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Nothingness, Being, and Dao: Ontology and Cosmology in the Zhuangzi

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Nothingness, Being, and Dao: Ontology and Cosmology in the Zhuangzi Nothingness, Being, and Dao: Ontology and Cosmology in the Zhuangzi by David Chai A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by David Chai 2012 Nothingness, Being, and Dao: Ontology and Cosmology in the Zhuangzi David Chai Doctor of Philosophy Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto 2012 ABSTRACT The following dissertation is a philosophical exploration of the cosmology of the Zhuangzi, arguing it is meontological due to the prominence afforded the Chinese word wu 無, rendered as both nothingness and nonbeing. It puts forth the argument that the Zhuangzi’s cosmology creates a relationship whereby nonbeing and being are intertwined under the purview of Dao 道. As a result, the text’s axiology is unique in that it states cosmological freedom is attainable via uniting with primal nothingness. Chapter one seeks to disprove the notion that nonbeing cannot be anything but a transcendental other by arguing that Dao is a negatively creative source that simultaneously gives birth to nonbeing and being, making it impossible for nonbeing to be nihilistic or seen as an absolute void. Chapter two delves into the manifestation of things and how the sage, as an epitome of the naturalness of Dao, follows the becoming and returning of things to the One, darkening himself in nothingness in order to cultivate his life. Chapter three poses the question of whether or ii not the ontological movement of things is temporal and how temporality can even be possible considering the meontological nature of the universe. The next two chapters focus on the arts of useful uselessness and forgetting, the two principal means by which the sage achieves harmony with the oneness of things. Chapter six concludes by arguing that freedom attained by perfecting the arts of uselessness and forgetfulness is not rooted in ethical virtue but is the pinnacle of one’s cosmological relationship with Dao and is embodied in the act of carefree wandering. Zhuangzi’s cosmology is thus rooted in the life force of nothingness and doing away with ontic distinctions so as to return to natural equanimity and stillness of spirit. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work is dedicated to my teachers, whose support and encouragement made its writing a stimulating and pleasurable experience. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Vincent Shen, whose erudition and patience inspired me to greater efforts than I would have made otherwise. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements iv Introduction 1 Chapter 1 The Mother of All Things: Ontological Investigations 10 1.1 The Plausibility of the Nonbeing of Nothingness 11 1.2 The Meontological Language of Nothingness 20 1.3 An Aesthetics of One: Why Dao is not a Singularity 31 1.4 Returning to Dao: Reversion and its Nihilistic Rebuke 40 1.5 Conclusion 47 Chapter 2 Tracing the Invisible: Phenomenological Discovery 48 2.1 On the Origin of the Thing 49 2.2 The Thing’s Unveiling and the Gift of Nothingness 55 2.3 Trace and the Darkness of the Sage 63 2.4 Wandering in the Harmony of Dao 73 2.5 Conclusion 88 Chapter 3 Dao and the Temporal Field of Nothingness 90 3.1 Dao and Cosmological Time 91 3.2 The Static Nature of Human Causal Time 104 3.3 Conclusion 117 Chapter 4 Utility of the Useless: A Life Praxis in Accordance with Dao 119 4.1 Useless by Proxy and the Proxy of Usefulness 120 4.2 A Model of Life Praxis: the Useless Tree 128 4.3 Conclusion 137 Chapter 5 Playing in Nothingness so as to Forget Existence 139 5.1 The Mundaneness of Forgetting 140 v 5.2 Losing Oneself in Forgetfulness 153 5.3 Smashing one’s Body in Order to Sit in Forgetfulness 162 5.4 A Prelude to Spiritual Freedom: Fasting of the Mind 167 5.5 Conclusion 173 Chapter 6 The Meontological Freedom of Dao 174 6.1 Seeking a New Definition of Freedom: the Cosmological 175 6.2 The Heavenly Principles of Cosmological Freedom 181 6.3 Nothingness as Dao’s Great Harmonizer 189 6.4 Carefree Wandering 199 6.5 Conclusion 206 Conclusion 208 Chinese Glossary 214 Bibliography 215 vi INTRODUCTION This dissertation presents an original reading of the Chinese Daoist text the Zhuangzi 《莊子》, the purpose of which is to illuminate and explore its views on themes related to cosmology and ontology while arguing for their inherent connectedness with nothingness. Given that Zhuangzi lived nearly two and a half millennia ago, the concepts and terminology he uses will at times appear unconventional, if not outright incomprehensible. Although much of the subject matter appearing in the text bearing his name has garnered its fair share of attention throughout the developmental history of Western philosophy, for the untrained reader of the Zhuangzi, its unique presentation of said themes (e.g., creation, temporality, personal well-being, freedom, etc.) makes establishing analogies of comparison all the more difficult. Very little is known of Zhuangzi’s personal life other than he hailed from the state of Song 宋 and reputedly left behind a work of one hundred thousand words in fifty-two chapters. According to the Historical Records or Shiji 《史記》, Zhuangzi lived during the time of king Hui of Liang 梁惠 王 and king Xuan of Qi 齊宣王. He is also said to have turned down an offer to serve at the court of king Wei of Chu 楚威王. In light of such historical evidence, as well as other indications scattered 1 throughout the Zhuangzi, we can conservatively claim that Zhuangzi lived from 375-300 BCE. As for the text itself, much has been made of its redaction from an original fifty-two chapters down to thirty-three by the commentator Guo Xiang 郭象 (fl. 312 CE). Guo was also responsible for collating these chapters into their current sequence, doing so according to the sectional designators of Inner, Outer, and Miscellaneous chapters in place since the Han dynasty. This, however, does not testify to the state of the Zhuangzi before his editorship, a period in which the text varied in terms of sectional classification and the actual number of chapters.2 Two of the earliest known 1 For a more in-depth discussion of Zhuangzi’s lifetime and the evolution of the Zhuangzi, see Chai 2008: 4-7, 15-18. 2 For more on the dating and classification of the Zhuangzi chapters, see Chai 2008: 7-14, 18-26. Additional readings on the textual history of the Zhuangzi are available in: Angus C. Graham. “How Much of Chuang-tzu Did Chuang-tzu Write?” Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. Albany: SUNY Press, 1990: 283-321; Liu Xiaogan. Classifying the Zhuangzi Chapters. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies Monograph, 1994; Harold Roth, ed. A Companion to Angus C. Graham's Chuang Tzu: the Inner Chapters. Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy Monograph. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002. 1 2 commentators to the Zhuangzi—Cui Zhuan 崔譔 (fl. 290 CE) and Xiang Xiu 向秀 (ca. 227-272 CE)—used a twenty-seven chapter version of the text that divided it into Inner and Outer sections only; what is more, both men differed in their opinion as to which chapters should be classified as Inner and which should be Outer. All of this testifies to a text whose structural framework was fluid at the time and subject to debate. And yet many of the commentaries to the Zhuangzi referred to throughout this dissertation turned to Guo Xiang’s redacted text, not the fifty-two chapter ancient text used by Sima Biao 司馬彪 (ca. 227-272 CE), or the truncated version of Cui Zhuan and Xiang Xiu. Bearing this spirit of intra-textual cohesiveness in mind, we shall refrain from making explicit references to the categories of Inner, Outer, and Miscellaneous chapters insofar as it only lends further credence to a dichotomist approach to the Zhuangzi instead of seeing the text as a holistic entity. To this end, passages and overarching concepts attributable to Zhuangzi himself shall make reference to him by name, while references to passages or concepts that embody the spirit of the text as a whole shall cite its title. Although this work is a close hermeneutic reading of the Zhuangzi, said methodology is not taken to point to the ontology of man but the negatively creative onto-cosmology of Dao so as to espouse a language of meontology.3 Reading the text from the perspective of nothingness allows us to color the philosophy of the Zhuangzi in positive shades of understanding, thus rendering the being of man secondary. Furthermore, scrutinizing the text and its exegetical tradition in such a manner forces us to approach it anew; we can no longer read it as pertaining to the domain of humanity alone but to the universe as a whole. This is one of the pillars of Daoism and helps differentiate it from classical Western philosophy. It would, of course, be extremely convenient to engage the views of these two traditions using a concept-by-concept comparison but doing so would make this work unwieldy and dilute its interpretive import. In order to avoid such an undesirable outcome, we will only resort to a comparative dialogue whenever it serves to strengthen the argument being put forth by Zhuangzi and his text. What is more, we will only avail ourselves of those Western thinkers for whom the 3 The word meontology is derived from the Greek me-on, “the study of nonbeing.” 3 question of nothingness came to play a significant role in their philosophical discourse.
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