HEART-WORK: EMOTION, EMPOWERMENT AND AUTHORITY IN COVENANTING TIMES Louise Anderson Yeoman A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 1991 Full metadata for this item is available in the St Andrews Digital Research Repository at: https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/637 This item is protected by original copyright Heart-work: emotion, empowerment and authority in covenanting times. by Louise Anderson Yeoman Submitted to the University of St Andrews, in fulfiment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, on the 22nd of August, 1991 Abstract 'Heart-work' is an examination of the inner world of the covenanters; particularly with regard to authority, empowerment and affective experience. It examines the covenanting phenomenon of conversion, which placed believers in touch with a comforting, empowering and guiding inner sense. It explores the manifestations of this inner sense, and also considers the covenanting attitudes to reason, emotion and feeling which were influenced by the centrality of this spiritual inner sense in covenanting devotion. There has also been a study of its effects on both theories of authority and practical behaviour. Both the public political climate of declarations and polemic, and the personal spiritual arena of diaries, letters and autobiographies have been explored. Modes of worship and attitudes to ceremonies are covered, as is the response of normally disadvantaged groups such as women and the lower classes to covenanting Calvinism. Modern psychotherapy theory has been used in some cases to explain why certain process and doctrines had certain effects. In conclusion, it seems that Scottish presbyterianism relied for its effects on breaking through to a deeper level of spiritual experience in its adherents. This experience, which was connected to feeling rather than reason, was open to all persons. It was connected with the doctrines of the 'mystical body of Christ' and of the covenant by which Christ's total sovereignty within and without was recognised. Those who experienced it were profoundly affected by it and often found themselves empowered to stand up to their social superiors as a result. This inner spiritual experience was the motive force behind covenanting practice, and efforts to foster and preserve it, led to clashes with the episcopalian royal establishment, since the experience itself was closely linked to a certain framework of devotions which its adherents would not suffer to see tampered with. 111 Acknowledgements & Dedication I would like to acknowledge all the help and support which I have received from my family and friends. Especially, I would like to thank Clive Davenall, who made my Edinburgh research both pleasant and possible, Jane Ann Liston, who proof-read my work (any mistakes are, of course, my own!), and Bruce Ryan whose computer know-how and general friendliness has been a great support. I would like to acknowledge my debt to my supervisors, Professor Christopher Smout and Professor David Stevenson, who have been most helpful and supportive to me, and also my debt to Mhairi McMillan, St Andrew's Student Counsellor, who introduced me to the person-centred approach and encouraged me in my researches. Finally, may I thank my poor persecuted flatmates for putting up with me - Dave, Simon, Bruce, Julie, Chiddy, Vizzy, Mary, Mandy, Trish, Yu-ping, Sue, and Hulya - not forgetting Graham, for all his letters, pizzas and support. Thanks to you all. This thesis is, of course, dedicated with love to my mother, Isabella Grant Arnott. Louise A. Yeoman, St Andrews, 20/8/91, iv Abbreviations AJW, I. Archibald Johnston of Wariston's diary 1632-39, (Edinburgh, 1911) Scottish History Society, first series. AJW, II. Archibald Johnston of Wariston's diary 1650-54, (Edinburgh, 1919) Scottish History Society, second series. AJW, III. Archibald Johnston of Wariston's diary 1655-60, (Edinburgh, 1940) Scottish History Society, third series. A.TW, twentieth century transcript. Archibald Johnston of Wariston's diary, the fuller transcript for 1655-60, National Library of Scotland mss 6247-6258. V Contents Preface vii 1 Conversion 1 2 Authority 41 3 Christ versus Antichrist 95 4 Heartwork 133 5 The order of affections 171 6 Who does God flow through? 208 7 The covenanting experience 230 Conclusion 273 Bibliography 280 vi Preface This thesis is an attempt to explore the inner world of the covenanters - especially with regard to personal change and inner authority. It is based on the hypothesis that real psychological changes happened in those who had conversion experiences, and it is hence an exploration of those changes which were sustained and encouraged by a life of prayer, repentance and worship. Modern psychotherapeutic theory has been used in order to explore the conditions which cleared the way for spiritual experience. This is in no way intended as a reductionistic exercise in 'explaining away' religious happenings. The covenanters themselves were aware of two levels in the person - that of the conscious attempts to repent and stir the emotions which lay within the grasp of human capabilities, and that of what they termed saving grace: the deeper, spontaneous uncontrollable and unbiddable level of the spirit, which was made way for by the clearing out process - 'drying the timber that it might sooner take fire when casten into it', to quote minister Mr David Dickson.1.(see chapter five). The aim of the author in employing such theory is to explore the intentional level which made way for change, and also to point to the applicability of modern theories to seventeenth-century experiences of change and inner authority. This approach has also been used to consider the psychological effects of certain doctrines which were preached, especially that of predestination. Whilst the stated reason for preaching such doctrine was that it was believed to be scriptural, in practice it could be seen that it 1David Dickson, Select practical writings of David Dickson (Edinburgh, 1845), 220. vii played an important functional role in clearing the way for contact with inner experience. (This is explored in chapter one.) Part of my argument is that, whilst in public confrontation with opponents, covenanters would inevitably give arguments from scripture as the reason for their stance, in actual fact their rationale seemed also to come from experiential sources. There seems to have been a very strong element of practical and satisfying experience involved in covenanting worship, and exploration of private sources, such as diaries and autobiographies, shows that this inner experiential dynamic has often been totally overlooked by historians, who have taken public assertions of scriptural motives at their word, and who have thus missed the private world of the practising covenanter. This private world worked on the dynamics of maximising inner spiritual contact, and minimising 'polluting' outer contact with those who were not held to be properly recognising the sovereignty of Christ; within, in conversion - and without, in His headship of the Kirk. Its major dynamics were the 'sovereignty of Christ in covenant with the elect' doctrine and the doctrine of being part of the 'mystical body of Christ.' These doctrines are explored in the text. Such exploration of the inner world reveals that Scottish popular Calvinism was not the intellectual and externally preoccupied creature that some have asserted it to be. Gordon Donaldson in his book The faith of the Scots (London, 1990) accuses the main body of the covenanters of putting too much emphasis on outer circumstances of worship, whilst he lauds Hugh Binning and Robert Bruce as exceptions for their inner spirituality. This view is not borne out by my research. The inner spirituality of Bruce is a hallmark of covenanting devotion and not an exception. The outer preoccupation,which Donaldson detects, was merely a balance to an intense life of inner devotion. Concern with the doctrine of the inner sovereignty of Christ was expressed viii symbolically by actions such as declarations and separations from those whom covenanters saw to have denied that sovereignty, but this was done in the name of maximising spiritual experience and inner contact - see chapters three and six - and not as an alternative to it. It was Mr Robert Blair's inner spiritual meditations on the sovereignty of Christ which led him to accept presbyterianism; likewise, Mr David Dickson was confirmed in his presbyterian path by overwhelming spiritual comfort and experience on refusing the authority of bishops, whilst Henderson was wont to convert his episcopalian fellows to presbyterianism by taking them along to non-episcopalian prayer meetings where they 'found so much of the spirit' that they were immediately impressed. 1 The seeming outer emphasis in presbyterianism came, in the most part, from a desire to protect the inner world from being smoored by exposure to a 'lifeless' time-serving episcopal ministry, and ceremonies which were perceived to be either useless in stirring up inner experience, or threatening to the headship of Christ and thus likely to lead to him withdrawing his inner spiritual presence in disgust (see Rutherford's Letters2). This inner experiential tradition was not at all intellectual. It was built on what was known as 'heart-work': inner-feeling, spiritual experience of great intensity, which was reached by turning the awareness inwards, stirring up the self in emotional repentance and meditation, and thus making way for this deeper level of experience to come through. This form of piety was practised also by episcopalians, such as Leighton, Forbes of Corse and Mr William Struther, and for this reason they have been included throughout this study. On this inner 1 Robert Wodrow, Analecta, or materials for a history of remarkable providences mostly relating to Scottish ministers and Christians, (Edinburgh 1842-43) 2 Samuel Rutherford, Letters of Samuel Rutherford with a sketch of his life and biographical notes of his correspondents by the Reverend A.