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Direct and Indirect Ecological Consequences of Human

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Direct and Indirect Ecological Consequences of Human Direct and Indirect Ecological Consequences of Human Activities in Urban and Native Ecosystems by Elizabeth Miessner Cook A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved June 2014 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Sharon J. Hall (Chair) Christopher G. Boone Scott L. Collins Nancy B. Grimm ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY August 2014 ABSTRACT Though cities occupy only a small percentage of Earth’s terrestrial surface, humans concentrated in urban areas impact ecosystems at local, regional and global scales. I examined the direct and indirect ecological outcomes of human activities on both managed landscapes and protected native ecosystems in and around cities. First, I used highly managed residential yards, which compose nearly half of the heterogeneous urban land area, as a model system to examine the ecological effects of people’s management choices and the social drivers of those decisions. I found that a complex set of individual and institutional social characteristics drives people’s decisions, which in turn affect ecological structure and function across scales from yards to cities. This work demonstrates the link between individuals’ decision-making and ecosystem service provisioning in highly managed urban ecosystems. Second, I examined the distribution of urban-generated air pollutants and their complex ecological outcomes in protected native ecosystems. Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), reactive nitrogen (N), and ozone (O3) are elevated near human activities and act as both resources and stressors to primary producers, but little is known about their co-occurring distribution or combined impacts on ecosystems. I investigated the urban “ecological airshed,” including the spatial and temporal extent of N deposition, as well as CO2 and O3 concentrations in native preserves in Phoenix, Arizona and the outlying Sonoran Desert. I found elevated concentrations of ecologically relevant pollutants co-occur in both urban and remote native lands at levels that are likely to affect ecosystem structure and function. Finally, I tested the combined effects of CO2, N, and i O3 on the dominant native and non-native herbaceous desert species in a multi-factor dose-response greenhouse experiment. Under current and predicted future air quality conditions, the non-native species (Schismus arabicus) had net positive growth despite physiological stress under high O3 concentrations. In contrast, the native species (Pectocarya recurvata) was more sensitive to O3 and, unlike the non-native species, did not benefit from the protective role of CO2. These results highlight the vulnerability of native ecosystems to current and future air pollution over the long term. Together, my research provides empirical evidence for future policies addressing multiple stressors in urban managed and native landscapes. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Foremost, I would like to thank Sharon Hall for her endless support, training, and guidance toward becoming a scientist and broad critical thinker. Thank you! I also thank my committee, Christopher Boone, Scott Collins, and Nancy Grimm, for your encouragement and support in pursing an interdisciplinary graduate education and my research goals, as well as for your helpful feedback improving this research. Thank you to the many members of the IGERT in Urban Ecology community, the School of Life Sciences graduate group and especially past and current Hall lab members, the many Grimm Lab reading groups, and the Central Arizona-Phoenix Long-term Ecological Research network. Most especially, thank you to Stevan Earl, Rebecca Hale, David Huber, David Iwaniec, Kelli Larson, Jennifer Learned, Yevgeniy Marusenko, Pamela Padgett, and Katelyn Parady. Thank you for many thoughtful, engaging, and inspiring conversations and collaborations that have shaped my perspective on science and research. I am lucky to have been a part of these collaborative and engaging communities. To my family and parents, thank you for teaching (and reminding) me that there are no limits to one’s dreams or capabilities and for supporting me in my many endeavors – that is the greatest gift. Finally, thank you to my love, Lyzzette Foz Bullock, for your innumerable measures of support and for your unwavering belief in me. I could not have done this without you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ... ........................................................................................ ........ 1 Scope and Structure of this Dissertation .................................................................. 2 References ................................................................................................................ 7 2 RESIDENTIAL LANDSCAPES AS SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: SYNTHESIS OF MULTI-SCALAR INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THEIR HOME ENVIRONMENT ... .................................................... ........ 9 Abstract .................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 11 Methods .................................................................................................................. 13 Findings .................................................................................................................. 15 Ecology of Residential Landscapes .............................................................. 16 Management Decisions ................................................................................. 29 Multi-Scalar Human Drivers of Residential Landscapes ............................. 32 Legacy Effects .............................................................................................. 42 Discussion and Future Research Directions .......................................................... 44 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 49 Acknolwedgements ................................................................................................ 51 References .............................................................................................................. 52 iv CHAPTER Page 3 ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN DEPOSITION IN A LARGE SEMI-ARID CITY IS LOWER THAN EXPECTED: FINDINGS FROM A METHODS COMPARISON ........................................................................................................ 80 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 80 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 82 Methods .................................................................................................................. 87 Site Characteristics ....................................................................................... 87 Long-Term N Deposition Monitoring .......................................................... 88 Estimating Dry Deposition with Multiple Sampling Approaches ............... 91 Meteorological and Urban Site Characteristics ............................................ 96 Data Analyses ............................................................................................... 98 Results ................................................................................................................... 99 Long-Term N Deposition ............................................................................. 99 Gaseous N Concentrations and Dry Deposition ......................................... 104 Total N Deposition Comparison ................................................................. 106 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 108 Patterns of Nitrogen Deposition in a Large Semi-Arid City and Surrounding Native Ecosystem ..................................................................................... 108 Drivers and Sources of Nitrogen Deposition in an Arid Metropolitan Region ......................................................................................................... 112 Underestimation of N Deposition in Arid Systems ................................... 116 Uncertainties in Urban Arid N Deposition Estimates ................................ 117 v CHAPTER Page Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 120 Acknolwedgements .............................................................................................. 122 References ............................................................................................................ 123 4 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE “ECOLOGICAL AIRSHED” OF NEAR- URBAN PROTECTED ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................. 145 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 145 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 147 Methods ...............................................................................................................
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