“Internet of Things (Iot): Smart Kitchen Appliances for the U.S

UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE BELAS-ARTES

“INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT): SMART KITCHEN APPLIANCES FOR THE U.S. MARKET”

Gabriela Julia Stępień

Dissertação Mestrado em Design de Equipamento Especialização em Design do Produto

Dissertação orientada pelo Prof. Doutor João Paulo Beles da Cruz

2019

DECLARAÇÃO DE AUTORIA

Eu Gabriela Julia Stępień, declaro que a presente dissertação de mestrado intitulada ―Internet of Things (IoT): smart kitchen appliances for the U.S. market‖ é o resultado da minha investigação pessoal e independente. O conteúdo é original e todas as fontes consultadas estão devidamente mencionadas na bibliografia ou outras listagens de fontes documentais, tal como todas as citações diretas ou indiretas têm devida indicação ao longo do trabalho segundo as normas académicas.

A Candidata

Gabriela Julia Stępień

Lisboa, 16.09.2019

RESUMO

A Internet of Things (IoT), a ―internet das coisas‖, em português, tem sido uma das tecnologias com mais rápido desenvolvimento no século XXI. Estamos apenas no começo da era IoT, sendo este um conceito bastante recente e que ainda não está completamente definido. A aplicação de soluções IoT estão ainda limitadas principalmente a dispositivos pessoais ou a sistemas de edifícios. Contudo, esta tecnologia pode conectar os habitats humanos do futuro onde todos os dispositivos electrónicos, veículos, edifícios e espaços urbanos partilharam informação com, presumivelmente, o objectivo de conseguirem um funcionamento mais eficiente. Este conceito ainda parece uma visão futurística, contudo em teoria esta complexa ―conectividade‖ já é possível com os produtos do historicamente recente mas continuo desenvolvimento de soluções IoT. Tal como muitas as evoluções nas tecnologias de informação, o IoT permite mudanças disruptivas em comportamentos sociais e na economia. As tecnologías ―inteligentes‖ expandem-se por áreas tão diversas como: os cuidados de saúde, a educação, o comércio ou as infraestruturas das cidades. Contudo, hoje em dia aplicações IoT são na sua grande maioria usadas em dispositivos pessoais como wearables ou utensílios domésticos. Através da integração de ferramentas IoT no ambiente do lar, torna-se possível criar uma ―casa inteligente‖ – um local onde a maioria dos dispositivos estão interligados e executam ações baseadas nas suas ―percepções‖ da evolvente. Este fenómeno propicia alterações significantes à forma como vivemos. Os produtos IoT para o lar procuram desempenhar novos papéis, trazer novas formas de interação e produzir mudanças nos padrões de comportamento dos seus utilizadores. Para além disso, a IoT no ambiente doméstico poderá induzir variados benefícios individuais como sejam a poupança de tempo, elevação da eficiência, das operações remover a necessidade de supervisão humana directa de algumas tarefas do dia-a-dia como cozinhar, limpeza, compras e organização do abastecimento de mantimentos. Estas vantagens são apenas possíveis com a recolha e circulação constante de informação sobre a intimidade e os detalhes da rotina individual, o que também pode gerar ameaças sérias quanto às preocupações com violações de privacidade e problemas relacionados com a segurança física das pessoas e dos bens envolvidos em operações realizadas longe da supervisão humana. Hoje em dia as tecnologias IoT ainda carecem de standards normalizadas para a gestãos dos dados processados, as quais – se algum dia vierem a ser criadas – poderão

elevar a protecção das pessoas e das empresas. Como resultado, o conceito de ―inteligentes‖ utensílios de casa totalmente automáticos é ainda um problema controverso que enfrenta o cepticismo de muitos entre o seu público alvo. Este estudo apresenta várias definições da chamada Internet of Things e sintetiza a sua história, começando com os conceitos de Nikola Tesla para um mundo conectado. Um breve resumo da história dos computadores e da Internet é apresentado. É explicado o porquê da IoT ser considerada uma tecnologia emergente que, ao mesmo tempo, tem o potencial de se tornar ―omnipresente‖. Os cinco atributos principais da IoT (―Percepção, Eficiência, Funcionamento em rede, Especialização, e Omnipresença‖) são definidos. Os tipos de estruturas das tecnologias IoT são brevemente explicados e os possíveis modelos de comunicação são descritos. Uma comparação da comunicação máquina-com-máquina e as formas de funcionamento da Internet of Things são apresentados. As múltiplas camadas possíveis nos sistemas IoT são mostradas, desde a camada de percepção, passando pela camada de comunicação em rede até à camada de aplicação. Os modelos de comunicação (Dispositivo para Dispositivo, Dispositivo para a Cloud, Dispositivo para Gateway, partilha de dados em Back-End) e os standard actuais de IoT são também introduzidos. Este trabalho apresenta o estado actual e o futuro possível do IoT, discorrendo sobre o seu potencial para transformar as pessoas, revolucionar os negócios e desenvolver as economias dos diversos países. Para além disso, é sugerido que a IoT é um elemento chave para um futuro ―super desenvolvido‖. A tese mostra que a interconectividade entre aparelhos para a casa parece trazer significativos benefícios, mas também desvantagens perigosas. Todos estes impactos podem afetar muitos níveis da existência humana: individuais, societais, dos negócios privados e das instituções Estatais. Contudo, neste momento é ainda impossível apresentar os impactos detalhados, tendo em conta que há falta de literatura consolidada sobre este assunto. Tais investigações serão possíveis de realizar nos próximos anos, quando a IoT estiver mais concretizada na cultura material quotidiana. Um dos potenciais da IoT é a possível miniaturização e o fabrico de ―partículas inteligentes‖: micro/nano sensores sem fios ou sensores capazes de perceber e enviar um sabor. Contudo, um dos maiores potenciais do IoT está em veículos autónomos, cuidados de saúde (nomeadamente telemedicina) e indústria manufactureira. Carros com estacionamento automático e funções

de auxilio à condução já estão disponíveis para compra hoje em dia, contudo o objetivo último da aplicação da IoT no fabrico de automóveis é criar um veículo ―inteligente‖ totalmente autónomo capaz de transportar pessoas ou objetos num ambiente de cidades ―inteligentes‖ sem qualquer supervisão e sem riscos incomportáveis. Presume-se que o hospital do futuro será capaz de recolher, armazenar e processar informação tanto do edifício, bem como dos pacientes ali internados e dos que são seguidos remotamente a partir do hospital. Tornando o funcionamento diário mais eficiente. No caso da manufatura, as fábricas do futuro têm o potencial de operar com uma supervisão humana directa mínima devido à constante geração e envio automatizados de informação sobre a produção. Este trabalho mostra detalhes sobre o mercado mundial de utensílios para o lar IoT, com ênfase nos pequenos utensílios de cozinha e os seus diversos tipos. Os consumidores de utensílios IoT nos E.U.A. são caracterizados e categorizados em 5 grupos. Os fatores principais de compra de produtos IoT são mostrados, bem como as razões pelas quais estes produtos não são adquiridos. O objetivo desta tese é a análise de produtos IoT classificados como pequenos utensílios de cozinha disponíveis no mercado dos E.U.A., de forma a produzir uma amostra que possa ser analisada. A amostra consiste em 11 casos de estudo nas categorias de: robots de cozinha sous-vide, slow cookers, placas de indução para cozinha, fritadeiras, termómetros para comida e fornos. As características para estes produtos são apresentadas em tabelas criadas pela autora. Os casos de estudo incluem descrições de design, especificações técnicas e o exame dos ciclos de uso expectáveis de cada produto. A pesquisa mostra que os utensílios de cozinha IoT requerem mais passos para a sua utilização do que os utensílios convencionais seus congéneres aquando da primeira utilização. O maior número de tarefas ocorre no processo da primeira utilização; mas depois da primeira ―colocação em marcha‖, os utensílios IoT têm a vantagem de ser controlados automaticamente e de notificar o utilizador sem exigir a este demasiada atenção. Mais importante, os erros humanos são virtualmente excluídos das tarefas de processamento dos alimentos e as condições como o calor aplicado ou o tempo de cozedura são calculadas de forma a alcançar os melhores resultados independemente da habilidade do utilizador. Contudo, é bastante provável que dentro em breve os dispositivos IoT venham a requerer menos trabalho inicial de regulação e colocação em marcha ao

utilizador, tendo em vista remover as barreiras à adopção por parte dos clientes e também incrementar a ―usabilidade‖ dos novos electrodomésticos. O estudo também mostra as formas de interação com dispositivos ―inteligentes‖ e avalia-a. O objectivo desta comparação é o de identificar characterísticas típicas entre os produtos que caracterizam os dispositivos IoT de primeira geração para uso na cozinha.

Palavras-chave: Internet of Things, Dispositivos inteligentes, Design de produto, Cozinha, Interação

ABSTRACT

Internet of Things (IoT) has become one of the most rapidly developing technology in the XXI century. As every improvement in the information technologies, IoT brings disruptive changes to the societal behaviours and the economies. ―Smart‖ technologies expand to may broad issues as: healthcare, education, commerce or cities‘ infrastructure. However, IoT applications are the most often applied to personal devices such as wearables or home appliances. By integrating IoT into a household, a ―smart‖ home environment may be created - a place where many devices are interconnected and undertake actions based on sensing. This phenomenon brings significant changes to the way of living. IoT products for the household often have new roles, bring new ways of interaction and change the behavioural patterns of the users. This study shows various definitions of Internet of Things (IoT) and explores its history. The types of structures of IoT technology are briefly explained and the possible communication models are described. The thesis shows that the interconnectivity of the home devices bring many benefits, but also have dangerous drawbacks. All of these impacts affect many levels: individuals, societies, private businesses and country economies. Moreover, details about worldwide IoT home appliances market are shown, also categorizing the customers of IoT in the U.S. The aim of this thesis was to analyse a small sample of IoT products classified as small kitchen appliances available in the U.S. market, in order to compare them to the conventional appliances in the kitchen. The sample consists of 11 products in the categories of: sous-vide cookers, slow cookers, induction cooktops, frying pans, food thermometers and ovens. The case studies include design descriptions, technical specifications and the analysis of use cycles with the number of actions needed. The study shows the ways of interaction with the ―smart‖ devices and evaluates it. Expected drawbacks and advantages of these interactions are presented.

Key words: Internet of Things, Smart devices, Product design, Kitchen, Interaction

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION – METHODOLOGY AND OBJECTIVES ...... 1 1. WHAT IS INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)? ...... 2 1.2. History of IoT ...... 6 1.3 Structure of the Internet of Things. How IoT works? ...... 14 1.3.1 Internet of Things (IoT) system architecture design ...... 18 1.3.2 Possible communication models and Internet of Things (IoT) standardizations ...... 22 1.4 The potential of Internet of Things (IoT) ...... 27 1.4.1 Internet of Things (IoT) advantages ...... 33 1.4.2 Risks of the Internet of Things ...... 34 1.5 Impact of Internet of Things ...... 42 1.5.1 Impact on the individuals and the society ...... 44 1.5.2 Impact on the country economy and private business ...... 47 1.6 Internet of Things market ...... 51 1.6.2 Internet of Things home appliances market ...... 55 1.6.2 Internet of Things home appliances customers ...... 61 2. DESCRIPTION OF KITCHEN IOT APPLIANCES ...... 64 2.1 Sous-vide cookers ...... 64 2.1.1 Mellow ...... 65 2.1.2 Anova Precision Cooker ...... 68 2.2 Slow Cookers ...... 71 2.2.1 Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker with WeMo app ...... 71 2.2.2 Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart ...... 74 2.3. Induction Cooktops ...... 77 2.3.1 Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop ...... 77 2.4 Frying pans ...... 80 2.4.1 SmartyPans ...... 80 2.5 Food thermometers ...... 83 2.5.1 Meater+ Smart Thermometer ...... 84 2.5.2 Range Dial Smart Thermometer...... 86

2.6 Ovens...... 89 2.6.1 June Intelligent Oven ...... 89 2.6.2 WLabs Smart Oven ...... 93 2.6.3 Tovala Steam Oven ...... 96 3. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 100 3.1 Methodology of analysis ...... 100 3.2 Sample selection criteria ...... 101 3.3 Comparison ...... 101 3.3.1 Design ...... 102 3.3.2 Use cycles ...... 104 3.3.3 Interaction...... 107 3.4 Conclusion ...... 109 LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 111 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 119

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. ―IoT‖ visions (Atzori, 2010)...... 3 Fig. 2. Gartner‘s Cycle of Emerging Technologies, 2018. (Source: http://gartner.com/SmarterWithGartner) .. 5 Fig. 3. Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research, 2014...... 6 Fig. 4. The ENIAC (Hashagen, 2000, p. 101)...... 8 Fig. 5. ECHO IV, Electronic Computing Home Operator (Infield, 1968, p. 79)...... 9 Fig. 6. The back cover of Honeywell H316 instruction manual showing it in various sets: rack, table-top, and a pedestal (Atkinson, 2013, p. 170)...... 10 Fig. 7. Interest in IoT by country (Aguzzi et al., 2014)...... 14 Fig. 8. Key elements of every IoT device (The Royal Society, 2017)...... 15 Fig. 9. Comparison of machine-to-machine communication and the IoT (Electronics for You Group, 2018). 17 Fig. 10. Multiple levels of IoT system (Aleksandrowics, 2016)...... 18 Fig. 11. The three-, four- and five-layered architecture of IoT (Burhan, 2018)...... 19 Fig. 12. IoT architecture (Furini, 2017, adapted)...... 21 Fig. 13. Device-to-Device communication model (The Internet Society, 2015)...... 23 Fig. 14. Device-to-Cloud communication model (The Internet Society, 2015)...... 24 Fig. 15. Device-to-Gateway communication model (The Internet Society, 2015)...... 25 Fig. 16. Back-End data sharing model (The Internet Society, 2015)...... 26 Fig. 17. Smart dust on a tip of a finger and compared to the size of a hair (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2018)...... 29 Fig. 19. Estimated cost savings in industries during 15 years, achieved by 1% reduction in capital expenditures (Reddy, 2014)...... 34 Fig. 20. Types of security breaches experienced by IoT users (Zanni, 2016)...... 36 Fig. 21. Estimated potential economic impact of technologies in 2025 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013). . 43 Fig. 22. IoT implications for individuals and societies (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted)...... 44 Fig. 23. Artificial Intelligence artwork entitled Portrait of Edmond Belamy (Christie‘s International SA, 2018)...... 46 Fig. 24. IoT market structure (Bumb, Camhi & Schatzky, 2018)...... 48 Fig. 25. IoT implications for economies and governments (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted)...... 49 Fig. 26. IoT implications for businesses and organizations (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted)...... 50 Fig. 27. Consumer, connected, and ―smart‖ appliances (Chua & Zhang, 2016) ...... 52 Fig. 28. World top 5 markets of Internet of Things in 2017: sales units and year-over-year volume growth (Chua & Zhang, 2016)...... 53 Fig. 29. Smart appliances in Europe (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018)...... 54 Fig. 30. Internet of Things market categories...... 54 Fig. 31. Analysis of IoT enterprise projects globally (IoT Analytics, 2018)...... 55 Fig. 32. Global ―smart‖ home revenue (million USD) by country in 2016 and estimated in 2021 (Bonneau et al., 2017)...... 56 Fig. 33. Types of home IoT devices compatible with Apple HomeKit hub (Apple, 2019)...... 57 Fig. 34. Large home appliances units traded in Europe in 2016-2017 (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018)...... 58 Fig. 35. Small home appliances units traded in Europe in 2016-2017 (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018)...... 58 Fig. 36. Process flow of the Connected Cooking Cycle (Zhang, 2018). F&D: food and drinks ...... 61 Fig. 37. IoT customers segmentation (Ahuja & Patel, 2016)...... 62 Fig. 38. Top 3 IoT buying factors and features (Ahuja & Patel, 2016)...... 62 Fig. 39. Non-users reasons for not purchasing IoT home devices (Ahuja & Patel, 2016)...... 63

Fig. 40. Mellow device and connected mobile app (source: https://www.direktconcept.com/2014/04/24/ mellow-sous-vide-cooks-dinner-while-at-work/, adapted) ...... 65 Fig. 41. Anova Precision Cooker with its mobile app (source: https://slickdeals.net/f/12479224-target- anova-culinary-sous-vide-precision-cooker-wi-fi-bluetooth-99, adapted) ...... 69 Fig. 42. Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker with WeMo (source: https://www.smarthomedb.com/ product/crock-pot-wemo-slow-cooker/p138, adapted) ...... 72 Fig. 43. Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart (source: https://www.amazon.com/Instant-Pot-Smart-Electric- Pressure/dp/B0777XQ4S8, adapted) ...... 75 Fig. 44. Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop (source: https://www.tastyonetop.com/, adapted) ...... 78 Fig. 45. SmartyPans (source: https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/smartypans-world-s-first-smart- cooking-pan#/, adapted) ...... 81 Fig. 46. Meater Smart Thermometer (source: https://meater.com/, adapted) ...... 84 Fig. 47. Range Dial Smart Thermometer (source: https://supermechanical.com/range/, adapted) ...... 87 Fig. 48. June Intelligent Oven (source: https://juneoven.com/the-oven, adapted) ...... 90 Fig. 49. WLabs Smart Oven (source: https://www.whirlpoolcorp.com/whirlpool-brand-announces- connected-hub-wall-oven-concept-with-augmented-reality/, adapted) ...... 94 Fig. 50. Tovala Steam Oven (source: https://www.amazon.com/Tovala-Gen-Multi-Mode-Programmable- Stainless/dp/B07K85LXBK, adapted)...... 97 Fig. 51. Percent of products in the sample which have a battery built-in...... 102 Fig. 52. The colors used on the devices in the sample...... 103 Fig. 53. Number of buttons, screens and LEDs in a device...... 104 Fig. 54. Number of tasks in the first use cycle with the mobile app...... 105 Fig. 55. Number of tasks in the regular use cycle with the mobile app...... 105 Fig. 56. Number of tasks in the use cycle without the mobile app...... 106 Fig. 57. Numbers of tasks compared in total...... 107

INTRODUCTION – METHODOLOGY AND OBJECTIVES

The subject of kitchen appliances using the Internet of Things technology is worth researching because of the visible growing interest in home IoT devices over the last two decades. Internet of Things is still a very recent technology applied in the household. As a result, at the moment there is very little research made on home IoT devices, including IoT kitchen appliances. Interest in such devices is predicted to grow, as it brings the potential not only to facilitate many aspects of everyday life, but also to make processes quicker and cheaper. The aim of this paper is to research IoT kitchen appliances, explore the history of IoT and define the most current applications of this phenomenon. Several definitions of IoT are presented. The basics of functioning of IoT are described, as well as the rapid growth of this technology. One of the objectives is to show the possible IoT implementations in various contexts. The next aim was to present that IoT is influencing not only the direct users, but also societies, or even country economies. The expected benefits and drawbacks of IoT are described, as well as the worldwide kitchen appliance market and the IoT customers. The research comprehends a review of the literature on IoT and IoT products in order to enable a robust formation a sample of existing IoT kitchen appliances. Characteristics of these products are presented in grids created by the author. The aim of the comparison enabled by the grids is to extract conclusions from the examination of our sample which would characterize the IoT devices for the kitchen use. A sample of convenience of eleven IoT kitchen appliances available on the U.S. retail market was formed and every product was analysed as an individual case study.

1. WHAT IS INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)?

"When wireless is perfectly applied, the whole Earth will be converted into a huge brain, which in fact it is, all things being particles of a real and rhythmic whole. We shall be able to communicate with one another instantly, irrespective of distance." Nikola Tesla, Collier’s Magazine, 1926

The Internet of Things (IoT) term was created in 1999 by Kevin Ashton during a Proctor & Gamble presentation (2009), yet the discussions about this concept were present even in the beginning of XX century. The wireless transmission of information and electrical power was the concern of the World Wireless System proposed and designed by inventor Nikola Tesla (Broad, 2009). The System was basing on Tesla‘s theory of the Earth and its atmosphere being electrical conductors. As he stated for Collier’s Magazine in 1926, the wireless system would be able to cover all Earth and contribute to effortless transfer of data. His description of the concept of ―the Earth converted into a huge brain‖ was clearly ahead of its time. However, it can also be applied to today‘s Internet of Things phenomenon, where physical or virtual objects retrieve information and send it towards other physical or virtual objects. When it comes to defining the Internet of Things, the literature does not present one common description. As Luigi Atzori claims: ―An interested reader might experience a real difficulty in understanding what the IoT really means, which basic ideas stand behind this concept, and which social, economical and technical implications the full deployment of IoT will have‖ (2010). A similar approach is presented by Linden and Fenn: ―neither businesses nor researchers have agreed upon a common, holistic understanding of the term Internet of Things‖ (2003). Apart from the fact that a considerable amount of literature has been published on the Internet of Things subject, the definitions of this term vary significantly, depending on what institution, business, or academia (etc.) is providing the definition. Nonetheless, according to Atzori, what matters the most is the semantic meaning

2 of the ―Internet of Things‖ term: ‗‗[...] a world-wide network of interconnected objects uniquely addressable, based on standard communication protocols‖ (2010). At this moment it is worth to mention other general descriptions of the IoT. According to Bude and Bergstrand: ―The concept IoT includes all kinds of different technologies and every possible way to communicate between (virtual or physical) objects via the Internet‖ (2015). This approach is complemented by Vermesan and Friess, who claim: ―The IoT can thus be defined as a new era of ubiquitous connectivity and intelligence, where a set of components, products, services and platforms connects, virtualises and integrates everything in a communication network for digital processing‖ (2015). In other words, the ―things‖ in the name of Internet of Things, do not exactly specify physical objects.

Fig. 1. ―IoT‖ visions (Atzori, 2010).

More about this issue is discussed by Atzori in ―The Internet of Things: A Survey‖ (2010). His point of view concerns three approaches towards understanding IoT: things- oriented, objects-oriented and semantic-oriented visions, as shown in Fig.1. As Atzori

3 suggests: ―the road to the IoT‘s full deployment start from the augmentation in the things‘ intelligence‖ (2010) which lays on the base of the ―things-oriented vision‖ of IoT. In this approach ―things‖ are physical or virtual objects which include technologies such like sensors or RFID tags (Radio Frequency Identification tags) allowing for gathering, processing and sending data (Atzori, 2010). However, this variety of objects can bring challenges in developing IoT products, because the objects need to share a network to communicate. On the other hand, the ―Internet-oriented‖ vision bases the Internet network as a main element of IoT which can be adapted to any object. The third approach is the ―semantic-oriented‖ where ―the semantic technologies could play a key role‖ (Atzori, 2010). The main concern is the growing number of items involved in any kind of network – this can lead to communication problems. Therefore, a semantic technology would be a base for storing things descriptions, requirements and data generated by sensors, in order to make the communication possible between objects which cannot supposedly communicate. Where between these approaches lays the definition proposed by Kevin Ashton, the IoT term creator? He is strongly basing his definition on ―things‖ underlying in the IoT concept: ―We're physical, and so is our environment. Our economy, society and survival aren't based on ideas or information – they're based on things‖ (2009). The subject is similarly approached by the European Commission. In its document ―Internet of Things in 2020. The roadmap for the future‖ IoT is described as: ‗‗Things having identities and virtual personalities operating in smart spaces using intelligent interfaces to connect and communicate within social, environmental, and user contexts‖ (2008). However, the simplest definition in the ―things-oriented‖ approach was presented by Perera et al.: ―The goal of the Internet of Things is to enable things to be connected anytime, anyplace, with anything and anyone ideally using any path/network and any service‖ (2013). Vermesan et al. describes IoT as ―a new revolution of the Internet‖, ‖the leading paradigm to describe the digital transformation of our economies and societies‖, and also ―the next major economic and societal disruption enabled by the Internet‖ (2015). What follows these claims, Internet of Things was placed in the Gartner‘s Hype Cycle for the Emerging Technologies (2018), and described as rapidly growing technology over the last decade. Gartner‘s graph concerns three factors: the combination of the real and the virtual,

4 the potential of artificial intelligence, and the impact on the businesses (Vermessan & Friess, 2015). According to the graph, IoT is currently in the ―Peak of Inflated Expectations‖, what means that all of its potential still have not been used. However, as it can be seen, the peak was already crossed, and IoT will now continue to fade out - it can be replaced by another technologies basing on Internet (such as smart dust or brain-computer interface). Gartner also suggests, that the ―plateau‖ of the IoT productivity will be reached in the next 5 to 10 years.

Fig. 2. Gartner‘s Cycle of Emerging Technologies, 2018. (Source: http://gartner.com/SmarterWithGartner)

Yet, how is Internet of Things different from Internet? To help to better understand the concept of IoT, the Goldman Sachs Global Investment research proposes the five key attributes of IoT (Sensing, Efficient, Networked, Specialized, and Everywhere) and their functions:

Fig. 3. Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research, 2014.

The first attribute is the presence of sensors. The research shows that it differs from the Internet because more data is generated automatically, than provided by people. The next feature is efficiency, which is achieved by applying the Internet‘s productivity to objects. Network is the following attribute, that works with cloud computing extended with edge computing. It allows for moving data between the sensing and the operating ―objects‖. The feature that follows concerns very detailed types of IoT objects and customized technologies. Last, but not least is the ―omnipresence‖ of IoT, which covers not only everyday things, but also bigger scale ―objects‖ such as homes, factories, or whole cities.

1.2. History of IoT

Before analysing various categories and applications of IoT, it is crucial to research its history and understand the evolution over the ages. The history of the Internet of Things‘ general concept dates back to the beginning of the XX century, yet the modern IoT (in the nowadays‘ form) was starting to appear just in the 1990s. David Rose, product designer and lecturer at the MIT Media Lab notices that the concept of IoT was widely present in science, or at least present as a futuristic vision: ―Futurists have speculated about the idea of enchanted objects for decades, giving the concept various names, including pervasive

6 computing, ubiquitous computing (ubicomp), connected things, or things that think‖ (2014). As Samuel Greengard explains, before ―the Internet, mobile devices and cloud computing‖ personal computers were just standalone machines and transmitting data from one to the other was not so simple as nowadays (2015). Floppy drives had very limited capacity and measurements making storage not efficient; while early LAN connection was not yet popular (Greengard, 2015). Successful and relatively quick transport of data became one of the biggest challenges of XX century. As discussed in the previous chapter of this dissertation, the first documented concept very similar to IoT was described by Nikola Tesla in the beginning of the XX century as the World Wireless System – communication and power transmission system based on the idea of the atmosphere being a conductor. However, Martin de Saulles argues that telemetry, ―the ability to remotely monitor the environment and/or control devices at long distance‖ was a technology similar to IoT that was developed in Russia in XIX century (2017). As Mayo-Wells describes, in 1845 it was possible to detonate mines due to data-transmission circuits between the Russian Tsar‘s Winter Palace and Russian army headquarters (Saulles, 2017). Telemetry in early XX century used landline-based wires and it started to be the main solution to transmit information of industrial infrastructure such as chemical plants, power plants, oil wells and petrol pipelines (ibid.). Telemetry soon also became wireless and used first in weather balloons, and then broadly included in aircraft in order to supervise flights performance (ibid.). As Gérald Santucci, the Head of the Unit Knowledge Sharing at the the European Commission, sums up: ―Internet of Things points out a vision of the machines of the future: in the nineteenth century, machines learned to do; in the twentieth century, they learned to think; and in the twenty-first century, they are learning to perceive – they actually sense and respond‖ (2010). While around 1900s the main concern was machine automatization and their power supply, after that, during the World War I and II improvement of radio and communication technologies were one of the priorities for development. The Mechanical Era very soon transformed into the Era of Computers, with the starting point considered the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), which Martin H. Weik describes:

―the world's first electronic digital computer provided by the extraordinary demand of war‖ (1961).

Fig. 4. The ENIAC (Hashagen, 2000, p. 101).

Ulf Hashagen in the book The First Computers – History and Architectures claims that the 30-ton ENIAC machine was presented to public on February 14th, 1947 at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at University of Pennsylvania by John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly (2000). Hashagen claims, that one of the first uses of ENIAC was to make calculations concerning the artillery firing tables for the United States Army (2000). However, the machine was also used in development of a thermonuclear weapon (Hashagen, 2000). The ENIAC was not able to proceed with simultaneous calculations and at first it had to be rewired manually for each type of a task, but later it was using punched cards for temporarily saving and reading back information (ibid.). The crucial technology for the growth of IoT was RFID – Radio Frequency Identification, which uses electromagnetic fields to recognize and track ―tags‖ of objects. (Roberti, 2005). The roots of RFID dates back to the II World War. As Roberti claims, during that time Germany, Japan, United States and Great Britain were the countries using passive radar technology invented in 1935 by Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt, and the major problem was to distinguish the enemies from its own pilots (2005). Watson-Watt was the head of the secret project who worked on the first active RFID system, called ―Identify Friend or Foe‖ (IFF). Each plane was since then equipped with a transmitter. When a plane

8 received a signal from the radar on the ground, the transmitter began to broadcast back the signal, and therefore could be identified as friendly. In 50s and 60s the radio frequency (RF) communication were continuously developed (Roberti, 2005). In 1957 Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite was launched by the Soviet Union. This event triggered the Space Race, and it was the starting point of the aerospace telemetry. As Robeti explains, researchers and scientists from mainly United States and Japan were exploring the possibilities of RF systems for the remote identification (2005). In these decades, radio waves were also starting to be used as commercial anti-theft systems. What is interesting, the surveillance tags used back then are still used nowadays and they are still one-bit tags (Roberti, 2005). In 1966 Karl Steinbuch, a German computer scientist said: ―In a few decades time, computers will be interwoven into almost every industrial product‖ (Roberti, 2005). The time showed that his assumptions were correct.

Fig. 5. ECHO IV, Electronic Computing Home Operator (Infield, 1968, p. 79).

As Gerhard Leitner presents in his book The Future Home is Wise, not Smart, one of the first important achievements in home automation was ECHO IV – Electronic Computing Home Operator, prototyped in 1965, yet never commercialized (2015). Its functions concerned simple clock with alarm, calendar, calculator, TV control and a family message center (Badescu et al., 2018). However, the first time that a home automation device was presented as a ―consumer product‖ was in 1969, when Honeywell H316 Kitchen Computer was released (ibid.).

Fig. 6. The back cover of Honeywell H316 instruction manual showing it in various sets: rack, table-top, and a pedestal (Atkinson, 2013, p. 170).

As the communication technologies were significantly developing, the issue of the ―human‖ side of the machines started to be a concern in the science and philosophy. In 1950 Alan Turing, an English mathematician, computer scientist and philosopher published a paper ―Computing Machinery and Intelligence‖ in the Mind journal by Oxford University Press. It concerned the question ―Can machines think?‖, but as Stevan Hanard notices, the question has become "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?" (2008). Surprisingly, Turing had a clear concept of the futuristic at these times IoT technology: ―It can also be maintained that it is best to provide the machine with the best sense organs that money can buy, and then teach it to understand and speak English‖ (1950). Turing has became one of the most important figures in the early philosophy of artificial intelligence, and was known by his claim called polite convention: if a machine behaves as intelligently as a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being (Turing, 1950). As an answer, American philosopher John Searle claimed in 1980 that a computer cannot have consciousness, experiences or understanding (Roberts 2016). His experiment called Chinese Room shows that irrespectively how human-like a machine acts, it does not have ―mind‖. The experiment starts with the hypothesis that the artificial intelligence technology

10 is advanced enough to create a machine which appears to understand Mandarin Chinese. As the Chinese characters were input, the machine produced the combinations of characters which were linguistically correct and logically connected to the given input. The user could have very strong impression that he is talking to a human being, yet as it was argued: the processes ongoing in the machine while ―producing‖ the output is not equal to human ―thinking‖. Later in the XX century, the concern about the intelligence of machines moved from ―can a machine be like a human‖ to a more abstract ―can a machine be independent of a human‖. Nowadays, as David Rose claims, the main question is: ―what personality do we want our technologies to possess?‖ (2014) According to Samuel Greengard, IoT is ―the second wave of powerful digital revolution that began with the widespread adoption of computers in the 1970s‖ (2015). The 70s in the history of IoT started with Mario Cardullo receiving the first US patent for a RFID tag with rewritable memory. In 1973 another important US patent was registered – Charles Walton invented a passive transponder which was used as the first ―smart‖ lock for a door, which could be opened without the need of a key (Walton, 1973). Even today the popular sensor lock systems are based on the technology of Walton – such as in ―smart‖ doors or in the proximity car key. 1980s, although not a long time ago, were still the ages of slow and inefficient data transmission. As Greengard notices, transporting data physically meant then sending discs to a given location (Greengard, 2015). He illustrates that by that time 3 discs were able to hold 2.4 megabytes of data (ibid.), what today is sent online in the matter of milliseconds. Greengard also points out that during 1980s and even 90s one computer software easily took multiple discs to install (ibid.). According to him, in 1980s due to small multitasking capabilities of computers and their processors, it was more comfortable to manage data within one machine than transfer it to another (ibid.). However, the first IoT appliance was created in the same decade at Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania, US. It was a soda vending machine developed by the students David Nichols, Mike Kazar, Ivor Durham and a research engineer John Zsarnay who connected photo-sensors to the indication lights in the machine. As a result, they were able to monitor remotely the inventory and the temperature of each bottle, and after take a decision to walk to the machine or not to

11 purchase a soda (Pearlson et al., 2016). In 1989 John Romkey, computer scientist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, created the first device (a toaster) that could be turned off and on through an Internet connection. It was one of the first implementations of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for a personal computer controlling a domestic appliance (Romkey, n.d.). Late 1980s were also the times of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) development, which was a big part of machine-to-machine communication technology. In the beginning of 1990s RFID technology went up to the next level – ultra-high frequency RFID system was patented, yet this technology was never commercialized (Chung, 2007). Mark Weiser in 1991 for the first time used a phrase ―Ubiquitous Computing‖, in other words omnipresent computing (Hassan et al., 2015). Weisner‘s futuristic article ―The Computer for the 21st Century‖ published in 1991 in Scientific American was approaching potential solutions to create the first ―smart‖ home, a ―livable environment in the presence of mobile phone technology‖ (Hassan et al., 2015). However, the first attempts to make a physical automated house were just in 1998, when Alex van Es, a systems analyst from Netherlands started to gradually connect his apartment to the Internet. Starting from the doorbell, through the lighting and power network, the mailbox, the fridge door and the toilet flush; his house was gathering data which could be checked in a dedicated website (icepick.com). The project gained a lot of media attention around the year 2000, when also a mundane cat-tracking webcam was included. As van Es claims, it was possible to see ―a record and broadcast every time the fridge door opens. As of this writing, almost 16 years after inception; it has been opened for almost 70,000 times‖. According to Neil Gershenfeld‘s book When Things Start to Think from 1999: ―it looks like the rapid growth of the World Wide Web may have been just the trigger charge that is now setting off the real explosion, as things start to use the Net‖ (1999). The year of 1999 was also important because the term ―Internet of Things‖ was coined by Kevin Ashton during a Procter & Gamble presentation. Under his supervision, Auto-ID labs and MIT were working on developing Electronic Product Code EPC which could be used for identifying objects in a network. RFID soon became a networking technology which was

12 connecting objects to the Internet, what was a revolution in the supply chain solutions and military industries (Roberti, 2015). The 2008 was the year of IoT recognition by the European Union and also the year of the first European IoT conference held in Zurich, Switzerland. In the same year companies such as Cisco, Intel and SAP (among others) created IPSO Alliance (Internet Protocol for Smart Objects Alliance) organization to help with promoting the IP (Internet Protocol) in bringing the IoT concept into the common reality (Hassan et al., 2015). The following program of this type was IoT-Architecture project (IoT-A), a project of European Union‘s Framework for Research and Development. What is more, a conference report ―Disruptive Civil Technologies: Six Technologies With Potential Impacts on US Interests Out to 2025‖ published in 2008 by the National Intelligence Council (United States government department) stated IoT “one of the most likely to enhance US national power out to 2025” (2008). IoT was put on the side of biogerontechnology, energy storage materials, biofuels, clean coal technologies and service robotics (National Intelligence Council, 2008). What is more, as Hassan et al. depicts, in the year of 2008 there were around 9 thousand millions devices connected to the Internet, with expectancy to grow during the next era of the Internet: Web 0.3 (2008). According to Zhou (2012), in 2009 the interest about IoT significantly increased in China. The same approach towards IoT was visible in Europe – as Hassan et al. presents, the Commision of European Communities created a report in which a great importance of IoT technologies in industry and commerce (2015). After the year 2009 several worldwide initiatives were started to unify the IoT related definitions, in order to reach the agreement concerning the standard technologies and architectures to be used while developing IoT products (Hassan et al., 2015). In conclusion, the history of the modern Internet of Things dates back to the late 1990s, but IoT has evolved significantly since then. As published in a study conducted by the European Commission ―Digital Agenda for Europe. Definition of a Research and Innovation Policy Leveraging Cloud Computing and IoT Combination‖ in a relatively short period of time – around 20 years – IoT became one of the important concerns for the

European Union and the World‘s most developed countries, such as United States, China, Japan and South Korea (Aguzzi et al., 2014).

Fig. 7. Interest in IoT by country (Aguzzi et al., 2014).

In which direction will the future of IoT develop? As David Rose says in his book Enchanted Objects: Innovation, Design, and the Future of Technology: ―I simply believe that the most promising and pleasing future is one where technology infuses ordinary things with a bit of magic to create a more satisfying interaction and evoke an emotional response‖ (2014). According to him, good IoT products will not only be technologically advanced, but also engaging. He claims that the best net-connected products are making us – humans – to develop an emotional connection with objects and therefore we are considering them ―smart‖.

1.3 Structure of the Internet of Things. How IoT works?

This chapter will present in a summarized way how the Internet of Things works from a technical point of view. The key components of the IoT architecture will be enumerated, as well as the structure of the IoT system design will be described. To understand these topics, the first issue necessary to explain is the definition of a ―thing‖, which lays in the base of the Internet of Things concept. As Somayya Madakam claims, ―A thing can be defined as an entity, an idea, a quality perceived, or thought to have its own existence in the world. Things are also often interchanged with the word ‗Objects‘‖ (2015). ―Things‖ can be also ―real world‖ entities or

―virtual entities‖ (Colakovic, 2018). However, ―real world things‖ are capable to be a part of an IoT architecture just if they consist of an embedded system capable to send and receive information over a network (Madakam, 2015). As an example, regular home appliances like fridges or ovens have embedded systems, yet they do not transmit data. Just if they are complemented with elements allowing for communication, they are able to become a part of an IoT system. Furthermore, there are five crucial features of an IoT connected ―thing‖:

1. Identification and info storage (RFID tags, MAC address) 2. Information collection (Sensor networks, store sensor values) 3. Information processing (Understanding commands, filtering data) 4. Communication (Transmitting and receiving messages) 5. Actuation (Switch control, motor control) (Naik, 2014)

According to Naik (2014), in order to make a ―thing‖ a part of an IoT structure, it is necessary to add all these functions to the ―thing‖ internally (within its embedded system) or externally (outside of its embedded system). The Royal Society (an academic association) of the United Kingdom presents in their IoT Conference Report the same key elements of every Internet of Things device (see Figure 8).

Fig. 8. Key elements of every IoT device (The Royal Society, 2017).

Respectively, as Madakam proposes, a ―thing‖ that consists of ―embedding smartness or intelligence, identification, automation, monitoring and controlling calibre‖ can be called a smart device (2015). The smart devices are usually controlled by users, but they can also be semi-independent because of their capability to sense and react (Madakam, 2015). According to Madakam, smart devices are divided into activity-aware, policy-aware and process-aware (2015). Activity-aware objects are designed with the main aim to process and visualise sensed data: e.g. wearables. Policy-aware devices concern service registry data analytics with improved security, usually used in the industrial environments. The functions of the process-aware objects involve undertaking an action, e.g. smart thermostat adjusting the temperature (Madakam, 2015). When the ―thing‖ is defined, it is important to discuss the difference between machine-to-machine communication (M2M) and the Internet of Things structures. Both of these terms represent the systems in which electronic devices are connected to the Internet, yet the concepts are slightly different. First of all, M2M is a part of IoT technology (Koucheryavy, 2013). M2M means a linear communication between machines, which creates a relation of ―cause and effect‖ – e.g. data sent by one object triggers an action performed by another device (Koucheryavy, 2013). What is crucial, M2M does not involve a human interaction, while IoT processes are accessible by users (ibid.). Koucheryavy shows that the main applications of the M2M technologies are seen to be ―smart‖ cities (―smart grids‖) and real-time localization services (used in warehouses, laboratories, fleet management, etc.) (2013). The characteristics of both IoT and M2M were shown in the 28th September 2018 issue of Electronics for You magazine (see Figure 9).

Fig. 9. Comparison of machine-to-machine communication and the IoT (Electronics for You Group, 2018).

Nonetheless, the Internet of Things structure has more characteristics than shown above. As Patel (2016) presents, the unique features of Internet of Things structure can be categorized into several groups. The first feature is interconnectivity - any ―thing‖ (as defined before) can be connected with another ―thing‖ within a wireless communication infrastructure (Patel, 2016). Another feature is connectivity, which means the ability of an object to be connected to the network (ibid.). Moreover, IoT technology is able to provide ―things-related services‖ which improve the features of physical objects (ibid.). Another characteristics proposed by Patel is heterogeneity of the IoT devices: as the hardware ―things‖ can interact with ―things‖ of another type on various platforms and through variety of networks (2016). The IoT devices are also seen to undergo dynamic changes, as Patel shows: e.g. entering hibernation phrases or changing connectivity status (2016). One of the characteristics of IoT is its enormous scale of not only the number of connected devices, but also the data that they are able to process (Patel, 2016). Patel claims that safety is one of the most important feature for the IoT designers and the users, and its improvement will continue to grow due to increasing interest in IoT (2016). A similar approach to the IoT structure is presented by Vladislavs Aleksandrowics (2016) who also adds to the characteristics the issue of heterogeneity - consisting parts that are very different from each other (Fig. 3.). The lowest level of heterogeneity includes

17 various devices which are connected to routing devices, and later to servers (Aleksandrowics, 2016). As Aleksandrowics proposes: ―each next level should contain fewer devices‖ (2016). According to Bhat (2018), the levels are also decentralized, with no main device.

Fig. 10. Multiple levels of IoT system (Aleksandrowics, 2016).

What is more, Aleksandrowics also describes two main types of IoT structures: event- driven and time-based (2016). In the event-driven type the data is transmitted just when the sensors are triggered by the events in their environment (Aleksandrowics, 2016). The time- based IoT architecture concerns continuous transfer of data within a given period of time (ibid.).

1.3.1 Internet of Things (IoT) system architecture design

The Internet of Things architecture is ―a fundamental component of the entire IoT system‖ (Hou, 2016). It is defined as ―a framework for specifying the physical components of a network‖ which allows the IoT concept to function (Santos, 2019). As Bhat claims, the crucial function of the IoT architecture is to allow communication between the physical and the virtual (2018). Understanding the functions of the layers is crucial to discuss the security issues of IoT, because each layer is prone to different types of attacks. The risks of IoT, including its security will be presented in the following parts of this dissertation.

The literature review shows that IoT researchers present similar approach to the IoT architecture basics, yet the number of layers in the architecture is not equal among them. Starting from Hegde (2016) and Furini (2017) who present the most popular 4 layer approach, Santos (2019) proposes adding one more (5th) layer; and finishing with Burhan (2018), who presents all 3, 4, 5 and 6 layer approaches, from the most simple to the most complex one. There is also the 7-layers approach proposed by Darwish (2015), who places on the bottom of the scheme the environment in which sensors are used.

Fig. 11. The three-, four- and five-layered architecture of IoT (Burhan, 2018).

According to Burhan, the three layer architecture corresponds to the basic concept of IoT and it was proposed in the very early days of IoT development (2018). As shown in the Figure 11, the names of the layers (starting from the lowest) are: perception, network and application layer. Perception layer is also called a sensor layer, because it consists of sensors attached to objects in order to collect information (Patel, 2016). Greengard (2015) describes them as ―the magic that allows IoT to work‖ and Patel (2016) explains that a sensor measures a physical information and converts it into electrical signal. There are numerous types of sensors, capable of recognizing light, motion, humidity, chemicals, pressure, etc. (Greengard, 2015). Some sensors also include a memory unit which allows them to save a given amount of measurements (ibid.). According to Patel, the majority of

19 sensors require connection to sensor gateways, which are the elements of the next layer: the network layer. (2016) The network layer is also called transmission layer, which transmits the information obtained from the sensors (Burhan, 2018). It can transmit data wirelessly or through wires (ibid.). This layer‘s aim is to connect ―smart things, network devices and networks to each other‖ (ibid.). Burhan (2018) points out an important quality of the network layer, which is the capability of the identity authentication (ability to recognize objects sending sensed data). What follows is the application layer, which consists of categories of situations/places in which IoT technology can be deployed: e.g. ―smart‖ homes, ―smart‖ cities, healthcare, waste management, tracking, etc. (Burhan, 2018). The aim of this layer is to provide the services necessary for each category. Because of security flaws which were present in the basic three layers scheme from a sensor to the application, another layer is proposed: support layer. Figure 11 shows that support layer is located between the perception and network layers (Burhan, 2018). That means that a data from the sensor is sent first to the support layer, before it reaches the network layer. As Burhan explains, this layer has two aims: authentication of the senders of the incoming data, and sending the data further to the network layer (2018). The support layer extends the scheme to four layers proposed by Burhan (2018). However, Furini (2017) presents a different four layered IoT architecture scheme, which includes layers of objects, communication, platform and application:

Fig. 12. IoT architecture (Furini, 2017, adapted).

When the five layers of IoT architecture are concerned, there are transport and processing layers just after the perception layer. Transport layer stands for an action of sending data from the perception layer (Burhain, 2018). The processing layer extracts the useful information in order to not affect the IoT performance with big data (ibid.). What is more, the application layer in this scheme is followed by the business layer. As Burhain defines, it ―acts like a manager of a whole system‖ (2018). It controls underlying applications, the privacy settings of the user, and the way of storing the information (Burhain, 2018). Santos claims that this layer creates graphs based on received data and it contributes to business models creation (2019). As he states: ―The true success of IoT technology also depends on good business models. Based on the results analysis, this layer will help determine future actions and business strategies‖ (Santos, 2019). However, despite of being one of the most advanced layer, it is also not entirely immune to the attacks, and this is why Burhain (2018) proposes another layers into this scheme, summing it up to six layers. The sixth layer introduced by Burhain is called security layer, and is created to improve the security of the IoT architecture (2018). This layer is located between the perception and network layers, with its main aim to encrypt the information collected from

21 the sensor, before sending it to the network (Burhain, 2018). Burhain explains that the ―ciphertext‖ cannot be understood by anyone other than authorised users (2018). In conclusion, there are main key concepts while describing the architecture of IoT system, but different number of layers have been proposed. The literature shows that the basic scheme for IoT concept consists of three layers, but additional layers are added with the main aim to improve security and reliability of the system. According to Furini (2017) the architecture does not need further improvements and in the future the focus will be on inventing new applications of IoT and developing high-technology sensors.

1.3.2 Possible communication models and Internet of Things (IoT) standardizations

When the IoT system architecture is explained, it is important to discuss the ways in which the ―smart‖ objects can communicate, in other words: the ways how ―smart‖ objects work. This chapter will present four communication models proposed by Internet Architecture Board (IAB), a part of The Internet Society – an non-profit organization operating in the United States, which initially was a US government entity, but became an international and public organization. As Greengard (2015) claims, one of the main challenges in rapid IoT development is a big variety of protocols and standards used in the communication. However, IAB is responsible for research and defining IoT standardizations with an aim to unify the ―smart‖ systems. Greengard (2015) argues that just over the last several years some of the standardized file formats and unified cloud computing has been introduced, yet for using the full potential of IoT, more standards need to be initiated. According to him, in the year of 2015 there was still ―a battle‖ between companies which used different standardizations for their products, creating exclusive ecosystems (what is also a marketing strategy in order to encourage people to buy products of the same ―family‖). The only ―victims‖ were the customers who could not easily integrate different ―smart‖ objects into one system (Greengard, 2015). The communication models were adapted to improve the IoT requirements such as ―energy efficiency, security and reliability‖ (Friess, 2015). According to The Internet Society (2015), the improved IoT

22 communication models are a base for technological innovation and a key issue to improve the commercial possibilities.

Fig. 13. Device-to-Device communication model (The Internet Society, 2015).

The first, and the most simple model concerns Device-to-Device communication. As the name suggests, it represents two or more devices communicating directly with each other using one type of many wireless protocols, such as Bluetooth, Z-Wave or Zigbee (see Figure 13). This communication model is used mainly for integrated home systems purposes, because it does not require sending large data packets. ―Smart‖ home devices such as light bulbs, door lockers, switches and thermostats require very little data. Duffy (2015) explains: ―these devices often have a direct relationship, they usually have built-in security and trust [mechanisms]‖. As it was said earlier in this chapter, one of the main challenges of this type of communication is use of protocols that are device-specific. As a result, a user almost never will be able to connect devices from different brands, because companies create different ecosystems for their IoT devices (The Internet Society, 2015).

Fig. 14. Device-to-Cloud communication model (The Internet Society, 2015). HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol; TLS: Transport Layer Security; TCP: Transmission Control Protocol; IP: Internet Protocol; CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol; DTLS: Datagram Transport Layer Security, UDP: User Datagram Protocol.

The second model described by The Internet Society (2015) concerns Device-to- Cloud communication. In this solution a device exchanges data (wirelessly or through wires) with the cloud database, which is usually provided by the device producer. This type of connection allows to control the device via a smartphone or a desktop app, and it also makes it possible to automatically update the device‘s software. According to The Internet Society, the Device-to-Cloud model ―adds value to the end user by extending the capabilities of the device beyond its native features‖ (2015). Some examples of devices using this model are: Nest Labs Learning Thermostat and Samsung SmartTV. However, both of them (and many more products) transmit data to the cloud database which is after used for analysis for the purposes of the user and the producer. A user can see the details of e.g. home energy consumption or the TV watching information, which are also stored in the cloud and are accessible for the producer. The Internet Society (2015) claims that this phenomenon is called ―vendor lock-in‘‘, which refers to the vendor as a keeper of the gathered data. This may be a privacy violation for many users despite of agreeing for it in the first moments after installing the new device. More about the topic of IoT risks and its security will be discussed in one of the following sections of this dissertation.

Fig. 15. Device-to-Gateway communication model (The Internet Society, 2015). HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol; TLS: Transport Layer Security; TCP: Transmission Control Protocol; IPv4, IPv6: Internet Layer protocol; CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol; DTLS: Datagram Transport Layer Security, UDP: User Datagram Protocol

Another model involves Device-to-Gateway communication, what means that a ―smart‖ device is connected to the data cloud through a gateway. The gateway is an additional security layer, but most importantly, it provides protocol translation. The Internet Society presents that there are two main gateways: a smartphone app and a “hub” device. The most popular is, however, the smartphone app (The Internet Society, 2015). This type of communication is commonly used in e.g. wearable fitness trackers which do not have native ability to exchange data with the cloud. The second type of a gateway is a ―hub‖ device used in ―smart‖ home systems. ―Hubs‖ can work as connection between the device and the cloud, but it can also allow communication between the devices using different protocols (The Internet Society, 2015). The examples of ―hubs‖ are: Samsung SmartThings, Google Home, or Amazon Echo. According to The Internet Society, this communication model is used very frequently, but it raises the cost of the product development because of the necessary additional software (2015).

Fig. 16. Back-End data sharing model (The Internet Society, 2015). CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol; HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol; HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure; Oauth 2.0: industry-standard protocol for authorization; JSON: JavaScript Object Notation.

The Back-End data sharing is the most complex and the least popular communication model (The Internet Society, 2015). The data collected from a ―smart‖ object is send to the cloud and is after available for access of other users. As The Internet Society claims, this model concerns ―the [user‘s] desire for granting access to the uploaded sensor data to third parties‖ (2015). The possible use for this can be in business centres or complexes of offices where the corporate owner could be interested in the data gathered from all IoT objects located on the property, with an aim to e.g. analyse the energy consumption or behaviours in different parts of the building. To sum up, there is no the best IoT communication model, but all of them add a value to the product by extending its possibilities. These models were presented in an order from the least to the most complex, and also from the one that allows for processing small packets of data, to the one which is able to handle big data operations. In conclusion, each of the models have different power consumption, network range, data processing capabilities and the cost. Each of the models has specific drawbacks and integrating the model should be first of all based on the user case. Nonetheless, it is important to remember that every choice includes compromise.

1.4 The potential of Internet of Things (IoT)

―The greatest impact of the Internet is what we are already witnessing, but it is going to accelerate‖ – said Nishant Shah, professor at ArtEZ University of the Arts, The Netherlands (Greengard, 2015). Even if the Internet of Things is a technology that has been developed for around two decades, it is still in the beginning of its existence. Considering its rapid growth and continuous appearance of new IoT products, there is no doubt that it will have a significant influence on the future world. The potential of IoT may seem like science-fiction for the nowadays times, yet the IoT solutions are slowly starting to transform people‘s lives, revolutionize businesses and enrich country economies. Jalali et al. (2017) presents that by 2025 the potential value generated by IoT is estimated for around 11 billion American dollars, which stands for 11% of projected global GDP. The Progressive Policy Institute (PPI), an independent non-profit US research institution provides the answer for: ―why is the IoT a key element of a high-growth future?‖ (2013). Internet of Things seems to be a ―natural extension‖ of the Internet connection to the physical objects, what links (in small and large scales) people, things and the gathered data (The Progressive Policy Institute, 2013). As the Internet Society (2015) claims, the quick spread of the Internet was ―naturally‖ global, because it was bringing opportunities and valuable benefits for a reasonable cost for both developed and developing countries. The Internet Society (2015) predicts that the same may apply to the Internet of Things. The IoT is believed to be used globally, regardless of the location or economic development level because it is universal in its function (The Internet Society, 2015). As Kalinauskas (2012) claims, with the IoT popularization come new markets and services which include sensing and reacting to the physical environments - medical, energy-related, agricultural, educational, etc. ―Everything gets connected based on three different drivers: people [individuals], business, society‖, proposes Kalinauskas (2012) and these three groups are seem to be the ones creating impact on the technological growth worldwide. Concerning the individual people, the nowadays needs for personalization, mobility and networking will lead to the change of their lifestyles and to shifts in the behaviour patterns. All of this creates the need for new digital technologies, and opens possibilities for IoT implementation. (Kalinauskas, 2012). When it comes to businesses, the

27 companies often take as a priority to improve efficiency and productivity. The entities using IoT solutions would, likely, be able to advance quicker and have advantage among competition which uses just traditional solutions. IoT might to help enterprises to manage assets and improve industrial and business processes (ibid.). The third ―driver‖ according to Kalinauskas (2012) is society and its sustainable development, which can be pursued also by the use of efficient information technologies. In the near future these three groups may experience improved data exchange between each other due to dynamically extending IoT solutions, often applied to public infrastructures (Kalinauskas, 2012). In other words, an individual e.g. may be exposed to personalized advertising on the way to work, based on his societal behaviors. This phenomenon may lead to improvement of quality of life, but on the other hand it brings many risks concerning privacy, and in the long term, individual autonomy. It is believed that IoT solutions can contribute to social development. This category of development was defined by the United Nations as Sustainable Development Goals - 17 achievements guidelines concentrated on achieving worldwide well-being and fair chances (The Internet Society, 2015). The IoT applications in the fields of: industry, resources management, agriculture, education and medicine may help improving the regions equality, their advocates say (ibid.). The research shows that rapid growth of IoT was possible due to significant miniaturization of the hardware and emergence of software solutions which allow for communication within the IoT systems. According to Kalinauskas (2012) the process of miniaturization impacted not only processors (with improving their efficiency at the same time), but also many kinds of electrical equipment, e.g. sensors. The Internet Society (2015) claims that the IoT devices will become more affordable if the miniaturization and cost- lowering of the components will continue. However, Kalinauskas (2012) notices that the miniaturization is not limitless, but he also proposes two solutions for the IoT growth even when that limit is reached. The first solution is to use ―DNA‖ computers, which base on chemical reactions and use organic molecules for data storage. The second idea is to include quantum computing, which includes laws of quantum mechanics to process information (Kalinauskas, 2012). These concepts were mentioned in Kalinauskas in 2012,

28 although in 2019 the company IBM presented The IBM Q Experience, the first online platform through which a user has access to cloud-based quantum computing. Other interesting issue about the miniaturization are the dust sensors, wireless and self-powered devices introduced by Hitachi, which could be implemented in many IoT solutions, yet not yet commercialized.

Fig. 17. Smart dust on a tip of a finger and compared to the size of a hair (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2018).

The other type of the ―sensor of the future‖ may become the electronic taste chip being developed by researchers from Kyushu University, Japan (Chen et al. 2010). The aim of the taste sensor is to imitate the function of a tongue taste buds. The sensors would convert chemical substances (e.g. combinations of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, different pH levels) into profiles of specific taste sensations. A similar invention is an “electronic nose” developed by Cyrano Sciences company in 2000. Both of them may be applied in the food quality, perfume or pharmaceutical industries (Defrancesco, 1999). Internet of Things is believed to also have potential in the transport industry. Greengard (2015) points out that ―today human error accounts for 70 to 80 percent of road vehicle collisions, according to the US Department of Transportation. The World Health Organization reports that 1.24 million road traffic deaths occur each year‖. In theory, autonomous vehicles synchronized with the maps of road network and the traffic signals could partially lower the number of injuries and deaths. Such vehicles could also be making their operating cost low due to gathering and analyzing data during the use (Greengard, 2015).

Another issue which can be improved by applying the Internet of Things is agriculture. IoT may be used not only to easily achieve certain food quality with low cost, but Greengard (2015) believes that it can also have the potential to help in the fight against world hunger and make the industrial farms sustainable - if people were willing to... The automatization processes supported by IoT, such as: automatic harvesting, quality monitoring, disease recognition and prevention may lead to a concept called ―smart agriculture‖, where the farm would operate with minimum or no supervision of a human. Applying these technologies to agriculture is said to ―improve the sustainability and productivity of the food supply‖ (The Internet Society, 2015). The following potential of IoT concerns healthcare and wellness, where it is believed to enable a revolution in telemedicine. First of all, the IoT technologies can allow for constant health monitoring which include sensors placed even in the human organisms. Microscopic IoT devices could release medication in a correct dose exactly where it is needed (The Internet Society, 2015). Systems applied to human organisms (internally or externally, as wearables) could introduce a very reliable health trackers which continuously detect e.g. rates of blood sugar, blood pressure, heart rate, levels of cholesterol and body temperature. However, a big part of deaths caused by diabetes and heart diseases in the rich world can be prevented through health monitoring, exercise and better diet, in achievement of which the health trackers may be helpful. The hospital of the future is believed to capture, save and analyse data from both the building and the patients. All the continuous information, including e.g. energy consumption, exams results, or given treatment may contribute to generating patterns which would help the staff to operate more efficiently (The Internet Society, 2015). The data concerning patients‘ illnesses, exam results and treatments is also believed to have educational value. Current doctors or medical students could learn more about what treatment approach to use based on detailed statistics. Processing big data is not a big problem nowadays, however, this solution may never become reality because of data protection laws and serious privacy risks involved. The next potential of Internet of Things is involved in production lines, supply chains and delivery industries. Connected systems will help manufacturers to track in real- time many aspects of their production and shipping processes. Sets of sensors, static robots

30 or even flying drones could assist not only in manufacturing and quality control, but also in safety monitoring of the site. According to The Internet Society (2015), the delivery of goods using flying drones can became a reality immediately but regulators halted that application on safety concerns. Another IoT potential is connected to education: schools, universities and teaching centres. It is frequently said that Internet of Things applications may support creativity and efficiency in many teaching situations. A future school equipped with ―smart‖ objects such as: identification devices, interactive whiteboards, desks including screens would definitely change the current methods of teaching (Bayani, 2017). Entrance to school, classrooms or access storage lockers would be assigned to a person and easily accessible without any additional keys. As Bayani (2017) notices, the ―smart‖ desks could also detect the users and adjust the screen information for a given person: include her notes, didactic materials or assessments. These solutions may seem very efficient, yet probably still too expensive for a regular school or university. Interactive learning in theory is very beneficial, yet also controversial - introducing new technologies is usually overwhelming for students and the teaching staff. In longer overview, it may happen that the educational goals are not achieved on time because the introduced tools are too complicated or prone to failures (Bayani, 2017). On of the main future potential of IoT is gathering new levels of insights into human lives and societal behaviours. Greengard (2015) notices that constant monitoring, measuring and analysis of the events may lead to better understanding ―the perpetual motion of the world and the things we do‖. IoT does not just concern the object, but all the correlations between them, the users and the environments. The real-time tracking and analysis creates a base for new services opportunities which would be better, faster and more efficient. As Greengard (2015) emphasises: ―McKinsey Global Institute estimates that the economic impact of the IoT will range between $14 billion and $33 billion a year in 2025‖. Greengard (2015) also presents a chapter called ―2025: A Day in the Life‖ which describes lifestyle in 2025 and the IoT inventions that could become real. Some of them are: pyjamas that sends mild sensory alerts to the skin with a function of morning alarm; shower that recognizes the user and adjusts water to the favourite temperature; biometric

31 authentication for car and home access; or a fridge that does shopping a pays automatically for the order. The technology could be so deeply involved in the daily people‘s lives, that it would become ―invisible‖ (Greengard, 2015). However, relaying on interconnected ―invisible‖ environments with sensors, software, databases, where everything is monitored, would possibly have enormous privacy complications. Constant data capturing, processing and analysing cannot be achieved without influence of laws, social structures, or politics. Greengard points out the words of MIT professor Sherry Turkle: ―the intersection of technology and human interaction will play out in other ways, including how we raise children, how we deal with the aged and elderly, and how we form relationships‖ (2015). One of the visions showing impact of advanced IoT on human lives is movie ―Her‖, science-fiction drama from 2013 directed by Spike Jonze. It shows a history of man who develops a relationship with his Artificial Intelligence assistant, a machine personified through a female voice. Greengard (2015) shows that 83% of various specialists from the fields of industry, law, economy and academic researchers believe that IoT will have ―widespread and beneficial effects‖ by the year of 2025. Greengard also argues that in the future Internet of Things may not appear very beneficial, neither very harming: ―It will introduce plenty of frivolous and useless devices that quickly disappear but also deliver highly practical systems and solutions that improve the quality of life‖ (2015). There is no doubt that IoT will introduce new jobs, yet it is possible that it will also lead to displacing workers. The widely connected world may be exciting and full of opportunities for the young people, but it can also be a major stressor for the older generations. Greengard (2015) sums up that IoT can may bring solutions that make everyday‘s life easier and more enjoyable, but on the other hand in some ways it can complicate the lifestyles and expose people to risks of losing privacy. As Hawley (2014) writes in the book Things That Think: ―The clutter of gadgets, buttons, batteries, remote controls, cables, connectors and passwords is decidedly impersonal. On the other hand, if your toothbrush and your toilet casually monitored your health, or if your razor took advantage of a nick to test your blood, and if such things occasionally sent you messages on the bathroom mirror – now that would be personal‖.

In conclusion, there will always be two sides of the IoT solutions, and they may be beneficial only if they are used with good and honest intentions.

1.4.1 Internet of Things (IoT) advantages

As it was already defined, Internet of Things combines the physical with the digital, allowing for completely new ways of using the gathered information. It leads to the creation of new markets, allows for new business models and enables new types of products. This chapter concentrates on enumerating the advantages that IoT offers for individuals, businesses, and the society. The first advantages are: improvement of productivity of people and making the businesses work more efficient. Properly used Internet of Things solutions lead to time saving because of automatization of the processes. People can enjoy more free time if machines are programmed to help out in daily situations such as e.g. meal and beverage preparation or home cleaning. In the workplace IoT may positively influence the working conditions. The ―smart‖ office is, among many other functions, capable to adjust lighting or provide booking management of meeting rooms, what can facilitate work. The enterprise is also capable of real-time insights into operations (and also into the history of them) in order to make better business decisions. With easy tracking of assets (equipment, machines, vehicles etc.) The next advantage of IoT systems is cost saving. Overall costs can be lowered through detailed analysis of spendings and cutting the spending habits which are no longer needed, or replacing them with cheaper solutions. Cost savings may also be achieved by improving processes efficiencies and productivity – and this is where IoT definitely helps (Reddy, 2014). By analysing the energy spendings in the building divided into categories of rooms, it could be easier to plan strategies for cost reducing. IoT may also bring savings in services, available nowadays as ―smart‖ thermostats automatically adjusting temperature and ―smart‖ meters (which replace manual readers of electricity, water or gas). Reddy (2014) shows how much money could be saved in various industries during 15 years only if 1% reduction in capital expenditures was applied (Fig. 19). Reddy uses the US

33 nomenclature for ―billion‖, which equals 109 and in some European countries would be called ―miliard‖.

Fig. 19. Estimated cost savings in industries during 15 years, achieved by 1% reduction in capital expenditures (Reddy, 2014).

All these Internet of Things benefits are followed by numerous risks and drawbacks. IoT adds value to many aspects of people‘s lives and businesses‘ daily operations. However, Kalinauskas (2012) notices that ―the utopian scenario of ‗calm integrated world‘ will have to wait‖. The reasons for this are presented in the next section, which concerns the risks of IoT.

1.4.2 Risks of the Internet of Things

There was a sense of nightmare unreality about all this. [...] - "I want to do this myself, Hal," he said. "Please give me control." - "Look, Dave, you've got a lot of things to do. I suggest you leave this to me."

- "Hal, switch to manual hibernation control." - "I know you have had that on your mind for some time now, Dave, but that would be a terrible mistake. I am so much more capable than you are of supervising the ship." (―2001: A Space Odyssey‖, Arthur C. Clarke, 1968)

What would happen if advancement of ―smart‖ devices went too far? Arthur C. Clarke in his book ―2001: A Space Odyssey‖ raises questions about human interaction with artificial intelligence and ―smart‖ machines, which are supposed to help humans in daily operations. Although of the science-fiction character of the novel, it has some elements that could become reality, especially in the Internet of Things world. The speed of data transmission, interconnection and the potential of universal application of IoT devices bring new, innovative opportunities. However, IoT also brings many challenges which have been not researched on yet. Internet of Things brings serious risk including security and privacy issues, legal and also ethical concerns. The ―smart‖ solutions are not free from connectivity and compatibility problems which may lead to system failure, and as a result to an accident, denial of access, or blocking the use of elemental conveniencies or utilities (e.g. electricity grid or sewage). With such amount of processed data on different levels of connection, it brings the risk of a hacker attack on all of these levels – starting from sensors, through networks, to data storages. When it comes to societal risk, Internet of Things in the long-term overview may significantly influence the behaviour of the individuals and how they live in a society. The return on investment on IoT is also considered as a risk: IoT solutions are not cheap improvements for businesses, especially concerning the security risk and support needed with solving problems immediately when they arise. According to Tim Zanni presenting AT&T’s Cybersecurity Insights Report: ―Among more than 5,000 enterprises surveyed around the world, 85 percent are, or will be, deploying IoT devices – yet just 10 percent feel confident about securing those devices against hackers‖ (2016).

The first and the most discussed risk of Internet of Things is the loss of privacy and security. To better understand to what extent the IoT systems are dangerous, privacy has been defined as: “The ability for people to selectively share, to determine how information about them is collected, used, and passed along; the ability to retreat from the gaze of and interactions with others; the right to be let alone, to create solitude and reserve from others; the ability to control the degree to which one is identifiable when undertaking online or offline activities; the ability to control the data impression one gives off.” (Kenneally & Rosner, 2018)

Privacy is seen to be the most sensitive issue of IoT technology, because it is used not only to gather detailed information, but also to physically control external devices, e.g. home appliances or systems of system or electricity control. Zanni (2016) shows that 84% of IoT devices users experienced some kind of security breach (see Figure 20).

Fig. 20. Types of security breaches experienced by IoT users (Zanni, 2016). Malware: a program or file harmful to the computer user; Spyware: a program or file spying on the computer user; Phishing: fraudulent attempt to obtain sensitive information

(e.g. usernames, passwords, credit card details); DDOS attack: Denial-of-Service attack - making a machine or network unavailable by overwhelming its traffic; Skimming: obtaining a credit card details other way than usual transaction; Ransomware: type of software designed to deny access to a computer system or data until a ransom is paid; Spear phishing: a phishing attack personalized for the victim.

A hacker attack may affect the digital scope of IoT, but it can influence the physical state of connected objects, alter their status or change the information that the device shows to the user (Fu et al., 2017). Both cases are equally dangerous especially because the fact that well-developed IoT technology is ―invisible‖ for the users. Peter Friess (2015) notices that ―due to the wireless communication and the fact that the devices can be unreachable for some time such attacks might go fully undetected‖. While hacking a home light bulbs or a thermostat system would probably not bring much harm, except bringing the eventual discomfort or affecting the power bill. On the other hand, interfering the ―smart‖ locks would be the first step for a robbery. Hacking or collapse of IoT appliances producing heat for cooking or refrigeration for food preservation might represent higher risk of fire or food spoiling. Another example may be hacking ―smart‖ manufacturing systems what would lead to spikes in the infrastructure use or to stopping the production line; and as a result bring financial loss. As Manuel Mazarra (2018) shows, Tesla Model S (a road vehicle) was hacked by Keen Security Lab in order to show its poor security levels. The researchers were able to disrupt Tesla car wirelessly from a distance of 20km and control the dashboard computer screen, door locks and brakes (Mazarra, 2018). What is more, a series of IoT attacks was happening at Hotel Seehotel in Jagerwirt, Austria, as BBC claims (Belton, 2017). The hotel‘s smart locks were hacked, the guests were locked in their rooms and the owner was forced to pay a ransom (ibid.). In other words: the bigger the scale of the IoT application is, the more harm the hacking attack will bring. According to Mazarra (2018) the basic definition of IoT security states that ―everything can be connected to the Internet (becoming, in this way, an IoT device)‖; what implies: ―everything that can be connected to the Internet can be hacked‖. Some types of common attacks include: eavesdropping

(accessing calls, messages, video content); information leak through key node; Denial-of- Service attack or malware (Burhan, 2018). Some people may experience the feeling of lost control over their information gathered through the sensor level of the ―smart‖ devices. Data gathering action always needs the confirmation of the user, but the given terms and conditions are usually confusing and it is hard to say what we agree on. In the nowadays reality all the users‘ online behaviours and (often unconsciously) revealed personal data such as age, gender and geographic location are a base for online marketing. In this way the user is proposed products and services which ―fit‖ his/her interests and which he/she is more likely to buy. The data gathered from the IoT devices also could easily determine the shopping patterns and consumer preferences. There is, however, important issue: the web-based information input finishes with the time that we stop using the Internet connected device. It does not apply in case of IoT products, because one of their characteristics is the constant data gathering and alertness for the user‘s new requests. That means that now the data may be collected in the situations which were considered ―offline‖ (Rosner, 2018). The access to the constantly updated sensor-gathered information is a perfect base for many kinds of criminal activities: e.g. eavesdropping, espionage, robbery, financial damage or terrorism. It can affect all the levels of the IoT applications: individual users; ―smart‖ homes, offices and buildings; ―smart‖ cities or systems, because they might be connected. People may not realize that they are a part of an IoT system, but the sensors can be applied in their environments: e.g. retail tracking systems in stores, surveillance cameras, or smart billboards (Rosner, 2018). As Greengard (2016) raises important questions: ―What happens if hackers sabotage systems to drain water supplies? What is the result if terrorists hack into autonomous vehicles or cause an entire traffic grid to malfunction? [...] What happens if a government blocks access to content through e-book readers?‖. Zanni (2016) claims that even a simple Internet connected office printer may bring risk of theft of the documents sent to printing or theft of access passwords used to access the main servers. Research shows that the most controversial (in terms of security) IoT devices are home ―smart‖ speakers including features of virtual assistants, e.g. Amazon Echo (featuring Alexa), Apple HomePod (including Siri), or Google Home (with an assistant called ―Google‖). The

38 opponents of these devices claim that there is a serious risk of privacy breach due to the fact that the microphone in these products is always on, ―waiting‖ for a human request. Media have been showing information as this constant ―listening‖ means that the device‘s producer saves all the received sounds in order to, as it says, improve the device‘s understanding of human speech and help it function better. However, this is partially true – Amazon Echo‘s assistant Alexa is claimed to not record all the conversations, just the ones which are the requests. According to the information on the producer‘s website: ―By default, Echo devices are designed to detect only your chosen wake word. The device detects the wake word by identifying acoustic patterns that match the wake word. No audio is stored or sent to the cloud unless the device detects the wake word. Any time audio is sent to the cloud, a visual indicator appears on your Echo device‖ (Amazon, 2019). Rosner (2018) shows a case study concerning privacy issues in an interactive version of a Barbie doll called Hello Barbie, released by Hasbro in 2015. The user could talk with the toy by pressing a button, and expect a logical answer. All the input sounds were sent to a cloud speech analysis tool which selected an answer. The most important thing is that parents had access to the voice recordings, which could also be shared on social media. Rosner (2018) brings these issues to attention: ―Do children understand that when they play with Barbie she‘s actually sharing their voice with other people? Do parents fully understand who all of the companies are that can access the recordings?‖. However, Rosner leaves it without an answer. Another risk concerning Internet of Things are the legal and ethical issues which almost overlap with the privacy and security problems. As discussed before, companies releasing IoT products are legally obliged to forward a terms and conditions document which has to be accepted by the user in order to use the device. Accepting the documents allows for data captured by the device to be saved and processed. Rosner (2018) calls it the legitimate use of data, which has been authorised. However, there are many ways in which the legitimate use of information may be still harmful for the users. In some countries the regulatory laws concerning data may not yet been introduced, and therefore IoT users are at risk of having their data used in a way that they did not expect or knowingly consent to. According to Rosner (2018) in the United States there is no one universal regulation which

39 would define the Internet of Things data protection laws. However, the necessity to create one was alarmed by Federal Trade Commission and the Department of Commerce (Rosner, 2018). Such a universal approach to data protection was introduced in the European Union as Europe‘s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). It is a set of regulations which apply to all personal data, irrespective of their type and the way they were gathered (Rosner, 2018). Rosner also claims: ―The GDPR will affect American companies as the regulation applies to all entities that process Europeans‘ data, regardless of a company‘s geographic location‖ (2018). What is more, the report Internet of Things - An Action Plan for Europe issued by the European Commission in 2009 proposes the priorities of data protection and recycling of the significant number of ―smart‖ devices (Skarzauskiene, 2015). Health monitoring devices may also be at risk of law infringement, because as Skarzauskiene (2015) presents: ―According to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, data associated with human health are considered as sensitive‖. The ―smart‖ implants placed in the human body may appear truly beneficial, but as for now, not safe enough. Privacy protection cannot be achieved just with technological solutions, yet it needs to involve government regulations and the society changes (Skarzauskiene, 2015). Above all the written regulations, the users (and the society that they belong to) need to be educated about how to manage their data in the connected world. The following risk associated with Internet of Things are the connectivity and compatibility issues, which are usually harmless, but noticeable by the user. As described in the chapter 1.3, the IoT world still lacks standardization: universal protocols and unified communication methods do not exist, and because of that many IoT devices are not compatible with each other. It limits the choice of the users if they wish to create fully integrated ―smart‖ environment: eg. home or an office. The users may avoid the incompatibility by using devices made by the same company. Another issue is connectivity – Internet of Things solutions need constant access to the network: the Internet, the provider of which is a third party. While losing connection, the ―smart‖ devices simply stop working or change to a ―downgraded mode‖, what usually is harmless in a bigger scope, but brings discomfort and irritation to the user. However, the loss of connection may also

40 lead to a system failure and as a result cause an accident or delay. This type of risk is especially related to the IoT systems which make physical actions or bring changes to the environment in a physical way. Starting from ―smart‖ home appliances, through ―smart‖ offices or ―smart‖ agriculture, to ―smart‖ vehicles - in all these, a small IoT system issue may bring very harmful result, because it would have a physical impact. One example of an accident caused by a defect in the system‘s software is the unexpected behaviour of Therac- 25, a radiation therapy device. In 1980s it caused the death of 5 people in various hospitals by dosing approximately 100 times higher amount of radiation than planned. In connection with human error factor and mismanagement, the deaths were considered as an accident (Bozdag, 2005). In conclusion, as Internet of Things is very rapidly growing technology, it lacks standardization, and consequently, IoT systems‘ actual security still needs to be improved. New IoT products are appearing in the market quicker than a proper security research is being conducted (Fu, 2017). Very often the time-to-market pressure is high; the producers have little time for developing security issues and the updates are promised after the product release. There are many security concerns: violating privacy, possibility of hacker attack or information theft. As Kevin Ashton claims, 84% of IoT users have already experiences some kind of security issue with it; and the most popular were malware and spyware (2017). The ―smart‖ technologies bring a new type of challenge in product cycle: many companies may stop functioning and abandon their products. As a result, so called ―zombie‖ devices would remain used without any support for security or bug patches, what may lead to increased security risk. The issues of privacy, security and connection should not be considered separately, but as a whole, which governments should prioritize in order to improve its security (Fu, 2017). The minimum levels of cybersecurity should be defined and the milestones for development should be established so sustainable IoT manufacturing may be achieved. The standards should be set not only for IoT communication, but also for testing of the devices. Some certifications could be introduced in order to unify the quality of the IoT products. Ideally, the user would have access to all captured data and would be able to delete it. Moreover, security of IoT can significantly improve only after the research

41 about its usage patterns, influences and accidents; yet this can only be researched from the perspective of time (Fu, 2017).

1.5 Impact of Internet of Things

The literature suggests that Internet of Things has a significant potential to grow and become an inseparable part of our everyday lives. IoT can quickly expand to many aspects, not only ―smart‖ personal devices or ―smart‖ homes, but also to more broad issues such as healthcare, education, commerce or infrastructure. By having so many applications in multiple layers, it is likely that IoT has a potential for impacting individuals, societies, businesses, as well as country economies. According to Klingenberg (2017), as history shows, rapid improvements in information technologies and introduction of new media bring disruptive changes to the societal behaviours and the economies. Taking into consideration the Lievrouw and Livingstone‘s (2006) definition of new media which includes: ―artefacts and devices; activities and practices; and organizational and social arrangements‖, it can be said that Internet of Things fits this description. Moreover, the research on societal changes caused by new media is also expected to apply to IoT subject (Barbosa et al., 2019). As Barbosa (2019) presents, new media is related to new ways of experiencing, organizing, representing the world; new ways of social behaviours and new methods of work. The shift which is happening nowadays can be also called Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0, and it concerns digital transformation of product design, manufacturing, supply chain and sales (Klingenberg, 2017). However, these changes influence even more aspects of life: the introduction of the common digital mediums lead to new types of businesses, values and products. All of this is related to new organization methods of the companies and the new ways of working. Last, but not least, the individuals and the societies are affected, yet at this moment it is impossible to present the exact impacts. This section will discuss the estimated influence of Internet of Things on people, society, business and economy. IoT has been pointed by McKinsey (a U.S. based management consulting corporation) as the 3rd technology with the biggest potential to have economic impact in

2025 (see Figure 21). Its worth is estimated for between 2,5 - 6 trillion USD, and the technologies with bigger estimated worth are: automation of knowledge (Artificial Intelligence software which can ―understand‖ unstructured commands and work with big databases) and mobile Internet (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013).

Fig. 21. Estimated potential economic impact of technologies in 2025 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013).

While discussing the IoT impacts, it is worth to acknowledge the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) which describes how the users accept and start using new technologies. As Riggins (2015) presents, TAM is based on Ajzen and Fishbein's Theory of Reasoned Action stating that behaviour is a final result of an intention. These theories have been widely used in research on on-line consumer behaviors, new media usage, Internet banking and IoT applications (Riggins, 2015). Riggins (2015) shows that the factors determining the positive attitude towards a new technology are: ease of use and perceived usefulness. Fulfilment of these two factors leads to building positive attitude towards the new technology and increased usage of it. As a result the technology has more and more impact on the societal behaviour patterns (Riggins, 2015). In some cases, excessive usage of new technology may lead to addiction and bring negative behavior patterns.

1.5.1 Impact on the individuals and the society

There is no doubt, that IoT would not just impact alone, but in interactions with other technologies or consumer electronic devices. The six technologies shown on Figure 22 as the ones with the biggest economic impact in 2025 were also examined concerning their impact on individuals and societies (see Figure 22).

Fig. 22. IoT implications for individuals and societies (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted).

Because of the use and analytics of big data, IoT can help in protecting the building (―smart‖ home systems) or alarming in case of health endangerment (―smart‖ wearables) (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013). Through automation of various everyday actions such as grocery orders or household cleaning, the people could gain more time and as a result their life quality would be improved. The efficiency of an individual would increase, because it would be no longer needed to use personal energy on the tasks that are automated (Riggins, 2015). The daily routines such as sleeping or cooking may be influenced by so called ―automated agents‖ – IoT products. This impact is still rarely

44 described; many years of research must pass in order to present hypothesis about how common usage of IoT influences the individuals and societies. A question which also arises is: in what way will individuals use IoT products? Will the ―smart‖ products be generally trusted, considering many risks and security problems which arise also nowadays? The secondary impact of IoT is believed to concern changes in consumption patterns, which may also be already on its way due to mobile internet and cloud technology. The individually collected personal-centric data is the base of big data, the patterns of which is used to create new business models and design new products. However, the consumption patterns would not be changed just because of the new choice of services and goods. They would also change, because the customers would receive personalized advertisements based on very intimate knowledge of their behaviours and recent choices (Riggins, 2015). Interconnected systems make personalization a standard for every user. It leads to faster communication of available products; to the consumers‘ feeling of empowerment; and as a result quicker buying decisions. According to Riggins (2015), the main challenge in this field is the combination of the legal limitations on personal data usage with the new business models. Internet of Things may have other potential impact on the nature of work. New skills will be required, and some of the existing types of jobs will no longer need human workers - they may become replaced with automated machines. The new technologies such as IoT, advanced robotics and automation of knowledge (see Figure 22) will make some human labor economically uncompetitive and worth less - just as it happened during the Industrial Revolution in XIX century. Many repetitive and less demanding tasks can be easily or entirely automated, but with the advancement of automation of knowledge work also creative jobs could not need human workers anymore. Recently one of the widely discussed topics is the Artificial Intelligence in art creation. By ―learning‖ a database of references, a software is able to recognize patterns and ―create‖ a ―new artwork‖ based on the elements of the database. In 2018 an AI artwork entitled Portrait of Edmond Belamy (see Figure 23) got sold for 432500 USD (Christie‘s International SA, 2018).

Fig. 23. Artificial Intelligence artwork entitled Portrait of Edmond Belamy (Christie‘s International SA, 2018).

It was generated by an algorithm developed by Paris-based studio Obvious, which used the database of 15000 oil painting portraits from XV and XVI century. The point was to illustrate that algorithms can emulate the reality more than any artistic endeavour. This arises a question of copyrights: who is the author - the machine or the software developer? The risks of dehumanization of the society are presented in Isaac Asimov‘s Foundation Trilogy – science-fiction book series about Solaria, a planet where the inhabitants lived with no direct social interactions because of high technological advancement. According to Antoci et al. (2010), there is a common belief that technology would ―progressively destroy social interaction‖. However, there is no evidence for this hypothesis, but research shows that new communication technologies lower the chance of face-to-face interactions (Antoci et al., 2010). What is more, the Internet may influence the families by shifting them into ―post-familial‖, where the members interact more with devices, than with each other (ibid.). The interesting result is, that as Antoci et al. (2010) presents, using the Internet is not connected with a reduction in social interactions. Surprisingly, this author proposes that the time used online is deducted from the time spent on e.g. watching television. The research on Canadian suburbs shows that access to high- speed Internet increases contact between neighbours, but they develop weaker relationships (Antoci et al., 2010). Antoci et al. (2010) shows that being active in an online community increases sense of belonging and trust, and therefore it is difficult to predict if the future technologically developed societies will be as ―dehumanized‖ as Solaria.

To sum up, Internet of Things impacts both positively and negatively the lives of individuals and societies. The new technologies have been always influencing human interactions, their psychology and behaviours, yet the influence of IoT and machine-to- machine interactions with humans still needs to be researched (Riggins, 2015). However, there is a risk that frequent usage of IoT products will prioritize the things - ―technical artefacts‖, and neglect the social aspects of life. It is also important to understand why the new technologies have been accepted (or declined) and what made these technologies significant at that time. Only through understanding the reasons of the changes it will be possible to improve new ―smart‖ products.

1.5.2 Impact on the country economy and private business

Nowadays the IoT products are more popular in the consumer market than in enterprise or industrial solutions. If the IoT technology gradually succeeds in business use, it might be likely implemented also by the industrial sectors, and eventually be present in the public services or governments (Kalinauskas, 2015). Internet of Things has many potentials which in theory could be applied in order to create a ―smart‖ city or ―smart‖ country. Figure 24 shows the presumed representative use cases in the markets of: enterprises, consumers and the public sector. However, as Kalinauskas (2015) claims, ―the real world structures and systems may seem a lot more complicated than the computerised model‖ and this is why it‘s ―hardly possible‖ to create beneficial and fully integrated city or a country.

Fig. 24. IoT market structure (Bumb, Camhi & Schatzky, 2018).

Taking into consideration the enterprises perspective, Internet of Things currently has impact on supply management, quality control, asset monitoring and scheduling. In the services and public sector the major use cases are elements or ―smart‖ buildings, infrastructure, agriculture; patient monitoring and law enforcement devices (mainly in patrolling or crime predictiveness). The impact of IoT in the public sector in the future may concern healthcare efficiency; improvement of public safety; management of traffic and agriculture; and energy management of buildings. When it comes to enterprises Internet of Things‘ potential impact is linked to new business models, products and development processes; new ways of inventory and asset management; and innovative operations and logistics methods (Bumb, Camhi & Schatzky, 2018). Considering the perspective of a country, IoT solutions can have an influence on the directions of the infrastructure development: not only roads or new neighbourhoods, but mainly the telecommunication infrastructure (Kalinauskas, 2018). If IoT becomes more and more popular, the crucial country‘s issues for sustaining its growth will be improvement of the coverage, speed and the quality of telecommunication services. This may also increase the living standard of individual households (ibid.). The potential implications of IoT for economies and governments are shown in Figure 16. To clarify, these issues concern developed countries only (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013). The primary impact of IoT is stimulating economic growth or productivity,

48 which is also heavily affected by mobile Internet; automation of knowledge work; cloud technology and advanced robotics. The secondary influence of IoT is the need to create new regulations and laws, e.g. for autonomous and near-autonomous vehicles or machines. Other potential impact of IoT concerns employment and comparative advantage (the gains in trade which arise from technological progress).

Fig. 25. IoT implications for economies and governments (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted).

According to Chapin, Eldridge & Rose (2015) the Internet of Things also has the potential to bring social and economic impacts to emerging and developing countries in the areas of: sustainable agriculture, water quality and distribution, healthcare and industrialization. However, as Erasmus et al. (2016) argues, the IoT solutions in these fields applied in the developed countries cannot be ―copied‖ and put into context of emerging countries without the necessary adjustments. The changes involve: lowering the cost of production and maintenance; and improving the sustainability in more extreme environmental conditions (Erasmus et al., 2016). As Chapin, Eldridge & Rose (2015)

49 notice, in order to benefit from IoT, the developing countries will also need to undertake specific actions which may not be possible to happen without the help of developed countries (providing stable energy supply, Internet coverage and qualified human resources).

Fig. 26. IoT implications for businesses and organizations (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013, adapted).

Every established business or an organization is a part of the overall country‘s economy, but the Internet of Things impacts differ (see Figure 17). The primary influence of IoT is the potential of new products and services. Secondly, IoT creates new opportunities for entrepreneurs and helps in managing the goods between producers or industries. Moreover, it opens new methods and channels of sales between producers and consumers. It is also said that IoT changes organizational structures of a company (McKinsey Global Institute, 2013). One of the key impacts of IoT on enterprises are the transformations in customer experience: from product presentation, through choice process, to sales. In some cases sales will be automated, e.g. a ―smart‖ fridge which autonomously orders food which are missing

50 from the depository. It brings ―automated‖ profit for the grocery company and the customer benefits in saving time. Yet, what if this procedure also affects the free will and limits the choice of an individual? Automatizing the sales process may influence the person‘s ability to search, evaluate and make a decision. In other words, it can be said that IoT impacts financial decision making when it comes to automatized sales. Concerning private businesses, one of the IoT controversies is the company‘s ability to access the customers‘ data in order to e.g. improve customer service, however not always with the full awareness of a customer. The ―big data‖ may also be used by a business to achieve a competitive advance. IoT solutions can also visibly impact the workplace and the office practices: it is said that ―smart‖ workplaces improve productivity and operations efficiency, but there are also many risks which can affect the whole company. Internet of Things might have an impact on the relationships between companies or the stakeholders, which is still hard to predict. Another questionable influence concern changes in the strategies to attract and retain employees, organizing the work and motivation benefits. Least, but not last: how to measure the business value brought by the IoT solutions? Many of the impacts of IoT will be possible to characterize in the future just in the long- term observation. It is worth mentioning that according to the McKinsey Global Institute (2013) report, the largest impacts of IoT in the public sector in 2025 might be visible in healthcare. IoT value in healthcare per year by 2025 is estimated between 1,1 - 2,5 billion USD. Riggins and Wamba (2015) notice that the arising question which is: who would benefit from industry-wide IoT adoption? Is it the governments, the biggest companies, the most innovative start-ups? The potential answer is not clear and has not yet been researched.

1.6 Internet of Things market

Before analysing the current Internet of Things market, it is important to clarify what exactly ―smart‖ means in case of connected products. Chua & Zhang (2016) present a diagram in which the widest range of products are the consumer appliances: including both connected (capable to communicate with each other and/or users) and non-connected devices (with no built-in connectivity capability). This range contains the connected

51 appliances, and within these, ―smart‖ appliances. The word ―smart‖ applies to automated appliances which: require little or no user intervention; have built-in connectivity, include integrated sensors; and are supported by online services (Chua & Zhang, 2016).

Fig. 27. Consumer, connected, and ―smart‖ appliances (Chua & Zhang, 2016)

The introductory research of ways to develop IoT, involving European and US appliances manufacturers started around the year 2000 (Chua & Zhang). However, the governments and industry associations have started to support standardization just ten years later. The major enabler for IoT development were: Internet‘s and smartphones‘ popularization. According to Chua & Zhang (2016), in 2015 more than half of global population had access to the Internet; and the worldwide sales of smartphones reached 1.2 billion units. As one of the millennial phenomena is the trend of women pursuing careers rather than taking care of the household, the demand and the labour cost of domestic help raised. As a result, the value of tasks automation and connected appliances has increased – according to Chua & Zhang (2016). The top five markets of Internet of Things in 2017 became: China, United States, South Korea, Italy, and the United Kingdom (see Figure 19). Moreover, the global sales of connected appliances in 2017 grew 67% in the duration of one year, and was equal 41 million units (ibid.).

Fig. 28. World top 5 markets of Internet of Things in 2017: sales units and year-over-year volume growth (Chua & Zhang, 2016).

As far as the European IoT market is concerned, since 2016 there is an average annual revenue growth rate of 35% (see Figure 28). The number of users in Europe is growing annually by 33%, while in 2018 there were 15 millions of users. Moreover, the average revenue per user in Europe is growing annually by 1,82% (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018).

Fig. 29. Smart appliances in Europe (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018).

The Internet of Things market can be divided into two segments (see Figure 30); the first one includes devices for individual use, which involves personal and home use. The second market segment concerns enterprise use products with categories of: ―smart‖ city, industry, building, cars, energy, health, supply chain, agriculture, retail, education.

INTERNET OF THINGS MARKET

INDIVIDUAL USE ENTERPRISE USE

PERSONAL HOME - CITY - INDUSTRY - WEARABLES DOMOTICS INMOTICS - BUILDINGS 1. ACTIVITY - CARS - VOICE ASSISTANTS - SECURITY TRACKERS, - “SMART” GRID - HUBS - THERMOSTATS 2. WATCHES, - HEALTH - ENTERTAINMENT DEVICES - AIR CONDITIONING 3. JEWELLERY, - SUPPLY CHAIN - KITCHEN APPLIANCES - IRRIGATION SYSTEMS 4. ELECTRONIC TEXTILES, - AGRICULTURE 5. HEAD-MOUNTED DISPLAYS) - RETAIL - NON-WEARABLES - EDUCATION (COMPANIONS) - LIFTS

Fig. 30. Internet of Things market categories.

In the enterprise use market segment, the category of ―smart‖ city is the one with the biggest number of projects globally in 2018 (see Figure 31). Majority of the projects are located in Europe (45%) and Americas (34%), with increasing trend. The second biggest category is connected industry, with 45% of projects existing in the Americas. The third enterprise IoT category is ―smart‖ buildings with more than half (53%) of global projects located in Americas (IoT Analytics, 2018).

Fig. 31. Analysis of IoT enterprise projects globally (IoT Analytics, 2018).

1.6.2 Internet of Things home appliances market

As described before, the second IoT segment concerns the ―smart‖ solutions for individual use (see Figure 30). It divides into personal and home IoT. The personal products involve wearables (activity trackers, cameras, headsets and hearables) and companions (non-wearable devices such as a smartphone). The home products divide into domotics (home appliances; name comes from the Latin domus which means home) and inmotics (the building automation system elements). According to Barnett, Le & Nguyen (2012), ―smart‖ home has five main characteristics:

“1. Automation: the ability to accommodate automatic devices or perform automatic functions; 2. Multi-functionality: the ability to perform various duties or generate different outcomes; 3. Adaptability: the ability to learn, predict and meet the needs of users; 4. Interactivity: the ability to allow the interaction among users; 5. Efficiency: the ability to perform functions in a convenient manner that saves time and costs.” (Barnett, Le & Nguyen, 2012)

The total number of ―smart‖ homes in Europe in 2016 was equal to 4,3 million, while in 2018 this number grew to 10,7 million ―smart‖ homes (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018). However, the demand for ―smart‖ home products is still not very visible: 70% of surveyed households are not intending to buy a connected device during the next 12 months (Bonneau et al., 2017). The key innovator in this field are the United States, with ―smart‖ home revenue of over 10 million USD, significantly bigger than other countries in the year 2016 (see Figure 6). It is worth mentioning that the revenue is so dominant, because the new products are developed in the US and introduced to its market first (Bonneau et al., 2017). According to Angelova, Kiryakova & Yordanova (2017) the most common ―smart‖ home device is the wireless speaker system (17%), smart thermostat (11%), security system (9%) and domestic robot (8%).

Fig. 32. Global ―smart‖ home revenue (million USD) by country in 2016 and estimated in 2021 (Bonneau et al., 2017).

Regardless of its name, nowadays the ―smart‖ home is not yet as connected as in theory it could be. There are various home IoT appliances arising in the market, yet they are developed using existing communication platforms. This lack of universal communication protocols constrain users from interconnecting their products and integrating them fully in the home IoT system. As Persson (2017) claims, currently the ―smart‖ home in majority of cases should be understood as a group of ―smart‖ devices placed at home and being controllable through smartphones or tablets. The devices are usually not communicating between each other, just with the user. However, the future ―smart‖ home is described as an ecosystem generating information and adjusting suitable actions. In such ecosystem all the objects will have to efficiently communicate between each other, using the same ―language‖ (Persson, 2017). It is said to be the key challenge which requires cross-industry effort to overcome (Zhang, 2018). However, leading companies see this issue as an opportunity to compete. Apple claims at their website that more and more worldwide brands offer devices compatible with Apple HomeKit smart hub (see Figure 33).

Fig. 33. Types of home IoT devices compatible with Apple HomeKit hub (Apple, 2019).

While the ―smart‖ home market is still not a real ecosystem, it is necessary to define its elements. The division used in literature concerns two groups: large and small home appliances (Figure 34 and Figure 35).

Fig. 34. Large home appliances units traded in Europe in 2016-2017 (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018).

Fig. 35. Small home appliances units traded in Europe in 2016-2017 (Falcioni & Zinkan, 2018).

According to Falcioni & Zinkan (2018) home appliances categorized as large include: refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers, washing machines, tumble dryers, free standing cookers, built-in ovens, hobs, hoods, and microwaves (see Figure 34). Among all these, the most sold ones in 2016 and 2017 are washing machines and refrigerators. Respectively, the small appliances divide into: irons, food processors, cooking devices, coffee machines and juicers (see Figure 35), with the most sold units of food processors in 2016 and 2017. To clarify, both categories large and small appliances are also classified in the literature as kitchen appliances, considering their functions and usual placement in a household. Through integrating IoT solutions in the home kitchen environment, it is possible to gather data in order to bring benefits, such as: time saving, protection against fire, food spoilage or child misuse (Zhang, 2018). Sensors which send real-time information to the user may contribute to improving safety or the quality of the cooked dish. Constant monitoring of the kitchen equipment allows to analyse and adjust energy consumption, what can lower the cost of power bills. Long term analysis can help in identifying further eco-friendly initiatives, not only in the way of using the devices, but also concerning potential changes to the products. The real-time data processing can also contribute to monitoring of the state of components, e.g. a washing machine alarms which element needs maintenance (or which already broke down). In the very futuristic approach such washing machine can automatically order new pieces and schedule a technician visit. Another area in which IoT can improve the kitchen is help in storage management and therefore allow to save time (Zhang, 2018). A ―smart‖ fridge can create a database of the food products that are inside it, and help the user to make a shopping list based on his/her usual eating habits. Other function could be proposing recipes with the food which is currently in the fridge. As Zhang (2018) claims, while nowadays the usual controller of the individual kitchen appliances is a smartphone, in the future they can be controlled just by voice requests. The future kitchen has a potential to be one integrated ―smart‖ environment with an artificial intelligence system which coordinates multiple devices (Zhang, 2018). Zhang (2018) presents that overall key use cases of smart kitchen appliances involve food stock management, online purchasing, remote controlling and recipe

59 guidance. The most users of connected kitchen devices are the ones who cook at home almost every day or 1-2 times a week (Zhang, 2018). According to Zhang (2018), IoT can provide satisfying guidance to the users who cannot cook well, and therefore increase the number of times they would cook at home. The main reasons for home cooking are: healthy diet and money saving; while IoT solutions offer control of ingredients, their nutrients and monitor caloric intake (Zhang, 2018). As Zhang (2018) presents, the kitchen is the second important home space for social interaction (after the living room), and therefore considering the busy lifestyles, connected kitchen appliances can work semi-autonomously and contribute to time saving. They also allow the users to talk on the phone or video chats without smartphones while they are cooking (Zhang, 2018). Some products, e.g. ―smart‖ fridge Samsung Family Hub or GE ―Smart‖ Cooker Hood provide necessary hardware (ibid.). Zhang (2018) also highlights the importance of the structured process flow in the ―smart‖ kitchen (see Figure 36). Nowadays many connected kitchen appliances are sold with integrated mobile app, yet it meets just temporary engagement of the users (Zhang, 2018). The solution in this case can be user-centric development of the ―smart‖ products. Just through considering the previous and the next step in the cycle, the product will provide a good user experience: e.g. if the ―smart‖ device concerns cooking, it could also guide through preparation and propose ways of serving the dish. To sum up, Internet of Things in the kitchen should respond to current consumers‘ needs: maintaining a healthy diet; increasing socializing time; and making cooking both rewarding and entertaining for the individuals who are dependent on ―smart‖ devices.

Fig. 36. Process flow of the Connected Cooking Cycle (Zhang, 2018). F&D: food and drinks

1.6.2 Internet of Things home appliances customers

In the survey of Ahuja & Patel (2016) concerning Internet of Things customers, two thousand U.S. households were asked about their views about the connected home concept. This research led to distinguishing five main IoT customer segments labeled as: a traditionalist, urban dweller, family first, affluent nester and social climber; with the biggest segments being the traditionalist (24%), urban dweller (22%) and family first (21%). (see Figure 37). As Ahuja & Patel (2016) claim that the top smart home solution bought by the three biggest customer segments is a ―smart‖ thermostat. Moreover, the main interests of these segments are: home security, utilities, wellness and entertainment. The highest user satisfaction is reached through ease of use, ease of installation, and monthly service price (Ahuja & Patel, 2016).

Fig. 37. IoT customers segmentation (Ahuja & Patel, 2016).

Fig. 38. Top 3 IoT buying factors and features (Ahuja & Patel, 2016).

The main buying factor was price (see Figure 38). The buyers value also features, functionality and ease of setup. The top two features of bought IoT products was operating

62 at real time and connecting integrated devices without additional installations. The third feature was the convenience of controlling the system through one app (Ahuja & Patel, 2016). It is shown that some potential customers interested in buying IoT devices eventually do not purchase any of these products (see Figure 38). The main reason for this was the high price of a product. Moreover, 39% of subjects give up the purchase because the way of working is not clear for them. 37% of the surveyees do not buy IoT products because they believe that soon there will be more advanced product due to the technological development. For only 27% of surveyees security is the issue which prevents them from buying the IoT product. 24% of subjects do not care about improving the security, utilities standard or health; and 22% surveyees have not feel the need to purchase an IoT device.

Fig. 39. Non-users reasons for not purchasing IoT home devices (Ahuja & Patel, 2016).

In conclusion, the Internet of Things home appliances customers usually have income of 35-40 thousand USD per year, yet still for 86% of them the price of an IoT device is the key buying factor. The age group of the customers is wide: from 24 to 64 years old, yet the cheaper products are usually bought by people aged 45-64 years old. The main IoT devices purchased by them are: ―smart‖ thermostats, lighting and smoke

63 detectors; bought usually in big home improvement stores. People aged 24-44 are the second biggest group of IoT customers, with their favourite devices being: ―smart‖ thermostats and smoke detectors. They usually shop for IoT on the producers websites‘ or at online retailers. Moreover, new products adoption is the highest among people aged 24- 44 who are also ready to pay more for eco-friendly solutions. Just 18% of the customers have two ―smart‖ devices, and 26% own three or more. The households with over 100 thousand USD yearly income are three times more likely to have more than one connected appliance (Ahuja & Patel, 2016).

2. DESCRIPTION OF KITCHEN IOT APPLIANCES

This section includes a review of a convenient sample of 11 kitchen Internet of Things appliances, released after the year 2015. As ―released‖ the devices available for an immediate purchase are understood. As described in part 6 of this dissertation, in overall ―smart‖ home appliances are sometimes called kitchen appliances, considering their most frequent placement at a household. For the purposes of this review, kitchen appliances are the ones which are used in contexts concerning food; or which have contact with food. Five categories of smart kitchen devices were analysed: sous-vide cookers, cookers, frying pans, food thermometers, and ovens. Presented are descriptions of the devices which represent the given category in our limited sample. This research is based on commercial materials and products reviews accessible online. Some of the devices were tested in person by the author.

2.1 Sous-vide cookers

Sous-vide cooking method (derived from French ―under vacuum‖) involves low temperature food processing in a specified degrees scope, with a longer duration than conventional gas or electric cooking. In this method, a plastic bag filled with food is placed in a heated water container, and as a result the food does not have direct contact with water. Sous-vide ingredients are proven to have nutritional advantage comparing to the same ingredients prepared with boiling method (Daglia et al., 2017). The two analysed sous-vide

64 cookers are: Mellow (a standalone cooking device) and Anova Precision Cooker (a ―smart‖ accessory used with regular cooking pots).

2.1.1 Mellow

COUNTRY PRODUCT BRAND YEAR OF ISSUE RETAIL PRICE IN 2019 TESTED IN PERSON? OF ORIGIN

Portugal/ Mellow Mellow, Inc. 2016 299$ yes USA

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

white 1 0 1 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

WATER TANK AND LID Rigid transparent plastic, undetermined type.

DOCKING STATION Rigid white plastic, undetermined type.

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug in the CORDS end.

Fig. 40. Mellow device and connected mobile app. (A) Signalling LED; (B) On/off button. (source: https://www.direktconcept.com/2014/04/24/mellow-sous-vide-cooks-dinner-while- at-work/, adapted)

CATEGORY Sous-vide cookers

A programmable boiler for precision low-temperature cooking of food DESCRIPTION without direct contact with water. Includes refrigeration mode in the standby option.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 40,2 (height) x 23,1 (width) x 15,5 (depth) cm

VOLUME (FULL CAPACITY OF THE WATER TANK) 5 liters

SIZE OF THE WATER TANK OPENING 15,54 x 23,14 cm

MAXIMUM SIZE OF THE FOOD BAG 21,59 (width) x 27,94 (height) cm

TEMPERATURE RANGE OF THE WATER IN THE TANK 4℃ - 90℃

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The water tank of Mellow is intended to be detached for the docking CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER station and cleaned after several uses

The producer advises to replace the water in the tank with every cooking HOW OFTEN MUST THE process because of hygienic reasons. However, not changing the water WATER IN THE TANK BE REPLACED? will not influence negatively the cooking outcome. The food does not have direct contact with water, therefore the taste will not change.

HEATING POWER 1000W

POWER SUPPLY 120V (US standard)

Mobile app only, pre-installed on the user‘s smartphone. Mellow does not have a controlling interface built-in. If plugged in, the device stays in standby mode ready to use. It will not start operating if the water tank WAY OF CONTROLLING is empty. If a cooking is scheduled for the future and the food is in the tank, the refrigeration mode is activated until the selected hour of cooking mode. In case of emergency there is no special button to stop the process, but the user should pull off the plug from the socket.

Mellow device is always in stand-by mode, waiting for requests of the HOW IS THE WORKING user. It‘s turned off only when the power plug is disconnected. While in PHRASE INDICATED? the working phrase, a movement of air bubbles is noticeable in the water tank.

PRODUCES VOLATILE Mellow produces low volume humming sound while running. No other EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

No. However, the ongoing cooking cycle will continue as programmed. CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? It can be interrupted only if the Internet connection is restored.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

Yes. Mellow needs additionally purchased plastic bags for sous-vide ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED cooking. They can be bought at the company‘s website, but any other PRODUCTS NEEDED? brand of plastic bags can be also successfully used. The bags are not reusable. Mellow does not sell pre-packed meals.

The user‘s data put into Mellow app involves: name, date of birth, WHAT DATA IS e-mail address, type of cooked food, used recipes, length of cooking, ACCESSIBLE TO THE PRODUCER? opinion about the outcome.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. However, Mellow app saves the user favourite choices and makes BASED ON THE CLOUD suggestions for future uses, such as: recipes, temperature of cooking, DATA? time of cooking.

The user‘s licence authentication happens during the first use of the device. It is needed to pair the device with the app and to create a user HOW IS THE LICENCE account. Mellow allows to create a ―family‖ profile where several AUTHENTICIZED? mobile phones can be connected to one Mellow device. The information about cooking process is then visible in all of the phones, and all of them can control one device.

1. Download the mobile app - 2. Plug in the device - 3. Pair the device with the app - 4. Wait for the device LED turning green - 5. Create a user account - 6. Log in - 7. Take off the Mellow tank - 8. Take off the lid - 9. Put tap water in the tank - 10. Put the tank on the dock station - SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS 11. Put in a plastic bag with food - 12. Check in the app if the weight is IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE detected - 13. Close the lid - 14. Select the type of food in the app (see Figure 1) - 15. Select the details - 16. Insert the hour the food has to be ready - 17. Start cooking process - 18. After it‘s finished, take off the lid - 19. Take out the food in a plastic bag - 20. Take off the tank - 21. Dispose of water - 22. Put the tank on the dock station - 23. Close the lid

1. Take off the Mellow tank - 2. Take off the lid - 3. Put tap water in the tank - 4. Put the tank on the dock station - 5. Put in a plastic bag with food - 6. Check in the app if the weight is detected - 7. Close the lid - 8. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Select the type of food in the app (see Figure 2) - 9. Select the details - IN THE RECIPE USE CYCLE 10. Insert the hour the food has to be ready - 11. Start cooking process - 12. After it‘s finished, take off the lid - 13. Take out the food in a plastic bag - 14. Take off the tank - 15. Dispose of water - 16. Put the tank on the dock station - 17. Close the lid

SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS 1. Take off the Mellow tank - 2. Take off the lid - 3. Put tap water in the IN THE MANUAL USE tank - 4. Put the tank on the dock station - 5. Put in a plastic bag with CYCLE food - 6. Check in the app if the weight is detected - 7. Close the lid

- 8. Select ―manual mode‖ in the app - 9. Choose the temperature - 10. Choose the time - 11. Start cooking process - 12. After it‘s finished, take off the lid - 13. Take out the food in a plastic bag - 14. Take off the tank - 15. Dispose of water - 16. Put the tank on the dock station - 17. Close the lid

2.1.2 Anova Precision Cooker

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE IN 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

Anova Precision Anova Culinary (acquired by USA 2015 129€ no Cooker Electrolux in 2017)

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Black, silver 2 2 4 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

TOP PART INCLUDING DISPLAY Polycarbonate

PROBE IMMERSED IN WATER Stainless steel

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US or EU plug CORDS in the end.

Fig. 41. Anova Precision Cooker with its mobile app. (A) Wheel lighten up with a blue LED; (B) Display; (C) Signalling LED. (source: https://slickdeals.net/f/12479224-target- anova-culinary-sous-vide-precision-cooker-wi-fi-bluetooth-99, adapted)

CATEGORY Sous-vide cookers

A programmable heating element placed in water container, used for DESCRIPTION sous-vide preparation of food sealed in a plastic bag.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 36,8 (length) x 6,98 (width) cm

PROBE TEMPERATURE RANGE 25℃ - 99℃

The stainless steel probe should be cleaned after every use with regular PARTS INTENDED TO BE dish soap. It should be disassembled from the top part of the device by CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER clockwise rotation. The top part cannot be immersed in water, because it consists of electronic parts.

HEATING POWER 800W

POWER SUPPLY 220V

There are two ways of controlling: through the built-in interface ad through the mobile app. Both of the ways fully control the device. WAY OF CONTROLLING Mobile app has the advantage of guiding the user through recipes and cooking modes.

Anova shows the current water temperature and the time countdown on the top panel if the device is in the working phrase. This phrase can also HOW IS THE WORKING PHRASE INDICATED? be indicated by the air bubbles being released in the water tank. The blue LED will also be lighten up while Anova is working, yet it is also on during the standby mode.

PRODUCES VOLATILE Anova produces low volume humming sound while running. No other EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? Yes. Anova device can fully operate offline without constraints.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

Yes. Anova Precision Cooker needs additional water container (plastic, ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED PRODUCTS NEEDED? metal or glass) and sous-vide plastic bags. They are not sold by the producer.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. It involves: name, e-mail address, type of cooked food, used recipes, length of WHAT DATA IS cooking, opinion about the outcome, and meal preparation patterns (e.g. ACCESSIBLE TO THE hour of the day). The user can also mark a recipe as a favourite. What is PRODUCER? more, the app has access to: user‘s location, Wi-Fi connection information, full network access, Bluetooth settings, control phone vibration, preventing the phone from hibernation mode.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Anova Precision cooker does not suggest the user recipes based on BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA? his/her cooking history.

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is authenticized with the first use of Anova with the mobile AUTHENTICIZED? app. In case of only offline control, no licence is being checked.

1. Attach the device to the water container - 2. Put in the water - 3. Plug in the device - 4. Put tap water in the container - 5. Put in a plastic bag with food - 6. Set the desired temperature range with the blue wheel - 7. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Press the start button once - 8. Press the start button for 8 seconds until IN THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP the timer LED lights up - 9. Set the desired time with the blue wheel - 10. Press the start button once to start cooking process - 11. After it‘s finished, take out the food in a plastic bag - 12. Unplug the device - 13. Take off the device from the container - 14. Dispose of water

1. Download the mobile app - 2. Attach the device to the water container - 3. Put in the water - 4. Plug in the device - 5. Pair the device with the app - 6. Wait for the device LED turning blue - 7. Create a user account SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS - 8. Log in - 9. Put tap water in the container - 10. Put in a plastic bag IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH AN APP with food - 11. Select the type of food in the app (see Figure 2) - 12. Select the details - 13. Start cooking process - 14. After it‘s finished, take out the food in a plastic bag - 15. Unplug the device - 16. Take off the device from the container - 17. Dispose of water

1. Attach the device to the water container - 2. Put in the water - 3. Plug in the device - 4. Put tap water in the container - 5. Put in a plastic bag SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS with food - 6. Select the type of food in the app (see Figure 2) - 7. Select IN THE USE CYCLE WITH THE APP the details - 8. Start cooking process - 9. After it‘s finished, take out the food in a plastic bag - 10. Unplug the device - 11. Take off the device from the container - 12. Dispose of water

2.2 Slow Cookers

Slow cookers, also known as crock-pots are cooking appliances used to simmer food in lower temperatures than regular boiling, baking or frying. Because of lower temperature, this method takes more time than preparing the same food in the regular way. The types of dishes prepared with slow cookers are: stews, soups, desserts, dips, beverages, and also bread. The design of this device usually concerns oval cooking pot with a lid, placed on an electric heated docking station. Slow cookers don‘t feature specific temperature control, because it‘s not needed in this cooking method; usually a device of this type has three heat settings - low, medium and high.

2.2.1 Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker with WeMo app

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker with Belkin USA 2015 516$ no WeMo app

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Black, silver 1 0 4 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

REMOVABLE LID Glass lid with metal handle covered with plastic

REMOVABLE COOKING POT Metal

ELECTRICAL HEATED Brushed stainless steel case insulated with plastic. Heated stoneware DOCKING STATION panel on the bottom. Plastic handles.

Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US or EU EXTERNAL ELECTRIC CORDS plug in the end.

Fig. 42. Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker with WeMo. (A) Button; (B) Signalling LEDs. (source: https://www.smarthomedb.com/product/crock-pot-wemo-slow- cooker/p138, adapted)

CATEGORY Slow cookers

A programmable, countertop heating pot that allows unattended and DESCRIPTION scheduled cooking using the WeMo mobile app.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 35,05 (width) x 23,87 (height) x 24,89 (depth) cm

HEATING PANEL TEMPERATURE RANGE Not specified by the producer, yet around 100℃

The cooking pot and the lid can be dismounted from the heating docking PARTS INTENDED TO BE station and washed with regular dish soap or cleaned in a dishwasher. CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER The docking station cannot be immersed in water; the producer advises cleaning it with damp cloth.

HEATING POWER 75W (low heat setting) - 200W (high heat setting)

POWER SUPPLY 220V

There are two ways of controlling: through the built-in interface ad through the mobile app. However, just the mobile app allows for using all the features of the device, such as heating mode and the timer set-up. WAY OF CONTROLLING During the offline use, just the heating mode selection is available - the time should be controlled by an outer tool. In case of emergency there is no special button to turn off the device, the user must simply plug it off.

Crock-Pot indicates the working phrase by lighten up LED with one of HOW IS THE WORKING PHRASE INDICATED? the heat settings (low, medium or high). The details about the timer are shown in the app.

PRODUCES VOLATILE Crock-Pot produces very low volume buzzing sound while running. No EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? other emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

Yes, yet with limited functionality. Crock-Pot used offline loses the CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? ability to track the time of the food preparation process. In case of interrupted Internet connection, Crock-Pot will continue as programmed.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

ARE ADDITIONAL No additional products are needed. BRANDED PRODUCTS NEEDED?

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By accepting WHAT DATA IS the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to ACCESSIBLE TO THE share the localization and Wi-Fi connections. The user also gives access PRODUCER? to phone contacts list with names and phone numbers; modification or searching contents on the drive; using the camera; modify phone system settings and receive data from the Internet.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Crock-Pot does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is authenticized with the first use of Crock-Pot with the AUTHENTICIZED? mobile app. In case of only offline control, no licence is being checked.

1. Plug in the device - 2. Take off the lid. - 3. Place food in the pot. - 4. Close the lid. - 5. Press the button once to turn on the device. - 6. The SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS default temperature setting is set on ―low‖. Press the button once to IN THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP change it to ―medium‖, and twice to set it to‖high‖. Pressing the button 3 times comes back to the ―low‖ setting. - 7. After it‘s finished, press the button for several seconds to turn off the device. - 8. Take off the lid. -

9. Take out the food. - 10. Take off the removable pot and the lid. - 11. Wash the removable pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 12. Place the pot with the lid on the heating dock.

1. Download the mobile app - 2. Plug in the device - 3. Pair the device with the app - 4. Take off the lid. - 5. Place food in the pot. - 6. Close the lid. - 7. Select the device in the app. - 8. Select desired settings (low, medium or high temperature). - 9. Set up the timer. - 10. Press ―start‖. - SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS 11. After finished cooking process a notification is sent to the user. The IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH AN APP device will automatically keep the food warm until the user turns it off (remotely through the app or by pressing the button manually). - 12. Take off the lid. - 13. Take out the food. - 14. Take off the removable pot and the lid. - 15. Wash the removable pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 16. Place the pot with the lid on the heating dock.

1. Plug in the device - 2. Take off the lid. - 3. Place food in the pot. - 4. Close the lid. - 5. Turn on the app. - 6. Select desired settings (low, medium or high temperature). - 7. Set up the timer. - 8. Press ―start‖. - 9. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS After finished cooking process a notification is sent to the user. The IN THE USE CYCLE WITH device will automatically keep the food warm until the user turns it off THE APP (remotely through the app or by pressing the button manually). - 10. Take off the lid. - 11. Take out the food. - 12. Take off the removable pot and the lid. - 13. Wash the removable pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 14. Place the pot with the lid on the heating dock.

2.2.2 Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi Instant Brands USA 2018 150$ no 6 Quart Inc.

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Black, silver 18 1 0 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

Metal lid with plastic rim, plastic top handle and plastic REMOVABLE LID closing element

REMOVABLE INNER POT WITH 3-LAYER BOTTOM Stainless steel

ELECTRICAL HEATED BASE WITH HANDLES Brushed stainless steel case with plastic rim. Plastic handles.

Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US EXTERNAL ELECTRIC CORDS plug in the end.

Fig. 43. Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart. (A) Screen; (B) Button. (source: https://www.amazon.com/Instant-Pot-Smart-Electric-Pressure/dp/B0777XQ4S8, adapted)

CATEGORY Slow cookers

A programmable, countertop heating pot with a removable inner DESCRIPTION compartment. Allows unattended and scheduled cooking programmed through a mobile app.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 31 (width) x 31,7 (height) x 33,5 (depth) cm

HEATING PANEL TEMPERATURE RANGE 82-99°C

The inner cooking pot and its lid should be disattached from the heating PARTS INTENDED TO BE docking station and washed with regular dish soap or cleaned in a CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER dishwasher. The base cannot be immersed in water; the producer advises cleaning it with damp cloth.

HEATING POWER 1000W

POWER SUPPLY 120V

There are two ways of controlling: through the built-in interface ad through the mobile app. The offline use supports 13 programs reflected in the interface‘s buttons: Soup/Broth, Meat/Stew, Bean/Chili, Cake, WAY OF CONTROLLING Slow Cook, Sauté/Searing, Rice, Multigrain, Porridge, Steam, Yogurt, Keep Warm, and Pressure Cook. Timer and setting delayed start available. The only additional feature of the mobile app use is access to full meal recipes.

HOW IS THE WORKING Instant-Pot indicates the working phrase by lighten up display with PHRASE INDICATED? timer countdown running.

PRODUCES VOLATILE Instant-Pot produces very low volume buzzing sound while running. EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? Very little steam is leaked from the cooking pot.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? Yes, without any limitations to the main functionality.

Yes, it connects only through Wi-Fi. Wired Internet connection is not WIRELESS? possible.

ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED PRODUCTS NEEDED? No additional products are needed.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By accepting WHAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to TO THE PRODUCER? give access to: mobile phone media data, location, view Wi-Fi connections, receive data from the Internet, modify system settings, pair with Bluetooth devices, control phone‘s flashlight and vibration.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Instant-Pot does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is not authenticated while used without the mobile app AUTHENTICATED? control.

1. Plug in the device - 2. Take off the lid. - 3. Place food in the pot. - 4. Close the lid. - 5. Press the on/off button to turn on the device. - 6. Press SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS once the button indicating the type of food which is going to be cooked. IN THE USE CYCLE - 7. Set up the timer pressing the ―-‖ or ―+‖ buttons. - 8. Press the WITHOUT THE APP ―start‖ button. - 9. After it‘s finished, press the button for several seconds to turn off the device. - 10. Take off the lid. - 11. Take out the food. - 12. Take off the removable pot and the lid. - 13. Wash the

removable pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 14. Place the pot with the lid back on the heating dock.

1. Download the mobile app - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Plug in the device - 4. Press the on/off button - 5. Pair the device with the app - 6. Take off the lid. - 7. Place food in the pot. - 8. Close the lid. - 9. Select SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS desired settings in the app: temperature, pressure and duration; or select IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE desired recipe to follow. - 10. Press ―start‖. - 11. After finished cooking WITH AN APP process a notification is sent to the user. - 12. Take off the lid. - 13. Take out the food. - 14. Take off the removable inner pot and the lid. - 15. Wash the removable inner pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 16. Place the pot with the lid on the heating dock.

1. Plug in the device - 2. Press the on/off button - 3. Pair the device with the app - 4. Take off the lid. - 5. Place food in the pot. - 6. Close the lid. - 7. Select desired settings in the app: temperature, pressure and SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS duration; or select desired recipe to follow. - 8. Press ―start‖. - 9. After IN THE USE CYCLE WITH THE APP finished cooking process a notification is sent to the user. - 10. Take off the lid. - 11. Take out the food. - 12. Take off the removable inner pot and the lid. - 13. Wash the removable inner pot and the lid in the sink or a dishwasher. - 14. Place the pot with the lid on the heating dock.

2.3. Induction Cooktops

Induction cooking is a way to heat the pot or pan through use of electromagnetic field. The kitchenware is heated directly, while the cooktop remains not heated. The cooking surface produces a magnetic field and as a result the kitchenware made of ferrous metals produces heat. Even if turned on, the induction cooktop does not generate heat itself, unless the kitchenware is placed on the top of it.

2.3.1 Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

Goodful One Top Smart Cusinart USA 2019 149$ no Induction Cooktop

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Blue, white, black 3 0 10 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

ELECTRICAL HEATED SURFACE Round crystal glass surface with plastic rim around.

Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug in EXTERNAL ELECTRIC CORDS the end.

Fig. 44. Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop. (A) 10 signalling LEDs; (B) Buttons. (source: https://www.tastyonetop.com/, adapted)

CATEGORY Induction cooktops

A programmable, induction cooktop with integrated surface sensor DESCRIPTION which measures the temperature of the cookware. Allows unattended and scheduled cooking programmed through a mobile app.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 34,29 (width) x 7,62 (height) x 34,92 (depth) cm

HEATING PANEL TEMPERATURE RANGE 32° C – 221° C

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The electrical heated surface cannot be immersed in water; the producer CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER advises cleaning it with damp cloth while cooled down and plugged off.

HEATING POWER 100 - 1500W

POWER SUPPLY 120V

There are two ways of controlling: through the built-in interface ad through the mobile app. The offline use supports 10 heating levels WAY OF CONTROLLING adjustable by the buttons ―+‖ and ―-‖. Timer, delayed start and recipes only available through the mobile app.

HOW IS THE WORKING The device indicates the working phrase by lighten up LEDs which PHRASE INDICATED? represent the level of heat.

PRODUCES VOLATILE Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop produces no emissions EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? while running.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

Yes. The cooking process will continue as programmed. It can be CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? interfered or modified by using the manual interface.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

Additional products (pots, pans or other cooking hardware) are needed, ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED but the brand does not produce them. One Top works with all induction PRODUCTS NEEDED? compatible cooking accessories. The producer specifies that it‘s not compatible with kitchenware of diameter smaller than 11,93 cm.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By accepting the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to WHAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE TO THE PRODUCER? give access to: location of the smartphone, modifying storage, Wi-Fi connections, receive data from the Internet, modify system settings, pair with Bluetooth devices, control phone‘s flashlight and vibration, prevent the smartphone from hibernation mode.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. One Top does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is not authenticated while used without the mobile app AUTHENTICATED? control.

1. Plug in the device. - 2. Press the ―Power‖ button to turn on the device. - 3. Set up the heat level pressing the ―-‖ or ―+‖ buttons. - 4. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Place the cookware with food on the top surface. - 5. Press the ―Power‖ IN THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP button to start. - 6. After it‘s finished, press the ―Power‖ button to turn off the device. - 7. Take off the cookware. - 8. Unplug the device. - 9. Wash the top surface with a damp cloth.

1. Plug in the device. - 2. Press the ―Power‖ button to turn on the device. - 3. Download the One Top app. - 4. Create a user account. - 5. Pair the device with the app. - 6. Place the cookware with food on the SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS top surface. - 7. Set up the heat level, timer or the recipe in the app and IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH AN APP confirm. While cooking, current cookware surface temperature is displayed in the app. - 8. After it‘s finished, press the ―Power‖ button to turn off the device. - 9. Take off the cookware. - 10. Unplug the device. - 11. Wash the top surface with a damp cloth.

1. Plug in the device. - 2. Press the ―Power‖ button to turn on the device. - 3. Place the cookware with food on the top surface. - 4. Set up SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS the heat level, timer or the recipe in the app and confirm. While IN THE USE CYCLE WITH cooking, current cookware surface temperature is displayed in the app. - THE APP 5. After it‘s finished, press the ―Power‖ button to turn off the device. - 6. Take off the cookware. - 7. Unplug the device. - 8. Wash the top surface with a damp cloth.

2.4 Frying pans

A frying pan is a flat-bottomed cookware with lower height than a cooking pot, and usually with a single handle. It may include a lid. It is meant for frying, searing or browning food, all of which concern using oil. A coating may be applied in order to make the surface non-sticky; the most popular coating nowadays is called Teflon, which is bonded to aluminium. The older prototypes of frying pans were made of cast iron, but materials such as copper, aluminium, stainless steel, or carbon steel.

2.4.1 SmartyPans

COUNTRY PRODUCT BRAND YEAR OF ISSUE RETAIL PRICE IN 2019 TESTED IN PERSON? OF ORIGIN

SmartyPans SmartyPans Inc. USA 2015 229$ no

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Black, red, 0 0 2 yes yes orange

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

REMOVABLE PAN Round ceramic removable pan, safe for contact with food.

Die-casted pan with weight sensor and high temperature resin handle. The DIE-CASTED PAN WITH A HANDLE handle consists of electronic components and a 2500 mAH rechargeable LiPo battery.

Fig. 45. SmartyPans. (A) Signalling LED. (source: https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/smartypans- world-s-first-smart-cooking-pan#/, adapted)

CATEGORY Frying pans

A frying pan with integrated temperature sensor and weight sensor, which values can be read in the mobile app. Includes LEDs signalling DESCRIPTION optimal frying temperature (blue LED color) or the temperature too high (red LED color).

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 30,48 cm pan diameter. No information about the handle length.

SENSOR READING TEMPERATURE RANGE 0° C – 676° C

The bottom die-casted pan with a handle cannot be immersed in water PARTS INTENDED TO BE because it includes electronics. The removable ceramic pan should be CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER cleaned after every use with regular dish soap and it‘s also dishwasher safe.

2500 mAH rechargeable LiPo battery. According to the producer, it BATTERY can last up to 4 months of regular use.

There are two ways of using SmartyPans: reading the sensors values WAY OF CONTROLLING in the mobile app or using the device offline as a regular pan, losing all the IoT features.

HOW IS THE WORKING PHRASE INDICATED? The device indicates the working phrase by lighten up blue LED.

PRODUCES VOLATILE EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE SmartyPans produces no emissions while running. RUNNING?

DOES IT NEEDS A No. SmartyPans is powered only through built-in, removable and PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER rechargeable battery, which is included in the purchase (but can be PLUG? replaced by any other battery of this type).

Yes. However, it looses all the features of reading the sensors or LED signalling. While interrupting the Internet connection, the LED will CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? blink repetitively in red. What is more, the pan does not have on/off button; it‘s always in the standby mode with turned off LEDs. While selected in the app, the LED turns on in blue.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

Additional products (as an electric, induction or gas stove) are needed, ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED PRODUCTS NEEDED? but the brand does not produce them. The product itself does not produce heat, so additional heat source is needed.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By WHAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE accepting the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user TO THE PRODUCER? agrees to give access to: username, e-mail address, location, recipe history, view Wi-Fi connections, receive data from the Internet, pair with Bluetooth devices.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. SmartyPans does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is not authenticated while used without the mobile app AUTHENTICATED? control.

1. Place SmartyPans on the heat source. - 2. Place food in the removable pan. - 3. Continue frying adjusting the heat manually. - 4. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS IN After it‘s finished, take SmartyPans off the heat source. - 5. Take out THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP the food. - 6. Wash the removable pan with regular dish soap or in a dishwasher. - 7. Wash the die-casted pan with a damp cloth.

1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Pair SmartyPans with the app. - 4. Place SmartyPans on the heat source. - 5. Place food in the removable pan. - 6. Select SmartyPans icon in the app, select the recipe and press ―start‖. The LED of SmartyPans will SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS IN turn blue. - 7. Add the first ingredient. The app will show its weight. - THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH SELECTED RECIPE IN THE 8. Tap on ―accept‖ and add the next ingredient. - 9. Continue until the APP recipe is finished. The app will notify when to turn off the heat source. - 10. After cooking is finished, take SmartyPans off the heat source. - 11. Take out the food. - 12. Wash the removable pan with regular dish soap or in a dishwasher. - 13. Wash the die-casted pan with a damp cloth.

1. Place SmartyPans on the heat source. - 2. Place food in the removable pan. - 3. Select SmartyPans icon in the app and press ―start‖. The LED of SmartyPans will turn blue. - 4. Add the first SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS IN ingredient and select its name from the list. The app will show its THE USE CYCLE WITH FREE weight. - 5. Tap on ―accept‖ and add the next ingredient to the pan, COOKING MODE IN THE APP selecting its name on the list. - 6. Continue until the recipe is finished. - 7. After cooking is finished, take SmartyPans off the heat source. - 8. Take out the food. - 9. Wash the removable pan with regular dish soap or in a dishwasher. - 10. Wash the die-casted pan with a damp cloth.

2.5 Food thermometers

A food thermometer, also called meat or cooking thermometer is used to measure internal temperature of a meal, usually in professional cooking with the type of food processing which concern specified temperature. They are usually pinned into a piece of meat, pastry, candy dough or milk (e.g. in cheese preparation process). It can be analogue or digital, consisting of a metal probe and watch-like display (if analogue) or a display (if digital). In the market there are one-piece and multiple piece thermometers. The multiple- piece ones are usually differentiated because of the included wire, which allows to place the reading probe inside of the oven, and the display outside of it.

2.5.1 Meater+ Smart Thermometer

COUNTRY PRODUCT BRAND YEAR OF ISSUE RETAIL PRICE IN 2019 TESTED IN PERSON? OF ORIGIN

Meater+ Apption Labs USA 2016 109€ no

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Silver, black 0 0 1 yes yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

THERMOMETER Stainless steel probe, safe for contact with food. Rechargeable battery (type not PROBE specified) included.

Wooden (type of wood not specified) rectangle with a magnet on the back, CHARGING DOCK allowing to place it on e.g. a fridge. Electronics and one removable AAA battery included.

Fig. 46. Meater Smart Thermometer. (A) Built-in internal sensor; (B) Signalling LED; (C) Built-in ambient sensor. (source: https://meater.com/, adapted)

CATEGORY Food thermometers

A food thermometer, which values can be read wirelessly in the mobile app. Includes one battery-powered charger with a LED signalling DESCRIPTION ongoing charging process. The charger is also a signal repeater, allowing Meater+ to work within distance up to 50m.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 15,7 (height) x 3,7 (width) x 2,8 (depth) cm

SENSOR READING TEMPERATURE RANGE 100° C – 275° C

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The probe should be washed after every use, but it‘s not dishwasher CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY safe. The charging dock cannot be immersed in water or washed with THE USER dish soap because it includes electronics.

BATTERY AAA battery. According to the producer, it can last up to 24 hours.

Meater+ works just when paired with the mobile app. The app allows WAY OF CONTROLLING for reading the temperatures real-time from the inner and ambient sensors.

The working phrase is indicated just in the app, by showing the HOW IS THE WORKING PHRASE INDICATED? temperature and countdown of the timer. Meater+ probe is always on and it should be stored in the charger while not in use.

PRODUCES VOLATILE EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE Meater+ produces no emissions while running. RUNNING?

DOES IT NEEDS A No. Meater+ is powered only through built-in battery rechargeable in PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER the special charging dock. The dock includes one removable AAA PLUG? battery.

No. Meater+ loses all the functionality while offline. While interrupting CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? the Internet connection, a notification is shown in the app and the current temperature reading is lost.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED Additional products are not needed, just the substance in which Meater+ PRODUCTS NEEDED? will be immersed/pinned into.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By accepting the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to WHAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE TO THE PRODUCER? give access to: username, e-mail address, location, view Wi-Fi connections, retrieve running apps, access Bluetooth settings, receive data from the Internet, pair with Bluetooth devices, prevent the mobile phone from hibernation and control vibration.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Meater+ does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is not authenticated while used without the mobile app AUTHENTICATED? control.

SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Not possible. IN THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP

1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Pair Meater+ dock with the app. - 4. Select your target temperature and place the Meater+ probe in the food. - 5. The real-time temperature is visible SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS in the app. Adjust temperature in the heat source as needed. - 6. When IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH THE APP the target temperature is reached, the Meater app will send a notification, sound alarm and a vibration. - 7. After cooking is finished, take Meater+ probe out of the food. - 8. Wash the probe with regular dish soap.

1.Open the app. - 2. Select your target temperature and place the Meater+ probe in the food. - 3. The real-time temperature is visible in SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS the app. Adjust temperature in the heat source as needed. - 4. When the IN THE USE CYCLE WITH THE APP target temperature is reached, the Meater app will send a notification, sound alarm and a vibration. - 5. After cooking is finished, take Meater+ probe out of the food. - 6. Wash the probe with regular dish soap.

2.5.2 Range Dial Smart Thermometer

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

Range Supermecha-nical USA 2016 59.95$ no Dial LLC

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Silver, red, blue 0 0 0 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

Stainless steel probe (safe for contact with food) with rounded plastic THERMOMETER PROBE handle.

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug in the CORDS end.

BLUETOOTH MODULE Stainless steel and polycarbonate round knob with an enclosure.

Fig. 47. Range Dial Smart Thermometer. (A) Plastic handle; (B) Thermometer probe; (C) Bluetooth module. (source: https://supermechanical.com/range/, adapted)

CATEGORY Food thermometers

A food thermometer, which values can be read in the mobile app after connecting an input mini jack into the element with Bluetooth module. DESCRIPTION The module indicates four types of cooked meat: beef, pork, chicken and fish. The wire has length of 117 cm. The Bluetooth module connects to the iOS device and works within range of 20m.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 12,7 (height) x 3,04 (width) x 1,27 (depth) cm

SENSOR READING TEMPERATURE RANGE -40° C – 230° C

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The probe should be washed after every use, but it‘s not dishwasher CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY safe. The jack input cannot be immersed in water, as well as the THE USER Bluetooth module.

The thermometer itself has no battery. It is powered from the Bluetooth module battery through the mini jack input attached to a wire. The BATTERY module includes 2 AAA batteries, which according to the producer, can last up to 6 months of regular use.

Range Dial works offline and also when paired with the mobile app and WAY OF CONTROLLING plugged into iOS device's headphone jack. The app allows for reading the temperatures real-time.

The working phrase is visually indicated in the Bluetooth module by red HOW IS THE WORKING PHRASE INDICATED? material showing up in the selected mode in the app, by showing the temperature and/or the countdown of the timer.

PRODUCES VOLATILE EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE Range Dial produces no emissions while running. RUNNING?

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION Yes. Range Dial should be connected to the Bluetooth module, because TO THE ELECTRIC POWER it is fed by its battery. PLUG?

Yes. However, Range Dial loses the timer functionality and the function of reading real-time temperature when offline. If the temperature is too CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? high, the Bluetooth module beeps and alarms the user to lower the heat. While interrupting the Internet connection, a notification is shown in the app and the current temperature reading is lost.

Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible. The Bluetooth module is WIRELESS? paired to the smartphone, and then the app uses the WiFi connection.

ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED The substance in which Range Dial will be immersed/pinned into is PRODUCTS NEEDED? needed. Two AAA batteries in the Bluetooth module are needed.

The device used without its app sends no information to the producer, but the data put into the app is accessible by the company. By accepting WHAT DATA IS ACCESSIBLE the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to TO THE PRODUCER? give access to: username, e-mail address, location, access Bluetooth settings, receive data from the Internet, pair with Bluetooth devices, prevent the mobile phone from hibernation and control vibration.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Range Dial does not make any decision based on the history. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

HOW IS THE LICENCE The licence is not authenticated while used without the mobile app AUTHENTICATED? control.

1. Place the Range Dial probe in the food. - 2. Plug in the jack into the module. - 3. Place the food on a heat source. - 4. Select the type of SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS prepared meat in the module. - 5. When the temperature is too high, the IN THE USE CYCLE module beeps and the temperature needs to be adjusted. - 6. After WITHOUT THE APP cooking is finished, take the food out of the heat source and the Range Dial probe out of the food. - 8. Unplug the jack from the module. - 9. Wash the probe with regular dish soap.

1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Place the Range Dial probe in the food. - 4. Plug in the jack into the module. - 5. Place the food on a heat source. - 6. Select the type of prepared meat in SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS the module by turning the knob. - 7. Pair Range Dial Bluetooth module IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE with the app. - 8. The real-time temperature is visible in the app. Adjust WITH THE APP temperature in the heat source as needed according to the app notifications. - 9. When the target temperature is reached, the app will send a notification, sound alarm and a vibration. - 10. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the heat source and the Range Dial probe

out of the food. - 11. Unplug the jack from the module. - 12. Wash the probe with regular dish soap.

1. Place the Range Dial probe in the food. - 2. Plug in the jack into the module. - 3. Place the food on a heat source. - 4. Select the type of prepared meat in the module by turning the knob. - 5. The real-time SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS temperature is visible in the app. Adjust temperature in the heat source IN THE USE CYCLE WITH as needed according to the app notifications. - 6. When the target THE APP temperature is reached, the app will send a notification, sound alarm and a vibration. - 7. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the heat source and the Range Dial probe out of the food. - 8. Unplug the jack from the module. - 9. Wash the probe with regular dish soap.

2.6 Ovens

A kitchen oven is a heated, insulated chamber with usually one door, meant for food processing in high temperatures such as: baking, roasting or heating. It includes a roasting tray or a baking tray, both of which can support additional accessories such as casserole dishes or baking pans. Ovens are fueled by natural gas, bottled gas or run on electricity. Ovens consist of a thermostat and in some cases, of a timer. The latest oven models include complex processors, sensors and other electronics, which are capable to connect to a network and control the appliance from the mobile device. Ovens analysed in this section are the latest ―smart‖ models released to the market in 2018 - 2019.

2.6.1 June Intelligent Oven

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

June Intelligent June Life USA 2018 699$ no Oven Inc.

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Silver grey 0 1 0 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

INTERIOR Stainless steel (brushed finish)

EXTERIOR Cold-rolled steel

FINISH Metallic silver grey (powder coated)

DOOR Edge-to-edge, triple-glazed, thermally coated glass

HANDLE Stainless steel

TRAY Stainless steel

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug in the CORDS end.

Fig. 48. June Intelligent Oven. (A) Touch display. (source: https://juneoven.com/the-oven, adapted)

CATEGORY Ovens

A countertop programmable oven for various types of heat processing: baking, roasting, broiling, toasting, dehydrating, air frying, slow DESCRIPTION cooking, reheating, keeping warm. Includes automatic food recognition and around 100 cooking programs. Can be controlled wirelessly through a mobile app or used offline.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 31,75 (height) x 49,78 (width) x 48 (depth) cm

VOLUME (FULL CAPACITY OF THE OVEN) 30 cubic cm, which equals 28 liters

The tray fits standard 22 x 33 cm baking sheets, and dishes up to 30,48 x TRAY SIZE 40,64 inches

TEMPERATURE RANGE Max. 260° C

Camera: 1920×1080 at 30 FPS SENSORS 1x Internal cavity temperature sensor (High Precision Platinum RTD) 1x core-temperature thermometer port (probe included)

Size: 5 inches IPS Panel DISPLAY Resolution: 720×1280 Viewing angle: 160 degrees

COOK MODES Bake, roast, broil, toast, dehydrate, air fry, slow cook, reheat, keep warm

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The tray of the oven should be cleaned after every use. The inside walls CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER of the device should be cleaned with a damp cloth after several uses.

HEATING POWER 1800W

POWER SUPPLY 110V (US standard)

Controlled through a built-in capacitive touchscreen or via mobile app. If plugged in, the device stays in standby mode ready to use and it is showing the current time and possible active modes buttons. When the door is opened, the device switches into the active mode and the top WAY OF CONTROLLING camera starts to recognize the food. However, to start the heating process, the user needs to additionally confirm the type of food. In case of emergency there is no special button to stop the process, but the user should pull off the plug from the socket.

June Oven is always in stand-by mode, waiting for requests of the user. HOW IS THE WORKING It‘s turned off only when the power plug is disconnected. While in the PHRASE INDICATED? working phrase, a countdown and temperature is visible on the touchscreen.

PRODUCES VOLATILE June Oven produces low volume humming sound while running. No EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? other emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

Yes. June Oven can fully operate without the mobile app. In case of CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? interrupted Internet connection the ongoing cycle will continue as programmed.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

No. June Oven can be used with the baking tray included in the ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED purchased set, or additionally with other baking accessories. June Life PRODUCTS NEEDED? Inc. produce accessories such as: June Food Thermometer, Roasting Rack, June Pan, Wire Shelf, Crumb Tray.

The user‘s data put into June Oven app is accessible by the company. By accepting the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user WHAT DATA IS agrees to give access to: username, e-mail address, location, date of ACCESSIBLE TO THE birth, type of cooked food, used recipes, length of cooking, opinion PRODUCER? about the outcome, and meal preparation patterns (e.g. hour of the day), access Bluetooth settings, receive data from the Internet, pair with Bluetooth devices, and prevent the mobile phone from hibernation.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. However, June Oven app saves the user favourite choices and BASED ON THE CLOUD makes suggestions for future uses, such as: recipes, temperature of DATA? cooking, time of cooking.

The user‘s licence authentication happens during the first use of the device. It is needed to pair the device with the app and to create a user HOW IS THE LICENCE account. June Oven allows to create a ―family‖ profile where several AUTHENTICIZED? mobile phones can be connected to one June Oven device. The information about cooking process is then visible in all of the phones, and all of them can control one device.

1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Plug in June Oven. - 4. Pair June Oven with the app. - 5. Open the June Oven‘s door. - 6. Place the food on the tray. - 7. Select the temperature in the app. - 8. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Set up the timer in the app. - 9. Press start. The timer and the IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE temperature can be adjusted during the active mode. The live values are WITH THE APP visible in the app. - 10. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and the app will send a notification. - 11. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the June Oven. - 12. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in June Oven. - 2. Open the June Oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Select the temperature. - 5. Set up the timer. - 6. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Press start. The timer and the temperature can be adjusted during the IN THE USE CYCLE active mode. The live values are visible on the touch display. - 7. When WITHOUT THE APP the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the June Oven. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in June Oven. - 2. Open the June Oven‘s door. - 3. Place the SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS food on the tray. - 4. Select the automatic mode on the screen display. IN THE RECIPE MODE The type of food and its weight is automatically detected. - 5. Press the WITHOUT THE APP button to confirm the food type. The time and temperature is automatically selected. - 6. Press start. The live values are visible on the

touch display. - 7. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the June Oven. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in June Oven. - 2. Open the June Oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Select the automatic mode in the app. The type of food and its weight is automatically detected. - 5. Tap the button to SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS confirm the food type. The time and temperature is automatically IN THE RECIPE MODE WITH THE APP selected. - 6. Tap start button. The live values are visible in the app. - 7. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and the app will send a notification. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the June Oven. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

2.6.2 WLabs Smart Oven

COUNTRY YEAR OF RETAIL PRICE IN TESTED IN PRODUCT BRAND OF ISSUE 2019 PERSON? ORIGIN

WLabs Smart Whirlpool USA 2019 799$ no Oven Corporation

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Silver 0 1 0 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

INTERIOR Stainless steel

EXTERIOR Steel

FINISH Metallic

DOOR Edge-to-edge glass

HANDLE Stainless steel

TRAY Stainless steel

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord (91cm) with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug CORDS in the end.

Fig. 49. WLabs Smart Oven. (A) Touch display. (source: https://www.whirlpoolcorp.com/whirlpool-brand-announces-connected-hub-wall- oven-concept-with-augmented-reality/, adapted)

CATEGORY Ovens

A countertop programmable oven for various types of heat processing: air frying, baking, broiling, convection processing, dehydrating, keeping DESCRIPTION warm, proofing, roasting, reheating, slow cooking, toasting. Includes automatic food recognition. Can be controlled wirelessly through a mobile app or used offline through a touch display.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 34,29 (height) x 49.53 (width) x 53.34 (depth) cm

VOLUME (FULL CAPACITY OF THE OVEN) 36,5 cubic cm

TRAY SIZE 40,64 x 31,75 cm

TEMPERATURE RANGE Not specified

SENSORS Camera, temperature sensor (types not specified)

DISPLAY Touch display (type not specified)

Air fry, bake, broil, convection processing, dehydrate, keep warm, COOK MODES proof, roast, reheat, slow cook, toast

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The tray of the oven should be cleaned after every use. The inside walls CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER of the device should be cleaned with a damp cloth after several uses.

HEATING POWER Not specified

POWER SUPPLY 110V (US standard)

Controlled through a built-in touchscreen or via mobile app. If plugged in, the device stays in standby mode ready to use and it is showing the current time, date and day of the week. When the door is opened, the device switches into the active mode and the top camera starts to WAY OF CONTROLLING recognize the food. However, to start the heating process, the user needs to additionally confirm the type of food. In case of emergency there is no special button to stop the process, but the user should pull off the plug from the socket.

WLabs Smart Oven is always in stand-by mode, waiting for requests of HOW IS THE WORKING the user. It‘s turned off only when the power plug is disconnected. PHRASE INDICATED? While in the working phrase, a countdown and temperature is visible on the touchscreen (and in the mobile app).

PRODUCES VOLATILE WLabs Smart Oven produces low volume humming sound while EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? running. No other emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

Yes. WLabs Smart Oven can fully operate without the mobile app. In CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? case of interrupted Internet connection the ongoing cycle will continue as programmed.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED No. WLabs Smart Oven can be used with the baking tray included in the PRODUCTS NEEDED? purchased set, or additionally with other baking accessories.

The user‘s data put into WLabs Smart Oven app is accessible by the company. By accepting the terms and conditions during the app WHAT DATA IS installation, the user agrees to give access to: username, e-mail address, ACCESSIBLE TO THE PRODUCER? location, date of birth, view Wi-Fi connections, storage information, camera, retrieve data from the Internet, change network connectivity, full network access, prevent device from hibernation.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. WLabs Smart Oven app does not save favourite modes of cooking. BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA?

The user‘s licence authentication happens during the first use of the device. It is needed to pair the device with the app and to create a user HOW IS THE LICENCE account. WLabs Smart Oven allows to create a ―family‖ profile where AUTHENTICIZED? several mobile phones can be connected to one WLabs device. The information about cooking process is then visible in all of the phones, and all of them can control one device.

SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS 1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Plug in IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE WITH THE APP WLabs Smart Oven. - 4. Pair the oven with the app. - 5. Open the

oven‘s door. - 6. Place the food on the tray. - 7. Select the temperature in the app. - 8. Set up the timer in the app. - 9. Press start. The timer and the temperature can be adjusted during the active mode. The live values are visible in the app. - 10. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and the app will send a notification. - 11. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 12. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in WLabs Smart Oven. - 2. Open the oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Select the temperature. - 5. Set up the timer. - 6. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Press start. The timer and the temperature can be adjusted during the IN THE USE CYCLE active mode. The live values are visible on the touch display. - 7. When WITHOUT THE APP the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in WLabs Smart Oven. - 2. Open the oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Select the automatic mode on the screen display. The type of food and its weight is automatically detected. - 5. Press the SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS button to confirm the food type. The time and temperature is IN THE RECIPE MODE WITHOUT THE APP automatically selected. - 6. Press start. The live values are visible on the touch display. - 7. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven.. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in WLabs Smart Oven. - 2. Open the oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Select the automatic mode in the app. The type of food and its weight is automatically detected. - 5. Tap the button to SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS confirm the food type. The time and temperature is automatically IN THE RECIPE MODE WITH THE APP selected. - 6. Tap start button. The live values are visible in the app. - 7. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and the app will send a notification. - 8. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 9. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

2.6.3 Tovala Steam Oven

COUNTRY PRODUCT BRAND YEAR OF ISSUE RETAIL PRICE IN 2019 TESTED IN PERSON? OF ORIGIN

Tovala Steam Oven Tovala USA 2018 399$ no

AVAILABLE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MOBILE BATTERY COLOR BUTTONS SCREENS LEDS APP

Black, silver 12 3 1 no yes

MATERIALS OF THE PARTS ACCESSIBLE TO THE ORDINARY USER

INTERIOR Stainless steel

EXTERIOR Steel

FINISH Black metallic

DOOR Metal, glass

HANDLE Stainless steel

TRAY Metal

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC Flexible cord with rubberized insulating sleeve. Standard US plug in the CORDS end.

Fig. 50. Tovala Steam Oven. (A) Scanner, (B) Screen, (C) Signalling LED, (D) Button (source: https://www.amazon.com/Tovala-Gen-Multi-Mode-Programmable- Stainless/dp/B07K85LXBK, adapted)

CATEGORY Ovens

A countertop programmable oven for various types of heat processing: steaming, baking, broiling, reheating, toasting. Can be controlled wirelessly through a mobile app or used offline through the interface DESCRIPTION with buttons. Tovala Steam Oven consists of a barcode scanner which recognizes Tovala branded pre-packed dishes. Recognition allows for automatically adjusted time and type of heat processing.

SIZE IN THE RUNNING CONDITION AND POSITION 31,29 (height) x 46,99 (width) x 29,81 (depth) cm

VOLUME (FULL CAPACITY OF THE OVEN) 23,49 (height) x 32,7 (width) x 31,11 (depth) cm

TRAY SIZE Not specified

TEMPERATURE RANGE 93 - 260 ° C

SENSORS Temperature sensor (types not specified)

DISPLAY 3 digital displays

COOK MODES Steam, bake, broil, reheat, toast

PARTS INTENDED TO BE The tray of the oven should be cleaned after every use. The inside walls CLEANED FREQUENTLY BY THE USER of the device should be cleaned with a damp cloth after several uses.

HEATING POWER 1525 W

POWER SUPPLY 110V (US standard)

Controlled through the button interface or via mobile app. If plugged in, the device stays in standby mode with the turned on LED on the ―start‖ button. Opening the door turns on the device, but it can also be done with the ―start‖ button. Tovala includes a barcode scanner which recognizes Tovala branded pre-packed dishes. The timer and the WAY OF CONTROLLING cooking mode is after adjusted automatically. Tovala Steam Oven also features the option of steaming, which requires to put tap water in the special container on the top of the scanner. In case of emergency there is no special button to stop the process, but the user should pull off the plug from the socket.

Tovala is always in stand-by mode, waiting for pressing the ―start: HOW IS THE WORKING button or opening the door. It‘s turned off only when the power plug is PHRASE INDICATED? disconnected. While in the working phrase, a countdown, temperature and cooking mode is visible in the interface (and in the mobile app).

PRODUCES VOLATILE Tovala produces low volume humming sound while running. No other EMISSION OR NOISE WHILE RUNNING? emission is produced.

DOES IT NEEDS A PERMANENT CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC POWER Yes. No battery is included. PLUG?

Yes. Tovala can fully operate without the mobile app. In case of CAN IT OPERATE OFFLINE? interrupted Internet connection the ongoing cycle will continue as programmed.

WIRELESS? Yes. Wired Internet connection is not possible.

The additional branded products (pre-packed meals) are not necessary, ARE ADDITIONAL BRANDED but needed to use the barcode scanner and the automatic modes. Tovala PRODUCTS NEEDED? can be used with the baking tray included in the purchased set, or additionally with other baking accessories.

The user‘s data put into Tovala app is accessible by the company. By accepting the terms and conditions during the app installation, the user agrees to give access to: username, e-mail address, date of birth, view WHAT DATA IS Wi-Fi connections, pair with Bluetooth devices, access Bluetooth ACCESSIBLE TO THE PRODUCER? settings, directly call phone numbers, find contacts on the device, location, storage information, camera usage, retrieve data from the Internet, change network connectivity, full network access, prevent device from hibernation, control vibration.

DOES IT TAKE DECISIONS No. Tovala app does not automatically suggest favourite modes of BASED ON THE CLOUD DATA? cooking. The user can save the favourite settings.

The user‘s licence authentication happens during the first use of the HOW IS THE LICENCE AUTHENTICIZED? device. It is needed to pair the device with the app and to create a user account.

1. Download the mobile app. - 2. Create a user account. - 3. Plug in Tovala Steam Oven. - 4. Press the ―Start‖ button. - 5. Pair the oven with the app. - 5. Open the oven‘s door. - 6. Place the food on the tray. - 7. SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS Select the temperature in the app. - 8. Set up the timer in the app. - 9. IN THE FIRST USE CYCLE Press start in the app. The timer and the temperature can be adjusted WITH THE APP during the active mode. The live values are visible in the app and in the oven‘s interface. - 10. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and the app will send a notification. - 11. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 12. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in Tovala Steam Oven. - 2. Open the oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Press the ―Start‖ button. - 5. Set the temperature. - 6. Set the timer. - 7. Press the ―Start‖ button to confirm the choice. The SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS timer and the temperature can be adjusted during the active mode. The IN THE USE CYCLE WITHOUT THE APP live values are visible in the app and in the oven‘s interface. - 8. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 9. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 10. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

1. Plug in Tovala Steam Oven. - 2. Open the oven‘s door. - 3. Place the food on the tray. - 4. Press the ―Start‖ button. - 5. Press ―Scan‖. - 6. Scan the barcode of the Tovala pre-packed meal. The timer and SEQUENCE OF THE TASKS temperature will set automatically. - 7. Press the ―Start‖ button to IN THE SCANNER MODE confirm the choice. The timer and the temperature can be adjusted WITHOUT THE APP during the active mode. The live values are visible in the app and in the oven‘s interface. - 8. When the process is finished, the oven will turn off and a sound will indicate the finish. - 9. After cooking is finished, take the food out of the oven. - 10. Wash the tray with regular dish soap.

3. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS

The aim of the section is to extract conclusions across the elements which would characterize the role of IoT products in the kitchen briefly comparing them with the conventional appliances. This section also describes in what way the user interacts with IoT kitchen appliances, pointing expected advantages and drawbacks of the innovated interaction. Furthermore, design-oriented issues are compared, such as: appearance of the product (size, color, materials (sustainability), number of LED lights and buttons); and retail cost of the items.

3.1 Methodology of analysis

The sample is subjective and may not fully represent the market of ―smart‖ kitchen appliances. It is presented in a form of 11 case studies. Each case was analysed and described separately, taking into consideration technical specifications, appearance, functions, and ways of working. Additionally, the sequences of the tasks needed to be undertaken by the user were described in steps. The research can be categorized as ―qualitative‖ approach, based on subjective observations, images and commercial publications. However, a ―quantitative‖ approach was also used to illustrate the products‘ characteristics such as number of screens, buttons and LEDs; and also to show the number of tasks in the use cycles of each product.

100

3.2 Sample selection criteria

The products in the sample were selected basing on on-line market and trend research. It involved: commercial materials published by the kitchen IoT producers; customer reviews; product comparisons conducted by on-line trade magazines; specialized blog articles; and on-line interviews with the experts in IoT field. The selected products were released into the market between 2015 - 2019 and represent, at that time, novelties (products with innovative way of working) in the categories of ―small‖ kitchen appliances: sous-vide cookers, slow cookers, induction cooktops, frying pans, food thermometers, and ovens. The products were selected taking into consideration the volume of media coverage about them, which may not signify the real success of sales of the products, but the visibility of their marketing campaigns. Furthermore, the descriptions of the products published online are certainly biased as commercial materials and it may influence the conclusions.

3.3 Comparison

The sample consists of kitchen appliances categorized as ―small‖ in the market. The ―small‖ kitchen devices are in a size meant to be placed on a countertop, or to be easily held in hands. The smallest product in the sample is Range Dial Smart Thermometer [12,7 (height) x 3,04 (width) x 1,27 (depth) cm] and the biggest is WLabs Smart Oven [34,29 (height) x 49.53 (width) x 53.34 (depth) cm]. Within the sample, the bigger products are more expensive than the smaller ones: the cheapest one is Range Dial Smart Thermometer (59,99$ in retail) and the most expensive is WLabs Smart Oven (799$ in retail). Just 3 of the 11 products have a battery and are able to operate cordless (see Figure 51). Usually cordless devices are meant to be held in hands.

101

Fig. 51. Percent of products in the sample which have a battery built-in.

3.3.1 Design

The price depends, greatly but not exclusively, on the type of used materials, on the amount of the material used, and on the way of manufacture. Moreover, brand proeminence, reputation or aimed market segment play a big role in the price definition. While Range Dial Smart Thermometer is a very small device, it is also made of stainless steel and cheap polycarbonate. WLabs Smart Oven’s materials are stainless steel and edge- to-edge toughened glass. Additionally it also includes a set of sensors, a camera and a touch display which make it the most technologically advanced ―smart‖ oven in the sample (the other ovens in the sample contain less advanced touch display or conventional button interface). Taking in consideration the controlling interface, out of total 11 devices in the sample, two of them have a ―touch display‖, 2 have no physical interface at all, and 7 have a more conventional interface with push-buttons or a knob (Range Dial Smart Thermometer). The products with no controlling physical interface cannot be used without an operation mobile telephone with a dedicated app installed on. The mobile telephone acts as the sole remote control for that specific appliance. All of the products in the sample are supplied with a specific app downloadable from a specific Internet location. 3 devices within the sample have a battery included - the battery is usually included in the devices which needs to be moved often and are carried in hands. The color scheme of the outer shell of the products in the sample is mainly: silver (metallic), black or white; with the exception of small areas being in red, blue and orange (see Figure 52).

102

Fig. 52. The colors used on the devices in the sample. The temperature in Celsius degrees read by the sensors of all the devices is from - 40° C to 676° C, what is wider range than the usual temperatures used for cooking or baking: from room temperature (around 20° C) to frying temperature (up to 300° C). The following chart (see Figure 53) shows the number of buttons, screens and LEDs of every device, with Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart having the biggest number of buttons (18), and with some devices not having button interface at all: SmartyPans, Meater+ Smart Thermometer, Range Dial Smart Thermometer, WLabs Smart Oven, June Intelligent Oven. From a design point of view, high number of buttons may be confusing for the user. Screens are built in just 5 products out of the sample: 3 of them are displays only and 2 are touch display. LEDs are a common way of signalling among the sample: just 3 products do not have any visible LEDs, but usually they have a screen which has the signalling function. One object which do not have any button, screen or a LED is Range Dial Smart Thermometer, also the smallest and the cheapest product in the sample. The appliance with the highest number of interface elements is Tovala Steam Oven with 12 buttons, 3 digital screens and 1 LED. All the following charts represent: A) Mellow; B) Anova Precision Cooker; C) Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker; D) Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart; E) Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop; F) SmartyPans; G) Meater+ Smart Thermometer; H) Range Dial Smart Thermometer; I) June Intelligent Oven; J) WLabs Smart Oven; K) Tovala Steam Oven.

103

Fig. 53. Number of buttons, screens and LEDs in a device.

3.3.2 Use cycles

Another important issue to compare is the number of tasks in use cycles of each product, which reflects the workload that the user needs to perform in order to achieve some profit given by the device. For the user, high number of tasks to perform may be a drawback deciding about purchasing the product. The following chart (see Figure 54) shows the number of tasks in the first use cycle with the mobile app. The sequence of tasks was calculated from the direct use experience by the author (Mellow) and from reading the user manuals of products (all the appliances apart Mellow). In every case, this cycle includes creating a user profile (―logging in‖) and pairing the app with the device. As a result, the number of tasks is higher than in the following cycles, but the user needs to perform this cycle just once after purchasing the product. The average number of tasks is 12; with 23 tasks as the highest number (in Mellow) and 8 tasks as the lowest workload (in Meater+ Smart Thermometer).

104

Fig. 54. Number of tasks in the first use cycle with the mobile app.

Considering the regular use cycle with the mobile app (second and subsequent uses), the workload is lower than in the first use cycle (see Figure 55). The average number of tasks is 10, with Mellow having the highest workload (17) and Meater+ Smart Thermometer having the lowest number of tasks (6).

Fig. 55. Number of tasks in the regular use cycle with the mobile app.

105

Concerning the use cycle without the mobile app, the average number of tasks is also 10 (see Figure 56). However, the products with the highest and lowest workload do not offer offline functionality; they also don‘t include a built-in controlling interface and the only way to control them is through the mobile app. It is certain that lack of product ability to function without a mobile telephone is a major drawback for the user. The device becomes a useless object while disconnected from the Internet. However, the research shows that in some cases (Mellow) when the connection is disrupted during the ongoing cycle, the device will continue the process, but it cannot be altered in any way. The food thermometers will not continue the temperature measuring process, because the connection is crucial to send the measurements to the user.

Fig. 56. Number of tasks in the use cycle without the mobile app.

The following chart shows all the use cycles summed up (see Figure 57). Basing on the number of tasks, it may be said that the products most probable to be appealing for the user are: Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop; Range Dial Smart Thermometer; June Intelligent Oven; WLabs Smart Oven; Tovala Steam Oven. These products require the lowest number of tasks and are also able to function offline. The least appealing products may be Mellow (using it requires the most workload and it does not function offline) and

106

Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart (its workload is the second highest in the sample, and its controlling interface is the most complicated from all of the analysed products: 18 buttons, 1 screen, 0 signalling LEDs).

Fig. 57. Numbers of tasks compared in total.

3.3.3 Interaction

The next issue to analyse is the interaction of the sample products with the user. It includes: LED signalling, the display (screen) content, warnings (error signalling) and sounds. LED signalling usually shows if the device is in the working mode, however some of the devices show the working mode on the screen (June Intelligent Oven and WLabs Oven), and some do not show it at all (Meater+ Smart Thermometer and Range Dial Smart Thermometer). LEDs also often indicate the cooking/baking mode selected (Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart and Crock-Pot F7C045 Smart Slow Cooker). In some of the devices LEDs show the used temperature level (Goodful One Top Smart Induction Cooktop) or they signal an error (e.g. Mellow’s LED turns red while the connection is lost, or while pairing the device with the app is required). The next type of the interaction with the user concerns

107 the display content: the screens are usually indicating the temperature, timer countdown, and simple commands like more, normal, less, pressure, timer 1, AM/PM (examples from the interface of Instant-Pot Smart Wi-Fi 6 Quart). Another way of signalling is generating sounds and mobile app notifications, usually indicating the end of the food preparation process. Concerning the appeal to the consumer, the devices‘ overall look, materials and ergonomy have a very important role. While aesthetics is a subjective issue, such things as the quality of materials or applied technologies can be easily compared. However, one of the deciding factors for sales is the functionality of the product and its innovations. As Greengard (2017) claims: ―The clear aim of such ―smart home‖ efforts is to as nearly as possible short-circuit the process of reflection that stands between one‘s recognition of a desire and its fulfillment via the market‖. According to MAYA (Most Advanced Yet Acceptable) principle defined by Raymond Loewy, the commercial success of a product depends on two issues: how much the user is familiar with the object, and how innovative is the product. The product will achieve success when it is balanced between being ―most advanced‖ and ―most familiar‖. However, the MAYA principle is also subjective and hard to measure. One of the measurable ways of appealing the consumer is the way of working of the IoT appliance. The majority of the devices can be controlled both with the mobile app or through the conventional built-in interface. 3 devices out of 11 in the sample are designed to be controlled just online (Mellow, Meater+ Smart Thermometer, and SmartyPans), which means that with no Internet connection they are losing all the functionality and become useless (see Figure 8). As a result, the customer may prefer an IoT product which can also operate offline.

Fig. 58. Percent of the devices on the sample which can be controlled just with mobile app or offline.

108

The analysed products can be compared to the conventional appliances in the kitchen, concerning the tasks types or ways of cooking. The following advantages and drawbacks are subjective and apparent, due to basing on commercial data, not in-person experience. IoT products seem to add more tasks to the conventional ones in the process of cooking. Some of the specific examples are: pairing the device to the mobile app and logging into the user profile. The IoT appliances have a distinctive way of controlling, where in many cases the mobile app becomes the main controller. IoT appliances add the features provided by sensors - temperature reading or timer countdown, which often are calculated automatically basing on the type of food. Another difference is error signalling; the conventional kitchen appliances may have limited features of error signalling (ovens) or do not have them at all (frying pans). Usually the conventional devices will not signal the food burning or undercooking, while IoT appliances are designed to notify the user. As a result, the human error is minimized. Moreover, IoT appliances bring some limitations to keeping the products clean: various parts of the devices should be kept clean, yet without submerging them in water because they contain electronics. One similarity between the conventional electrical kitchen appliances and the IoT kitchen devices is behaviour in emergency situations. In both cases the required action is to pull out the plug from the power supply.

3.4 Conclusion

In conclusion, our research shows that IoT kitchen appliances require more workload than traditional appliances while setting up the process. The higher number of tasks concerns only setting up the process; while the process is already ongoing, IoT appliances have the advantage of automated controlling and notifying. The user does not need to supervise the ongoing process and benefits time. On the other hand, the kitchen IoT systems are able to automate simple tasks, yet will require human input in the more complex actions. We are just in the beggining of the Internet of Things era, and there is relatively small amount of products of this type. However, research and development of IoT products is a priority for many companies not just producing home appliances (e.g. Bosch), but also

109 vehicles (e.g. BMW). It is highly possible that soon IoT solutions will be easier to use and more efficient for the user. Internet of Things will be more included in everyday life and also will have more impact on individuals and the societies they live in. Until today, IoT kitchen devices may increase quality of life by making the cooking process efficient, convenient and time-saving. One of the advantages of IoT is bringing to the home kitchen the professional ways of food preparation (such as sous-vide in Mellow, or steaming in Tovala Steam Oven). Because of the real-time monitoring provided by IoT appliances, the quality of the processed food may be higher than while prepared with conventional tools. The human error is excluded during the cooking process and the conditions such as applied heat or time are calculated to achieve the best result. However, at the moment the IoT kitchen appliances of various brands do not communicate between each other, and this incompatibility may lead to extended overall time of use. Another advantage may be gathering data about the user‘s habits and preferences in order to advise on further cooking choices. On the other hand, this issue may also be controversial because of the security of data accessible to the producer and personal privacy may be infringed. A big threat for IoT devices is the theoretical possibility to control the device remotely by unauthorized parties. It could affect the physical state of the closest environment of the product, and could be physically dangerous for the users. I concluded that the products in the sample have a trend of loosing physical interfaces in favour of a control panel on another electronic device. Some of the products do not consist of a physical interface at all, and the main control panel of the product is on a mobile device (usually smartphone or a tablet) in a form of a mobile application. It was a surprising discovery which led to a conclusion that every IoT kitchen appliances‘ user is assumed to own a mobile device capable to be a control panel for a hardware product. This trend is not only visible in the kitchen appliances field, but in any kind of IoT hardware. In my opinion it would be interesting to research in more detail the differences between physical and virutal interfaces of the IoT products, in order to improve the user interactions with this type of products.

110

LIST OF REFERENCES

Ahuja, K., Patel, M. (2016). The Connected Home Market. Retrieved online: https://www.mckinsey.com/spContent/connected_homes/pdf/McKinsey_Connectedhome. pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Ahuja, K., Patel, M. (2016). There‘s No Place Like (A Connected) Home. Retrieved online: https://www.mckinsey.com/spContent/connected_homes/index.html [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Aleksandrovics, V., Filicevs, E., Kampars, J. (2016). Internet of Things: Structure, Features and Management, vol. 19, p. 78-84.

Ali, M., Excell, P., Miraaz, M. & Picking, R. (2015). A Review on Internet of Things (IoT), Internet of Everything (IoE) and Internet of Nano Things (IoNT), Internet Technologies and Applications (ITA).

Antoci, A., Sabatini, F. & Sodini, M. (2012). The Solaria syndrome: Social capital in a growing hyper-technological economy. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 81, p. 802-814.

Angelova, N., Kiryakova, G., Yordanova, L. (2017). The great impact of Internet of Things on business. Trakia Journal of Sciences, 15, p. 406-412.

Ashton, K. ―That 'Internet of Things'‖. 22 June 2009. Retrieved online: https://www.rfid journal.com/articles/view?4986 [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Atkinson, P. (2013, March 11). The Curious Case of the Kitchen Computer: Products and Non-Products in Design History. Journal of Design History, 23(2), p. 163-179.

Atzori L., Iera, A. & Morabito, G. The Internet of Things: A survey, Computer Networks. Volume 54, Issue 15, 28 October 2010, p. 2787-2805.

Badescu, V., Barelli, L. & Lazariou G. (ed.) (2018). Power Engineering: Advances and Challenges Part B: Electrical Power. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.

Barbosa, B., Filipe, S., Santos, C. & Simões, D. (2019). Are Millennials Ready for the Internet of Things? Retrieved online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication

111

/326347093_Are_Millennials _Ready_for_the_Internet_of_Things [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Bayani, M., Leiton, K. & Loaiza, M. (2017). Internet of Things (IoT) Advantages on E- Learning in the Smart Cities. International Journal of Development Research, 07(12).

Bergstrand, Andreas K. and Christian Bude. (2015). Internet of Things. Exploring and Securing a Future Concept. (Unpublished bachelor‘s thesis) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.

Bhat, O., Bhat, S. & Gokhale, P. (2018). Introduction to IOT. 5, p. 41-44.

Boyle, D., Holler, J., Mulligan, C., Karnouskos, S. & Tsiatsis, V. (2018). Internet of Things: Technologies and Applications for a New Age of Intelligence. Academic Press.

Broad, William J. ―A Battle to Preserve a Visionary's Bold Failure‖. New York Times. New York, May 4, 2009. Retrieved online: https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/ science/05tesla.html [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Bude, C. and Bergstrand A. Internet of Things. Exploring and Securing a Future Concept. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2015. Retrieved online: https://people.kth.se/~maguire/DEGREE-PROJECT-REPORTS/150615- Cristian_Bude_Andreas_Kervefors_Bergstrand-with-cover.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Bumb, S., Camhi, J. & Schatzky, D. (2018). Five vectors of progress in the Internet of Things. Retrieved online: https://www2.deloitte.com/insights/us/en/focus/signals-for- strategists/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Burhan, M., Rehman, R., Kim, B. & Khan, B. (2018). IoT Elements, Layered Architectures and Security Issues: A Comprehensive Survey. Sensors. 18(9).

Butler, J., Holden, K., Lidwell, W. (2010) Universal Principles of Design, Revised and Updated: 125 Ways to Enhance Usability, Influence Perception, Increase Appeal, Make Better Design Decisions.

Chapin, L., Eldridge, S.D. & Rose, K. (2015). The Internet of Things: An Overview Understanding the Issues and Challenges of a More Connected World.

112

Chen, R., Kobayashi, Y., Habara, M., Ikezazki, H., Naito, Y., & Toko, K. (2010). Advanced taste sensors based on artificial lipids with global selectivity to basic taste qualities and high correlation to sensory scores. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 10(4), 3411– 3443. Retrieved online: https://doi.org/10.3390/s100403411 [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Christie‘s International SA. (2018). Is artificial intelligence set to become art‘s next medium? Retrieved online: https://www.christies.com/features/A-collaboration-between- two-artists-one-human-one-a-machine-9332-1.aspx [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Chung, Christopher A. and Jones, Erick C. (2007). RFID in Logistics: A Practical Introduction. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.

Clarke, Arthur C. (1968). 2001: Space Odyssey. New York, NY: New American Library.

Colakovic, A. (2018). Internet of Things (IoT): A Review of Enabling Technologies, Challenges, and Open Research Issues. Retrieved online: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/326539025_Internet_of_Things_IoT_A_Review_of_Enabling_Technologies_ Challenges_and_Open_Research_Issues [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Daglia, M. (2017). ―Nutritional advantages of sous- vide cooking compared to boiling on cereals and legumes: Determination of ashes and metals content in ready-to-eat products‖. Retrieved online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314160508_Nutritional _advantages_of_sous-vide_cooking_compared_to_boiling_on_cereals_and_legumes_ Determination_of_ashes_and_metals_content_in_ready-to-eat_products [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Darwish, D. (2015). Improved Layered Architecture for Internet of Things. International Journal of Computing Academic Research (IJCAR), 4(4), p. 214–223.

Defrancesco, L. (1999). The Nose Knows: Cyrano Sciences' Electronic Nose. The Scientist. Retrieved online: https://www.the-scientist.com/technology/the-nose-knows-cyrano- sciences-electronic-nose-56421[Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Duffy, C. (July 2015). ―IAB Releases Guidelines for Internet-of-Things Developers.‖ IETF Journal 11: Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved online: https://www.internetsociety.org/sites/default/files/Journal_11.1.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

113

Electronics for You Group. (September 2018). What are the Differences Between M2M and the IoT? Retrieved online: https://electronicsforu.com/resources/learn- electronics/m2m-iot-difference [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Erasmus, Z.,Nazmus Sakib M., Razzaque, A., Zennaro, M. & Bagula, A. (2016). Enabling the Internet of Things in developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Retrieved online: https://www.researchgate.net /publication/311757185_Enabling_the_Internet_of_ Things_in_developing_countries_Opportunities_and_challenges [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

European Commission, Information Society and Media. (2008). ―Internet of Things in 2020 Roadmap for the Future.‖

Falcioni, P., Zinkann, R. (2018). By the Numbers: the Home Appliance Industry in Europe, 2017-2016. APPLiA Europe. Retrieved online: https://applia-europe.eu/statistical-report- 2017-2016/documents/APPLiA_SR18.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Fu, K., Kohno, T., Lopresti, D., Mynatt, E., Nahrstedt, K., Patel, S., Richardson, D., & Zorn, B. (2017). ―Safety, Security, and Privacy Threats Posed by Accelerating Trends in the Internet of Things‖. Retrieved online: http://cra.org/ccc/resources/ccc-led-whitepapers/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Furini, M., Mandreoli, F., Martoglia, R. & Montangero, M. (2017). IoT: Science Fiction or Real Revolution? Smart Objects and Technologies for Social Good, p. 96-105.

Gong, W. (2016). ―The Internet of Things (IoT): What is the potential of the internet of things (IoT) as a marketing tool?‖. Retrieved online: https://essay.utwente.nl/70018 /1/Gong_BA _BMS.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Greengard, Samuel. (2015). The Internet of Things. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Guillemin, P., Friess, P., Sundmaeker, H. & S. Woelfflé. (2010). Vision and Challenges for Realising the Internet of Things. Retrieved online: http://www.internet-of-things- research.eu/pdf/IoT_ Clusterbook_March_2010.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Hou, L., Shaohang Z., Xiong, X., Kan, Z., Periklis, K., Shamim, H. & Wei, X. (2016). Internet of Things Cloud: Architecture and Implementation. Retrieved online: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1609.07712.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

114

Harnad, Stevan. (2008). "The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery, and Intelligence" [In:] Epstein, Robert & Peters, Grace. (Eds.) The Turing Test Sourcebook: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Harrison, M., Michahelles, F. & Uckelmann, D. (2011). Architecting the Internet of Things. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Hashagen, U. & Rojas, R. (2000). The First Computers: History and Architectures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hassan, Z., Ali, H. & Badawy, M. ―Internet of Things (IoT): Definitions, Challenges, and Recent Research Directions.‖ [In:] International Journal of Computer Applications 128(1):975-888, October 2015.

Hedge, S., Soumyalatha, N. (2016). Study of IoT- understanding IoT architecture, applications, issues and challenges, International Journal of Advanced Networking & Applications (IJANA), p. 477–482. Retrieved online: http://www.ijana.in/Special %20Issue/S105.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Infield, G. (1968, April). A Computer in the Basement?. Popular Mechanics, p. 77-79.

Jankowski, S., et al. ―The Internet of Things: Making sense of the next mega-trend‖. Goldman Sachs Investment Research, 2014. Retrieved online: https://www.goldmansachs .com/insights /pages/internet-of-things/iot-report.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Jalali, M., Kaiser, J., Siegel, M. & Madnick, S. (2017). The Internet of Things (IoT) Promises New Benefits — and Risks: A Systematic Analysis of Adoption Dynamics of IoT Products. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.

Kalinauskas, M., Skaržauskienė, A. (2012). The Future Potential of the Internet of Things, Social Technologies, 2(1), p. 102–113. Retrieved online: https://www.mruni.eu/upload /iblock/e2c/008_skarzauskiene_kalinauskas.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Kenneally, R. & Rosner, G. (2018). ―Privacy and the Internet of Things: Emerging frameworks for Policy and Design‖. CLTC: Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity. Retrieved online: https://cltc.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/CLTC_Privacy _of_the_IoT-1.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

115

Kennedy, John B. ―When Woman is the Boss‖. Collier‘s Magazine, Springfield (Ohio), January 30, 1926. Retrieved online: https://online books.library.upenn.edu/webbin/serial? id=colliers [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Klingenberg, C. (2017). Industry 4.0: what makes it a revolution? Retrieved online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319127784_Industry_40_what_makes_it_a_revol ution [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Leitner, Gerhard. (2015). The Future Home is Wise, Not Smart: A Human-Centric Perspective on Next Generation Domestic Technologies. New York, NY: Springer International Publishing.

Lievrouw, L., & Livingstone, S. (2006). Handbook of new media: Social shaping and consequences of ICTs. London: Sage.

Linden, A., Fenn, J. Understanding Gartner's Hype Cycles. Gartner, 2003. Retrieved online: https://www.bus.umich.edu/KresgePublic/Journals/Gartner/research/115200/115274 /115 274.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Madakam, Somayya. (2015). Internet of Things: Smart Things. International Journal of Future Computer and Communication. 4, p. 250-253.

Moye, William T. (January 1996). "ENIAC: The Army-Sponsored Revolution". [In:] US Army Research Laboratory. Retrieved online: https://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist /96summary/index.html [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Musaed, M. (2017). ―A Review: The Risks And Weakness Security on the IoT‖. [In:] IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering. India.

Naik, D. (2014). The ―Thing‖ in ―Internet of Things‖. Inventrom. Retrieved online: https://inventrom.wordpress.com/2014/11/27/the-thing-in-internet-of-things/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Patel, K., et al. (2016). Internet of Things – IOT: Definition, Characteristics, Architecture, Enabling Technologies, Application & Future Challenges, IJESC. Retrieved online: http://ijesc.org/upload/8e9af2eca2e1119b895544fd60c3b857.Internet%20of%20Things-IO T%20Definition,%20Characteristics,%20Architecture,%20Enabling%20Technologies,%20

116

Application%20&%20Future%20Challenges.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Pearlson, K., Saunders, C. & Galetta, D. (2016). Managing and Using Information Systems, Binder Ready Version: A Strategic Approach. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Perera, C., Zaslavsky, A., Christen, P., Georgakopoulos, D, ―Context Aware Computing for The Internet of Things: A Survey‖ IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2013.

Persson, A. (2017) Internet of Things and connected home living - A case study on how manufacturing firms in the kitchen and furniture industry is implementing and developing IoT products and services. Retrieved online: http://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2: 1114943/FULLTEXT01.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Preeti, G. (2017). ―Review on Security of Radio Frequency Identification Technology‖ [In:] Advances in Computational Sciences and Technology, Volume 10, Number 8, pp. 2427-2433. Delhi: Research India Publications.

Reddy, A. (2014). Reaping the Benefits of the Internet of Things. Cognizant. Retrieved online:https://www.cognizant.com/InsightsWhitepapers/Reaping-the-Benefits-of-the- Internet-of-Things.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Riggins, F. & Wamba, S. (2015). Research Directions on the Adoption, Usage and Impact of the Internet of Things through the Use of Big Data Analytics. Retrieved online: https:// www.researchgate.net/profile/Samuel_Fosso_Wamba/publication/265702116_Research_Di rections_on_the_Adoption_Usage_and_Impact_of_the_Internet_of_Things_through_the_U se_of_Big_Data_Analytics/links/54197be30cf25ebee98861c9.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Roberti, M. (2005). ―The History of RFID technology‖. Retrieved online: https://www.rfid journal.com/articles /view?1338 [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Roberts, Jacob. (2016). ―Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence.‖ [In:] Distillations. https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the- search-for-artificial-intelligence [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Rose, D. (2015). Enchanted Objects: Innovation, Design, and the Future of Technology. New York, NY: Scribner.

Romkey, J. Retrieved online: https://romkey.com/about/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

117

Santos, Y., Canedo E. (2019). On the Design and Implementation of an IoT based Architecture for Reading Ultra High Frequency Tags.

Saulles, M. (2017). The Internet of Things and Business. New York, NY: Routledge.

Skarzauskiene, A., & Kalinauskas, M. (2015). ―The internet of things: When reality meets expectations‖. International Journal of Innovation and Learning. 17. p. 262-274.

Thierer, A., Castillo, A. (June 2015). Projecting the Growth and Economic Impact of The Internet of Things. George Mason University, Mercatus Center.

Vermesan, O., Friess, P., Guillemin, P., Giaffreda, R., Grindvoll, H., Eisenhauer,M., Serrano, M., Moessner, K., Spirito, M., Blystad, L., & Tragos, E. (2015). Internet of Things beyond the Hype: Research, Innovation and Deployment. River Publishers, Aalborg.

Vermesan, O., Friess, P. (2015). Building the Hyperconnected Society: Internet of Things Research and Innovation Value Chains, Ecosystems and Markets. River Publishers, Aalborg.

Zanni, T. (2016). ―Risk or reward: what lurks within your IoT? Strategies to maximize IoT security in the enterprise‖. KPMG International. Retrieved online: https://assets.kpmg/con tent /dam/kpmg/pl/pdf/2018/02/pl-Raport-KPMG-Risk-or-reward-What-lurks-within-your- IoT.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Zhou, Honbo. (2012). The Internet of Things in the Cloud: A Middleware Perspective. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.

118

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amazon Help & Customer Service. Retrieved online: https://www.amazon.com/gp/help /customer/display.html/ref=help_search_1-4?ie=UTF8&nodeId=GVP69FUJ48X9DK8V &qid=1559911720&sr=1-4 [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Apple, Inc. Retrieved online: https://www.apple.com/ios/home/accessories/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Hewlett Packard Enterprise. (2017). ―The Internet of Things: Today and Tomorrow‖. Retrieved online: http://chiefit.me/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/HPE-Aruba_IoT _Research_Report.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers - IEEE. (2018). Disruptive Technologies beyond 2030 in the Data Ecosystems. Retrieved online: https://cmte.ieee.org/future directions/2018/03/24/disruptive-technologies-beyond-2030-in-the-data-ecosystems/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Internet Architecture Board. Retrieved online: https://www.iab.org/about/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

IoT Analytics. (2017). State of the Smart Home Market 2017. Retrieved online: https://iot- analytics.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/StateofSmartHomeMarket2017-vf.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Lemelson-MIT Program. Charles Walton - RFID Technology. Retrieved online: https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/charles-walton/ [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

McKinsey & Company. Retrieved online: https://www.mckinsey.com/spContent/ connected_homes/pdf/McKinsey_Connectedhome.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

119

McKinsey Global Institute. (2013). Disruptive technologies: Advances that will transform life, business, and the global economy. Retrieved online: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/ media/McKinsey/Business%20Functions/McKinsey%20Digital/Our%20Insights/Disruptiv e%20technologies/MGI_Disruptive_technologies_Executive_summary_May2013.ashx [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Moore, George. (1998). ―Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits.‖ [In:] Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 86, No.1 Retrieved online: http://www.cs.utexas.edu /~fussell/courses/cs352h/ papers/moore.pdf. [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

National Intelligence Council. (2008). Conference Report. Disruptive Civil Technologies: Six Technologies With Potential Impacts on US Interests Out to 2025. Washington, DC. Retrieved online: https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a519715.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

Reply. (2018). IoT Trend Research - the Evolution of Consumer IoT. Retrieved online: https://www.reply.com/Documents/SONAR_research/IoT_trends2018_the_survey_ on_consumer_EN_IoT_Reply.pdf [Accessed on: 14.04.2019].

120