiotic sar eactiv eagains tpathogen swhe nthe yar eculture di nvitro .Fo rinstance , lactic acid produced by bacteria is a strong inhibitor for many pathogens. Some probiotics havebee n selected from their ability toproduc e antibiotics orbacteriocins .N o experimental data are available todemonstrat e that these antimicrobial substances can beproduce d in the GItract .Eve n establishment of theactiv e strainsi n theG Itrac twoul dremai n aproblem . One can also imagine giving inhibitory strains soon after birth. Nurmi & Rentala (1973) showedtha ta mixtur eo fmor etha n4 0strain sadministere db ymout ht onewl yhatche dchicke n

271 protected them against Salmonellaenteritidis, since thispathoge n was no longer detectedi n thefaece so fmos to fth etreate dchicken .Unfortunately , theactiv ebacteri ao fth emixtur ewer e notidentified .Dubo se tal .(1984 )succeede di npreventin gdiarrhoe aan ddeat ho fyoun ghare s byinoculatin gthe m with acomple xmixtur eo fbacteria l strainsimmediatel y after birth.Bot h examples show that effective protection against pathogens can be provided by a single inoculation of inhibitory strains.Nevertheless ,thes ecomple xmixture s cannot be considered asprobiotics .Thus ,thi sclai m hasals ot ob edemonstrate db y adequateexperiments . It has also been suggested that probiotics can compete for adherence receptors of some pathogens, such as virulent Escherichia coli,thu s protecting the host against colibacillosis. This claim comesfro m thewor k ofUnderdah le tal . (1982). Using gnotobioticpiglets ,thes e authors showed that the probiotic Streptococcusfaecium, strain Cernelle, reduced the toxic effect ofpathogeni cE. coli an dprevente dgeneralize dinfectio n anddeath .Howeve rUnderdah l et al. (1982) stated that competition for adherence sites was not responsible for the reduced diarrhoea.

Probioticsneutraliz eenterotoxi nproduce di nsit u

Mitchell& Kenworth y (1976)reporte dtha tcell-fre e extractsfro m astrai no fL. bulgaricus showed anti-enterotoxin activity in ligated segments ofintestine .Whe n this strain wasgive n topiglet schallenge d with anènterotoxi cstrai no fE. coli, bothweigh t gain and survival were improved.I twa sinferred , butno tdemonstrated , thatthes eeffect s werelikel y tob ecause db y the anti-enterotoxin activity.Mor erecently , Corthier (1988) showed that aheav y suspension (1010pe rml )o fSaccharomyces boulardii give na sdrinkin g waterafforde d ahig hprotectio n to gnotobiotic mice challenged with ahighl y pathogenic strain of Clostridium difficile. The enterotoxinwa sn olonge rdetected ,an dth ec ytotoxi ntitr ewa s100-fol ddecrease di nth efaece s of survivingmice .Howeve rCorthie r(unpublishe ddata )di dno tfoun d anyprotectio n against C.difficile i nmic efe do nyoghurt ,containin g5 x 108S. thermophilus an d5 x 108L. bulgaricus perml .

Probioticsmodulat eth eactivit yo fsom ebacteria lenzyme s

Goldin & Gorbach (1984) showed a significant decrease in the activity of bacterial ß-glucuronidasean d nitroreductase in faeces of meat-fed conventional rats,whe n they were fedo na strai no fL. acidophilus. Theseresult sexplai nth edecrease dproductio no ffre e amines from aromatic nitrocompounds and glucuronides in thefaece s of treatedrats .A reductio n of amineproductio ni nsit ui sbeneficia lfo r thehost .However ,Lessar d& Brisso n (1987)di dno t find such a decrease of bacterial ß-glucuronidase in weaned pigs fed on aLactobacillus fermentation product, although thispreparatio n increased weight gain and feed intake. Thus thisclai mremain s controversial.

Probioticsenhanc eth edigestiv ecapacit yo fth esmal lintestin e

Iti sno wwel lestablishe dtha tyoghur tenhance sth elactos eutilizatio ni nth esmal lintestin e of lactase-deficient human subjects (Kolars et al., 1984;Martea u et al., 1989).Th e modeo f action of yoghurt has notbee n completely elucidated. Bacterial ß-galactosidasescoul d make up for the lack of endogenous lactase (Kolars et al., 1984), or lactase activity of the small intestinecoul d bestimulate d (Besniere tal. , 1986).Heate dyoghur tlose sthi seffect . Itwoul d be of greatest interest toperfor m such experiments in calves,whic h arefe d on alactos edie t for alon gtime .Presumabl y abette rlactos eutilizatio n inth esmal lintestin ecoul daccoun t for a growth-promoting effect. Wonge t al. (1983) showed anincreas ei n the weight gain of rats fedo nmil k supplemented withS. thermophiluso rwit ha nextrac to fthi sstrain . Unfortunately they did not study lactose utilization. Wolter et al. (1987) found a better protein efficiency

272 coefficient inrat sfe dwit hsom estrain so fLactobacillus, wherea ssom estrain sof Streptococ­ cus decreased it. They observed that strains enhancing this coefficient in rats could also enhance the weight gain of calves. There is no explanation of these findings, but one can speculatetha tenhancemen to fth edigestiv ecapacit yo fth esmal lintestin ecoul dals ob erelate d tobette rprotei n utilization.

Probioticsexer tadjuvan teffect so nth eimmun esyste m

The adjuvant effect of ingested lactobacilli and streptococci on some immunological parameters has been studied inmic e (Conge et al., 1980;Perdigo n et al., 1988;d e Simonee t al., 1988),i npig s(Lessar de tal. , 1987),an di nhuma nbeing s(d eSimon ee tal. , 1989).Increas e ofseri eimmunoglobulin so fth eIg Gtype ,increas eo fIg Gantibodies ,activatio no fphagocyti c andlymphocyti c activitieshav ebee nreported .Perdigo ne tal .(1989 )als oshowe da nincreas e in secretory IgAantibodie s againstSalmonella typhimurium in the intestinal content of mice fed withL. casei. They alsoshowe dtha tth eduratio no fL. caseifeedin g hada larg e influence onth eclearanc eo finjecte d E.coli an dS. typhimurium, sincea 2-da yfeedin g led tocomplet e eliminationo fthos ebacteri ai nlive ran dsplee n2 day safte rchallenge ,wherea sa 5-da yfeedin g led to a 10-fold increase in the number of injected bacteria in the same organs 2 days after challenge.Thi sresul tcoul db ea consequenc eo fth eintestina linflammator y responseobserve d with feeding for 5day s withL. casei.

Conclusion Probiotic use is neither a voodoo nor a panacea. However some well documented field experiments are promising. The challenge for the future would be to understand how the probiotics acti nvariou senvironmenta lcondition san di nvariou sfar m animals.Basi cresearc h with valuabletool si s lacking.Man yclaim s aboutthei rmode so f action areno t supported by safeexperimenta ldata .However ,som eidea sma yb edraw nfro m theimprovemen ti ndigestiv e capacity in smallintestin e and the adjuvant effects onth eimmun e system.

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274 vande rWaaij ,D. ,J.M .Berghuis-d eVrie s& J.E.C .Lekkerkerk-va n derWees , 1971.Coloni ­ zationresistanc eo f thedigestiv etrac ti nconventiona l andantibioti c treatedmice .Journa l ofHygien e69:405^111. Wolter, R., N.Henry , L. Jacquot, G. Briend, M. Blanchet, G. Delespaul &P .Dhoms , 1987. Probiotiques enalimentatio n animale.Etud eexpérimental e deleu refficacit é chezl era te t chez levea u de boucherie.Recuei l deMédecin e Vétérinaire 163(12):1131—1138. Wong, N.P., F.E. Mac Donough & A.D. Hitchins, 1983. Contribution of Streptococcus thermophilus to growth-stimulating effect of yogurt on rats. Journal of Dairy Science 66:444-449. Yurdusev, N., M. Ladire, R. Ducluzeau & P. Raibaud, 1989. Antagonism exerted by an associationoiaBacteroides thetaiotaomicron strai nandaFusobacterium necrogenes strai n against Clostridiumperfringens in gnotobiotic mice andi nfeca l suspensions incubatedi n vitro.Infectio n andImmunit y57(3):724-731 .

275 Ferrokinetics in veal calves

G.A.J.Miltenbur g *,Th .Wensin g *,HJ . Breukink *& J.J.M .Mar x ** * Departmentof Large Animal Mediane andNutrition, Veterinary Faculty, Universityof Utrecht, NL ** Departmentof Haematology, UniversityHospital, Utrecht,NL

Summary

Transferrin-bound 59Fe was injected intravenously into 2 normal veal calves and 1five - week-old male veal calf with a subnormal concentration of haemoglobin in blood. The disappearance half-time of ironi nplasma , theturnove r of ironi nplasma ,th eplasm avolum e and the uptake of iron by red cells were determined. The two normal calves showed adis ­ appearancehalf-tim e ofiro no f5 3an d6 1mi nan da turnove ro firo n(Fe )o f26 4an d26 9|j.mo l 1~'d -1. In thecal f fed on anirondeficien t diet,associate d witha subnormalconcentratio n of haemoglobinth edisappearanc ehalf-tim eo firo nan dth eturnove ro firo nwer emarkedl ylower , namely2 4mi nan d16 1(imo l1 _1d _1.N odifferenc e wasobserve di nth euptak eo f59 Febetwee n the three calves. The maximum uptake was 92% (day 7) in the iron-deficient calf and 91% (day7 , day 9)i n theothe rtwo . Independent of theamoun t of iron administered in themil kreplace r to young veal calves the uptake of iron was very high, suggesting a highrequiremen t for erythropoiesis, even in 'normal'calves . Descriptors:anaemia ;ferrokinetics ; iron-deficiency; 59Fe.

Introduction In human haematology, radionuclide methods have been used for many years to study various aspects of iron metabolism (Marx & Verzijlbergen, 1986). Kaneko & Mattheeuws (1966)introduce dradionuclid e studiesi ncalve swit hhaematologi cdisorder s sucha serythro ­ poieticporphyria .I nfattenin gvea lcalves ,iron-deficienc y anaemiai scommonl yobserve ddu e toth eratio nfe d (Abdelrahim, 1983). Thepurpos e of the present study was toobtai n more information aboutth e internal cycle ofiro nmetabolis mi na cal ffe do na niron-deficien t diet.I nadditio nt osom egenera lhaemato - logicaldata ,transferrin-boun d 59Fewa suse dt oinvestigat e iron deficiency.

Materialan dmethod s Threefive-week-ol d maleFriesia ncrossbre dvea lcalve swer euse di nthi sexperiment .Tw o ofthe m (Calves 1 and2) wer enorma lhealth ycalve s(wit hhaemoglobi nconcentration so f7. 2 and 6.6 mmol/1) and Calf 3 was a calf with a subnormal haemoglobin concentration of 5.6 mmol/1. The calves were housed individually in pens. They were fed twice daily with a commercialmil kreplacer 1, whichcontaine da niro nconcentratio no f 8-10 ppm. 60pp miro n (asFeS0 4.7H20) wasadde dt oth emil kreplace rfo r Calf 1 and2 .Cal f3 di dno treceiv eextr a iron.Th ecalve swer eweighe d atth ebeginnin g anda tth een do fth eexperiment .

1 TentofeedI ,Tenteg oB.V. ,Anima lfee dspecialitie sImport/Export ,Mijdrecht ,NL .

276 At the beginning of the experiment, sufficient blood was collected from each calf into heparin toyiel d about 10m lo fplasma .Th ebloo dwa scentrifuge d andth eplasm a separated. About36 7kB qo f 59Fe,a sferri ccitrate ,wa sadde dt oth eautologou splasma .Afte r incubation of 30 min at room temperature, 59Fe not bound to transferrin was removed by passing the mixturethroug ha nanion-exchangeresi ncolum n(Cavill ,1971) .Afte rpassin gthroug ha steril e 0.2ur nfilte r (SartoriusMinisar tNML ,0. 2(x m60 0kP amax )th eeluat ewa sdraw nint oa 20-m l syringe. A standard of this eluate was retained and a measured amount (about 10 ml) was injected byjugular-vei n puncture.Immediatel y before injection of 59Fe, 25m lo f bloodwa s collected intohepari n for measurement of backgroundradioactivit y and for determination of haemoglobin (Hb),haematocri t(Ht) ,re dcel lcount ,mea ncorpuscula rvolum e(M CV) ,plasm a iron,tota l iron-binding capacity (TBBC) andsaturatio n of total iron-binding capacity. Blood samples (15ml )wer ecollecte dfro m theopposit ejugula rvei nint ohepari n tubesa t 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 240, 360, 480 and 600 min after the calves were given the transferrin-bound 59Fe. Samplingwa scontinue donc edail yfo r 16days .A smal lpar to fthes e samples was used for determination of thehaematologica l parameters andth eothe rpar twa s usedfo rmeasuremen to fradioactivit y inwhol ebloo d (4ml )an dplasm a( 4ml) .Afte r thelas t dayo fth eexperiment ,radioactivit yo fal lth ewhol ebloo dan dplasm asample san dth estandar d solutions was measured in a Nal scintillation gamma-counter (Automatic Gamma Counter PW 4800 Philips).The disappearance half-time (J\/2> of iron, the iron turnover (PIT), the plasma volume(PV) ,th ebloo d volume(BV) ,th ere dcel lvolum e (RCV)an d theiro n uptake (RCIU) were determined and calculated aspreviousl y described (Davies 1971;Mar x et al., 1986; Smith 1989).

Results Thehaematologica ldat ao fth ethre ecalve sobtaine do nth efirs tda yo fth etria lar epresente d inTabl e 1. During theexperimen tth evalue so fHb ,Ht ,re dcel lcoun tan dMC Vi nth eCalve s 2an d3 decreased ; for Calf 1 thesevalue sremaine dconstant .Th eTIB Cincrease di n allthre e calves andiro n concentration inCal f 3decrease d clearly. The ferrokinetic data are presented in Table 2. A clear difference in the disappearance half-time andiro n turnover wasobserve d between theiron-deficien t calf and thetw onorma l calves. The RCIU was efficient. For all ca',es , more than 90% of the injected dose was incorporated into the erythrocytes.Th e maximum RCIU was observed on day 7 in theiron - deficient calf ando nda y7 an d9 i nth etw onorma lcalves .Afte r day7 and9 ,th e59 Fe uptake decreased.Usually ,th eRCI Ui sdetermine d onda y 10o r 14(Mar xe tal. , 1986;Smith , 1989; Varela, 1971). In the present study the RCIU on day 14wa s7 9 and 69%i n the two normal calves and 81% in theiron-deficien t calf.

Discussion

Inth epresen t study,a clea rdifferenc e for theplasm adisappearanc e half-time andth eiro n turnover of 59Fe bound transferrin wasobserve d between theiron-deficien t fed calf and the twonorma lcalves .I naccordanc e withth eexpectations ,th eTyn inth eiron-deficien t fed calf was shorter than inth etw onorma lcalve s (Marxe tal. , 1986;Smith , 1989).Th elo wvalu eo f the PIT in the iron-deficient fed calf was probably due to the relatively high plasma iron concentration in thedietar y iron-supplemented calves.Thi s suggestion was supported byth e fact that soon after the iron supplement had been stopped, all three calves presented a low plasmairo n concentration atth een do f the experiment. It wasremarkable , however, thatT^ was less than thosepublishe d before for calves and human beings. In human beings,norma l values for plasma T^ ranges from 60 to 120mi n

277 Table 1. Haematologicaldata of the iron-deficient fed calf(Calf 3) and the two normal calves (Calves1 and 2).

Item Calfl Calf 2 Calf 3

Haemoglobin (mmol/1) 7.2 6.6 5.6 Haematocrit(1/1 ) 0.31 0.34 0.26 Redcel lcoun t(10 9/1) 9.84 10.28 7.70 Mean cellvolum e (10-151) 32 32 34 Plasmairo n (nmol/1) 21 25 7 TTBC (|imol/l) 72 78 91 Saturationo f theTIB C (%) 29 32 8

Table2. Ferrokinetic findings in the iron-deficient fed calf(Calf 3) and the two normalcalves (Calves1 and 2).

Item Calfl •' Calf 2 Calf 3

Plasma volume (ml) 373 1 312 7 348 5 Blood volume (ml) 536 4 472 7 470 9 Redcel lvolum e (ml) 1633 1600 1224 PlasmaT Xn (min) 53 61 24 PIT (n.moi/1 plasma/day) 380 408 218 PIT (nmol/1blood/day ) 264 269 161 RCIUmaximu m (%) 91 91 92

(Verwilghen &Punt , 1987).Kanek o& Mattheeuw s (1966)mentione dvalue sbetwee n 88an d 137mi nfo r six-month-old normalHolstein-Friesia n calves. Anotherremarkabl eobservatio nwa sth ever yhig hRCI Ui nth ethre ecalve si nth epresen t study.Verwilghe n &Pun t(1987 )mentione dvalue sbetwee n7 0an d90 %fo rnorma lhumans . Kaneko et al. (1966) found values between 66 and 82% for the above mentioned Holstein- Friesian calves.Possibl y thetw o 'normal'calves ,i n spiteo f aratio n with 60pp miron , were iron-deficient becauseo fthei rfas tweigh tgai no ro fmalabsorptio no fth eingeste diron .Withi n two weeks,eac h calf showed an average weight gain of about 18kg . This weight gain also caused anincreas e in blood volumes during the experimental period. This increase couldb e an explanation for the reduction in RCIU after day 9 with dilution of radioactivity in a population of newlyforme d erythrocytes.

References Abdelrahim,A.J. , 1983.Th erol eo firo nsuppl yi nth efattenin g ofvea lcalves .Doctora lthesis , Utrecht, NL. Cavill,I. , 1971.Th epreparatio no f59 Fe-labeledtransferri n forferrokineti c studies.Journa lo f ClinicalPatholog y 24:472-474. Davies,J.W.L. , 1971.Bloo dvolum estudies .In :E.H .Belche r& H .Vette r(Ed.) :Radioisotope s inmedica ldiagnosis .Butterworths ,London ,p .319-337 .

278 Kaneko,J.J . &D.R.G . Mattheeuws, 1966.Iro n metabolism in normal andporphyri ccalves . American Journal ofVeterinar y Research 27:923-929. Marx,J.J.M .& J.F .Verzijlbergen , 1986.Radionuclid etechnique si nhaematology .In :R R van Rijk (Ed.):Nuclea rtechnique si ndiagnosti cmedicine .Martinu sNijhof f Publishers,Dord ­ recht,p .459-517 . Smith,J.E. , 1989.Iro nmetabolis man dit sdiseases .In :J.J .Kanek o(Ed.) :Clinica lbiochemis ­ try ofdomesti c animals.Academi cPress ,Inc .p .256-273 . Varela, J.E., 1971. Studies of iron absorption andmetabolism . In:E.H . Belcher &H .Vette r (Ed.):Radioisotope s inmedica ldiagnosis .Butterworths ,London ,p . 383-411. Verwilghen, R.L. & K. Punt, 1987. Oorzaken, diagnostiek, gevolgen en behandeling van ijzergebrek. In:B.S . van Asbecke t al.(Ed.) :IJzer ,ee nonmisbaa relemen tme t schadelijke eigenschappen. Samson Stafleu, Alphen-aan-de-Rijn.p .71-82 .

279 Iron status ofnew-bor n calvesan deffect s of supplementation with different amounts ofiro n invea l calf fattening

Th.Wensing ,G.A.J .Miltenbur g &H.J . Breukink Departmentof Large Animal Medicine andNutrition, Veterinary Faculty, State University of Utrecht,NL

Summary

Themea nlive riro nconcentratio n innew-bor n calveswa sfoun d tob e 1746(J.g/ gD M (SD 1491, range 73-5592 p.g/gDM) . Between calf and dam, nocorrelatio n wasfoun d asfa ra s liveriro n concentration andplasm a iron concentration were concerned. When a supplement of 5 ppm extra iron wasprovide d for veal calves during thewhol e fatteningperiod ,live ran dsplee niro nconcentration swer eclearl yincrease d andth ecolou ro f themea ta tslaughte rwa sto ored .Supplementatio n withmor etha n5 6pp mo firo ndurin gth e first six weekso fth efattenin g period can affect thecolour ,o fth emeat . Descriptors:vea l calves;iro n supply; liver, spleen;iro n concentrationsi nnewl y borncalves .

Introduction

Iti swel ldocumente d thati nvea l calf fattening, toomuc hiro nresult si nto ore da colou r of the meat, whereas too lowa supplementation with iron induces anaemia, resulting inlos s of appetite,decrease d growth andpoo rfoo d conversion (Welchman etal. , 1988). Ourinvestigation sdeal twit h(A )th eiro nstatu so fth ene wbor ncalf ,(B )th eeffec t ofextr a iron supply during thewhol e fattening period, (C)th eeffec t ofextr a iron supply duringth e first sixweek so fth efattenin g periodonl yo n theiro n statuso fth ecal f andth ecolou ro fth e meat atslaughter .

Materialan dmethod s

Ironstatu so fth ene wbor ncal f(A )

From 50clinicall y normalFriesian-Holstei n (FH)cows ,bloo dan dlive rwer esample don e week before parturition. From dam andcalf , blood was sampled during parturition. After parturition, thelive r ofth ecal f was sampled.I nplasm a andliver ,th eiro n concentration was measured.

Effect ofextr airo nsuppl y( 5ppm )durin gth ewhol efattenin g period (B)

In two experiments I and II, 16norma l maleF H calves were used, 8experimenta l and 8 control calves, 5pp m extra iron1 wassupplied . InExperimen t Ith e extra iron was supplied until slaughter andi nExperimen t IIunti l the17t hwee k of the fattening period. Bloodwa s sampledbi-weekl ydurin gth efattenin g period.A tslaughter , sampleso flive ran dsplee n were taken and thecolou ro fth emea t was assessed. Gradingo fth emea tcolour : 2-4, 'very good toacceptable'; 5,'doubtful' ; 6-8, 'dark to too dark'.

280 Effect ofsupplementatio nwit hdifferen t amountso firo ndurin gth efirs t sixweek so fth e fattening period(C )

In a number of experiments, different amounts of iron, 561ppm ; 100ppm ; 100pp m +a subcutaneous injection of Imposil2,150 ppm + a subcutaneous injection of Imposit2; were suppliedt odifferen t groupso fcalve sdurin g thefirs t 6week s of thefattenin g period. Bloodsample swer etake nfortnightl y andlive ran dbon emarro wsample swer etake never y four weeks.

Analytical procedures

In all experiments, blood haemoglobin, the plasma iron concentration and plasma iron saturation were estimated according tomethod s described earlier (Abdelrahim et al., 1983). Inliver ,splee nan dmuscl esamples ,th eiro nconcentratio nwa sestimate db yatomi cabsorptio n techniques (Abdelrahim et al., 1985).Fo r theestimatio n of iron in thebon emarrow , ahisto - chemicaltechniqu e wasuse d(Franke n etal. , 1981). In all experiments, the calves were fattened with the same commercial milk replacer containing 13pp m of iron according to the same feeding schedule. The calves were housed individuallyi nwoode npens ;healt hcar ean dmanagemen twer ea susua li nvea lcal f fattening. For every experiment, the milk replacer fed during the whole fattening period originated from oneproductio n batchan dth ecalve suse di na particula rexperimen twer eslaughtere do n the sameday .

Resultsan d discussion

Ironstatu so fnew-bor ncalve s(A )

The mean iron concentration in the liver of new-born calves was 1746 H-g/gD M (s.d. = 1491; rang e73-559 2|o.g/ gDM) ;i nth elive ro fth ecow son ewee kbefor eparturition ,th emea n valuewa s25 3^g/ g DM(s.d .= 112;rang e47-53 3 |ig/gDM) . No correlation wasfoun d between the iron concentration of plasma of the dam (mean 16 (j.mol/1, s.d. =5.0 ) andtha to f thenew-bor n calf (mean 23 |imol/l, s.d. = 8).Th erathe r great variation in the liver iron concentration of new-born calves means that iron supply of veal calves cannot bebase do n theiro n status of thever y young calf for practicalpurposes . Anorma lratio n of commercial milkreplacer , containing 50pp m iron,durin g thefirs t six weekso f thefattenin g period,an dabou t 13 ppmdurin gth eres to fth efattenin g periodclearl y decreased mean iron concentration of liver between the 2nd week, 650 |img/g DM and the 23rdweek , 82(xmg/ gD Man di n therang eo f thelive riro nconcentration , 51-5000(ig/ gD M inth e2n dwee k and40-10 0(a.g/ gD Mi nth e23r dweek .Thes edat ademonstrat e thatther ei s aclea rdecreas ei ntha tconcentratio ni nca lve swit ha hig hlive riro nconcentratio ni nth esecon d week of the fattening period in spite of thepresenc e of iron in the milk replacer (from 5000 Hg/gD Mi n the2n d to 100Jig/ gD Mi n the23r dweek) . Apparently iron absorption in veal calves is atleas tpartl y regulated by the iron statuso f thecalves ,a si s wellknow nfo r other species too (Finch et al., 1982).

1 asFeS04.7H2 0i nth emil kreplacer . 2 Imposil,1 0ml ,a tth eonse to fth efattenin gperiod .

281 Fe saturation in % meanvalu e± SEM .

i.ï M iïl 7 8 9 101 1 121 3 13 14 151 61 71 8 192 0 20 212 2 222 32 4 ». weeks of the fattening period

Hb in mmol/L meanvakj e± SEM . M *.* i* M

101 1 121 3 13 14 151 61 71 8 192 0 20 21 22 • weeks of the fattening period

Figurela, lb. Bloodhemoglobin concentration in mmolllplasma iron saturation in % during thefattening period in three groups ofveal calves supplied with 56 A, 700• or 150ppm • of iron duringthe first six weeks of thefattening period.

600

500 • Fe in liver in^ug/g DM meanvalu e± SEM . 400 I ' 300

200 '

100 U 5i }i

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 121 3 14 151 61 71 8 192 02 12 22 32 4 . » weeks of the fattening period

Figure2. Courseof the liveriron concentration in [ig/g DM duringthe fattening period in twogroups of veal calves supplied with 150 ppm iron m and 150 ppm + 10ml Imposit o during thefirst six weeks of thefattening period.

282 Effect ofextr airo nsuppl y( 5ppm )durin gth ewhol efattenin g period(B )

Until the 17th week of the fattening period the course of the blood haemoglobin in ExperimentI wa sth esam ei nth egrou psupplie dwit hextr airo na si nth econtro lgroup .Fro m the 17thweek ,haemoglobi nwa s significantly higheri nth egrou psupplie dwit hiron .Howeve r inExperimen tn ,wher eth eextr airo nwa sterminate di nth e 16thwee ko f thefattenin g period, therewa sn osignifican t difference betweenth ecours eo fhaemoglobi nconcentratio ni nbloo d of thegrou p supplie with iron and thecontro l group. Iti sobviou s from theresult spresente d in Table 1tha t supplying calves with 5pp m extra iron until slaughter clearly increased concentration of iron in liver and spleen. This is in accordancewit hth eobservatio ntha thaemoglobi n concentrationwa shighe ri nth egrou ptha t was suppliedwit hextr airo nunti lth een do fth efattenin g periodonl y(mea n 5.5mmol/ 1i nth e experimental group and4. 0 mmol/1 in the control group).I n addition, the colouro f the meat of thisgrou ponl y wasqualifie d asto ored , mean 6.1i nth eexperimenta l group and2. 4i nth e control group.

Table1. Ironconcentration in liver and spleen after supplementation of 5 ppm ironextra until theend of the fattening period inExperiment I and until the17th week of the fattening period inExperiment II. I' andII"', theexperimental groups; I' andII", thecontrol groups.

Iron Group I' Group I" Group II' Group II" (8calve s per group) 5pp m iron control 5 ppmiro n control extra until extraunti l slaughter the 17thwee k

Liver (|i.g/gDM ) 117a 83b 63 62 Spleen (|ig/gDM ) 413a 353b 379 365 Totali nlive r(|0.g ) 142 642a 87 783b 8632 9 8621 0 Totali n spleen(^.g ) 60957 a 43 566b 5282 9 4541 6 Liver +splee n (|ig) 203 599a 131349 b 139 158 13162 6 a,b significant, P < 0.05;Student' s ttes t

Effect ofsupplementatio nwit hdifferen t amountso firo ndurin gth efirs tsi xweek so f the fattening period(C )

Supplementing vealcalve s with56,10 0o r 150pp m irondurin gth efirst 6- 7 weekso fth e fattening periodinfluence d neitherth ecours eo fth ebloo dhaemoglobi n northa to fth eplasm a iron saturation during the whole fattening period. This is in accordance with the findings of others (Welchman et al., 1988;Figur e la, lb). Supply of iron by means of scan injection of Imposit2i n the first week of the fattening period was found to have no significant effect on the course of the blood haemoglobin, theplasm a iron concentration and on the plasma iron saturation.O nth ecours eo fth elive riro nconcentratio n (Figure2) ,supplementatio n withextr a iron bymean so f asubcutanou sinjectio n ofImposit 2ha dn oeffec t atall . Supplementation with rather high amounts of iron in the first six weeks of the fattening period (150pp m and 150pp m +Imposil ) caused aclea r increase in the spleen iron concen­ trations whereas the liver iron concentration showed no clear changes. This observation suggests thatth eextr airo n is storedpredominantl y in the spleen (Figure3) .

283 Fe n xjg'qDM 56 100 150 100+imp 150+imp Liver 1 1 1 i Spleen 'ï' { 600 I I { \ 500 >» } r 7 T 400 l i i * 30O Muscle 6 Colour of the meat 'Ï i 200 j ï • 1, u ï i 1 b î ï 5 ï * 100 1 i I', A

56 56 100 100 100 150 150 150 100' 100' 150' 56 56 100 100 100 150 150 150 ÏOO'IOO' 150'

Figure 3. Colourof the meat and the iron concentration inliver, muscle andspleen of calves suppliedwith different amounts ofiron (mean± SEM).

Regarding thecolou ro f themea t at slaughter, only supplementation of 56pp m ofiro ni n the first weeks of the fattening period always resulted in amea n qualification for the colour of the meat lower than 5 (acceptable) whereas higher dosages of iron, given in the first 6-7 weeks,gav e variableresults . Irrespective of the amount of iron supplied in the aforementioned experiments, no iron couldb e detected in bonemarro wo f thevea lcalves .

References

Abdelrahim,A.I. ,Th .Wensing ,P . Franken &A.J .Schotman , 1983. Theinfluenc e ofa nextr a supply ofiro no n somebloo dcomponent s ando nmea tcolou ra tslaughte ri nfattenin gvea l calves.Zbl .Med .Vet .A 30:325-331 . Abdelrahim,A.I., Th .Wensin g& A.J .Schotman , 1985.Distributio n ofiro n andcoppe ri nth e liveran d spleen ofvea lcalve s inrelatio n toth econcentratio n ofiro n inth ediet .Researc h in Veterinary Science 40:209-211. Finch, C.A. &H . Huebers, 1982.Perspective s in iron metabolism. New England Journal of Medidcine 306:1520-1528. Franken,P. ,Th .Wensin g& A.J .Schotman , 1981.Th econcentratio no firo ni nth eliver ,splee n andplasm aan dth eamoun to firo ni nbon emarro wo fhorses .Zbl .Vet .Med .A .28:381-389 . Welchman, D. de B., O.P. Whelehan & A.J.F. Webster, 1988.Haematolog y of veal calves reared in different husbandry systems and the assesment of iron deficiency.Veterinary Record 123:505-510.

284 Dry feed supplements for fattening white veal calves

A.E.va n deBraa k &J .Mo l DenkavitNederlandB.V.,P.O. Box5,3780 BA Voorihuizen,NL

Summary Trials were carried out to seea f small amounts of roughage could be used when rearing whitevea lcalves . In the first trial with 6 batches of calves (« = 238),feedin g alkaline-treated straw pellets without starch (Group A) was compared with feeding similar pellets containing 35% starch (Group B). These straw pellets were fed in addition to the normal milk-replacer diet. The maximum daily allowance of straw pelletspe r calf was 300g . No significant differences in weightgai nwer efound .Th emea twa sdarke rtha ntha to fvea lcalve sraise do na milk-replace r diet;i nGrou pB ,th emea twa sslightl ypale rtha ni nGrou pA .Ther etende dt ob emor ecalve s with healthproblem s andinsufficien t weightgai n inGrou pB than inGrou pA . The second trial investigated the effect on weight gain of adding alkaline-treated straw pellets to themilk-replace r ration.I n 14differen t batches ofcalve s (w = 858),hal f the calves receivedu pt o20 0g o fstra wpellet spe rda yfro m age6 week st oslaughter .Thei rmea ncarcas s weight was 1.9 kghighe r andth efee d conversion ratiotende d tob elowe r than in thecontro l group.Th emea tcolou rwa sexcellen ti n bothgroups ,an d slightly betteri n thecontro lgroup . In athir d trial,feedin g amaximu m amounto f 300g alkaline-treate d straw pellets (Group A),wa scompare d withfeedin g amaximu m of 1000g maiz e silage(28 % drymatter )pe rda y (Group B),i n addition to the normal milkreplacer diet (w =20 0calves) .Weigh t gain in both groups was identical. The feed conversion ratio tended to be lower in Group B. The meat colourwa sbelo wstandar dfo rbot hgroups ,becaus eo fa hig hhaemoglobi nleve la tslaughter . Itca n beconclude d thati tma y bepossibl e toad d smallamount s ofroughag e toth eratio no f vealcalve swithou tnegativel y influencing themea tcolour ,provide dtha tther ei sa ver y small amount of iron available from theroughage .Th eimprove d weightgai n does notcompensat e for thecos to froughag e and labour. Descriptors:vea l calves;roughag e supply.

Introduction Traditionally,vea lcalve sar efe do nmil kreplacer .Wit hthi styp eo fdie ti ti seas yt ocontro l theintak eo f iron andth emea tquality .Howeve r iti scontende d thatth ewelfar e ofcalve s fed only milk diets is impaired (Wiepkema et al., 1987). It would be physiologically and etho- logicallydesirabl et oprovid eth ecalve swit hsom eroughage .Thi sdr yfee dwoul ddevelo pth e forestomachs andhenc einduc erumination .Va nd eBurgwa l (1986) andKooijma n et al.(thi s book) showedtha t supplementing themil kreplace rwit hroughag egav eth ecalve s something tod oan dtherefor e benefited theirwelfare .Fro m other trials,va nPutte ne tal .(1986 )an dva n de Burgwal (1986) concluded that feeding veal calves small quantities of straw pellets may slightlyincreas e weight gain. Thispape rdescribe s experiments tofin dou twhethe rfeedin g alkaline-treated strawpellet s tovea l calves improves weight gain.Anothe rtria l studied addition of starch to strawpellets . The third experiment compared feeding straw pellets with feeding maize silage.I n all these trials, theeffec t ofroughag e onperformanc e andcarcas s quality was evaluated.

285 Materialan d methods Theexperiment swer edon ea tth eexperimenta lstatio no fou rcompany ,o nHolstei nFriesia n malecalve sbough tfro m marketsabou t 1 weekafte rbirth .Th einitia lweigh to fth ecalve swa s determined when thecalve s entered thefattenin g house.Unti lth e ageo f 6week s thecalve s were fed a traditional milk replacer. At 6 weeks, thetrial s started.Th e calves were weighed andregroupe d randomly into twogroup s according toweight , weight gain during the first 6 weeks and blood haemoglobin level.A t slaughter, the carcasses were weighed and themea t colour was classified on a scalefro m 1(red )t o 10(white) .Al lcalve sreceive d acommercia l milk replacer twice daily. The amount wasbase d on age,weigh t andlengt h of the fattening period accordingt oa feedin g scheduleuse do ncommercia l farms. Thefirs t trialwa sdon ei n 1985-1986.Th ecalve s( n= 238 )wer ehouse di ngroup so f5 pe r pen on slatted floors. The mean length of the fattening period was 23.5 weeks.Fro m age 6 weeks until slaughter allth ecalve sreceive d amaximu m amounto f 300 go f alkaline-treated strawpellet sonc edaily .Th estra wpellet sfo rGrou pB wer e supplemented with wheatstarch . The second trial was done in 1987-1988.Th e calves were housed in individual boxes of 70c mx 170c mwit h slattedfloors .Th eexperimen twa scarrie dou twit h 14batche so fi ntota l 858calve srandomize di ntw ogroups .Grou pA receive da milk-replace rdie tonl yan di nGrou p B the milk-replacer was augmented with a maximum amount of 200 g/calf alkaline-treated strawpellet sgive nonc edail yfro mag e6 week st oslaughter .Th emea nduratio no fth efattenin g period was2 5weeks . Inth ethir dtria li n 1988-1989,calve swer ehouse di ngroup so f 5pe rpen .Th eexperimen t included20 0calve sfro m 4differen t batches.Th ecalve so fGrou pA wer efe d amilk-replace r dietsupplemente d by amaximu m amounto f 300g alkaline-treated straw pellets given once daily.Fo r Group B,th e straw pellets werereplace d by amaximu m amount of 1000 gmaiz e silage with a dry matter content of 28%. The roughage was given from age 6 weeks until slaughter.Bot h themil kreplace r andth eroughag e werepu ti n atroug h infron t ofeac h pen. Thefattenin g periodlaste d 26weeks . The data were analysed with the Student's t test. Data from calves whose carcass weight deviatedfro m themea n weight bymor etha n twiceth e standard deviation wereexcluded .

Resultsan d discussion

TrialI

Feedintake ,th ecompositio no fth estra wpellet san dth eresult sar edetaile di nTabl e 1.Th e feed conversion ratio was calculated from the 'net paid liveweight'. This live weight was calculated asfollows : warm carcassweigh tminu s2 %= col dcarcas s weight (liverincluded) , multiplied by 100/65. Thetria l startedwit h2 group so f 119calves .Som ecalve sbecam eil lan ddie d(A ,4 ;B , 5), some had a very poor growth rate and were sold off (A, 1;B , 3).Thes e data provide some evidence that feeding straw pellets with starch may cause more zootechnical problems. Furthermore,calve si nGrou pB ha dsligh tsymptom so fbloa tmor efrequently . Table 1 shows that adding starch to straw pellets was no advantage. The meat colour classification was generally below standard, because the blood haemoglobin levels of 3o f the 6 batches were toohig h at slaughter.

286 Table I. Feed intake,composition ofthe straw pellets and results of Trial I.

GroupA GroupB

Averageintak e (kg/d) - milkreplace r 309 309 - strawpellet s 25 25 Composition of strawpellet s - starchconten t(% ) <1 35 - crudefibr e(% ) 35 18 - iron (Fe) (mg kg-1) 75-110 90-135 Weight (kg) - initial 41.5 41.4 - at6 week s 69.7 69.7 (regrouped) - carcass1 143.3 ± 10.5 144.1±9. 8 P>0.05 Feed conversion ratio 1.769 1.759 P>0.05 Meat colour 6.63 6.90 P> 0.05 l liver included

Table2. Weight,feed conversion ratio andmeat colour in Trial II.

GroupA GroupB

Initial numbero f calves 445 413 Initial weight (kg) 42.6 42.8 Carcass weight (kg) 144.8 + 11.3 146.7+11.0 P< :0.0 2 Feed conversion ratio 1.845 1.812 Meat colour 7.51 7.38 Numbero f calvesfo r stat. analysis 436 (-9) 404 (-9)

TïialII

Thistria lwa sdon eo n 14batche so fcalves .Th eamoun to fmil kreplace rfe dvarie dbetwee n the batches from 317-344kg/calf , but was identical for the two groups. The intake of straw pellets varied slightly between the different batches: from 15 to 20 kg/calf. The results are summarized inTabl e2 . Feeding with straw pellets improved carcass weight and feed conversion ratio.Th e meat colouro fGrou pB tende d tob einferior , butwa sexcellen ti nbot hgroups .Ver yfe w (lesstha n 2% in both groups) calveswer e 'lost' during the trial,bu tth e cost of the straw pellets (about 7 USD/calf) andlabou r far outweighed any suchadvantages .

Trial m

Trial IIIcompare d feeding small amounts of strawpellet s with feeding maize silage.Th e strawpellet scontaine d 100-140m gkg -1 ironi nth edr ymatter .Th eiro nconten to fth emaiz e silagewa s 120-190m gkg -1 inth edr ymatter ,wit hth eexceptio no fa batc h whichha da niro n content of 450 mg kg-1. This batch of maize silage was fed for 3 weeks to Group B in one trial.Th eresult s aresummarize d in Table3 .

287 Table3. Resultson weight,feed conversion,feed intake, meatcolour and blood Hb levels in trialHI.

GroupA GroupB

Initialnumbe r of calves 100 100 Numbero f calvesfo r stat. analysis 94 97 Feedintak e (kg/d) - milk replacer 343 339 - strawpellet s 35 - - maize silage - 93 Initial weight (kg) 44.2 44.1 Carcass weight (kg) 149.8 ± 16.7 150.1±16. 1 />>0.05 Feed conversion ratio 1.844 1.816 Pä 0.05 Meat colour 6.55 6.10 P<0.01 Hba t slaughter (mmol/1) 6.1 6.4

There weren o significant differences in weight gain orfee d conversion ratio between the groups.Th estandar ddeviatio no fth eaverag ecarcas sweigh twa sver ylarge ,becaus eth ecalve s werefe d from troughs, andthei rindividua lfee d intakevarie daccordin g tothei r appetite. Thescor efo rmea tcolou rwa sver ylo wi nbot hgroups ,bu textremel y lowi nGrou pB .Thi s isrelate dt oth ehig hbloo dhaemoglobi nconten ta tslaughter .Th eiro nanalysi so fmaiz esilag e indicated that iron content varied considerably, may be because of contamination with soil. Thesehig h iron levels clearly adversely affected meatcolour . Atslaughter ,i twa sobserve dtha ti nth ecarcasse so fth ecalve stha tingeste d smallamount s of roughage, the ribs were more 'rounded', because of the development of the rumen. This aberrant carcass conformation generallyreduce dth evalu e of thecarcass .

Conclusion

Thetrial sshowed ,tha ti tmigh tb epossibl e toad dsom eroughag e toth edie to fvea lcalve s without adversely affecting meat colour, provided that the amount of available iron in the roughagewa ssmall .A namoun to f200-30 0g o falkaline-treate d strawpellet spe rcal fpe rda y mayincreas eth eweigh tgain .Bu tth eimprove dweigh tgai ndoe sno tcompensat efo r thecos t ofroughag e andlabour .Addin gstarc ht ostra wpellet sha sn oeffec t onperformance , buttend s to increase incidence of rumen bloat. Strawpellet s can bereplace d by maize silage, but the iron content should betake n into account.

References van de Burgwal, J.A., 1986. Invloed strovorm op welzijn mestkalveren. Landbouwkundig Tijdschrift (98):30-32. vanPutten ,G. ,W.J .Eisho f &J.L.R.M .Overmeer , 1986.He teffec t vanhe tbijvoere n vanstr o of strobrok aan vleeskalveren. Instituut voor Veeteeltkundig Onderzoek Rapport B-268. Zeist,NL . Wiepkema, RR., K.K. van Hellemond, R Roessingh &H . Romberg, 1987. Behaviour and abomasaldamag e inindividua l vealcalves .App .Anim .Beh .Sei .(18):257-268 .

288 Vealproductio n with lessmil kreplace r in the ration supplemented with concentrates and maizesilag e

P.L.Bergströ m &M . Dijkstra ResearchInstitute for AnimalProduction, P.O. Box501,3700 AM Zeist,NL

Summary

Ina serie so fexperiment scalve shav ebee nfattene d withreduce damoun to fmil kreplacer , supplemented with maizesilag eo r asilage/concentrat e mix.Thi sresulte d in ahighe rgrowt h rate andlowe r feed costs but themea tcolou r wasdarke r than in traditionally fed calveswit h onlymil kreplacer .Attempt st oinfluenc eth emea tcolou rb yretur nt oa regim ewit hexclusivel y milk,8 week sprio rt oslaughte rha dn oeffect . Comparedwit htraditiona lvea lcalve san dyoun g bulls, the alternatively produced calves had an intermediate position for most of the meat qualitytraits .A nanalytica lpane lindicate donl ydifference s intaste/flavou rbetwee ntraditiona l vealan dmea to fon eo f thealternativel y fed groupo fcalves .N odifference s intendernes s or succulence were detected. Descriptors:alternativ e vealproduction ; meatcolour ; qualityo f veal.

Introduction Thefinancial return s from veal production in the Netherlands arerathe r poor because of the high prices of new-born calves and thehig h feeding costs in comparison to thepric e for the finished calves.Moreove r there areman y ethologicalobjection s toindividua l housingo f calvesan dt ofeedin g exclusively withmil kreplacer .S oa serie so fexperiment swa s startedi n which part of the milk was replaced by other products such asmaiz e silage or a silage/con­ centrate mix. The experiments involved fattening to a final liveweight of 300 kg, which is somewhathighe r thanth eusua lfina l weightfo r vealcalve s inth eNetherlands .

Material and methods Several series of calves were fattened, for which part of the milk was replaced by maize silageo ra silage/concentrat emi x(mostl y50/5 0o na dr ymatte rbasis) .A grou pfe dexclusivel y withmil k(Syste mA )serve da sreferenc eo non esid ean dgroup sfe donl ymil kdurin gth efirs t 11week s andmi x adlibitu m toprovid eth eleas tpossibl e amounto f milk asreferenc e onth e other side.Althoug h thereplacemen t ofmil kwa sachieve di ndifferen t ways,w eprefe r inth e present publication to refer only to two of the alternative systems, the system with the best growth andth e system withth elowes t feeding costs. These are systems with a reduction of milk supply by 20% (from the beginning of the fattening period) and supplemented with asilage/concentrat e mix adlibitu m (System D)an d the system,wit h only thefirs t 11week s milk and silage/concentrate mix adlibitu m (System E). Haemoglobin concentration of blood was determined and carcasses were appraised visiuallly. Colour was measured objectively by means of the Hunter apparatus. Haematin concentration, shear force resistance (Warner-Bratzler), and drip and cooking loss were determinedi nsample so fth emuse ,longissimu sthoraci sbetwee n6t han d8t hthoraci cvertebra . Ina on eo f theexperiments ,mea tcharacteristic s werecompare d between alternatively fed calves andtraditiona lvea lcalve sa swel la syoun g bulls.I nanothe rexperiment ,mea tsample s of traditionalvea lcalve s andalternativel yfe d calveswer egive nt oa nanalytica lexper tpane l

289 (12persons ) in order to check for differences in taste/flavour, tenderness or succulence.Al l animals in theexperiment s mentioned herewer eBlac k andWhite .

Resultsan d discussion In Table 1,th eresult s of agrou p of vealcalve s fed only with milkreplace r arecompare d withth ealternativel yfe dgroup swit hth ebes tgrowt h(Syste mD )an dth egrou pwit hth elowes t feeding costs (SystemE) .Th emea tcolou rwa sno tdifferen t betweenth etw oalternativel y fed groups, soi f otherproduct s arefe d inlarge r amounts alongside milkreplacer ,th e amounto f milk has no influence on the meat colour. In calves fed only with milk, the variation in Hb concentration wasrathe rwide . Table 2 refers to an experiment with alternatively fed calves of two different systems in which half ofth ecalve sreturne d toa regim e exclusively with milkreplacer .Th eai m wast o see if a larger supply of milk in the period directly before slaughter would influence meat colour.I nthi sexperiment , theF ereserv ei nth elive rwa sconsiderabl ydeplete dbu tapparentl y this was not sufficient to decrease haemoglobin content of blood nor to affect the colour of meatove r the 8-weekperiod . Because we were interested in the difference in meat quality characteristics between alternatively fed calves and traditional vealcalve s onon ehan d andyoun g bulls on theothe r hand we determined several quality parameters of meat in alternatively fed calves from our ownexperiment san dtraditiona lvea lcalve san dyoun gbull sfro m whichsample so fth emuse .

Table 1. Alternativesystem with the highest daily gain (D) compared with thesystems with maximum(A) and minimum (E)supply ofmilk.

SystemA System D System E only milk 80%mil k 11 weeks milk mix adli b mix adli b mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. Numbero f calves 21 20 20 Fatteningperio d (days) 240 208 246 Final liveweight (kg) 303 19 314 19 320 24 ' Daily liveweight gain (g) 1088 77 1309 85 1130 92 Dressing% 58.9 2.5 57.6 1.2 55.0 1.4 Netcarcas s gain/day (g) 648 66 762 57 622 57

Haemoglobin (g/100ml ) 9.0 2.3 12.6 1.3 12.4 1.4 Visualappraisa l of carcass conformation 2.7 0.5 2.7 0.4 2.6 0.4 fat covering 2.8 0.6 3.3 0.4 2.6 0.3 meatcolou r 1.8 0.6 3.0 0.5 2.9 0.4 Carcassyiel d (NLG) 1758 1640 1578 Feed +othe rcost s (NLG) 1474 1069 711 For calf +labou r (NLG) 284 571 867 Visualappraisal :fo r all traits 5poin t scale 1 minimum development/intensity 5 maximum Source: Dijkstra et al., 1988.

290 longissimusthoraci swer ebough tfro m commercialslaughterhouse s (Table3) .Fo rmos to fth e quality characteristics the alternatively fed calves were intermediate between the two other categories.Th eshea rforc eresistanc eprove dt ob ealmos tproportiona l toth eweigh t differen­ ces between thecategories . The two groups of calves in Table 3differe d in weight and age,whic h could haveha da n effect on the meat colour and other meat quality traits irrespective of the feeding system.T o study these possible effects, an experiment was done in which animals were slaughtered at about 24 and 30 weeks. Some data are given in Table 4. Significant differences were found between slaughters for colour characteristics of meat and drip loss.Th e differences in shear force were not significant between slaughtersno r between themilk-fe d and alternatively fed calves. For the majority of colour characteristics, the milk-fed and alternatively fed calves differed significantly. InTabl e4 ,onl ysignifican t differences betweenslaughter sar eindicate d aswel la s slaughterx system interactions. Samples of the muse, longissimus thoracis of the 2nd slaughter were given to a trained analytical panel. An analytical panel was chosen because the home consumption of veal is limited, so it would be difficult to interprète the results of aconsume r panel. The analytical panel only indicates differences but not preferences for a certain product. In Table 5, only significant differences wereindicate dfo r taste/flavour between thecalve sfe d only with milk and the alternative system with the largest amount of milk in the ration. No significant differences werefoun d for tenderness and succulence between themilk-fe d and alternatively fed calves. /

Table 2. Resultsof an experiment withalternatively fed calves (SystemsD andE), in which halfof each of the treatment groups returned 8 weeks before slaughter to a regime exclusively withmilk (System A).

System D System E 80% milk mix adlib . milkmi * .fo r 11week s adlib . System D return to System D return to continued SystemA continued SystemA mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. Number of calves 8 8 8 8 Liveweight gain (g/d) 1318 85 1 189 37 1055 107 991 92 Dressing% 59.0 1.4 59.5 1.0 54.6 2.2 57.0 2.1 Net carcass gain (g/d) 785 50 716 26 575 61 570 58 Haemoglobin (g/100ml ) 12.4 0.9 12.4 1.6 12.1 1.0 11.9 0.8 Visualappraisa l of carcass conformation 2.7 0.6 2.1 0.4 2.0 0.6 2.3 0.5 fat covering 3.2 0.3 3.0 0.3 2.5 0.4 2.5 0.6 meatcolou r 2.6 0.3 2.8 0.2 2.8 0.2 2.8 0.2 Meatcolou r CflBLAB L* value (brightness) 43 2 42 2 44 2 45 4 a* value (redness) 17 2 17 1 17 2 17 2 Feconten ti n fresh liver (mg/kg) 32 8 19 8 32 6 19 10 Feed costs (NLG) 1001 19 1 108 9 428 17 783 41 Source: Dijkstra &Bergström , 1989.

291 Table3. Meatquality parameters of alternatively produced calves comparedwith traditional vealcalves and young bulls.

Traditional Alternatively Youngbull s vealcalve s fed calves mean s.d. mean sd mean sd Numbero f calves 45 42_ 46 Age (months) 5.5 8 16 Carcass weight (kg) 148 16 172 11 302 29 Muse, logissimus thoracis samples meatcolou rvisua l (1-5) 2.03 0.5 2.9b 0.3 3.3e 0.6 Meat colour CIELAB L*valu e (brightness) 51a 4 45b 2 41e 4 a* value (redness) lla 2 15b 1 17e 2 Haematin muscle (mg/kg) 65a 14 99b 10 132e 24 Drip loss (%) (1wee k 3°C ) 5.3a 1.3 5.7a 1.4 5.2a 1.3 Cookinglos s(% )( 1h r7 5 °C) 34.5a 1.6 . 34.6a 1.1 33.3b 1.5 Shear force resistance (daN) 3.03 0.6 ' 3.3b 0.7 4.6e 0.9 Groupswit hdifferen t superscripts aresignificantl y different (P< 0.05) . Source: Dijkstraetal., 1990.

Table4. Qualityparameters of meat in traditional and alternatively fed calvesslaughtered at twodifferent final weights (SI. I,SI. II).

Trait/slaughtering SI. Syste mA System D System E milk only 80%mil k 11week s milk mix adli b mix adli b mean s.d. n mean s.d. n mean s.d. n Carcass weight (kg) I 134 6 8 137 9 8 127 9 1 II 166 12 11 180 7 7 167 12 8 Meat colour visual I 1.8 0.4 3.1 0.2 2.9 0.2. II 2.2 0.6 2.9 0.3 3.0 0.3b Muse,longissimu s thoracis Meatcolou r CIELAB L*valu e I 56 1 46 1 48 1 II 54 3 45 1 46 3a a* value I 11 1 13 1 13 1 II 12 2 15 1 14 la Haematin content I 47 6 89 10 80 10 (mg/kg) II 75 10 116 15 92 18a Shear force I 2.9 0.7 3.4 0.5 3.0 0.5 resistance (daN) II 2.8 0.4 3.2 0.5 3.3 0.8a Drip loss (%) I 6.2 0.8 5.1 1.3 5.0 0.5a II 6.0 1.1 6.7 0.6 5.9 1.2a Signif.difference s between slaughters Signif. slaughterx system interactions. Source:Dijkstr a et al., 1990.

292 Table5. Resultsof analytical panel for comparison ofsamples of muse,longissimus thoracis. SystemA vs.D and System A vs.E; n.s., notsignificant.

Avs . D Avs .E

Taste/flavour P < 0.05 n.s. Tenderness n.s. n.s. Succulence n.s. n.s. Notetha tth epane lonl yindicate s difference, not preference. Source: Dijkstra et al., 1990.

Conclusions Vealproductio ni nwhic hlarge ramount so fmil kreplace ri nth eratio nar ereplace db ysilag e ora silage/concentrat emi xprove dt ob epossibl ewit hgoo dgrowt han drelativel y low feeding costs.Ther ewer edifference s inmea tcharacteristic sbetwee ntraditiona lexclusivel y milk-fed calvesan dalternativel yfe dcalves .Th emos tmarke ddifferences , however,wer ethos ei nmea t colour and colour parameters of meat. If larger amounts of milk in theratio n were replaced byroughag eo rconcentrates ,ther ewa sn ofurthe r difference inho wfa r supplyo fmil kreduce d meatcolour .I nmos to fou rexperiments ,th ecalve swer eslaughtere da ta fina l weighto fabou t 300k gliveweight .A tth emoment ,i ti sstil luncertai nwha tth eprospect so fthes ealternativel y fed calves would beo n market.

References Dijkstra, M. & P.L. Bergström & K. Maatje, 1988. Alternatieve voersystemen voor de produktie van vleeskalveren. IVOpubl .B-31 8(Engl , summary). Dijkstra, M.& P.L .Bergström , 1989. Deinvloe dva nenkel e alternatieve voersystemen opd e vleeskleur van vleeskalveren. IVO-publ.B-34 4(Engl , summary). Dijkstra, M.& P.L .Bergström ,A.H .Bolink ,B .Engel ,B .Hulsegge ,G.S.M .Merkus ,A.W .d e Vries & P.G. van der Wal, 1990.D e vleeskwaliteit van met kracht- en ruwvoer gemeste vleeskalveren. IVO-publ.B-35 0(Engl , summary).

293 Use of by-pass proteins and iso-acids in a heavy calf diet

L.A. Drevjany Kemptville, Ontario,CA

Summary FourtyHolstei n bullcalve s weighing7 6k gwer erandoml y assigned tofou r dietary treat­ ments.Isonitrogenou sdiets ,containin g40 %protei nequivalen ti nth efor mo fure a(Treatmen t 1)wer e supplemented with blood meal as the source of bypass protein (Treatment 2),bloo d meal and a mixture of valeric and isovaleric acid (Treatment 3),o r a combination of blood meal and distiller's grain (Treatment4) . Performance of calves, receiving deficient amino acids in bypass protein form or in combination with iso-acids was significantly improved, while the blood urea levels were reduced. Descriptors:bypas sproteins ;iso-acids ; bloodurea .

Introduction Theprogres s madeb ygeneticist s overth elas tfe w decadesi ndair ycattl ebreedin gha sle d to conflict between the rapidly improving production capabilities of dairy animals and the ability of theirdigestiv e system tosecur eth enecessar y supplyo f nutrients. Inth eabsenc eo f similargeneti cimprovemen ti nth efood-processin g capacityo fruminatin ganimals ,nutrition ­ ists' attentio nha sbee nconcentrate do nenhancin gth eutilizatio no fth eexistin gdigestiv etract , inparticular ,o ntw odistinc t areas,th ereticulo-rume nan dth epost-rumina ltract . Among the techniques aimed at improving the synthesis of microbial proteins is the inclusion of deficient carbon (C) skeletons needed for synthesis of certain amino acids. In a study (Drevjany etal. , 1984)wit hruminatin gHolstei ncalves ,th epresenc eo f 5-Cvaleri can d isovaleric acidsi nth erume n fluid diminishedwhe n non-protein nitrogen wasinclude d inth e diet, and thedependenc e of the animal's performance on the synthesis of microbial protein wasincreased .Deficienc y ofcertai nC-skeleton sno tonl ylimit sth etota lsynthesi so fmicrobia l protein, butnegativel y influences theamin oaci dprofil e of microbialprotein . Another attractive approach is direct supplementation of the ration with bypass protein. The main role of the supplementary by-pass protein sources must be to fill the gap between the post-ruminal amino acid pool in the basic ration and therequirement s for post-ruminal amino acids of theparticula r classo fruminatin g animals.

Materialan dmethod s Fourty Holstein malecalves ,weighin g on average 76.4k g werehouse d in elevated stalls with wooden floors. At about 100kg , theywer emove d topen s with doubleoccupancy . For technical reasons, the experiment was terminated when the calves reached 150 kg. After randomization and formation of four treatment groups, calves were fed on ground ear corn andliqui dprotei n supplement (LPS) (Treatment 1),supplemente d withby-pas sprotei n anda mixtureo f valerican disovaleri c acid(Treatmen t 3). Table 1 offers thecompositio n ofexperimenta ldiet swhil eFigur e 1 indicates theexpecte d fate of individual components of theratio n during digestion.

294 Table 1. Compositionof experimentaldiets 1-

Feed Component Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Treatment 4 (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Drymix : ground earcor n 97.010 92.794 94.247 95.108 urea 2.850 1.286 2.479 2.274 sulphur 0.128 0.058 0.112 0.102 furazolidone 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 blood meal - 5.850 3.150 2.118 distiller grain - 0.386 Liquid mix: molasses 100.00 100.00 98.930 100.00 valeric acid - - 0.950 iso-valericaci d - - 0.120 Per 100k go f mixedration : dry mix 81.0 81.0 81.0 81.0 liquidmi x 19.0 19.0 19.0 19.0 Drevjany &Hooper , unpublished data, 1976.

Râtiçulp TRume n: Abprnasum & small intestine

Ground ••Zei n (87.6g) ear corn • Glutelin (133.Og) •220,6g (357,5g)* • Globulins (81.2g) Albumins (55.7g)

443.lg

Figure1. Predictedfate ofdietary protein.

To estimate and then remove the deficiency of limiting amino acids in the post-ruminal area,th efollowin gprocedur ewa sused .Th econtro lratio n(Tabl e1 )wa steste di na preliminar y trialt oestablis hit sgrowt hrespons ean ddail ydr ymatte rintake .Afte r thedifference s inamin o acid composition in the protein fraction of corn and differences in digestibilities of protein sources were taken into account, theestimate d post-ruminal amino acidpoo l was compared

295 Table 2. Expectedavailability ofselected amino acids(AA) (expected intake ofration ofdry matter4195 g/head/day)1.

Protein sourcesan dthei rcontributio n toamin o acidpoo l

Zein Glutelin Microbial TotalA A AAin Require­ Deficiency (52.6g) (79.8g) protein poolavail ­ 1270g o f ment ing/head/ (302.8) able(g ) exp.gai n xl.67 day ^require­ ment)

Methionine(g ) 0.68 1.92 6.05 8.65 5.61 9.37 -0.73 Lysine (g) 0.05 2.39 19.88 22.32 16.40 27.39 -5.07 Arginine(g ) 1.63 3.27 12.07 16.97 15.40 25.72 -8.75 Tryptophan(g ) 0.32 0.64 4.02 4.98 2.31 3.86 Threonine(g ) 1.37 2.71 12.73 16.81 9.22 15.40 Isoleucine(g ) 1.84 2.55 13.32 17.71 10.28 17.17 Leucine(g ) 9.31 9.58 18.22 37.11 17.89 29.88 Phenylalanine(g ) 3.16 3.91 13.34 20.41 8.24 13.76 Histidine(g ) 1.37 2.00 4.16 7.53 7.85 13.11 -5.58 Valine(g ) 1.79 4.07 13.07 22.30 12.04 20.11 Adjusted from datab yLasztity , 1984.

Table 3. Effectof thediets on animal performance.

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Treatment 4 control

Number of calves per group 10 10 10 10 Average gain (g/d) 6803 954b 936b 911b Dry matter intake (g/head/day) 3 061a 4 0203 3 667a 3 962a Convers. of diet, prot/gain (g/kg) 721a 668a 628a 623a Blood urea (mg%) 3.26a 1.80b 2.58c 2.64c a,b,cValue s within therow s withdifferen t letters aresignificantl y different atP < 0.05 with the estimated requirements. In the absenceo f established requirements for aminoacid s in growing calves, the content of amino acids in the expected gain multiplied by a factor of 1.67 tocove r metabolic andothe rinefficience s wasuse dinstea d (Table2) .Fou ramin o acids werelimite d gain inth econtro l group:arginine ,histidine ,lysine ,an dmethionin e (8.75,5.58 and 73 g/head/day, respectively). By-passing properties of amino acids in selected protein sourceswer edetermine d bynylo n bagtechniques .

Resultsan d discussion

Performance and blood ureadat aar epresente d inTabl e 3. Averagedail y gain (ADG) was increased by over 40% in Treatment 2 (954 g/calf/day) where blood meal was the only supplementary source of by-pass protein. Calves on Treatments 3 and4 increased theirgai n

296 by37.7 %(93 6g/calf/day ) and 34%(91 1 g/calf/day),respectively (P < 0.05) .Statistically ,th e ADGi nTreatment s2, 3 and4 wer eno tdifferent . Inth elas t 14-dayperio dprio rt o shipment, however, thecalve sreache d theexpecte d ADGo f 2300 g.I t seems thatth eus eo f individual elevated stalls and early shipment to market (150 kg liveweight) reduced the overall feed intake,an dgains . Compared to the control calves consuming 3061 g of dry matter (DM)/calf/day, the experimental calves increased theintak e of DM by 31.3%, 19.8%an d 29.4% for treatments 2, 3an d4 ,respectively . Theexpecte dD Mintak ei n thecontro l group (4200g/calf/day ) was reached only in the last 14day s of thetrial .Difference s in daily DM intake aswel l as daily gains translated intodifference s in efficiency of DM andprotei n utilization. On both counts, calves on Treatment 3 converted the feed most effectively. Compared to the control group, they required 14.1%les s DM and 12.9% less protein per kg of gain. Differences in feed conversion wereno t statistically significant (P> 0.05). Toobtai n someindirec t supportinginformatio n onth emetaboli c fate of aminoacid s from by-passprotei n andiso-acids ,bloo dure avalue swer emeasure d atregula r28-da yintervals .I t was assumed that lower blood urea values would indicate that by-pass protein served as a sourceo fth elimitin gamin oacid s anda ssuc hallowe dimprove dutilizatio n ofal lothe ramin o acids. Asa consequence ,fewe r aminoacid swer edeaminate dan dles sNH 3wa s incorporated intoth ebloo durea .Dat ai nTabl e3 support sthi sassumption .Bloo dure avalue swer elowere d significantly (P <0.05 )i nal lexperimenta ltreatments .I naddition ,value si nTreatmen t2 wer e significantly lower (P< 0.05) than inTreatment s 3an d4 .

Conclusion Increasing the availability of post-ruminal amino acids seems to be the most challenging areafacin gruminan tnutritionist stoday .I tma yno tonl yrais eth eplatea uo fanimal s' response s to new heights, but enable genetically superior animals to produce close to their potential without 'burningout 'i nth eprocess .I tappear stha tby-pass-protei nresearc hwit hheav ycalve s mayoffe r afe w importantanswer sfo rothe rclasse so fruminantin g animalssuc ha sbab ybeef .

References Drevjany, L.A., G.S. Hooper & W.V. Chandler, 1984. Processed poplar wood pellets as a source of energy for Holstein bull calves.Canadia n Journal of Animal Science 64:1035- 1044. Klopfenstein,T. ,1985 .Anima lprotei nproduct sfe da sbypas sprotei nfo rruminants . Feedstuffs 57:8:31-33. Lasztity, R., 1984.Th e chemistry of cereal proteins. CRCPress , Inc. 2000 Corporate Blvd. N.W.,Boc aRaton ,Florida , 33431. Steel, R.G. &J.H . Torrie, 1960.Principle s and procedures of statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co.Inc .Ne wYork . Storm, P.& E.R . Orskov, 1984.Th e nutritive value of rumen microorganisms in ruminants. British Journalo fNutritio n50:463-470 .

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*£ü Closingremarks :som eobservation s

On behalf of the American veal farmer, I thank the chairman, the organizing committee, sponsors, and especially theDutc h people whohav e generously given their time and shared their culture. As the president of the American Veal Association, representing the veal producerso fth eUnite dStates ,I appreciat eth eopportunit y tolear nfro m andinterac twit hth e European vealindustry—fro m producers toallie dindustr y toscientists . WeAmerica n veal producers areprou d of the care and housing weprovid e our animals, the high liveability rate, and our quality end product. We have developed, many years ago, guidelinesfo rth ecar ean dproductio no fmilk-fe d vealcalves .W ehav eals odeveloped ,a yea r ago,a vea lqualit yassuranc eprogra mi nrespons et oconcern sabou tfoo d safety.Residu elevel s werereduce dnearl ythre etimes, dow nt oles stha n 1% ,whic hi squit eadmirabl efo ra nindustr y to accomplish in ashor ttime . Thepositio no fal lo fAmerica n animalagricultur ei stha tw ecanno tsuppor tan ylegislatio n whichwoul dimpos eregulation so nanima lproductio nmethods .Th eAmerica n VealAssocia ­ tionfull y supportsreliabl eresearc h withreferenc e tovea lproductio n withcondition s specific toAmerica n farmers. Inth eUnite d Statesw ehav econducte dsevera lconsume rattitud e studieswit hreferenc e to animal welfare concerns (Curtis, this book). All of American animal agriculture has begun consumer information programs to explain to consumers who are oftentimes two, three, or more generations removed from farm life,moder n animal husbandry practices-what wedo , how wed o it, and whyw ed oit . For the future—our feed companies, packing companies, and producers are continuing to look optimistically towards the future. Producers are aware of the concern over animal agriculture andfoo d safety and arerespondin g in apositive , active manner. It is obvious, even among the scientists gathered here at the symposium, that there are differing opinions on aspects of animalhusbandry .Farmer s andlegislator s arelookin g toth e scientific community of researchers and veterinarians for guidelines. The International Veal Symposium was anexcellen tidea ,occurrin ga tth eright time ,allowin gfo rpresentation s that unbiased, scientific minds can present areo f great value. Aforu m for the discussion of veal issues has been needed and I would hope that this International Veal Symposium would continue. Inconclusion , anyforce d changes inanima lhusbandr y systems,whe n notbase do nsoun d scientificresearc hand th erealit yo fday-to-da ylif eo nth efar mca nonl yresul ti nth efollowing : 1. adecreas e in animal welfare. 2. anincreas e in food costs. 3. inefficient systems. 4. financial and/or labour difficulties for thefarme r who,i n theUS ,number s only about2 % of thepopulation . Iti si nth ebes tinteres to feveryon et oprovid eefficien t farm operationsdesigne dwit hth ebes t interests of theanima l inmind .I urg eyo ut ocontinu eresearc hi n theare ao fth evea lcal f and to continue to have an open forum to share and discuss your findings. I would urge open communications with the vealproducer s in your countries to discuss ourindustry' s research priorities and concerns. Wewoul d welcome this symposium to come toth e US sometimei n thefutur e years andallo w ust oretur n yourwar m hospitality.

Barbara Huffman

Presidento fth eAmerica n VealAssociatio n

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