INTRODUCTION The investigated area is located along the Red Sea Coast and covers an area of about 1645 2 kmP .P It extends between latitudes 25º 50' - 26º 10' N and longitudes 33º 40' - 34º 20' E (Fig. 1). The objectives of the present work are: a) Study the effect of the topography and geologic structure on the drainage basins of the investigated area, b) Determining and evaluating the morphometeric parameters of the hydrographic basins using Landsat TM (bands 7, 4, 2 in RGB), photo mosaics and topographic maps, and c) Evaluate the flooding potential of the drainage network affecting the Quseir town as well as Qift – Quseir road and mitigative their flash flood hazards. METEOROLOGY The study area is characterized by arid climate, very low rainfall, high temperature, and high evaporation rate. The available rainfall data obtained from the Egyptian Authority of Meteorology (1996) show that the maximum rainfall in one day recorded from Quseir station during November is about 50 mm/day. These rainfalls come in the form of flashfloods which affect the downstream villages and towns along the Red Sea coast. During 1989, these flash floods destructed the railways which connect between Abu Tartour phosphate mines at the west and Hamrawein phosphate factories (near Quseir) at the east. They also caused severe damage to transverse highways (Qift– Quseir roads) and the coastal highway (Quseir – Marsa Alam roads). According to the statistical analysis of the Technology of Valleys Group (1983), it is found that every 50 years a storm of about 30 mm is likely to occur and so on. This means that the next strong storm is expected to be occurred in 2039.

2 Samir M. Zaid

Fig. (1): Landsat TM image of Quseir region.

Fig.(2): Elevation contour map showing the topographic features of study area.

POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 3

Fig. (3): Grid distribution map of study area

GEOMORPHOLOY The area is limited from the east by the Red Sea, trending NW- SE. The study area could be subdivided into three distinct geomorphic units (Fig. 2): 1- Coastal plain; it represents the eastern narrow strip of the study area that running parallel to the Red Sea coast. It extends in a NW-SE trend and ranges in elevation between few to tens of meters above sea level. 2- Pediment; it forms the foot of the highly mountainous basement terrain. It ranges in elevation between 10m to 400m above sea level. Its slope represents a transitional zone, from very low slope of coastal plain to the steep slopes of the Red Sea mountains. 3- The Red Sea mountains; they represent a part of the Red Sea basement terrains of Quseir area. They represent the upstream catchments area of rainfall, where water flows to the Red Sea. They range in elevation between 400m to more than 1000m above sea level. Each of these units has its own characteristic shape, pattern, and relief according to its mode of formation and the type and size of rocks and sediments constituting the unit.

GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING The area under consideration is covered by variety of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks belonging to Precambrian, and Phanerozoic ages (Meshref, 1982) Quseir 4 Samir M. Zaid area, by its location along the Red Sea Coast, is affected by its structural elements and tectonism. The synoptic view of satellite imagery revealed some regional fracture lineaments. Some of these lineaments are affecting the Tertiary sedimentary rocks and very few others are affecting the Quaternary deposits in the whole parts of the study area. A total number of 195 linear features were detected and their total length 1060.5 km (Tables 1, 2). The airphoto pattern proves to be distinctly preferred in orientation, and is characterized by local density variation. Most of the detected linear features are long, parallel with few perpendiculars. The western part of the area seams to have a small number of lineations pointing out to the soft rocks of Cenozoic rocks. Moreover, the intensity of tectonic movements in the area also decreases to the west direction, away from the basement complex. The concentration of linear features decrease nearly from the center of study area to both the northeast and southwest directions. This may be attributed to tectonic movements occurred during the Oligo-Miocene which was accompanied with the rifting of the Red Sea graben. The study area is subdivided into equal grids for quantitative analyses of structure lineaments (Fig. 3). These lineaments exhibit different directions and lengths. Figure (4) shows the presence of 195 linear features exhibiting the directions: NW, NNW, WNW and NE. The analysis of these fracture lineaments using the point diagram reveals that the most intensive anomaly has been concentrated on the middle part of the study area (Fig. 5) POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 5

. The drainage basins and their drainage network were identified from geometrically correctly enhanced Landsat TM (bands 7, 4, 2 in RGB). Specific computer routines (Arc GIS, 8.3) were used for delineation of drainage networks and basin boundaries, and in computing basin and stream variables and their morphometeric parameters. The drainage nets of these basins are well developed, integrated and fairly high in average density. The pattern is mostly dendritic in shape and runs east -northeast. The analysis of drainage lineations showed a parallelism of preferred orientation. The orientational characteristics show the salient of NW and NE to be the same trends of fracture lineaments. The study indicates that the drainage system of Wadi Ambagi, Wadi El Iseiwid and Wadi Zareib threaten the Red Sea coastal towns of Quseir, as well as the highways connecting and crossing them. With respect to flashflood hazard, the basins rank as moderate to high hazard on most of studied basins. To protect these roads and town of Quseir from the flashflood hazard, cross opens parallel to the water flow direction and at right angles to the roads must be made and earth dams should be built at the mouths of the active wadis.

6 Samir M. Zaid

Thus, analysis of the surface structure lineaments reflect the important tectonic directions previously detected by Youssef (1968), Halsey and Gardner (1975) and Meshref (1982). The tectonic trends detected in the present study explain the tectonic framework and the tectonic history of the area. These tectonic trends are the Aqaba (NE-SW) and Suez (NW-SE) trends, which are considered as two ideal and complementary sets of shear fractures that may result from a northern horizontal compressive force oriented in NW direction (Youssef, 1968).

DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS The study area represents a part of the Red Sea megabasin (El Shazly et al., 1991 and Yehia et al., 1999). It includes four drainage basins. These drainage basins are Wadi Abu Ziran, Wadi Kareim, Wadi el Iseiwid and Wadi Zareib (Fig. 6). Qualitative Analysis: The drainage lineation analyses of the Quseir area showed that these drainage are well developed, integrated, dense and oriented (Fig. 6). The common drainage patterns are denderitic, trellis, rectangular and parallel and run from west and northwest to east. The orientations of most of these wadis correspond, to a marked degree, to the prevailing trends of the fracture pattern of the region, implying that the fractures commonly control substantial parts of the course of the wadis and do determine their sharp bends (Yehia et al., 1999). Quantitative Analysis: In the study area, the drainage basins and their drainage network were identified from geometrically correctly enhanced Landsat TM (bands 7, 4, 2 in RBG). Specific computer routines (Arc GIS, 8.3) were used for delineation of drainage networks and basin boundaries, and in computing basin and stream variables and their morphometeric parameters. Linear drainage basin parameters (Basin order (O), Bifurcation ratio (Rb), Total drainage segment number (N), Basin length (L), Total drainage network length (Ld), Length of overland flow (Lo), Maximum drainage network length (WL), and Sinuosity (Si)), areal drainage basin characteristics (Basin area (A), Drainage frequency (F), Drainage density (D), Basin width (W), Basin perimeter (P), Circularity ratio (C), and Elongation ratio (E)), and relief drainage basin characteristics (Relief (H, Slope (S) and Ruggedness number (M)) are computed to predict the relative flashflood hazard and infiltration degree for the distinct drainage basin as well as their capability for ground water recharge (Table 3 ). The hydrogeomorphometric relations for the hydrologic assessment of hydrographic system of El Shamy (1992) revealed that most of the studied basins are located in Domain C, referring to low to moderate chance of downward infiltration and relatively moderate to high flooding opportunity (Fig. 7). POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 7 The high values of bifurcation ratios (Rb) may be due to the more or less circular shapes of the basins, where runoff flow to outlet in a considerably short time may require construction of dams and diaphragms. High values of frequencies (F) and densities (D), which are attributed to the existence of impervious rocks of rough steep surface and low permeable subsoil material and consequently limited infiltration of rainfall to the groundwater. Overland flow across the ground surface to the nearest channel is the surface runoff. The average calculated length of the overland flow of the study area ranges between 0.18 and 0.42. According to these values, studied basins have short to moderate overland flow so low to moderate infiltration rate and moderate risk of flash flooding. However, the exposed rock types are dense fracturing, which is common especially in western parts of the study area, may the reason of moderate infiltration rate. The cumulative data for the calculated morphometeric parameters of all drainage basins for the studied wadis have been recalculated to predict the relative flashflood hazard (Table 4). Quantitatively based on the rate of rainfall, total precipitation, total runoff and total infiltration have been calculated. Due to the amount of runoff values and infiltration rate, the study area can be divided into recharge groundwater orders, Table 5. Relationship between rate of erosion and basin relief is very important especially in Red Sea Coastal towns and high way road construction. Ohomori (1982) introduced the two equations for the calculation of rate of erosion and soil loss for all basins in the study area (Table 5). Table 5 shows that the total erosion increased with increasing soil loss. The effect of erosion increases towards the east of the study area due to the short profile length, dense structure, high inclination and gradient of the stream profile.

HILLSLOPE ANALYSIS Drainage basins are composed of two principal components: channels and hillslopes. Young (1972) suggested that most of the land surface of the earth is formed by valley hillslopes. Components of hillslope form Hillslope shape is often divided into two parts, the hillslope plan and hillslope profile. The hillslope plan refers to linearity or curvilinearity of form along the horizontal dimension or width of a hillslope as would be depicted on aerial photographs or topographic maps (Fig. 8). Ruhe and Walker (1968) notice that the terms contain both geometry and position of any profile which begins with summit and finishes with footslope. Ruhe (1975) also described the slope profile by comparing plan and profile; three dimensional hillslope models have been produced. 8 Samir M. Zaid

The classification of hillslopes into plan and profile components to give three- dimensional landforms shows that wadis may exhibit convexity or concavity (e.g., Wadi Ambagi, Wadi kareim and Wadi El Iseiwid) and linearity (e.g., Wadi Abu Ziran and Wadi Zareib) (Table 6 ,Fig. 9).

A B

Fig. (4): Rose diagram of major fracture lineaments interpreted from; A- Airphoto lineations, B- Drainage lineations.

A B

C D

Fig. (5): Concentration distribution map of major fracture lineaments interpreted from; A-Total number of airphoto lineations; B-Total length of airphoto lineations; C-Total number of Drainage lineations; and D- Total length of Drainage lineations.

POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 9

Fig. (6): Drainage network map of study area.

Fig. (7): Assessment of basins of study area based on the relationship between stream frequency (F), drainage density (D) and bifurcation ratio (Rb) (using the terms after, El Shamy, 1992).

10 Samir M. Zaid

POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 11

Table (6): Components of hillslope form of the studied wadis according to Ruhe (1975). Basin Contours Profile Plan Form 00 - 100 L V LV Wadi Ambagi 100 - 200 V V VV 200 - 300 L V LV 200 - 300 V V VV

300 - 400 V C VC

400 – 500 L C LC 500 – 600 C L CL Ziran

Wadi Abu 600 – 700 C L CL 700 - 800 C L CL

sub basins 200 - 300 L V LV Wadi Ambagi Ambagi Wadi 300 - 400 L C LC Wadi

Kareim 400 – 500 V V VV 00 - 100 L V LV Wadi el - Iseiwid 100 - 200 C V CV 200 - 300 L L LL 00 - 100 C L CL Wadi Zareib 100 - 200 C L CL 200 - 300 C L CL

It is not possible to fully comprehend the relationship between hillslope form and geomorphic processes by examining the plan or the profile alone. Young (1972) proposed the nomenclatures, shown in figure 10. Here, the hillslope is composed of slope units of two types segment and elements. Analysis of the studied hillslopes profile show that slope units of two wadis contain only one sequence (Wadi El Iseiwid and Wadi Zareib), one Wadi contain two sequences (Wadi Ambagi) and two wadis contain three sequences (Wadi Abu Ziran and Wadi kareim), this means that repetition of cycle of sedimentation is only displayed by two wadis. Dalrymple et al. (1968) also assessed the various perspectives concerning the process – form relationship in developing a nine - unit model for valley side hillslopes. Each unit is defined on the base of two dimensional geometry and the contemporary geomorphic processes supposedly acting upon it. Selby (1982) observed that in reality, it is unusual to find all nine units occurring in one profile. In addition, they do not necessarily occur in order. By application of this model on hillslope profiles of the study area we have produced an analytical model for valley side hillslopes for each Wadi (Fig. 11). The linear - concave hillslope (e.g., Wadi Ambagi, Wadi kareim and (Wadi El Iseiwid) might consist of units 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7. A dominantly convex –linear hillslope e.g., Wadi Abu Ziran and Wadi Zareib) experiencing basal erosion by a stream, might consist only of units 1, 2, 3, and 4. HAZARD PROBABILITY The main hazard elements in the study area are the following: 1-Meteorologically, the area is likely to be affected by strong thunderstorms, which may expected to be occurred in 2039. Also, the area may face intense cloudbursts in the next few years. 2-Satellite image and photo mosaics revealed 195 linear features. The most intensive anomaly have been concentrated on the middle part of the study area, affecting both Tertiary and Quaternary deposits in study area. 12 Samir M. Zaid

3-The Aqaba (NE-SW) and Suez (NW-SE) trends represent the most prominent trends, and may be the principal controlling direction for major folding and complementary sets of shear fractures which may result from a northern horizontal compressive force oriented in a NW direction (Youssef, 1968). 4-The hydrogeomorphometric relations for the hydrologic assessment of hydrographic system of El Shamy (1992) show that all basins lie in domain C, referring to low to moderate chance of downward infiltration and relatively moderate to high flooding opportunity 5- The average calculated length of the overland flow of the study area ranges between 0.18 and 0.42km. According to these values, studied basins have short to moderate overland flow so low to moderate infiltration rate and moderate risk of flash flooding.

Fig. (8): Topographic map of study area showing, the relationship between Wadi profile and its intersected contour lines.

Fig. (9): Hillslope profile of studied wadis (using the term of Ruhe and Walker, 1968). POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 13

Fig. (10): Hillslope profile of studied wadis (using the term after, Young 1972).

Fig. (11): Hillslope profile of studied wadis (using the terms of Dalyrymple et al., 1968).

Fig. (12): Risk map of study area showing the risk degree of each basin and suggested sites of earth dams. 14 Samir M. Zaid

The final conclusion of assessment of flashflood hazard depending on all the studied parameters (climate, topography, geologic structure and morphometeric analyses) suggests that most of the study area displaying low to moderate hazard possibility on most of studied basins, but it is more dangerous in the central part of the study area due to dense stream, dense fracture, and high topography (Fig. 5, 6). MITIGATION OF FLASHFLOOD HAZARD AND RECOMMENDATIONS Wadi Ambagi, Wadi El Iseiwid and Wadi Zareib include many important foundations such as the phosphate mines railways, and the asphaltic roads joining the Red Sea with the Nile Valley or the main coastal roads as well as the Quseir urban site. To protect these roads and the town of Quseir from the flashflood hazard, the following recommendations are vital: 1- Cross openings or channels parallel to the water flow direction and at right angles to the roads must be made to allow the passage of rainfall water. 2- Curvature or angular dams should be constructed at the mouths of Wadi Ambagi to converting the runoff flow away from the Quseir city. 3- Dames should be built at the mouths of active wadis and tributaries to decrease quantity and velocity of runoff flow and allow water down infiltration to shallow aquifers to be used again (Fig. 12). 4- Most parts of Quaternary alluvial plains are suitable for desert development activities such as grazing and local cultivation. 5- REFERENCES Carlston, C.W., and Langhein, W.B. 1960: Rapid approximation of drainage density. Line intersection method. U.S. Geol. Surv, Bull. No.11, 31p. Dalrymple, J.B., Blong, R.J. and Conacher, A.J. 1968: A hypothetical nine - unit land surface model. Zeitschrift fűr geomorphologie, V. 12, p.60-76. Egyptian Meteorological Authority, Ministry of Transportation and Communications 1996: Internal meteorological reports, Cairo, 37p. El Shamy, I.Z. 1992: A new approach for hydrological assessment of hydrographic basins of th recent recharge and flooding possibilities. 10P P Symposium on Quaternary and development in Egypt, Mansoura Univ. Egypt, (abstract) 18p. El Shazly, E.M., Abdel Hady, M.A., and El Rakaiby, M.L., 1991: Drainage megabasins in Egypt. Bull. Soc. Georg. d` Egypt, Tome LXIV, p. 45 – 58. Gregory, K.J., and Waling, D.E. 1973: Drainage basin form and process. A Geomorphological Approach, London, Longman Group Ltd., 456p. POTENTIAL OF FLASH FLOODING OF THE DRAINAGE 15 Halsey, J.M., and Gardner, W.C. 1975: Tectonic analysis of Egypt, using earth satellite data. Lecture given to Egyptian Geologists in Cairo, 4p.

Horton, R.E. 1945: Erosional development of the stream and their drainage Age basins, hydrological Approach to quantitative morphology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 56, p.275- 370. Melton, M. A. 1957: Flood estimates. How good are they?. Water Resour. Res., V.22, p. 159- 164. Meshref, W.F. 1982: Regional structural setting of northern Egypt. 6th Pet. Explor. Seminar, Cairo, 22p Miller, V.C. 1953: A quantitative geomorphic study of drainage basin characterizes lies in the Clinch Mountain area, Virginia and Tennessee. Columbia Univ., Geol. Dep.Tech. Report No.3, 30p. Ohomori, H. 1982: Functional relationship between the Erosion rate and the Relief Structure in the Japanese Mountains. Dep. Geogr. Tokyo Univ., Bull. No.14, p.65-74. Ruhe, R.V. 1975: Geomorphology. Geomorphic processes and surficial Geology. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 246p. Ruhe, R.V. and Walker, P.H. 1968: Hillslope models and soil formation. I, open system Trans. 9th Inter. Congress of soil science, V. 4, p. 551-560. Schumm, S.A. 1956: Evolution of drainage system and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. V.67, p.597-646. Selby, M. J. 1982: Hillslope material and processes. Oxford Univ. Press. 264p. Technology of Valleys Group 1983: Protection of 15 May City from flashflood hazard. 1st

16 Samir M. Zaid

ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ ﺳﻴﻮﻝ ﺑﺄﺣﻮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻭﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻟﻠﻤﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﺑﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻴﺮ ﺳﻤﻴﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﻮﺩ ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺯﻳﺪ ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ – ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺰﻗﺎﺯﻳﻖ

ﺗﻘﻊ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻁﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻭﺗﺸﻐﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ 1645 ﻛﻢ2 . ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍ ﻡ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺸﻌﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻭﺑﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻴﺮ ﻭﺗﻢ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻮﺭﻓﻮﻣﺘﺮﻱ ﻭﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺒﻲ ﻷﺣﻮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ. ﺃﻭﺿﺤﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻥ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻳﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻂ ﺍﻟﺸﺠﻴﺮﻱ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺧﺸﻨﺔ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺘﺮﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻭﻣﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ ﻭﻛﺜﻴﻔﺔ. ﺭﻭﺍﻓﺪ ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﺽ ﻋﻤﻴﻘﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺒﻲ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ. ﺍﻷﻓﺮﻉ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻮﺩﻳﺎﻥ ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺠﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﺪﻭﻉ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﻏﺮﺏ ﻭﻏﺮﺏ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﻏﺮﺏ. ﻭﺃﻭﺿﺤﺖ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻬﺪﺩ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻴﺮ ﻭﺃﺟﺰﺍء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ . ﻭﺗﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻮﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺣﻮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺗﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻟﻲ ﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﺽ. ﻭﺍﻗﺘﺮﺡ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻫﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻓﺘﺤﺎﺕ (ﻣﻤﺮﺍﺕ) ﻋﺮﺿﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﻋﻤﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻲ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺳﺪﻭﺩ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺼﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﻄﺔ.

Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 17 - 35

FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS, RED SEA, EGYPT

M. A. Azab

Art Faculty – Zagazig University E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Twenty three drainage basins with outlets to the Red Sea were defined in the area 2 between Marsa Alam and Ras Banas. They range in area between small (11.52 kmP )P and large 2 (1476.7kmP )P and in drainage density between 1.4 and 3.8. The drainage net of the study area is well developed, integrated and fairly dense but is not consistent all over the area. Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Radi have high values of relief and ruggedness number and these this gives short time of concentration of runoff. Therefore, their probability for flooding is very high. Wadi Gemal has the highest value of maximum runoff, followed by wadi Lahmi and Wadi Ghadir. This reflects how dangerous these drainage basins are. However, the spread of unplanned settlement and mis-management of the land and water resources in the down stream and catchment areas along the coast are threatened by flood hazards. Under such conditions a strategy is suggested with the purpose of flood mitigation and control. Open embankments or boulder dams at the upstream parts of the drainage basins will minimize flood hazards and give more chance for groundwater recharge. According to the climatic conditions the study area receives an average rainfall quantity equals to 98.75 million cubic meters/year. Therefore, a huge amount of rainwater be percolated and consequently recharge the shallow aquifers if we succeeded to control its runoff components. Basins of Wadi Khashir, Wadi El Ranga and Wadi Um Abbas can be classified as less dangerous basins and consequently, they can be considered as good locations for groundwater collection.

INTRODUCTION Along the Red Sea coast, flash flooding represents the main natural hazard posing greater threat on life, constructions and even marine life. The coastal area is dissected by numerous parallel-pronounced valleys (wadis) that initiated from the mountainous country and run towards the Red Sea following the general eastward slope. It is occasionally subjected heavy showers during winter times, followed by sporadic torrential floods that may cause disastrous damage to roads and the sporadic settlements. In October, 1979 the area was affected by dangerous flood that caused damage along Idfu- Marsa Alam, Marsa Alam – Ras Banas, and Qift-Qusier roads, destruction of about 500 houses and killing about 19 persons. In 1980, 1985, 1991, 1994 and 1996, floods were took place, but less effect than that occurred during 1979. However, as the Egyptian government tries to deal with the short term consequences of flood, it has to think seriously about long-term strategy regarding flood and groundwater, especially after spreading the touristic developments along the Red Sea coast. Unfortunately, yet the government does not have a grip on the flood problem and flood control strategy. We will argue that unless serious steps are taken to correct our thinking direction, the flood problem of the Red Sea coast is likely to become even worse with time and attain ultimately calamitous proportions.

Generally, fluvial morphmetry and flash floods have been studied by Baker et al (1983) Greis (1983), Gupta (1983), Boughton and Renard (1984), Cooke (1984), Linsley (1986), 18 M. A. Azab

Baker and Pickup (1987), Cunnane (1987), Klemes (1987), Tasker (1987), Patton (1988) and Summerfield (1991). Moreover, studies in fluvial geomorphology and morphometry of some flood vulnerable areas of Egypt such as Sinai and the Eastern Desert and have received particulars consideration by some workers (e.g. Mobarek et al. 1981; EI Kassas and El Rakaiby 1983; Salem 1985; El Shamy 1985, Schick and Lekach 1987; Saleh 1989 a, b, c; El Rakaiby 1989; EI Etr and Ashmawy 1993; Ashmawy 1993; Yahia et al. 1999 a, b; EI-Etr et al. 1999; Ashmawy et al. 2000; Ashmawy 2001,2002 and Kamh 2002). The study area is located in the central Eastern Desert of Egypt and lies entirely within the catchment area of the Red Sea. It is bounded from the east by the Red Sea and from the west by the River Nile-Red Sea water divide, and is limited by maximum latitudes 24° and 25° N (Fig. 1). It is of elongated and covers an area of about 6000 km2. Geomorphological studies may give information about the areas affected by flooding. Studying the morphometric parameters of drainage basins is very important for determination of the intensity of floods, and provides suitable solutions for avoiding or reducing as much as possible, hazards that occur, in addition to increasing groundwater recharge. The study of the hydro-geochemical characters of groundwater in Wadi EI-Gemal basin (at the middle part of the study area) is important for domestic, livestock and irrigation uses. Beside deciphering the different landforms and the drainage courses and their basins, this study helps to define the locations and distribution of the Plio-Quaternary fans of probably great importance to the groundwater recharge.

Methods Of Study Qualitative and quantitative geomorphic analyses of the drainage basins in the area between Marsa Alam and Ras Banas were measured and analyzed for flash flood (Fig. 1). These parameters give a better understanding for surface water potentialities in the defined hydrographic basins. Drainage networks of each drainage basin were delineated from photo- mosaic (1 :50,000), topographic maps (24 maps at scale 1 :50,000) and landsat images of scale 1:50.000, as well as, field observations. Twenty-three drainage basins were defined and mapped. The geomorphological parameters of each basin were defined in terms of stream order, bifurcation ratio (Horton 1945 and Strahler 1952), basin shape (Miller 1953 and Schumm 1956), sinuosity (Mueller 1968), relief ratio (Schumm 1956.) and ruggedness number (Melton 1957). The rainfall and surface runoff were defined according to the equation given by Ball (1937).

Topography And Geomorphology The study area comprises essentially high and rugged mountains, built up of a series mountain our range, more or less coherently trending parallel to the coast and interrupted by a number of detached masses and peaks (Fig. 2). The high peaks are concentrated in the southwestern corner where they rise to elevations up to 1975m (Gaba1 Hamata). The River Nile-Red Sea water divide runs over the high peaks of the Red Sea Mountains with an average elevation of 650m. A large number of wadis initiate from the mountainous terrain dissecting the area and run toward the Red Sea following the general eastward slope. They are mostly oriented E-W, WNW-ENE, NNW-SSE and NE-NW. The main wadis are very important sutable areas for extending net of roads crossing the area and as the main arteries for groundwater. Slope gradient is mostly steep in the upper reaches of drainageways and tends to be gentle to the east.

FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 19

Fig. (1) Location Map of the Study Area

The Red Sea high mountains form the backbone of the Eastern Desert and extend parallel to and at a relatively short distance from the coast. They are flanked to the north and west by intensively dissected sedimentary plateaux. In the meantime, they do not form a continuous range, but rather a series of mountain groups disposed in a linear direction approximating that of the coast, with some detached masses and peaks. The elongated massive block of ultramafic rocks forms the highest mountainous in the area and the watershed that separates between the Nile and the Red Sea basins. However, the coastal hilly area and the lower mountains form conspicuous topographical features between the coast and the main Red Sea mountains. The granitoid rocks forming low to moderate relief but the gabbroic ones forming relatively higher hills. The coastal plain is a low topographic feature of a variable width ranging between 0.6km in the north (Wadi Ghadir) to more than 12km in the south at Hamata. Sedimentary deposites extending from the piedmont to the Red Sea coast, comprise alluvial fans, wadis and littoral (reef) deposits. Modem fringing coral reef (50-100m wide) is extended along the coast. Coral reefs disappear at the mouth of some wadis as a result of sediment (sand and pebbles) accumulation during floods. However, the coastal line character by presence of embayment (marsas). Several terrace steps were formed in alluvial fans, sometimes occur as a single feature flanking the sides of the wadis but on occasions they may be arranged in vertical successions forming flights along the sides of the wadi channels. They were recorded along the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba and were considered to be closely related to the Plio-Pleistocene peripheral uplift of the hinterland areas (Sellwood and Netherwood 1984).

20 M. A. Azab

Fig. (2) Topography of the study area (based on Egyptian Military Survey topographic map 1986 at scale (1 : 250000).

Geomorphic Characteristics of the Plio-Quaternary Alluvial Fans: From north to south, there are six major fans in the study area: Samadi, Nakari, Khalilate EI Bahri, Rimarim, Khashir and Ras Banas. They range in area between 10km2 (Khalilate EI Bahri) and 190km2 (Khashir), and their altitudes range between 79m a.s.l (Khalilate El Bahri) and 172m a.s.l (Nakari). The lower limit of the studied fans varies from 6.0 m a.s.1 (Wadi Samadi) to 10.0m a.s.l (Wadi Rimarim). The apex of fan area are arranged adjacent to along the main faulted boundary extending at the mountain front has relatively higher slope. It varies from 5° (Wadi Rimarim) to 16° (Wadi Nakari). The middle fan areas one of gentle inclination, and varies from 3° at Wadi Gemal and Ras Banas to 8° at Khalilate EI Bahri. The lower fan has a slope of less than 2°.

These fans are drained by number of channels originating from the high relief mountain. These channels are generally parallel at the lower and middle parts of the fan zone. They are higher dissected and have deep gullies in their lower parts. Most extensive terraces with different levels are developed around the channels of these fans. Drainage Characteristics The study area represents a part of the Red Sea drainage submegabasin (El Shazly et al. 1991). The water divide follows the high peaks of the Red Sea Mountains. It is crooked and trends roughly in a NNW direction parallel to the regional trend of the Red Sea. The final shaping of the drainage network is an outcome of the last fluvial periods. The present dry valleys and tributaries were already engraved during these fluvial periods. They are now filled with surficial deposits of gravels, sands and clays. Twenty three drainage basins with outlets to the Red Sea were defined and sorted out, area-wise into three distinct categories (large> FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 21

200 km2, medium 200-60km2, and small <60km2). Shape-wise the drainage basins are fan-- like, leaf-like plume-shaped, rectangular and triangular (Fig. 3). The large and medium basins drain largely the basement rocks while their outlets seem to drain the sedimentary outcrops of middle Miocene and younger deposits. The small basins drain small parts of basement and largely the sedimentary rocks.

Fig. (3) Main drainage basins of the area between Marsa Alam and Ras Banas (Ashmawy 2001).

Large Basins :- A-I W. Ghadir, A-2 W.Erier, A-3 W.El Gemal, A-4 W. Urn Abbas, A-5 W. Abu Ghusun, A-6 W. Ranga, A-7 W. Khashir, W. Lahmi Medium Basins:- B-1 W. Samadi, B-2 W. Urn Tundeba, B-3 W. Ambaut, B-4 W. Sh. Faquri, B-5 W. Sh. Luli, B-6 W. Radi Small Basins:- Cl W. Nakari, C2 W. Khalilate EI Bahri, C3 Wm Khalilate EI Qibli, C4 W. Um Dahesi, C5 W. Qulan, C6 W. Urn Rimarim, C7 W. Urn Ghazal, C8 W. Hertayia, C9 W. Stayia

The drainage net of the study area is well developed, integrated and fairly dense but is not consistent all over the area (Figs. 4, 5, 6). The degree of the uniformity of the drainage lines and their angles of juncture differ from one place to another. The main (consequent) channels and their large (subsequent) tributaries are mostly oriented and show high degree of control. Qualitatively, the common types of drainage patterns along the basement highland are coarse dendritic to subdendritic (Wadi Hafifit), parallel to subparallel (Wadi Nugrus) and radial drainage (Wadi Urn Samar) and less common types are trellis (Wadi EI-Gemal, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Lahmi, Wadi Zitite, Wadi Mikbi, Wadi Khashir). On the other hand, the dominant drainage pattern types in the coastal plain are subparallel and braided. 22 M. A. Azab

Fig. (4) Drainage net of the area between Wadi Samadi and Wadi Sherm Luli

Fig. (5) Drainage networks of the area between Wadi Um Abbas and Wadi Qulan

FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 23

Fig. (6) Drainage networks of the area between Wadi Radi and Ras Banas.

Drainage Basin Morphometry Quantitative analysis of hydrographic basin can be achieved through measuring the geomorphological parameters including stream order (U), bifurcation ratio (Rb), stream frequency (F) and drainage density (D). Stream Orders (U) of the studied basins range between 7 (Wadi EI Gemal and Wadi Ghadir) and 4 (Wadi Samadi, Wadi Nakari Wadi Khalilate El Bahri, Wadi Khalilate EI Qibli, Wadi Um Dahise, Wadi Urn Ghazal, Wadi Stayai, Wadi Kirah EI Hertawi and Wadi Um Rimarim). (Table 1).

Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) defined as the ratio between the number of stream order (Nu) to the number of the next order (Nu+1)(Horton 1945). Basins with low Rb values tend to produce a sharp peak flow while the high Rb reflects low extended peak flow. The estimated Rb values of the studied basins (Table 1) ranges between 2.82 and 4.85. Low values were recorded for Wadi Satayia, Wadi Khalilate El Bahri, Wadi KhaIilate El QibIi, Wadi Sharm Luli, Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Um Abbas, and high values were recorded for Wadi Samadi, Wadi Nakari, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Radi, Wadi Um Rimarim, Wadi Kirah EI Hertawi, Wadi Lahmi and Wadi Qulan. The variation in Rb values reflects the difference in stages of geomorphic development and topographic variations. Basins of high bifurcation ratio are elongate in shape and permit the passage of runoff over an extended period of time to feed the groundwater. Basins of low bifurcation ratio are circular in shape and allow the runoff to pass in a short time (Saad et al. 1980).

Drainage Density (D) reflects the effectiveness of the surface water flow,as well as, the infiltration capacity. It is a function of slope, rock resistance, rock' permeability, and vegetation cover. In the study area, the drainage density (1.4-5.02) is a direct expression of relief as the vegetation is not represented and the rocks are more or less impermeable and resistant. Drainage density is low in Wadi Samadi, Wadi Um Abbas, Wadi Abu Ghusun, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Khashir, Wadi Lahmi and Wadi Sataiya, and high in Wadi Khalilate El 24 M. A. Azab

Qibli, Wadi Sharm Faquri, Wadi Erier, Wadi Qulan, Wadi Radi and Wadi .Kirah El Hertawi. Drainage density is the most important measure of the areal aspects of the basins because its implications for runoff (Chorley 1971) and climate (Gregory 1976). Drainage density tends to be high in semi-arid regions and in humid regions (Gregory 1976). Stream Frequency (f) is defined as the ratio of the total number of stream segments of all orders in each basin to the total area of the respective basin Horton (1954).

Physiographic Network Parameters Determination of physiographic parameters such as basin shape, relief, slope sinuosity is of a great importance as a reconnaissance tool to delineate the rainfall/runoff relationship and to assess the surface water capacity of any hydrographic basin. Basin Shape controls the stream discharge from a watershed. It is numeri expressed in the form of circularity and elongation ratios. Circularity ratio (Rc) is the rati the basin area to the area of a circle with the same perimeter as the basin (Miller 19 Elongation ratio (Re) is the ratio of the diameter of a circle equal in area to the basin to maximum basin length (Schumm 1956). Rc values range between 0.33 and 0.98 while values range between 0.39 and 0.97 (Table 2). Basins of high Rc (Wadi Samadi, Wadi Abbas, Wadi Sharm Luli, Wadi Dahise, Wadi EI Hertawi, Wadi Khashir, Wadi Um Rimari Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Khalilate EI Qibli) yield favorable conditions for shortest runoff give chance to form highly peaked floods.

Relief Ratio as expressed by Schumm (I956) is the ratio between Rand L, where is the elevation difference between the basin mouth and the highest point on the b perimeter, and L is the maximum length of the basin, measured in the same units as R alan line essential1y paral1el to the principal channel. It is an expression of the drainage basin reli in a two- dimensional form, elevation and distance, and correlates better with hydrologi characteristics. Basins with more or less unifOlm slopes result in significant relationshi between relief ratio and hydrologic vaJiables such as runoff and sediment yield. The small the relief ratio, the more is the annual sediment yield and hence more dangerous durin flooding. In the investigated area, the relief ratios are low (Wadi Samadi, Wadi Sharm Faqu . Wadi Um Rimarim, Wadi Qulan and Wadi Satiya) and high (Wadi Ranga, Wadi Abu Ghusu and Wadi Khashir) (Table 2).

Ruggedness Number is the product of drainage density and basin relief (Strahle 1958). The increase of the runoff discharge is the result of the increased relief and drainage density. In the studied area, the ruggedness number ranges from 4366 (Wadi Radi) to 365 (Wadi Satayia) (Table 2). Accordingly, the probabilities offload occurrence along the streams of Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Erier, Wadi Gemal, Wadi Abu Ghusun, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Radi, Wadi Khashir and Wadi Lahmi are higher than those of the other streams. This means that the time required for the runoff to flow from the highest distal ridge to the mouth (concentration time) of these streams is much shorter than that required for the other streams. Slope Index is the quotient of the elevation difference between basin divide (basin relief) and outlet and the main channel length (Taylor and Schwarz 1952). The main streams of Wadi Gemal, Wadi Qulan, Wadi Um RimaJim, Wadi Satayia and Wadi Sharm Luli are more steeper than the that of Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Khalilate EI Qibli, Wadi Abu Ghusun, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Khashir and Wadi Urn Ghazal (Table 2). On the other hand, the upstream parts of some wadis are steeper than downstream ones and consequently, they are more favorable to yield floods, while the lower parts are suitable to store ground water. Sinuosity is defined as the ratio of the valley length to the shortest distance between mouth and source of stream (Mueller 1968). The estimated ratios indicate that streams of Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Gemal, Wadi Lahmi, Wadi Shmm Luli and Wadi Um Dahise are more FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 25 sinuous than the others in the area (Table 2). The straight shape of the streams of Wadi Um Tendeba, Wadi Khalilate El Qibli, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Qulan, Wadi Radi and Wadi Um Rimarim is favorable to yield floods, but the other physiographic parameters tend to decrease this effect.

Main Characteristics Of The Most Significant Basins: Detailed study was carried out on selected eight basins. The selection was based on basin shape and size, relief and gradient, rock type, geological structure and flash flood vulnerability. Accordingly, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Erier, Wadi Gemal, Wadi Um Abbas, Wadi Abu Ghusun, Wadi Ranga, Wadi Khashir, and Wadi Lahmi basins were chosen. Rocks exposed in these basins belong mainly to the Precambrian basement complex and the structures are mainly faults. Sediments and sedimentary rocks occupy the lower part of these basins. Their lithologies favoured lateral erosion of the main channel, and the development of an alluvial bed through which the stream flows.

Wadi Ghadir Basin is fan shaped, reaches seventh order and has an area of about 555km2 (Table 3). The basin is characterized by rugged mountainous of high relief (up to 1366 m) with very steep slopes, particularly along and near the water divide. It is asymmetric, with large catchment area, and discharge on the southern side of the trunk Wadi. Wadi Ghadir is the main channel of basin, its flows. Segmental changes in wadi width are agree to change in rock type. Due to the effect of structures (mainly faults) the large tributaries are possesses lineament characters. The short distance between the head and the mouth of the main channel, ruggedness of relief and steepness of slope are factors that tend to decrease the time of runoff, and consequently increase its velocity. This, in turn, increases the flash flood potentiality. The basin mouth is crossed by a short segment of the Red Sea coastal road, which is strongly vulnerable to flooding.

Wadi Erier Basin of the sixth order, and has an area of about 261km2. It is roughly triangular shape, dense with variable angles of juncture. Its pattern is dendritic to subdendritic in parts and parallel to subparallel in others. Wadi Erier flows W-E, and its large tributaries are mostly oriented NNW, NNE to N. Substantial segments of these channels are controlled by faults. The basin is characterized by steep slope in the upper reaches of the main wadi and its large tributaries. This is mainly ascribed to relief ruggedness (up to 771 m high), slope steepness (due to faulting) and to its lithologic characteristics (in decreasing order of significance). Only small outcrops of Neogene and Quaternary sediments are exposed near the mouth of the main wadi. Local fans are common at the foot slopes of the mountains. A small part of the Red Sea coastal road is crossing the basin mouth area. This part of the road is strongly vulnerable to torrential floods. Besides, the settlements of Marsa Alam are strongly vulnerable to torrential floods (ex. the flash flood on November 1991, 2-3 November 1994 and November 1996).

26 M. A. Azab

Table (3) Estimated rain fall and runoff quantities in the studied drainage basins No Basin name Area Annual Max. run off Max. run off in 2 3 (KmP )P rainfall in one day one day (l0mP )P Min. run off in 3 3 quantity (l0mP )P one day (l0m I W.Samadi 63.26 1.1 4.05 2.66 0.24 2 W.Um Tundiba 67.07 1.17 4.29 2.82 0.25 3 W. Ambout 90.47 1.57 5.79 3.8 0.34 4 W. Nakari 48.34 0.84 3.09 2.03 0.18 5 W. Ghadir 554.24 9.64 35.47 23.28 2.08 6 W. Khalilat El Bahri 13.28 0.23 0.85 0.56 0.05 7 W. Khalilat El Qibli 11.52 0.2 0.74 0.48 0.04 8 W. Sharm Faguri 73.05 1.27 4.68 3.07 0.27 9 W. Erir 261.32 4.55 16.72 10.98 0.98 10 W. El-Gemal 1476.66 25.7 94.51 62.02 5.54 11 W. Sherm Luli 337.97 5.9 21.63 14.19 1.27 12 W. Um Dihesi 495.29 8.62 31.7 20.8 1.86 13 W. Um Abbas 309.63 5.39 19.82 13 1.16 14 W. Abu Ghusun 57.33 1 3.67 2.41 0.21 15 W. Ranga 156.77 2.73 10.03 6.58 0.59 16 W. Qulan 48.83 0.85 3.13 2.05 0.18 17 W. Radi 464.01 8.07 29.7 19.49 1.74 18 W. Um Rimarim 967.08 16.83 61.89 40.62 3.63 19 W. Khashir 16.42 0.29 1.05 0.69 0.06 20 W. Lahmi 37.21 0.65 2.38 1.56 0.14 21 W. Um Ghazal 39.06 0.68 2.5 1.64 0.15 22 W. Hirtawy 60.15 1.08 3.85 2.53 0.023 23 W. Sataiya 24.12 0.42 1.54 1.01 0.09 98.78 363.08 238.27 21.073

2 Wadi Gemal Basin occupies a rather large area (about 1477 kmP )P and its main trunk wadi assumes a seventh order. The drainage net is well developed, integrated, dense, oriented and has variable angles of juncture (Fig. 7). The basin drains high mountains with steep slopes and elevations up to 1508 m. The significant large channels are mostly arranged in parallel to subparallel patterns with dendritic to subdendritic tributaries. Trellis and subtrellis drainage patterns are locally developed. The main wadi is oriented NNW in the upper part, EW in the middle part and NE near its the mouth. Its large tributaries are mostly directed NW and NNE, mostly due to fault control. It is characterised by low (Rb), low drainage density and nearly circle shape. Metamorphic rocks, metasediments and granites are the most widespread lithologic units exposed in this basin. Neogene sedimentary rocks and Quaternary sediments with local fans are located at the mouth of the master wadi. The main trunk wadi at the lower part is narrow. This indicates a high potential for flood hazards at the upper reaches of the basin and the downstream part of the trunk wadi. The basin mouth is crossed by a short segment of the Red Sea coastal road.

FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 27

)

Fig. (7) Drainage network of Wadi Gemal area (Ashmawy 2001).

Wadi Um Abbas basin is of sixth order and has an area of about 338km.It is roughly rectangular, well integrated, relatively dense, and has variable angles of juncture. Its pattern is denderitic to subdenderitic in the upper part and parallel to subparallel in the middle part. The trunk wadi (Um Abbas) flows N, NE in the upper and lower parts to N, NW in its middle part. Its large tributaries are oriented N, NW, NNE, E-W to N. substantial segments of these channels are guided by faults. The lithology is dominated by basement (granitic rocks), while outcrops of Neogene and Quaternary sediments are exposed near the middle part and at the mouth of the waid. The basin is characterized by middle drainage denisity, middle relief (up to 748 m high), high contribution for groundwater and classified as middle dangerous basin. Its shape is nearly circular and reflects the most favorable conditions for the short runoff distance.

Wadi Abu Ghusun Basin is fan shaped of sixth order and has an area of about 495km. The basin is characterized by rugged mountainous relief (up to 1468 m high) with very steep slopes particularly along and near the water divide. Wadi Abu Ghusun is the main channel, which flows NW to NE at the upper part and W-E, NW to NE at the lower part toward the Red sea. The long tributaries are clearly oriented and run NE and SE. The change of wadi segments in width, degree of channel incision and channel trends is generally due to the structural control (mainly faults) and/ or to change in rock type. The large channels are mostly arranged in parallel to subparallel patterns with dendritic to subdendritic arrangement for the smaller tributaries. The lithology is dominated by basement rocks (granites and metavolcanic rocks) in the upper and middle parts. Towards the outlet, a few outcrops of Neogene and Quaternary sediments are exposed. This basin has low bifurcation ratio, nearly circular in shape. Ruggedness of relief and slope steepness are factors which tend to decrease the time of 28 M. A. Azab

runoff and consequently increase its velocity. These parameters increase the flash flood potentiality.

Wadi El Ranga Basin is fifth order and has an area of about 310 km2. It is relatively dense and has variable angles of juncture. Its drainage network pattern is denderitic to subdenddritic in parts and parallel to subparallel in others. The trunk wadi (wadi Ranga) flows NNE, NNW and E-W substantial segments of the main channel and large tributaries are guided by faults. Lithology is dominated by basement rocks with only small outcrops of Neogene and Quaternary sediments exposed near the mouth. This basin is characterized by rugged mountainous relief (up to 1976 m high), low bifurcation ratio and very steep slope in the upper and middle reaches, which indicates high potential for flood hazards at these parts.

2 Wadi Khashir Basin is a sixth order and occupies an area of 464 km . Its drainage net is well developed, relatively dense and has variable angles of juncture. The basin drains high mountains (up to 1658 m high) with very steep slopes. The relatively large channels are arranged in parallel pattern. Trellis pattern is also developed. Wadi Khashir is oriented E-W in the upper part and NE in the middle and lower pat1s. Large tributaries are mostly directed EW and NE and less significantly at north. Metavolcanics, metasediments and granites are the widespread lithologic units exposed in the middle and upper parts. Neogene and Quaternary sediments are exposed at the mouth towards the Red Sea. Local fans are common at the foot slops of the mountainous relief. The basin is characterized by very steep slope and low values of Rb in the upper part which leading to produce high peak flow. It is also characterized by low drainage density and low stream frequency, which tends to produce moderate flood intensity especially, along the permeable downstream part. The basin tends to be elongated in shape and therefore, can be classified as a low danger basin. Consequently, it is considered as a good location for groundwater harvesting.

Wadi Lahmi Basin is of sixth order and has an area of about 967km2 (Table 3). It is roughly rectangular, well integrated; dense and has variable angles of juncture. Its drainage patterns are trellis to sub trellis, radial in parts, and sub parallel in others. The trunk wadi (Wadi Lahmi) flows NNE to W-E and again NNE. Its large tributaries are mostly oriented E-W, NNW and NNE. Substantial segments of these channels are controlled by faults. Lithology is dominated by basement rocks with small outcrops of Neogene and Quaternary sediments exposed near the mouth. This basin is characterised by rugged mountainous relief (up to 1590 m high), steep slope, low bifurcation ratio and circular shape. This indicates that there is a high potential for flood hazards at the upper reaches of the basin and the downstream part of the trunk wadi.

Rainfall And Surface Runoff The study area is characterized by arid climate and dominated by hot temperatures, rainless summer and mild winter. The average annual precipitation rate is about 17.4 mm (meteorological stations of Ras Banas). Most of precipitation occurs as heavy showers with short duration, results in flash floods during the winter season between October and February. The maximum amount of precipitation recorded in one day was 64 mm (24 November 1966). The monthly mean temperature varies between 24-38 °C during summer and 12-26 °C during winter. The relative humidity varies between 28% in summer and 59% in winter. The average evaporation, transpiration varies between 8.7 mm/day in winter and 28 mm/day in summer. According to the above-mentioned climatic parameters, the study area receives an average rainfall quantity equals to 98.75 million cubic meters/year (Table 3). It is a huge amount of downstream outlet. However, a considerable amount will be evaporated. FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 29

The exposed maximum volume of runoff (V) can be calculated according to the equation developed by Ball (1937) as follows V=750A (R-8) m3. V, the average weighted maximum volume of runoff in the basin can reach up to 238.27 million m3 (Table3). The minimum runoff on the hydrographic basins of south Marsa Alam is expected to be 21.28 million m3/day; Table 3; if the rainfall in one storm exceeds 13 mm/day (Ras Banas meteralogical station).

Flash Flood Vulnerability The occasional heavy showers along the basement highland during winter in the present time maintain short period floods. In fact, desert floods are inherently of low duration (few hours to some days) and are commonly characterized by sharp peak of discharges. Peak of duration is variable and may be in the range of 10-30 min. Torrential floods cause serious desert problems and excessive life and property losses, especially along the coast. They may hamper development and resource exploitation activities. Although their influence is locally very significant, sporadic fluvial (flash flood) processes have not been considered in the way that they should be during planning of new settlements and also in the major development projects. The study area includes sector of the Red Sea coastal road parallel to the shoreline. Substantial parts of this high-way are crossed from west to east by the lower reaches of the Red Sea drainage basins and consequently subjected to flash flood hazards (Fig. 8). Vulnerability is differentiated into three categories: slight, moderate and high. This assessment was based on detailed analyses of satellite images (scale, 1: 50.000), topographic maps and morphometeric characteristics of the effected drainage basins. Flood hazard does not only affect the traffic ability of these roads but extends also to existing and planned urban sites and development projects along and close to them. It also affects the marine life at the mouth of wadis, coral reef is completely absent in the torrent pass way and starts to appear only on the margins of sharms which increase in density and size seawards (Mansour 1999). The present assessment of flash flood vulnerability of the drainage basins in the study area helps in the selection of the most suitable sites for developmental land use (e.g, establishment of touristic villages), particularly along the Red Sea coastal zone (Fig. 10). These sites were distinguished into 4 divisions from A (the least suitable) to D (the best suitable sites). Class D sites are commonly situated in the interspaces between the drainage basin outlets.

Fig. (8) Flash flood vulnerable sites along Marsa Alam-Bernice coastal highway 30 M. A. Azab

Fig. (9) Developmental land use Assessment along the coastal zone of the Red Sea. Assessment as evaluated on a scale of 4 divisions (A throught D), D for the best sites and A for least sutiable sites.

Mitigation Of Flash Flood Hazards The spread of unplanned settlement and mis-management of the land and water resources in the downstream areas along the coast will be responsible for the flood damages. The flood hazard risk depends upon exposure to floods, which has to be measured in terms of population and land use activities (Chan and Parker1996) and the demands on natural resources exerted in either an unsustainable or sustainable manner (Woube 1999). In thinking about the flood problem, the volume of fresh water lost in the sea needs to be taken into account. This water is urgently needed for the development projects in the area. Flood also helps in recharging groundwater aquifers. To avoid or alleviate flash flood damages and possibly to aid in exploitation of floodwater for recharging shallow aquifers the following preventive and control measures should be considered. These measures can be summarized as follows:- 1- Construction of successive incomplete rocky dams using the available locale materials at least along the elongated main course of large wadis as Wadi Gemal, Wadi Lahmi and Wadi Erier (EI Shamy 1992). 2- Construction of some loose boulder dams along the small tIibutaries of the main wadis to decrease the velocity of flood waters and increase their percolation into the wadi bed ( EI Shamy 1992 ). 3- Using the artificial recharge techniques may offer an important method for water conservation to reduce the effect of evaporation in the area of study. Also, the onstruction of subsurface dams may create subsurface reservoirs (Hanson and Nilsson 1986).

4- Decrease the elevation of the dual caring road and the main paved road to a lower level FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 31 than the level of the crossing wadis floor in the narrow sectors to allow water flow directly over these roads.

CONCLUSION

Morphometric parameters of most drainage basins in the area between Marsa Alam and Ras Banas indicate low bifurcation ratio, and high values of drainage densities and frequencies leading to the high possibilities for flash floods and low contribution for groundwater recharge. However, drainage basins of Wadi Samadi, Wadi Gemal, Wadi Um Abbas, Wadi Abu Ghusun, Wadi Um Rimarim, Wadi Lahmi and Wadi Staiya are characterized by wide drainage channels and low density and thus their contribution to groundwater recharge is expected to be high. Drainage basins of Wadi Samadi, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Sharm Luli, Wadi Urn Abbas and Wadi Khalilate EI Qibili are nearly circular in shape and thus reflect the most favourable conditions for the shortest runoff distance. The other drainage basins have low elongation ratio and were classified as less dangerous basins. Probability of flash flooding is very high for drainage basins of Wadi Radi, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi Ranga due to their high values of relief and ruggedness numbers. Wadi Gemal and Wadi Lahmi have the highest values of maximum runoff, which reflects the dangerous of their drainage basins. Under such conditions, the construction of alternative barriers of boulder dams at the upstream parts of the drainage basins will minimize flooding hazards and give more chance for groundwater recharge. The majority of wadis that display abnormal geomorphic features are related to the presence of structural lines rather than any other surface or lithological features. To mitigate the flash flood hazards and to increase the groundwater recharge, precautionary measures need to be taken into consideration at least at the high risk sites.

REFERENCES

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FLOOD HAZARD BETWEEN MARSA ALAM - RAS BANAS 35

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U ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ

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Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 37-45

UTILIZATION OF MULTI-DATES LANDSAT_TM DATA TO DETECT AND QUANTIFY CHANGE OF THE EL-RAYAN LAKES-FAYUM- EGYPT FROM 1987 TO 2001

M. A. Azab Art Faculty – Zagazig University E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Monitoring and detecting changes of water, land cover and land use are very important in planning. Satellite data is an ideal tool to monitor changes on a regular basis. There are numbers of methods developed for using satellite data to detect changes. The aim of the present study is two folds, first is a comparative study to investigate the use of the multitemporal satellite remotely sensed data with various change detection techniques. The second objective is the specific interest in detecting the change of El-Rayan lakes and surrounding area. Two Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) scenes acquired on 4 September 1987 and 3 August 2001 covering the study Area have been processed (geometrically corrected and radiometrically balanced) and used for both visual interpretation and digital change detection mapping. The results fo applying image differencing, image ratio and unsupervised classification techniques show that a number of change areas including water and agriculture land were successfully detected. There were no substantial differences between the first two techniques in detecting such changes. Moreover, statistical estimation of these changes has been carried out.

INTRODUCTION Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing the changes of its radiance values or local texture at different times [singh, 1989]. Some objects may be static and do not change over time, but most of the biophysical and man-made features are dynamic and constantly changing. Satellite images provide the potential to objectively map and monitor changes over extensive areas of the earth's surface. There are different methodologies and computer algorithms that can be applied to mulitemporal imagery to quantify temporal effects detect and 'update land cover change information. This may be undertaken at a substantially reduced cost and time when compared with traditional field-based land cover survey techniques. Locating and characterizing areas of significant change is important in diverse applications such as: resource management, urban planning, deforestation and damage assessment, disaster monitoring, impacts of human activities and other environmental changes. Several researchers have used remotely sensed satellite data for change detection purposes and a number of approaches and techniques have been developed. Most of these approaches can be categorized under one of two categories: image to image change detection and postclassifiation change detection. Examples of the first category include: image differencing, image ratio, principal component analysis, etc. In order to investigate both categories and compare their results, image differencing, image ratio and postclassificution techniques have been used in this study to determine the degree of change that has occurred within a 14 years period of El-Rayan Lakes and surrounding area.

Data Collection The unique characteristics of the Landsat Thematic Mapper make it an ideal data source for change detection. Its spatial resolution enables precision mapping. The ability to obtain repeated coverage of a specific geographic area permits continuous monitoring of change and 38 M. A. Azab

environmental developments over time [Schopprnann and Tyler, 1996]. Two cloud free Landsat TM scenes (Path: 177/ 40) were selected for the change detection of the study area. Three reflective bands, Band 3 = Red, (0.63-0.69 µm), Band 2 = Green, (0.52-0.60 µm) and Band 1= Blue, (0.45-0.52 µm) were used from the two scenes, (fig. 1). The first scene was recorded on September 4th 1987 and the second on August 3rd 2001. Throughout this period, both the water inundation of El-Rayan lakes and the vegetation changes in surrounding area, were sufficiently widespread to be readily recorded by Landsat. This area covered approximately 31.5 km by 39 km and is equivalent to (945 x 1170) pixels of the Landsat scene. A semi-automatic change detection software module for the three different techniques used in this study (image differencing, image ratio, and postclassification) has been developed and implemented using ERDAS Imagine 8.6.

A B

Fig. (1) Landsat TM of the study area (A-1987, B-2001)

METHODOLOGY The coordinate system of a Landsat scene does not correspond to a standard map projection and the coordinates of a fixed point vary from image to image due to satellite drift. Therefore; highly accurate geometric correction is crucial so as not to induce spurious changes caused by poorly registered images. Additionally, the data sets compared must be radiometrically balanced so false changes are not introduced by factors such as: atmospheric conditions, different path radiance and sun angle variation.

Data Preprocessing Accuracy of change detection is strongly dependent on the preprocessing procedure as well as its accuracy. This mainly consists of scene selection, geometric correction and radiometric balancing. The scenes were se1ected in the same season (August - and September) so that the temporal fluctuations among them and the probable problems due to different solar angles may UTILIZATION OF MULTI-DATES LANDSAT_TM DATA 39 be greatly minimized. The geometric correction was implemented on the basis of well- distributed ground control points located on both the image and the map. For the 2001 image, the digital (image) coordinates of each point were compared to their corresponding geographic (map) coordinates, to determine a polynomial equation for adjustment between them (image to map correction). The Image was thus rectified according to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, and resample at 28 meters resolution using the cubic convolution technique. Then, it was used as a reference image to rectify the 1987 image (image to image correction). The residua1 errors (rms error) were less than 1 pixel, leading to an acceptable accurate registration. Once the geometric processing was completed, the images were normalized. The 2001 image was selected as the baseline to which the other one was radiometrically balanced. The Sun Spark color display system with its split screen capabilities was used to adjust linear contrast stretch level to optimize the balance for both images.

Image Differencing The differencing of bands is one of the most extensively used techniques. It is applied on spatially registered imagery of varying dates on a pixel by pixel basis

DXRkR = XRk R(tR1R) - XRkR (tR2R) + C (1)

Where XRkR is the pixel value for band k. tR1R is the first date, tR2R is the second date, and C is a constant added to bias values to produce positive numbers. This procedure yields a different distribution in which, pixels showing radiance change are found in the tails of the distribution while pixels showing no change tend to be grouped around the mean. Image differencing has been used in: coastal zone environments [Weismiller et al.1977], desertification [Brera and Skahrokhi. 1978], mapping of changes in tropical forests [Singh, 1986], defoliation and changes studies in temperate forests [Vogelmann, 1988], correcting bias in change [Van Deusen, 1994], and analysis of irrigated crops [Manavalan et al. 1995]. Fig. (2) Shows the difference change image after applying the above equation (1) with C = 127 Image Ratio In the ratio technique, intensities of reflected energy recorded in one band for the pixels of a Landsat scene are divided by the intensities in the same band for the other registered scene. The data are thus compared on a pixel by pixel basis [Howarth and WicKware, 1981], Fig. (3) According to.

RXRkR = XRk R(tR1R) / XRkR (tR2R)

Where, XRkR is the pixel value of band k, tR1R is the first date, and tR2R is the second date.

40 M. A. Azab

Fig.(2) Difference change image of the study area between (1987, 2001), White represents areas of no change, while black represents the changed areas

Fig. (3) Ratio change image of the study area between (1987, 2001), White represents areas of no change, while black represents the changed areas

UTILIZATION OF MULTI-DATES LANDSAT_TM DATA 41

Postclassification Comparison In this technique, two independently classified images will be compared holding promise of minimizing the effect of normalizing for atmospheric and sensor differences between the two dates. However, the accuracy of the change map produced is likely to be the product of multiplying the accuracies of each individual classification [Stow et al., 1980]. It has been used in: coastal zone environments [Weismiller et al., 1977], non-urban to urban change [Riodan, 1980]. Change detection in Semi-Arid environments [Pilon et al., 1988]. Forest [Hoffer and Lee, 1939], and wetland change detection [Jensen et al., 1995]. In our analysis, two independent unsupervised classifications were produced, one of each date, [see figure(4)]. Categories used in the two classifications were the same as far as possible (5 different classes could be distinguished and compared). Thus, by subtraction of the c1asses the areas of change could be accurately identified, fig. (5 ).

B A

Fig. (4) Unsupervised classification of the study area, (A-1978, B-2001)

42 M. A. Azab

Fig. (5) Post-classification change image of the study area Between 1978-2001, blue color represents the changed areas

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It is clear that the three different techniques could successfully detect and identify the areas that have experienced change in the multitemporal TM data. To investigate the spatial characteristics of the changes and to have an overall impression of their patterns, the production of binary theme (black and white) prints was undertaken using a threshold selection that depended on the basis of a number of standard deviation from the mean. All pixels which belong to change were coded 0 (The changed area represented in black), and the background was coded 255 (white areas were defined as no change). In this way, the location and extent of areas of change could be identified. It was also possible to generate statistics that give their areas in square kilometers and as a percentage of the total area (Table (1)). From the above table it could be concluded that the result of the first two techniques (differencing and ratio) were approximately the same and the apparent difference between them and the post-classification result was due to the classification accuracy and errors that could occur with boundary pixels. However the agriculture changes were identified and the extent of UTILIZATION OF MULTI-DATES LANDSAT_TM DATA 43 the water inundation in the southern part of the lake was calculated 2.69 km2 between (1987 - 2001).

Table (1) Statistical measurements of the change area Technique Changed area in water km2 Changed area in agriculture km2 Differencing 2.69 15.84 Ratio 2.72 15.96 P.classification 2.92 16.21

CONCLUSION In this study we have investigated the use of multitemporal remotely sensed (Landsat TM) data to detect change of El-Rayan lakes and surrounding area. Different techniques of change detection produce different results (maps of change) even in the same environment. In our case the image differencing, image ratio and postclassification techniques were compared. Image differencing and image ratio techniques proved to be relatively rapid means of identifying areas of change and producing approximately similar results. The postclassification technique produced a little bit different result. From other comparative studies of change detection techniques, it could be concluded that there is no optimal change detection technique for any particular application (i.e. postclssification technique may yield better result than image differencing and image ratio techniques in other possible application and study areas. Change detection has proved to be an effective tool and the used binary theme (black and white) prints, which display the spatial patterns of change in map form, may be of great significance in interpreting the environmental changes recorded by satellites. In addition, the early warning of small changes, in some applications, is of crucial interest in order to avoid economic or even catastrophic consequences that can result from an accumulation of such small changes.

REFERENCES Brera, A. M. and F. Shahrokhi. 1987: Application of Landsat data to monitor desert th spreading in the Sahara region. Proc. of the 12P P Int. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Hoffer, R.M. and K.S. Lee, 1989: Forest change classification using SEASAT and SIRB satellite SAR data, Proc. of the 1989 International Geosciences and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS 89), pp. 1372-1375. Howarth, P. J. and G.M. Wickware, 1981: Procedures for change detection using Landsat digital data, Int. J. of Remote Sensing V. 2. No. 3, pp. 277-291. Jensen, I. R.: K. Rutchey; M.S. Koch and S. Narumalani; 1995: Inland wetland change detection in the Everglades water conservation areas 2A using a time series of normalize remote sensing data, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote sensing. V. 61, No. 2, pp.l99-209. Manavalan, P. K. Kesavasamy and S. Adigo 1995: Irrigated crops monitoring through seasons using digital change detection analysis of IRD-LISS 2 data, Int. J. of Remote Sensing, V. 16, pp. 633-640. Nelson, R.F., 1983: Detecting forest canopy change due to insect activity using Landsat MSS, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, V. 49, pp. 1303 - 1314. 44 M. A. Azab

Pilon, P.G.; P.J. Howarth; R.A. Bullock and P.O. Adeniyi; 1988 : An enhanced classification approach to change detection in semi-arid environments, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, V. 54, pp.1709-1716. Riodan, C.J., 1980: Non-urban to urban land covers change detection using Landsat data, Summary Report of the Colorado Agricultural Research Experiment, Station. Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A. Robinson, J. W., 1979: A critical review of the change detection and urban classificationliterature, Technical Memorandum CSC/TM-79/6235, Computer Sciences Corporation. Silver Springs, Maryland. U.S.A. Schoppmann, M.W. and W.A. Tyler, 1996: Chernobyl revisited: Monitoring change vector analysis, Geocarto International. V. 11; No.1, pp.13-27. Singh, A., 1986: Change detection in the tropical forest environment of Northeastern India using Landsat: In remote sensing and tropical land management, edited by M.J. Eden and J.T Parry (London: John Wiley & sons), pp.237-254. Singh, A., 1989: Digital change detection techniques using remotely sensed data, Int. J. of Remote Sensing. V. 10, pp. 989- 1003. Stow, D, A. L.R. Tinney and J.E. Ester, 1980: Deriving land use / land cover. change th statistics from Landsat: A study of prime agricultural land, Proc. of the 14P P Int. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 1227-123. Todd, W.J., 1977: Urban and regional land use change detected by using Landsat data, Journal of Research by the US Geological Survey, V. 5, pp. 142-147. Van Deusen, P.C. 1994: Correcting bias in change estimates from thematic maps Remote sensing of Environment, V. 50, pp. 67-73. Vogelmann, J. E. 1988: Detection of forest change in the green mountains of Vermont using multispectral scanner data, Int. J. of Remote Sensing, V. 9, pp.1187 -1200. Weismiller, R.A., S.J. Kristof, D.K. Scholz, P.E. Anuta and S.A. Momen, 1977: Change detection in coastal zone environments, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing,V. 43, pp. 1533-1539. Weydahl, D.J., 1991: Change detection in SAR images, Proc. of the 1991 Int. Geosciences and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS 91), pp. 1421-1424.

UTILIZATION OF MULTI-DATES LANDSAT_TM DATA 45

ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ

ﺇﻥ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻠﺤﻖ ﺑﻐﻄﺎء ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻻﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﻟﻌﻠﻰ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ . ﻭﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻭﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻤﺔ . ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺸﻌﺎﺭ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ، ﻭﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺰﺃﻳﻦ : ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻫﻮ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﻨﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ. ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺔ ﻳﻬﻤﺎ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻻﻧﺪﺳﺎﺕ TM ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺘﻘﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ 4 ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ 1987 ، 3 ﺃﻏﺴﻄﺲ 2001 ﻭﺗﻐﻄﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ( ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻻﺷﻌﺎﻋﻰ ) ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺼﺮﻱ ﻭﺭﺳﻢ ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﻗﻤﻴﺔ ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻭﺿﺤﺖ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ -1 ﻁﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭ 2- ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭ 3- ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺐ ، ﺇﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻄﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺭﺍﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎﻓﻬﺎ ﺑﻨﺠﺎﺡ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺎﺕ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺑﺖ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ. Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 47 - 63

SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF SOME S-AND N- β-D-GLUCOSIDES OF PYRIMIDIN-4-THIOL.

A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt.

ABSTRACT ' ' ' ' 5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-aryl-4-(2P ,3P P ,4P P ,6P P -P tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosylmercapto)pyr- amidine 3a-c was obtained by the reaction of 5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-aryl-pyrimidine thiol 1a-c with 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-α-D-glucopyranosyl bromide (2) in aq. KOH / acetone. The reaction of 1a-c with peracetylatedgalactose 5 and peracetylatedribose 8 under MW ' ' ' irradiation gave 5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-aryl-4-(2P ,3',4P P ,6P P -P tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- ' ' ' glctopyranosylmercapto) pyrimidine 6a-c and 5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-aryl-4-(2P ,3P P ,5P P -P tri-O- acetyl-β-D-ribofuranosylmercapto)pyrmidine 9a-c. The deprotection of 3a-c, 6a-c and 9a-c in the presence of methanol and TEA / H2O afforded the deprotected products 4a-c, 7a-c and 3 10a-c. The thiouracil derivative 11 was reacted with 2 to give the corresponding NP -P 3 nucleoside 12 which was deprotected to give the free NP -P nucleoside 13. The structure of the 1 13 new compounds was confirmed by using IR, P H,P P CP spectra and microanalysis. Selected members of these compounds were screened for antimicrobial activity.

Key words: Glucosides, Microwave, antimicrobial activity.

INTRODUCTION The synthesis and biological activities of pyrimidine and their nucleoside derivatives have an interesting topic in the field of medicinal and agricultural chemistry for many years. 1-3 4,5 Some pyrimidine nucleoside derivatives are known as antiviralP ,P antibacterialsP ,P 6 7 8 9 10 11 antitumorP ,P antihypertensiveP ,P analgesicP ,P antipyreticP ,P anti-inflamatorryP P drugs, pesticideP P 12 and plant growth regulatorsP .P The microwave-assisted organic reactions constitute an emerging technology that make experimentally and industrially important organic synthesis more effective and more co- 4,13-17 friendly than conventional reactionsP .P

48 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

Results and Discussion In our work, the synthesis of 5–acetyl-6-methyl-2-arylpyrimidine-4-thiol 1a-c which were used in the synthesis of the titled glycosides have been achieved by the hydrative cyclization of arylacryloyl isothiocanate with 4-aminopent-3-en-2-one (enaminone) as 18-20 reported in literatureP .P Reaction of 1a-c with glycosyl bromide 2 in the presence of aqueous potassium hydroxide / 4,5 ' ' ' acetonP P gave 5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-aryl-4-(2P ,3P P ,4P P ,P 6' -tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- glycopyranosylthio)pyrimidines (3a-c) (Scheme 1)

CH3 CH 3 Ac Ac N N Ar N S Ar N S i MeOH/TEA OH OAc O O H2O OH OAc CH HOHO 3 AcO Ac AcO N 4a-c 3a-c

Ar N SH CH3 CH3 1a-c Ac Ac N N a, Ar = C6H5

b, Ar = p.MeO-C6H4 Ar N S c, Ar = p.Cl-C H ii Ar N S 6 4 MeOH/TEA OH OAc O O H2O HO OH AcO OAc HO AcO 7a-c 6a-c Scheme 1

Reaction condition: i = aq.KOH / acetone, glucosyl bromide (2), r.t. ii = peracetylatedgalactose (5), MWI, 10 min. Irradiation of 1a-c with peracetylatedglactose 5 in the presence of silica gel as a solid 4,21 support in MW ovenP P for 10 minutes. gave the corresponding thiogalactosides 6a-c in 40- 45% yield. The role of microwave irradiation on the acceleration of organic reaction with higher yields and shorter reaction times compared to the conventional methods (Scheme 1). SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 49

The structure of compounds 3a-c was confirmed on the basis of their elemental analysis -1 and spectral data. Their IR spectra showed a band at 1765-1745 cmP P for the acetoxy -1 carbonyl groups in addition to absorption band at 1695cmP P due to the carbonyl of 5- aceylpyrimidine. 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 3a showed the presence of signals at δ 1.53, 1.96, 2.00 and

2.02 ppm characteristic for 4 CH3 of OAc groups, in addition to 2 CH3 at δ 2.36, 2.58 ppm

and a doublet at δ 6.23 ppm for anomeric proton with J1',2' = 8.97 Hz which showed the presence of β-configuration. 13 The P CP NMR spectrum of 3a showed peak at δ 80.1 ppm characteristic for anomeric carbon and absence of C=S group, which indicate the formation of S-glycoside not N- glycoside.

Compound 3b showed signals at δ 1.54, 1.95, 2.00 and 2.02 ppm for 4 CH3 of OAc groups and at δ 2.34, 2.59, 3.89 ppm for 2 CH3 and OCH3 groups, in addition to doublet at δ

6.24 ppm for anomeric proton with J1',2' = 8.87 Hz which showed the presence of β- 13 configuration. Its P CP NMR spectrum showed peak at δ 80.0 ppm for anomeric carbon and disappearance the C=S group. 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 3c showed the presence of signals at δ 1.53, 1.96, 2.00 and

2.02 ppm characteristic for 4 CH3 of OAc groups, in addition to 2 CH3 at δ 2.45, 2.55 ppm. 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed peak at δ 79.2 ppm for anomeric carbon with the disappearance of C=S group. 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 6a showed the presence of four signals at δ 1.50, 1.95, 2.03 and 2.13 ppm characteristic for 4 CH3 of OAc groups, in addition to 2 CH3 signals at δ 2.46, 2.59 for the methyl groups in pyrimidine ring and doublet at δ 6.26 ppm for anomeric proton

with J1',2' = 8.20 Hz, indicate the presence of β-configuration. 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed a signal at δ 80.1 ppm for the anomeric carbon with absence of C=S group, which proved the formation of S-galactoside not N-galactoside. 1 Compound 6b showed in P HP NMR spectrum a signals at δ 1.51, 1.59, 2.03 and 2.13 ppm characteristic for the 4 CH3 of OAc groups with appearance of singals at δ 2.49, 2.57 and 3.85

ppm for 2 CH3 and OCH3 in pyrimidine ring and p-substituent, and doublet at δ 6.26 ppm for anomeric proton with J1',2' = 8.22 Hz which indicat the diaxial orientation (β-configuration). 13 The P CP NMR spectrum of 6b showed signals at δ 20.1, 20.2, 20.4, 22.6, 22.8, 31.2 for 6

CH3 groups and at 56.1 ppm for OCH3 group, in addition to peak at δ 79.6 ppm for anomeric carbon, with disappearance of C=S group. 50 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

1 In compound 6c, the P HP NMR spectrum gave signals at δ 1.49, 1.58, 2.03 and 2.14 ppm for 4 CH3 of OAc groups, and two signals at δ 2.48, 2.59 ppm for 2 CH3 groups in pyrimidine

ring, in addition to doublet at δ 6.20 ppm for anomeric proton, with J1',2' = 8.20 Hz which proved the presence of β-configuration. 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed a signal at δ 79.3 ppm for the anomeric carbon with the disappearance of C=S carbon which aggreament with formation of S-galactoside. On the other hand, reaction of 1a-c with peracetylatedribose 8 under MW irradiation in 4,21 the presence of silica gel as a solid supportP P for 8 minutes. gave the corresponding ribosides 9a-c in 40-45% yield (Scheme 2).

CH3 CH3 Ac Ac N N CH3 Ac Ar N S Ar N S N i MeOH/TEA

H2O Ar N SH AcO O HO O

1a-c , Ar = C H a 6 5 OAc OAc OH OH b, Ar = p.MeO-C6H4 10a-c c, Ar = p.Cl-C H 9a-c 6 4 Reaction condition: i = peracetylatedribose (8), MWI, 8 min.

Scheme 2 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 9a showed signals at δ 2.06, 2.07 and 2.15 ppm for 3 CH3 of

OAc groups, and doublet at δ 6.46 ppm for anomeric proton with coupling constant J1',2' = 2.80 Hz indicate the presence of β-configuration. 1 Compound 9b showed in P HP NMR spectrum singals at δ 2.05, 2.07 and 2.16 ppm

characteristic for 3 CH3 of OAc group in addition to peaks at δ 2.51, 2.62 and 3.34 ppm for 2

CH3 in pyrimidine and OCH3 in p-substituted, and doublet at δ 6.43 ppm for anomeric proton

with J1',2' = 2.75 Hz proved the formation of β-configuration. 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 9c gave signals at δ 2.06, 2.07 and 2.16 ppm for 3 CH3 of OAc

groups, in addition of doublet at δ 6.42 ppm for the anomeric proton with J1',2' = 2.78 Hz indicated the β-configuration. 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed signals at δ 20.7, 20.8, 21.0, 23.4, and 31.8 for 5 CH3 groups, in addition to peak at δ 85.4 ppm for the anomeric carbon. SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 51

Deprotection of the previous prepared S-glucosides 3a-c, 6a-c and 9a-c using 4,5,22 triethylamine in presence of methanol and few drops of waterP P gave the deprotected glycosides 4a-c, 7a-c and 10a-c (Scheme 1& 2). 1 13 The P H,P P CP NMR spectra for 4a-c showed the absence of the four signals of the 4 OAc groups and presence of signals at δ 4.53, 5.11, 5.24 and 5.51 ppm for 4 OH groups of sugar moieties, in addition of doublet at δ 5.61, 5.68 and 6.26 ppm for the anomeric protons of 4a- c. -1 The IR spectra of 4a-c showed the appearance of the broad band at 3417 cmP P for 4 OH groups. 1 The P HP NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O) spectra of compounds 7a-c showed the absence of 4 ' OAc groups of sugar moiety, with appearance a multiplet at 3.23 – 3.84 ppm for the H-6P ,P H- ' ' ' ' 5P ,P H-4P ,P H-3P andP H-2P ,P in addition doublet at δ 6.23, ppm for anomeric proton with J1',2' = 8.40 Hz which proved the β-configuration. -1 The IR spectra of 7a-c showed the broad band at 3418 cmP P for the free OH groups, and -1 disappear the carbonyl of acetoxy groups, in addition of band at 1690 cmP P for the C=O in 5- position of pyrimidine ring. -1 The IR spectra of 10a-c showed a broad band at 3420 cmP P characteristic for 3 OH -1 groups, with band at 1695 cmP P for the acetyl group in pyrimidine ring at 5-position. 1 The P HP NMR spectra of 10a showed the absence of the 3 OAc groups and appearance

three signals at δ 4.70, 5.12 and 5.40 exchangeable with D2O, indicate the presence of 3 OH groups of the sugar, in addition of doublet at δ 6.21, ppm for anomeric proton with coupling constant J1',2' = 2.80 Hz. 1 Compound 10b showed inP HP NMR spectrum signals at δ 2.45, 2.56 and 3.39 ppm for 2

CH3 and OCH3, with the absence of the 3 OAc groups of sugar, in addition to doublet at δ

6.22 ppm for the anomeric proton with coupling constant J1',2' = 2.80 Hz. 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed the presence of signals at 20.0, 31.0 ppm for 2 CH3 and at

δ 56.3 ppm for OCH3 groups, in addition to peak at δ 84.0 ppm for the anomeric carbon and disappearance the C=S group. 1 The P HP NMR spectra of 10c showed the absence of the 3 OAc groups and presence of

three signals for 3 OH groups which exchangeable with D2O, and doublet at δ 6.23, ppm for

the anomeric proton with coupling constant J1',2' = 2.80 Hz. 52 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

23 Reaction of 5-cyanothiouracileP P 11 with glycosyl bromide 2 in the presence of aqueous 4,5 potassium hydroxide / acetonP P gave the corresponding N-glycoside 12 in 30% yield (Scheme 3). Ar Ar Ar HN CN HN CN CN aq.KOH/acetone Et3N/MeOH HN S N O S N O 2 H2O S N O HO O H AcO O 11 OH OAc HO AcO HO AcO 13 12 Ar = p.Cl-C H 6 4 Scheme 3 -1 The IR spectrum of 12 indicated the presence of band at 2231 cmP P for the C≡ N group, -1 in addition of bands at 1742, 1682 cmP P for the carbonyl groups of acetoxy and amide and -1 band at 1210 cmP P for C=S group. 1 The P HP NMR spectrum of 12 showed signals at δ 1.34, 1.49, 2.03 and 2.14 ppm for 4

CH3 of OAc groups and at δ 6.13, ppm for the anomeric proton with coupling constant J1',2' = 9.20 Hz, indicated the β-configuration, addition to a broad signal at δ 11.80 ppm for NH proton. . Deprotection of nucleoside 12 afforded 5-cyano-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-oxo-2-thioxo-3- (β-D-glucopyranosyl)-1,2,4-trihydropyrimidine (13) with 80% yield (Scheme 3). -1 The IR spectrum of 13 showed a broad band at 3417 cmP forP 4 OH groups and at 2230, -1 1218 cmP P for the CN and C=S groups. 1 The P HP NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O) spectrum of 13 showed the multiplet at δ 3.13-3.84 ppm ' ' ' ' ' for the H-6P ,P H-5P ,P H-4P ,P H-3P andP H-2P ,P in addition to doublet at δ 6.31 ppm for the anomeric proton with J1',2' = 8.80 Hz 13 Its P CP NMR spectrum showed the signal of the anomeric carbon at δ 84.1 ppm, in addition to peak at δ 119.6 ppm for CN group.

Antimicrobial Activity The results of the antimicrobial activity of compound 3c showed higher activity against B.subtitlis as Gram + ve and E. Coli as Gram – ve bacteria, while 3a,b and 6b showed the moderate activity. Compounds 3a, 9a and 12 showed a relative activity towards Fungi (e.g; SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 53

Penicillium Sp. and Asperagillus Sp.). Compounds 6a,c and 9b,c did not show any activity against the tested microorganisms

Table 1: Antimicrobial Activity of tested compounds (Inhibition Zones mm, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration µg/mL).

Compound E. Coli B. Subtilis Penicillium Sp. Asperagillus No. Sp. 3a - 15 15 10 3b - 10 - - 3c 10 25 - - 6a - - - - 6b - 5 - - 6c - - - - 9a - 10 10 8 9b - - - - 9c - - - - 12 - - 15 5

Experimental

All melting points are uncorrected and were measured using an Electro thermal IA 9100

apparatus. TLC was performed on Merck Silica Gel 60F254 with detection by UV light and

charring with H2SO4/EtOH (5:95); The IR spectra (KBr disc) were recorded on a Pye Unicam Sp-3-300 and Shimadzu FTIR 8101 PC infrared spectrophotometer. The UV. Spectra were recorded by UV-160A, UV-visible recording spectrometer Shimadzu using EtOH 95% as a solvent. The 1H and 13C NMR spectra were recorded on a Varian Mercury VX-NMR 300 MHz spectrometer. Chemical shifts are expressed on the δ(ppm) scale using TMS as the standard and coupling-constant values are given in Hz. Elemental analysis determined on PerkinElmer 240 (microanalysis).

General methods for preparation of glucosides: Method A: 54 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

To a solution of pyrimidinthiol 1a-c and thiouracile 11 (0.01 mol) in aq. KOH [0.01 mol in distilled water (6 mL)] was added a solution of 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-α-D- glucopyranosyl bromide (2) (0.011 mol) in acetone (30 mL); the reaction mixture was stirred at r.t. and followed by TLC till the reaction was finished (4.5 - 5 hours), the reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure and the residue was washed with distilled water to remove potassium bromide. The product was dried and crystallized from appropriate solvent.

Method B: A mixture of pyrimidinthiol 1a-c (0.001 mol) and (0.001 mol) of per acetylatedgalactose (5) or ribose (8) was dissolved in methylene chloride, then 1 gm of silica gel (200-400 mesh) was added, the solvent was removed by evaporation, and then the dried residue was transferred into a glass beaker and irradiated for (8-10 min.) in a domestic microwave oven. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, evaporated to dryness and crystallized from appropriate solvent.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (3a): 1 Method A: yield 26%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.105-107˚C; λmax.= 300 nm. H

NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.53, 1.96, 2.00, 2.02 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), 2.36 (s, 3H, CH3 ' pyrimidine), 2.58 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 4.00 (m, 1H, H-5), 4.13(dd, 1H, J6",5' = 2.10, " ' J6",6' =12.32 Hz, H-6 ), 4.26 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.96, J6',6" =12.3 Hz, H-6 ), 5.12 (t, 1H, J4',3' = ' ' 8.78, J4',5' = 9.13 Hz, H-4), 5.31 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 7.70, J2',3' = 9.20 Hz, H-2), 5.63 (t, 1H, J3',2' = ' ' 9.20, J3',4' = 8.78 Hz, H-3), 6.23 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.97 Hz, H-1 ), 7.56 (m, 3H, Ar-H), 8.58 (m, 13 2H, Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 20.8, 21.1, 21.2, 21.4, 23.8, 32.2 (6 CH3), 62.8 (C-6'), 69.2 (C-2'), 69.8 (C-4'), 73.8 (C-3'), 75.9 (C-5'), 80.1 (C-1'), 129.4, 129.6, 130.9, 132.4, 136.7, 162.54, 163.1, 163.6, 170.1, 170.4, 170.6 and 202.8 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 5 C=O).

Anal. Calcd for C27H30N2O10S (574.6): C, 56.44; H, 5.26; N, 4.88. Found: C, 56.68; H, 5.31; N, 5.03.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- glucopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (3b):

SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 55

Method A: yield 24%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.100-103˚C; λmax.= 301.4 nm. 1 H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.54, 1.95, 2.00, 2.02 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), 2.34 (s, 3H, ' CH3 pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.89 (s, 3H, OCH3), 3.98 (m, 1H, H-5), " 4.12 (dd, 1H, J6",5' = 2.10, J6",6' =12.3 Hz, H-6 ), 4.26 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.96, J6',6" =12.3 Hz, ' ' H-6 ), 5.12 (t, 1H, J4',3' = 8.97, J4',5' = 9.13 Hz, H-4), 5.31 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 7.90, J2',3' = 9.22 Hz, ' ' ' H-2), 5.62 (t, 1H, J3',2' = 9.22, J3',4' = 8.78 Hz, H-3), 6.24 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.87 Hz, H-1 ), 7.10 13 (d, 2H, J = 9.0 Ar-H), 8.40 (d, 2H, J = 9.0 Hz Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ ' ' ' 20.8, 21.1, 21.2, 21.4, 23.9, 32.3 (6 CH3), 56.2 (OCH3), 62.8 (C-6), 69.2 (C-2), 69.8 (C-4), 73.8 (C-3'), 75.9 (C-5'), 80.0 (C-1'), 129.2, 130.0, 131.3, 131.7, 162.3, 163.0, 163.1, 163.6, 170.1, 170.2, 170.4, 170.6 and 202.7 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 5 C=O). Anal. Calcd for

C28H32N2O11S (604.63): C, 55.62; H, 5.33; N, 4.63. Found: C, 55.50; H, 5.68; N, 4.60.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- glucopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (3c):

Method A: yield 34%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.104-106˚C; λmax.= 300 nm. IR -1 -1 1 (KBr): 1749 (C=O, esters) cm , 1697(C=O, acetyl) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ

1.53, 1.95, 2.00, 2.02 (4s, 12H, 4CH3CO), 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), 2.55 (s, 3H, CH3CO ' " pyrimidine), 3.98 (m, 1H, H-5), 4.12 (dd, 1H, J6",5' = 2.10, J6",6' =12.3 Hz, H-6 ), 4.27 (dd, ' ' 1H, J6',5' = 5.96, J6',6" =12.3 Hz, H-6 ), 4.92 (t, 1H, J4',3' = 8.97, J4',5' = 9.13 Hz, H-4), 5.08 (t, ' ' 1H, J2',1' = 7.90, J2',3' = 9.22 Hz, H-2), 5.67 (t, 1H, J3',2' = 9.22, J3',4' = 8.78 Hz, H-3), 6.21(d, ' 13 1H, J1',2' = 8.96 Hz, H-1 ), 7.59 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Ar-H), 8.49 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Ar-H). C ' NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 20.2, 20.3, 20.4, 22.8, 22.9, 31.3 (6 CH3), 61.9 (C-6), 68.2 (C-2'), 68.9 (C-4'), 72.9 (C-3'), 74.9 (C-5'), 79.2 (C-1'), 128.8, 128.9, 130.3, 130.4, 134.7, 136.5, 160.6, 162.7, 162.9, 169.4, 169.5, 169.6 and 201.9 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 5 C=O). Anal.

Calcd for C27H29 ClN2O10S (609.04): C, 53.25; H, 4.80; N, 6.40. Found: C, 53.12; H, 4.57; N, 6.21.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(β-D-glucopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (4a): General method for deprotection of acetyl groups: Triethylamine (1ml) was added to 10 ml a solution of glucosides or ribosides

(0.001mol) in ( MeOH / H2O). The mixture was stirred overnight at r.t.; it was evaporated

under reduced pressure and co-evaporated with MeOH until the excess of Et3N was removed. The residue was then crystallized from proper solvent to give the desired product with yield > 56 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

85%. Colourless crystals from ethanol; m.p.115-117˚C; IR (KBr): 3417 (br. 4 OH) cm-1 and -1 1 1689 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.46 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), ' '' ' ' ' ' 2.60 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.24-3.85 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4 , H-3 and H-2 ), ' 13 5.69 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.97 Hz, H-1),7.45 (m, 3H, Ar-H ), 8.42 (m, 2H, Ar-H ). C NMR ' ' ' ' (DMSO-d6,300 MHz ): δ 22.5, 31.4 (2 CH3), 61.6 (C-6), 69.6 (C-2), 71.7 (C-4), 78.5 (C-3), 81.8 (C-5'), 83.0 (C-1'), 128.2, 128.8, 128.9, 130.3, 131.4, 136.3, 161.6, 163.7 and 202.6 (Ar-

C, 2 C=N and C=O). Anal. Calcd for C19H22N2O6S (406.45): C, 56.15; H, 5.46; N, 6.89. Found: C, 55.91; H, 5.55; N, 6.93.

5-acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(β-D-glucopyrano-sylthio) pyrimidine (4b):

As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.110-111˚C; IR (KBr): 3415 (br. 4 OH) -1 -1 1 cm and 1690 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' ' ' ' pyrimidine), 2.62 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.23-3.85 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4, H-3 ' ' and H-2 ), 3.89 (s, 3H, OCH3), 6.21 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.90 Hz, H-1), 7.10 (d, 2H, J = 8.62 Hz,

Ar-H), 8.40 (d, 2H, J = 8.62 Hz, Ar-H). Anal. Calcd for C20H24N2O7S (436.48): C, 55.03; H, 5.54; N, 6.42. Found: C, 55.23; H, 5.44; N, 6.50.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(β-D-glucopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (4c): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.114-116˚C; IR (KBr): 3417 (br. 4 OH) -1 -1 1 cm and 1700 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 2.46 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), ' '' ' ' ' ' 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.13-3.46 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4 , H-3 and H-2 ), 4.53 (t, 1H, J = 3.56 Hz, OH-6' ), 5.11 (d, J = 4.34 Hz, 1H, OH-4' ), 5.24 (d, 1H, J = 5.24 Hz, ' ' ' OH-3 ), 5.51 (d, 1H, J = 4.96 Hz,,OH-2 ), 6.24 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.89 Hz, H-1), 7.60 (d, 2H, J 13 = 8.91 Hz, Ar-H), 8.39 (d, 2H, J = 8.91 Hz, Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 22.4, ' ' ' ' ' ' 31.3 (2 CH3), 60.7 (C-6), 69.6 (C-2), 71.6 (C-4), 78.4 (C-3), 81.9 (C-5), 83.1 (C-1), 128.9, 130.0, 130.4, 135.2, 136.3, 160.6, 161.7, 163.9 and 202.5 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and C=O). Anal.

Calcd for C19H21 ClN2O6S (440.90): C, 51.76; H, 4.80; N, 6.35. Found: C, 51.42; H, 4.36; N, 6.17.

SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 57

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-galactopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (6a):

Method B: yield 40%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.102-103˚C; λmax.= 1 303.2 nm. H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.50, 1.95, 2.03, 2.13 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), ' 2.46 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.95 (m, 1H, H-5 ), 4.12 (dd, " ' 1H, J6",5' = 6.50, J6',6" =12.0 Hz, H-6 ), 4.25 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.60, J6',6" =12.0 Hz, H-6 ), 5.21 ' ' (t, 1H, J3',2' = 10.0, J3',4' = 3.50 Hz, H-3), 5.41 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 8.20, J2',3' = 10.0 Hz, H-2), 5.62 ' ' (t, 1H, J4',3' = 3.50, J4',5' = 1.00 Hz, H-4), 6.26 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.20 Hz, H-1 ), 7.57 (m, 3H, Ar- 13 H), 8.56 (d, 2H, Ar-H ). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 20.1, 20.3, 20.4, 22.7, 22.9, ' ' ' ' ' ' 31.3 (6 CH3), 62.0 (C-6), 69.1 (C-2), 68.9 (C-4), 73.8 (C-3), 75.9 (C-5), 80.1 (C-1), 129.3, 129.6, 130.8, 132.3, 136.7, 162.5, 163.1, 163.5, 170.2, 170.3, 170.4, 170.6 and 202.6 (Ar-C, 2

C=N and 5 C=O). Anal. Calcd for C27H30N2O10S (574.6): C, 56.44; H, 5.26; N, 4.88. Found: C, 56.53; H, 5.33; N, 5.23.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- galactopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (6b):

Method B: yield 41%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.98-99˚C; λmax.= 302.8 1 nm. H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.51, 1.59, 2.03, 2.13 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), 2.49 (s,

3H, CH3 pyrimidine), 2.57 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.85 (s, 3H, OCH3), 3.95 (m, 1H, H- ' " 5), 4.13 (dd, 1H, J6",5' = 6.50, J6',6" =12.0 Hz, H-6 ), 4.26 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.60, J6',6" =12.0 ' ' Hz, H-6 ), 5.22 (t, 1H, J3',2' = 10.0, J3',4' = 3.50 Hz, H-3), 5.41 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 8.20, J2',3' = 10.0 ' ' ' Hz, H-2), 5.62 (t, 1H, J4',3' = 3.50, J4',5' = 1.00 Hz, H-4), 6.26 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.22 Hz, H-1 ), 13 7.08 (d, 2H, J = 8.63 Hz, Ar-H), 8.48 (d, 2H, J = 8.63 Hz, Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 ' ' MHz): δ 20.1, 20.2, 20.4, 22.6, 22.8, 31.2 (6 CH3), 56.2 (OCH3), 61.8 (C-6), 66.4 (C-2), 70.9 (C-4'), 72.4 (C-3'), 74.4 (C-5'), 79.6 (C-1'), 128.3, 129.2, 130.4, 131.7, 161.4, 162.1, 162.7, 169.4, 169.5, 169.7, 169.8, 170.0 and 201.8 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 5 C=O). Anal. Calcd

for C28H32N2O11S (604.63): C, 55.62; H, 5.33; N, 4.63. Found: C, 55.51; H, 5.48; N, 4.60.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D- galactopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (6c):

58 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

Method B: yield 45%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.106-109˚C; λmax.= 301.4 nm. 1 H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.49, 1.58, 2.03, 2.14 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), 2.48 (s, 3H, ' CH3 pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.98 (m, 1H, H-5 ), 4.14 (dd, 1H, J6",5' = " ' 6.50, J6',6" =12.0 Hz, H-6 ), 4.27 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.60, J6',6" =12.0 Hz, H-6 ), 5.23 (t, 1H, J3',2' ' ' = 10.0, J3',4' = 3.50 Hz, H-3), 5.42 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 8.20, J2',3' = 10.0 Hz, H-2), 5.65 (t, 1H, J4',3' ' ' = 3.50, J4',5' = 1.00 Hz, H-4), 6.36 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.22 Hz, H-1 ), 7.53 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, 13 Ar-H), 8.49 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 20.1, 20.2, 20.4, ' ' ' ' ' 22.6, 22.8, 31.1 (6 CH3), 61.6 (C-6), 66.8 (C-2), 69.6 (C-4), 70.5 (C-3), 70.6 (C-5), 79.3 (C- 1'), 128.5, 130.1, 134.4, 134.5, 160.3, 162.1, 162.6, 168.5, 168.9, 169.2, 169.3, 169.5 and

201.6 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 5 C=O). Anal. Calcd for C27H29 ClN2O10S (609.04): C, 53.25; H, 4.80; N, 6.40. Found: C, 53.52; H, 4.78; N, 6.33.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(β-D-galactopyranosylthio) pyrimidine (7a): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.118-119˚C; IR (KBr): 3417 (br 4 OH) -1 -1 1 cm and 1690 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' ' ' ' pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.23-3.84 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4, H-3 ' ' and H-2 ), 6.21 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.40 Hz, H-1), 7.57 (m, 3H, Ar-H ), 8.53 (m, 2H, Ar-H ).

Anal. Calcd for C19H22N2O6S (406.45): C, 56.15; H, 5.46; N, 6.89. Found: C, 55.90; H, 5.45; N, 6.93.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(β-D-galactopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (7b): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.112-114˚C; IR (KBr): 3415 (br 4 OH) -1 -1 1 cm and 1695 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' ' ' ' pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.24-3.75 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4, H-3 ' ' and H-2 ), 3.85 (s, 3H, OCH3), 6.23 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.51 Hz, H-1), 7.52 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz,

Ar-H), 8.48 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H). Anal. Calcd for C20H24N2O7S (436.48): C, 55.03; H, 5.54; N, 6.42. Found: C, 55.43; H, 5.44; N, 6.52.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(β-D-galactopyranosylthio)pyrimidine (7c): SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 59

As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.119-120˚C; IR (KBr): 3418 (br. 4 OH) -1 -1 1 cm and 1692 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' ' ' ' pyrimidine), 2.58 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.35-3.85 (m, 6H, H-6 , H-6 , H-5 , H-4, H-3 ' ' and H-2 ), 6.22 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.45 Hz, H-1), 7.53 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H), 8.48 (d, 2H, J

= 8.90 Hz, Ar-H). Anal. Calcd for C19H21 ClN2O6S (440.90): C, 51.76; H, 4.80; N, 6.35. Found: C, 51.44; H, 4.32; N, 6.27.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(2',3',5'-tri-O-acetyl-β-D-ribofuranosylthio)pyrimidine (9a):

Method B : yield 41%; as colorless crystals from methanol; m.p. 111-113˚C; λmax.= 1 300 nm. H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 2.06, 2.07, 2.15 (3s, 9H, 3CH3CO ), 2.43 (s, 3H,

CH3 pyrimidine), 2.59 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 4.10 (dd, 1H, J5',4' = 3.40, J5',5" =11.6 Hz, ' '' ' H-5), 4.16 (dd, 2H, J5",4' = 3.60, J5",5' =11.6 Hz, H-5 ) , 4.41 (m, 1H, H-4 ), 5.54 (t, 1H, J3',2' ' ' = 2.71, J3',4' = 6.62 Hz, H-3 ), 5.63 (dd, 1H, J2',1' = 2.60, J2',3' = 2.80 Hz, H-2 ), 6.46 (d, 1H, J ' 1',2' = 2.80 Hz, H-1), 7.45-8.40 (m, 5H, Ar-H). Anal. Calcd for C24H26N2O8S (502.54): C, 57.36; H, 5.52; N, 5.57. Found: C, 57.14; H, 5.11; N, 5.75.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(2',3',5'-tri-O-acetyl-β-D- ribofuranosylthio)pyrimidine (9b):

Method B: yield 36%, as colorless crystals from methanol ; m.p. 107-109˚C; UV; λmax 1 = 299 nm. H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 2.05, 2.07, 2.16 (3s, 9H, 3CH3CO), 2.51 (s,

3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 2.62 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), 3.34 (s, 3H, OCH3), 4.10 (dd, 1H , ' '' J5',4' = 3.40, J5',5" = 11.6 Hz, H-5), 4.14 (dd, 1H, J5",4' = 3.60, J5',5" = 11.6 Hz, H-5 ), 4.41 (m, ' ' 1H, H-4 ), 5.43 (t, 1H, J3',2' = 2.71, J3',4' = 6.62 Hz, H-3), 5.56 (dd, 1H, J2',1' = 2.60, J2',3' = ' ' 2.80 Hz, H-2 ), 6.43 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 2.75 Hz, H-1 ) 7.61 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H ), 8.31 (d,

2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H ). Anal. Calcd for C25H28N2O9S (532.56): C, 56.38; H, 5.30; N, 5.26. Found: C, 56.10; H, 5.32; N, 5.19.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(2',3',5'-tri-O-acetyl-β-D- ribofuranosylthio)pyrimidine (9c): 60 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

Method B: yield 40%, as colorless crystals from methanol ; m.p. 105-107˚C; UV; λmax 1 299 nm. H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 2.05, 2.07, 2.16 (3s, 9H, 3CH3CO), 2.62 (s, 3H,

CH3CO pyrimidine), 2.51 (s, 3H, CH3 pyrimidine), 4.06 (dd, 1H , J5',4' = 3.40, J5',5" = 11.6 ' '' ' Hz, H-5), 4.12 (dd, 1H, J5",4' = 3.60, J5",5' = 11.6 Hz, H-5 ), 4.45 (m, 1H, H-4 ), 5.42 (t, 1H, ' ' J3',2' = 2.71, J3',4' = 6.62 Hz, H-3), 5.55 (dd, 1H, J2',1' = 2.60, J2',3' = 2.80 Hz, H-2 ), 6.42 (d, ' 1H, J1',2' =2.60 Hz, H-1 ), 7.60 (d, 2H, J = 8.80 Hz, Ar-H ), 8.34 (d, 2H, J = 8.80 Hz, Ar-H ). 13 ' C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz); δ 20.7, 20.8, 21.0, 23.4, 31.8 (5 CH3 ), 62.7 (C-5), 70.5 (C-3'), 75.6 (C-2'), 79.6 (C-4'), 85.4 (C-1'), 129.3, 130.2, 135.2, 137.0, 160.9, 163.3, 164.1,

166.5, 169.7, 169.8, 170.3 and 202.1 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and 4 C=O). Anal. Calcd for C24H25

ClN2O8S (536.98): C, 53.68; H, 4.69; N, 5.22. Found: C, 53.61; H, 4.81; N, 4.93.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-phenyl-4-(β-D-ribofuranosylthio)pyrimidine (10a): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p. 124-126˚C. IR (KBr): 3419 (3 OH) -1 -1 1 cm , 1692 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.41 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' pyrimidine), 2.54 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.46 -3.73 (m, 2H, H-5& 5 ), 3.97 (m, 1H, H- ' ' 4 ), 4.12 (dd, 1H, J3',4' = 6.60, J3',2' = 2.70 Hz, H-3), 4.23 (dd, 1H, J2',1' = 2.60, J2',3' = 2.70 Hz, ' ' H-2), 6.21 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 2.80 Hz, H-1 ), 7.53-8.37 (m, 5H, Ar-H ). Anal. Calcd for

C189H20N2O5S (376.43): C, 57.43; H, 5.36; N, 7.44. Found: C, 57.40; H, 4.98; N, 7.47.

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4-(β-D-ribofuranosylthio) pyrimidine (10b): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p. 117-119˚C; IR (KBr): 3420 (3 OH) -1 -1 1 cm , 1695 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6/D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.45 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' pyrimidine), 2.54 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.41-3.83 (m, 2H, H-5 & H-5 ), 3.89 (s, 3H, ' ' OCH3), 3.96 (m, 1H, H-4 ), 4.10 (dd, 1H, J3',4' = 6.59, J3',2' = 2.70 Hz, H-3), 4.20 (t, 1H, J 2',1' = ' ' 2.60, J2',3' = 2.70 Hz, H-2), 6.22 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 2.8 Hz, H-1), 7.54 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H), 13 8.36 (d, 2H, J = 8.90 Hz, Ar-H ). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 20.0, 31.0 (2 CH3), 56.3 ' ' ' ' ' (OCH3), 61.5 (C-5), 70.4 (C-3), 75.3 (C-2), 75.8 (C-4), 74.0 (C-1), 120.9, 121.3, 128.7,

129.8, 136.5, 136.9, 161.9, 169.9, and 201.8 (Ar-C, 2 C=N and C=O). Anal. Calcd for C19H22

N2O6S (406.45): C, 56.15; H, 5.46; N, 6.89. Found: C, 56.43; H, 5.32; N, 6.70.

SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 61

5-Acetyl-6-methyl-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(β-D-ribofuranosylthio) pyrimidine (10c):

As for 4a, colourless crystals from ethanol; m.p. 123-125˚C; IR (KBr): 3422 (OH) -1 -1 1 cm , 1690 (C=O) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6/D2O, 300 MHz): δ 2.43 (s, 3H, CH3 ' '' pyrimidine), 2.57 (s, 3H, CH3CO pyrimidine), 3.42-3.83 (m, 2H, H-5& 5 ), 3.95 (m, 1H, H- ' ' 4), 4.12 (dd, 1H, J3',4' = 6.58, J3',2' = 2.75 Hz, H-3), 4.20 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 2.60, J2',3' = 2.70 Hz, ' ' H-2), 6.23 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 2.80 Hz, H-1),7.25 (d, 2H, J = 8.98 Hz, Ar-H), 8.05 (d, 2H, J = 8.98

Hz, Ar-H ). Anal. Calcd for C18H19 ClN2O5S (410.87): C, 52.62; H, 4.66; N, 6.82. Found: C, 52.34; H, 4.54; N, 6.76.

5-Cyano-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-oxo-2-thioxo-3-(2',3',4',6'-tetra-O-acetyl -β-D- glucopyranosyl)-1,2,4-trihydropyrimidine (12):

Method A: yield 30%. As colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.110-112˚C; λmax.= 316.2 nm. IR (KBr): 2231 (CN) cm-1, 1742 (C=O, acetyl) cm-1 and 1682 (C=O, amid) cm-1. 1 H NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): δ 1.34, 1.49, 2.03, 2.14 (4s, 12H, 4 CH3CO), 3.88 (m, 1H, ' " H-5), 4.01(dd, 1H, J6",5' = 2.10, J6",6' =12.3 Hz, H-6 ), 4.14 (dd, 1H, J6',5' = 5.90, J6',6" = 12.3 ' ' Hz, H-6 ), 4.87 (t, 1H, J4',3' = 8.97, J4',5' = 9.13 Hz, H-4), 5.48 (t, 1H, J2',1' = 9.20, J2',3' = 9.22 ' ' ' Hz, H-2), 5.60 (t, 1H, J3',2' = 9.22, J3',4' = 8,97 Hz, H-3), 6.13 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 9.20 Hz, H-1 ), 7.63 (d, 2H, J = 8.80 Hz, Ar-H), 8.38 (d, 2H, J = 8.80 Hz, Ar-H ), 11.8 (br, 1H, NH). Anal.

Calcd for C25H24ClN3O10S (593.99): C, 50.55; H, 4.07; N, 7.07. Found: C, 50.51; H, 4.25; N, 7.31.

5-Cyano-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-oxo-2-thioxo-3-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-1,2,4- trihydropyrimidine (13): As for 4a, colorless crystals from ethanol; m.p.121-123˚C; IR (KBr): 3417 (br. 4 OH) -1 -1 1 ' cm and 2230 (CN) cm . H NMR (DMSO-d6 / D2O, 300 MHz): δ 3.13 - 3.84 (m, 6H, H-6 , '' ' ' ' ' ' H-6 , H-5 , H-4, H-3 and H-2 ), 6.31 (d, 1H, J1',2' = 8.80 Hz, H-1), 7.51 (d, 2H, J = 8.96 Hz, 13 ' Ar-H), 8.30 (d, 2H, J = 8.96 Hz, Ar-H). C NMR (DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): 60.7 (C-6), 69.8 (C-2'), 72.0 (C-4'), 78.5 (C-3'), 81.4 (C-5'), 84.1 (C-1'), 119.6 (CN), 128.2, 130.0, 134.5,

136.4, 167.5, 170.3 and 171.1 (Ar-C, C=S and C=O). Anal. Calcd for C17H16 ClN3O6S (425.84): C, 47.95; H, 3.79; N, 9.87. Found: C, 47.74; H, 3.65; N, 9.92. 62 A. H. Moustafa, H. A. Morsy and A. Z. Haikal.

Antibacterial screening: The antimicrobial activities of some newly synthesized compounds were screened for their antibacterial activity against three species of bacteria, namely (E. Coli) as Gram –ve, (B. Subtilis) as Gram +ve and (Penicillium Sp.) and (Asperagillus Sp.) as Fungi, using saturated disks according to the a dapted method24. The tested compounds were dissolved in chloroform to get a solution of 1mg/mL concentration. The inhibition zone were measured in (mm) at the end of an incubation period of 48 hours at 37˚C. Chloroform showed no inhibition zones. The Fungi cultures were maintained on dextrose agar medium.

REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman, A. H.; Abdel-Maged, A. E. S.; Goda, A. E. S.; Zeid, I. F.; El-Ashry, E. S. H. Nucleosides, Nucleotides & Nucleic acids. 2003, 22, 2027-2038, (1). Abdel-Rahman, A. H.; El-Etrawy, A. SH.; Abdel-Maged, A. E. S.; Zeid, I. F.; El-Ashry, E. S. H. Nucleosides, Nucleotides & Nucleic acids. 2008, 27, 1257-1271, (2). Andrzejewska, M., Kaminski, J., and Kazimierezuk, Z.; Nucleosides, Nucleotides & Nucleic acids, 2002, 21, 73-78, (21). Aly, A. A.; J. Chin. Chem. Soc., 2004, 51, 1381-1388 (23). Assy, M. G.; Sulfer Lett.,1990, 11, 75-82 (18). Cammito, A.; Pemmsin, M.; Lnu-Due, C.; Hoguet, F.; Gaultier, C. and Nacisse, J. Eur. J. Chem.,1990, 25, 635-642, (7). El-Sayed, H. A.; Moustafa, A. H.; Haikal, A. Z.; Abdou, I. M.; El-Ashry, E. S. H. Nucleosides, Nucleotides & Nucleic acids. 2008, 27, 1061-1071 (4). Goerdeler, J., and Pohland, H. W.;Chem. Ber,1961, 94, 2950-2958, (19). Goerdeler, J., and Wieland, D.;Chem. Ber., 1967, 100, 47-56, (20). Gupta, R.; Saxena, R. K.; Chatarvedi, P. and Virdi, J. S. J. Apple. Bacterial.1995, 78, 378- 383, (24). Haikal, A. Z.; El-Ashry, E. S. H.; Banoub, J. Carbohydr. Res., 2003, 338, 2291-2299, (22). Kappe, C. O.; Stadler, A. Microwaves in organic and medicinal chemistry. Eds.; 2005; Van der Eycken, E.; Kappe, C. O. Microwave-assisted synthesis of heterocycles. Springer, Heidelberg, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2006; (16). Kumar, D.S. Synlett 2004, 915-932; Bookser, B.C.; Rafaele, N.B. J. Org. Chem. 2007, 72, 173-179, (17). Lednicer, D. and Mitscher, L. A. The organic chemistry of drug synthesis; pergamon press; NY, 1980; Vol. p 79; Lednicer, D. and Mitscher, L. A. The organic chemistry of drug synthesis; pergamon press; NY, 1980; Vol 2. p 152, (3). Leveque, J.-M. ; Cravotto, G. Chimia. 2006, 60, 313-320; Lidstöm, P., Tierney, J. P.Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis, Blackwell, 2005, (15). Maria, T. C.; Cenzo, C.; Valentina, L. and Valentina, O. Bioorg. Med. Chem., 2006, 14, 366- 372, (6). Nega, S.; Aionso, J.; Diazj, A. and Junquere, F. J. Heterocycl. Chem.,1990, 27, 269. Pemmsin, M.; Lnu-Due, C.; Hoguet, F.; Gaultier, C. and Nacisse, J. Eur. J. Chem.,1988, 23, 534-541, (8). Perrux, L.; Loupy, A. Tetrahedron. 2001, 57, 9199-9223. Shishoo, C. J.; Devani, M. B.; Ullas, G. V.; Ananthan, S and Bhadti, V. S., J. Heterocycl. Chem., 1985, 22, 825-832, (12). SYNTHESIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 63

Regnier, T.; Lavastre, O. Tetrahedron. 2006, 62, 155-159, (13). Smith, P. A. S. and Kan, R. O. J. Org. Chem., 1964, 29, 2261-2268, (9). Tetsuo, S.; Mikio, T.; Hidetoshi, H.; Daijirom, H. and Akira, I., Jpn. Kokai Tokyo JP; 62, 132, 884 (1987); C. A., 107 p. 198350h (1987), (11).

ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻰ ﻟﻠﺒﺤﺚ

ﻓﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺗﺤﻀﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻠﻮﺯﻳﺪﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺸﺘﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻤﻴﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﻊ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻮ ﺟﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻼﻛﺘﻮﺯ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺒﻮﺯﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﺳﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﺎﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺮﻭﻭﻳﻒ ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﺍﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻠﻮﺯﻳﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻀﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻠﻮﺯﻳﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺓ ﺑﻨﺰﻉ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻴﻞ ﻋﻦ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻛﺤﻮﻝ ﻣﻴﺜﻴﻠﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﻓﻰ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻘﻂ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼﺛﻰ ﺍﻳﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻣﻴﻦ ﻛﻘﺎﻋﺪﺓ. ﻭﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺗﻢ ﺍﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻰ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻳﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻭﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺴﺢ ﺑﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻰ ﻟﻬﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﻭﺟﺪ ﺍﻥ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻟﻬﻞ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ.

Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 65 - 83

ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS OF RATS DURING SUPPRESSION OF SECRETION BY DEXAMETHASONE INJECTION

Kamel Zaki Hemmaid Faculty of Science, Zagazig University

ABSTRACT This paper aimed to investigate the morphological responses, at the ultrastructural level, of adult male albino rat adrenal cortex to daily dexamethasone injection (4 mg/Kg body weight for 5 and 10 days). Following dexamethasone injection, the volume of lipid droplets increased in cells of zona fasciculata and zona reticularis and many of them coalesced together. In addition, the number of such droplets increased in cells of zona glomerulosa as well as in the other two cortical cells. Concomitantly, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum subjected to a decrease in cells of all the three layers of the cortex. Sometimes, profiles of the reticulum were hardly demonstrated. As for mitochondria which are abundant in the cortical cells, some of them exhibited slight hypertrophy associated with lowered osmiophilia. Intermitochondrial deeply osmiophilic rod or spindle-shaped bodies were detected inside the mitochondria. Mitochondria of cells of zona reticularis investigated from rats injected with dexamethasone for 10 consecutive days lost the tubular architecture of their cristae. Some apoptotic cells were demonstrated and the lipofuscin bodies were numerous. Numerous alterations were also seen in nuclei of the treated cells. These were represented by wrinkled or indented nuclear envelope (in zona glomerulosa and fasciculata) and low electron dense heterochromatin and nucleoli (in zona reticularis). It could be suggested that the above changes in all cellular organelles following dexamethasone treatment are associated with perturbations in the functional activity of the cortical cells. The registered alterations reflect suppression of the adrenal corticosteroids production.

Key words: Adrenal cortex, Dexamethasone, Cellular organelles, Ultrastructure.

INTRODUCTION Dexamethasone (9 alpha-fluoro-16 alpha methyl-11 beta, 17 alpha, 21- trihydroxy-1, 4-pregnadiene-3, 20-dione-21-phosphate) is a potent synthetic glucocorticoid analogue of hydrocortisone that has a long history of use in 66 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid human medicine for the treatment of a wide range of diseases (Van Leeuwen, 1994; Jobling et al., 2001). It is very effective as anti-inflammatory drug (Sherif and Salwa, 2006). Earlier studies have used dexamethasone to suppress the adrenal cortical secretion in rats (Mazzocchi et al., 1977; Negrie et al., 1979) and sheep (Beaven et al., 1964) and guinea pigs (Obara et al., 1984). Moreover, recent studies have shown that dexamethasone suppresses adrenal corticosterone production (Ho and Torpy, 2007; Pecori Giraldi et al., 2007; Silvan et al., 2007; Ye et al., 2008). The adrenal cortex is most easily becomes modified in its volume, weight and cytological characteristics in relation to its function (Vazquez et al., 1978). After one month of dexamethasone treatment, zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculate of guinea pig adrenal cortex displayed a significant weight decrease (Obara et al., 1984). In rats injected with dexamethasone (4 mg/Kg-1 for 3 consecutive days) there was a decrease in the steroid secretion from the adrenal cortex (Almeida et al., 2001). Such suppression in corticosterone level was accompanied with a decrease in adrenal weight by 50% (Mallet et al., 2003). Illera et al. (2007) recorded atrophy of the rat’s adrenal cortex following long term exposure (45 days) to dexamethasone (0.1 mg/Kg-1 b.w.). The same dosage course caused disruption of rat endocrine adrenal function (Silvan et al., 2007). Such disruption was represented by suppression of cortical steroid secretion (Ye et al., 2008). In fact, there are very few reports on morphological features of the adrenal cortical cells during their different functional conditions especially at the ultrastructural level. Although there are some quantitative studies concerned with the effect of dexamethasone on secretions from the cortex, none of these studies reported the ultrastructural changes in cells of the cortex accompanying or reflecting such cellular activities. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the ultrastructural patterns of cells of different zones of the adrenal cortex following exogenous dexamethasone administration.

MATERIALS and METHODS Thirty male adults of albino rats (b.w. 200 ± 10 g. that were at least 4 months old) were divided into 3 equal groups. The first group served as a control and received daily intraperitoneal injection of 0.5 ml 0.9% saline for 10 consecutive days. Rats of the 2nd group received daily i.p. injection of 4 mg/kg b.w. dexamethasone for 5 days. In the third group the daily i.p. injection of the same dose of dexamethasone continued for 10 consecutive days. All injections were carried out at 10.00 a.m. Prior to experimentation, all animals were kept for one week for acclimatization to the laboratory conditions. They were housed (also during experimentation) under standard stable conditions (temperature: 23± 2 ºC; 12 h light/12 h dark) and fed a commercial ration and were allowed tap water ad ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 67 libitum. Animal were sacrificed by cervical dislocation and rapidly dissected to obtain their adrenals. Adrenal glands were promptly removed and freed of adherent fat, sliced into pieces (at least 4 quarters) and fixed with 3% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer ( pH 7.4) for 3 h at 4 ºC. Specimens were post-fixed in 1% osmium tetroxide in 0.1 M phosphate buffer for 45 minutes. After dehydration and embedding in Epoxy resin (Epon 812), thick sections were made and stained with 1% toluidine blue and examined by light microscope to remove the medulla. Ultrathin silver sections (80 nm) were cut, mounted on carbon-coated copper grids. Sections on grids were double stained with uranyl acetate (Watson, 1958) for 15 min and 1% lead citrate (Reynolds, 1963) for 7 minutes. Sections were examined and photographed at 80 KV in a JEOL (JEM-CX 100) transmission electron microscope in Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University.

RESULTS

Zona Granulosa (ZG) Cells: In adrenal cortex of control rats: This is a narrow zone consists of layers of irregularly arranged ovoid cells. There is no central cavity within a cell group but a rich network of blood vessels is present just outside. Ultrastructurally, cells of this zone are mostly columnar with round or oval nuclei possessing an evident nucleolus. The cytoplasm of cells in this area is largely occupied with mitochondria which are the most distinguishing feature of glomerulosa cells. Mitochondria are rather elongated with mainly tubular or shelflike cristae or may be described as tubulosaccular. Sometimes cristae are parallel and clustered and appear in cross sections as a hexagonal array of circles (Figure 1). The cytoplasm also has a well developed smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The tubular network and profiles of the SER are frequently surround mitochondria and other cytoplasmic organelles. Some free ribosomes are demonstrated as well as a few or sparse short profiles of rough endoplasmic reticulum could be observed. A few lipid droplets are present in cells of ZG together with some electron dense bodies of lysosomal-peroxisomal nature. The Golgi complex is present in a juxtanuclear position especially on the side of the nucleus facing the blood vessel. Elements of the complex are small and sparse and hardly or occasionally seen.

Cells of ZG in dexamethasone-treated rats: Following daily i.p. injection of rats with dexamethasone (4 mg/Kg b.w.) for days, mitochondria localized in cells of zona glomerulosa displayed slight hypertrophy. Mitochondria appeared more spherical and their internal cristae 68 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid were mostly tubular rather than tubulovesicular. Intramatrical deep osmiophilic rod- or spindle-shaped bodies were demonstrated inside some mitochondria. In some ZG cells the mitochondria were crowded and appeared nearly adherent to each other preventing appearance of the remaining cellular organelles (Figure 2). Numerous lipid droplets appeared in the cytoplasm of ZG cells inspected from adrenals of dexamethasone-treated rats. Lipid droplets were of variable size and some small droplets tend to open to each other forming larger droplets (Figure 2). Droplets are seen touching many mitochondria circumscribing them. Sometimes more than 3 mitochondria are seen touching a single lipid droplet especially after coalescence of smaller droplets forming larger one (Figures 2 and 3). After daily injection of dexamethasone for 10 consecutive days, mitochondria showed lower electron density. Lipid droplets were numerous and of larger size. The euchromatin revealed more osmiophilia while clumps of lining heterochromatin were larger of size. The nuclear envelope of some nuclei was indented or wrinkled (Figure 4).

Zona Fasciculata (ZF) Cells: In adrenal cortex of control rats: This is the broadest zone of the cortex, as it may consist of 30-40 layers of cells arranged in straight cords one or two cells thick and running at right angles to the surface of the gland. Cords of cells are arranged parallel to one another in a radial direction toward the centre of the gland and have capillaries between them. Cells of ZF are polyhedral or cuboidal harboring spherical to slightly oval nuclei with an obvious nucleolus. Cells have easily identifiable basement membrane-collagen sheath. The cytoplasm of ZF cells has numerous ovoid mitochondria of variable size with vesicular cristae. These internal vesicles are numerous and filling the whole internal space to the extent that no discrimination to the space into compartments could be detected (Figures 5 and 6). Another characteristic feature of ZF cells is their high content of lipid droplets. They are abundant and of variable size. Since the lipids are dissolved by the usual reagents used in preparation of tissue for microscopic investigation (especially alcohols of dehydration), the cytoplasm acquires a spongy appearance reflecting abundance of lipid droplets. Some lipid granules can melt together into larger one. The lipid droplets are almost always surrounded by several mitochondria which press against the droplet (Figure 5). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is more fully developed than in zona glomerulosa. The RER cisternae are absent, lysosomes are few, but free ribosomes are numerous. Golgi zones are seldom seen. Elements of cellular junctions between the neighboring cells are easily demonstrated (Figure 6). ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 69

Cells of ZF in dexamethasone-treated rats: Cells of this zone investigated from the cortex of rats administered dexamethasone for 5 consecutive days showed a remarkable increase in the number of lipid droplets. The droplets are seen crowded and many of them are coalesced together. Due to this aggregation or coalescence of lipid droplets mitochondria are pressed at the vicinity of the droplets and contact firmly their boundaries. The matrix of some mitochondria possesses rod or spherical-shaped clumps of strong osmiophilia (Figure 7). The nuclei of some cells became shrunken and this is exemplified by the wavy architecture of the nuclear envelope in many electron micrographs (Figure 7). Electron micrographs investigated from cells of ZF of rats injected daily with dexamethasone for 10 days revealed hypertrophy of mitochondria which exhibited lower osmiophilia. The cytoplasm of such cells appeared completely packed with these mitochondria in association with numerous lipid droplets. Intramitochondrial dense bodies are demonstrated in some mitochondria. The lipid droplets are shown displaying larger sizes and many of them (with different sizes) coalesce together. In spite of their fusion each of these droplets still keeping its size and morphological shapes (Figures 8 and 9).

Zona Reticularis (ZR) Cells: In adrenal cortex of control rats: This is the innermost layer of the cortex and contains cells disposed into irregular cords forming an anastomosing network surrounded by abundant blood capillaries. Bundles of collagen fibers are frequently located between neighboring cells. Cells of ZR are small and of irregular shape with spherical or ovoid nuclei containing well developed nucleolus which is visible in most sections. The heterochromatin is strongly osmiophilic and clumps of it are seen scattered in the nucleoplasm. The euchromatin has a moderately osmiophilic background with scattered dusty darker spots. The cytoplasm of ZR cells has grossly spherical mitochondria with tubulovesicular cristae or more conventional vesicular cristae. A few lipid droplets could be seen but abundant lipofuscin pigment granules and secondary lysosomes with lipid-like inclusions are demonstrated (Figure 10). The endoplasmic reticulum (little amount) is always smooth and consists of vacuoles while RER profiles are absent. The free ribosomes are abundant. Small and sparse Golgi cisternae are occasionally observed near the nucleus.

Cells of ZR in dexamethasone-treated rats: Five days of daily dexamethasone injection induced an increase in the number of lipid droplets in cells of zona reticularis. The heterochromatin and 70 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid nucleoli exhibited lower electron density than control. The euchromatin aggregations scattered in the nucleoplasm were lesser in number and smaller in size (Figure 11). In some cells of the zone the nuclei were faint and showed lower osmiophilia in both the hetero- and euchromatin. Some mitochondria revealed slight hypertrophy (Figure 12). Following 10 days of dexamethasone administration a conspicuous increase in the number of lipid droplets was noticed (Figure 13). In some cells mitochondria lost the tubular architecture of their cristae and appeared possessing small vacuolar degenerations. The nuclei of such cells were nearly pyknotic and shrunken. In some cells of ZR free ribosomes could be seen. Lipofuscin bodies increased in number and the tubular mitochondrial cristae were demolished (Figure 14). In addition, some apoptotic figures were seen in the reticularis zone and the mitochondria suffered from hypertrophy and hydropic degeneration (Figure 15).

DISCUSSION In the present ultrastructural investigation, it was revealed that conspicuous alterations were observed in nearly all cellular organelles of the adrenal cortical cells due to administration of dexamethasone. The demonstrated changes were mostly and clearly obvious in three prominent elements of these cells namely mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum and lipid droplets. These perturbations in such cytoplasmic organelles were time-dependent; i.e. increased by increasing days of dexamethasone administration. Earlier, since the time of Kadioglu and Harrison (1971) it had been known that the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum of the adrenal cortex play a greater part of steroidogenesis than any other cytoplasmic organelle. The adrenal cortical mitochondria had been shown to be involved in the steroidogenesis of cortical cells (Merry, 1975). Mazzocchi et al. (1977) found that dexamethasone decreased significantly the half-life of rat adrenocortical mitochondria from the rat zona fasciculata. Moreover, daily chronic administration of dexamethasone (15 consecutive days) produced a decrease in both the volume and number of mitochondria in cells of rat adrenal zona fasciculata (Nussdorfer et al., 1978). In some cells of zona reticularis mitochondria lost the tubular architecture of their cristae and appeared possessing small vacuolar degenerations and the tubular mitochondrial cristae were demolished. In parallelism with this finding, Nussdorfer et al. (1977) found that dexamethasone treatment displayed a decrease in the mitochondrial cristae of the rat zona glomerulosa cells. All the demonstrated alterations in the cellular organelles of the three cortical zones reflect low activity of such cells in steroidogenesis. Such perturbations were in the form lower electron density of mitochondria in cells of zona glomerulosa in addition to hypertrophy of mitochondria of zona fasciculata which exhibited lower osmiophilia as well as loss of the tubular mitochondrial ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 71 architecture in cells of zona reticularis. As for the mitochondrial hypertrophy it may be attributed to some molecules that are involved in steroid synthesis and were accumulated as a result of activity delay by dexamethasone. In this concern, Kadioglu and Harrison (1971) stated that the inhibition of the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone may lead to its accumulation within the mitochondria. Boyd et al. (1983) reported that adrenal cortical mitochondria contain a mixed function oxidase capable of converting cholesterol to pregnenolone. This occurs by a side chain cleavage of cholesterol to yield pregnenolone. It has been shown (Obara et al., 1984) that the cholesterol side- chain cleavage activity in mitochondria isolated from ZG and ZF declined significantly following dexamethasone administration. This side-chain cleavage of cholesterol to yield pregnenolone in the adrenal cortex is the initial regulated step in steroid hormone biosynthesis (Xu et al., 1991). This may suggest a continued uptake of steroid precursor but a reduced steroid synthesis (Almeida et al., 1998). Presently noticed are dark electron dense spindle to rod-like bodies localized inside the mitochondrial matrix. These mitochondrial intramatrical dense bodies were demonstrated in cells of the adrenal cortex under different circumstances (Nussdorfer, 1986; Coleman et al., 1995; Hemmaid et al., 1996).

In cells of ZG and ZF lipid droplets were numerous and of larger size and some small droplets tend to open to each other forming larger droplets. However, in spite of their fusion each of these droplets still keeping its size and morphological shapes. An increase in the lipid content of adrenal cortical cells has been reported in dexamethasone-treated rats (Ricciardi et al., 1984) particularly in cells of zona fasciculata (Rhodin, 1970). Almeida et al. (2001) found that there was an increase in lipid droplets of ZR and ZF of dexamethasone injected rats together with a decrease in cell and nuclear volume. Finegold and Green (1970) considered lipid accumulation is a secondary phenomenon due to the inhibition of the sequence of reactions leading from cholesterol to progesterone. The morphological and physiological alteration of lipids in cells of the adrenal cortex was concomitant with impairment of adrenocortical steroidogenic activity following dexamethasone administration (Szabo et al., 1996). Knowing that lipid droplets of adrenal cortical cells contain much of the cholesterol used in steroid synthesis (Hall, 1995), it could be expected that the enlargement of these droplets is due to accumulation of cholesterol inside them. Such endogenous stores of cholesterol in the form of ester represent the cholesterol substrate required for sustained adrenal steroidogenesis (Vahouny et al., 1985). This store inside lipid droplets is supposed to be transported to the inner mitochondrial membrane to act as a substrate in the pathway of the steroid hormone synthesis (Hall, 1995). Thus, dexamethasone may prevent such translocation leading to hypertrophy of lipid droplets demonstrated following its administration. Loose et al. (1980) 72 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid presented evidence for the direct dexamethasone suppressive effect on the rat adrenal gland. Engeland et al. (2005) found that dexamethasone reduced proliferation of the cortical cells of rat ZF during compensatory growth after unilateral adrenalectomy. Chronic administration of dexamethasone may cause disruption of rat endocrine adrenal function (Silvan et al., 2007). Pecori Giraldi et al. (2007) found that the corticotropin-releasing hormone was suppressed by dexamethasone administration. In this concern, Malendwicz et al. (1992) attributed the decrease in the steroidogenic capacity of the adrenocortical cells of dexamethasone-treated rats to atrophy of the cortex. Moreover, Ho and Tropy (2007) documented that dexamethasone suppresses the adrenocortical function. Also, Ye et al. (2008) found that dexamethasone reduced aldosterone synthase which is one of the enzymes that perform the terminal (final) stages of corticosteroid biosynthesis in adrenal of rats. In the present investigation, more apoptotic figures were detected following dexamethasone injection especially in zona reticularis. Almeida et al. (2006) observed such Ultrastructural features of apoptosis in dexamethasone- injected rats (for 3 days). In 2007 Almeida et al. documented the presence of proteins called Bcl-2 and caspase-3 in the apoptotic pathway occurring in cells of zona reticularis following suppression of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Activation of these proteins occurred after 3 days of dexamethasone administration to rats. Finally, it could be concluded that the obtained ultrastructural findings fit well with the abundant biochemical evidence that the altered organelles are essential in the steroidogenic activity of the cortical cells. It could be also suggested that the changes in the size of mitochondria and lipid droplets are associated with a corresponding change in the functional output of the cortical cells. On these grounds, it is logic to assume that the ultrastructural changes represent morphological counterpart of the dexamethasone-lowered stimulation. It is also evident from the present results that long-term administration of dexamethasone produces cellular perturbations at the ultrastructural level. Hence, it is recommended to use such drug only in cases of emergency and not for many days keeping in mind the alterations occurred after its use.

REFERENCES Almeida, H.; Magalhaes, M. C. and Magalhaes, M. M. (1998): Age-related changes in the inner zone of the adrenal cortex of the rat- a morphologic and biochemical study. Mechan. Ageing Developm., 105(1-2):1-18. Almeida, H.; Matos, L.; Ferreira, J. and Neves, D. (2006): Age-related effects of dexamethasone administration in adrenal zona reticularis. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 1067(1):354-360. ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 73

Almeida, H.; Matos, L. and Neves, D. (2007): Caspase-3 and Bcl-2 expression in aging in adrenal zona reticularis after dexamethasone administration. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 1119(1): 190-195. Almeida, H.; Ros-Dominguez, S. Ribeiro, N.; Magalhaes, M. C. and Magalhaes, M. M. (2001): Dexamethasone administration during ageing- a structural and biochemical study on rat adrenal cortex. Biol. Cell, 93:372-387. Beaven, D. W.; Espiner, E. A. and Hart, D. S. (1964): The suppression of cortisol secretion by steroids, and response to orticotrophin, in sheep with adrenal transplants. J. Physiol., 171:216-230. Boyd, G. S.; McNamara, B.; Suckling, K. E. and Tocher, D. R. (1983): Cholesterol metabolism in the adrenal cortex. J. Steroid Biochem., 19 (1C):1017-1027. Coleman, R.; Tanne, Z.; Nahir, M.; Shomrat, D.; Miller-Lotan, R. and Youdim, M. B. H. (1995): Ultrastructural changes in mitochondria of the adrenal cortex of iron-defficient rats. Acta Anat., 152:33-40. Engeland, W. C.; Ennen, W. B.; Elayaperumal, A.; Durand, D.A. and Leavy-Young, B. K. (2005): Zone-specific cell proliferation during compensatory adrenal growth in rats. Amer. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 288(2): E298-E306. Finegold, M. J. and Green, L. E. (1970): Mitochondrial damage in experimental congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J. Cell Biol., 455-461. Hall, P. F. (1995): The roles of microfilaments and intermediate filaments in the regulation of steroid synthesis. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 55(5- 6):601-605. Hemmaid, K. Z.; Abdo, F. K. and Enan, H. H. (1996): Ultrastructural alterations in the adrenal cortex of ovariectomized albino rat. Egypt. J. Histol., 19(2):257-268. Ho, J. and Torpy, D. J. (2007): Evaluation of adrenocortical function in adults. Austr. Prescr., 30(6):147-149. Illera, J. C.; Pena, L.; Martinez-Mateos, M. M.; Camacho, L.; Blass, A.; Garcia-Partida, P.; Illera, M. J. and Silvan, G. (2007): The effect of long-term exposure to combinations of growth promoters in Long Evans rats. Part 2: adrenal morphology (histopathology and Immunochemical studies). Analytic. Chim. Acta, 586(112): 252-258. Jobling, A. I.; Stevens, A. and Augusteyn, R. C. (2001): Binding of dexamethasone by α-crystallin. Invest. Ophthamol. Vis. Sci., 42:1829- 1832. Kadioglu, D. and Harrison, R. G. (1971): The functional relationships of mitochondria in the rat adrenal cortex. J. Anat., 110 (2):283-296. Loose, D. S.; Do, Y. S.; Chen, T. L. and Feldman, D. (1980): Demonstration of glucocorticoid receptors in the adrenal cortex: evidence for a direct 74 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid

dexamethasone suppressive effect on the rat adrenal gland. Endocrin., 107:137-146. Malendowicz, L. K.; Nussdorfer, G. G; Markowska, A. and Nowak, K. W. (1992): analysis of the preventive action of ACTH on dexamethasone- induced adrenocortical atrophy in the rat. Cytobios, 71(286-287):191-199. Mallet, C.; Feraud, O.; Ouengue-Mbele, G.; Gaillard, I.; Sappay, N.; Vittet, D. and Vilgrain, I. (2003): Differential expression of VEGF receptors in adrenal atrophy induced by dexamethasone: a protective role of ACTH. Amer. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 284: E156-E167. Mazzocchi, G.; Neri, A. S.; Robba, C. and Nussdorfer, G. G. (1977): Investigations on the turnover of adrenocortical mitochondria. XI. Effects of dexamethasone on the half-life of mitochondria from the rat zona fasciculata. Beitr Pathol., 161(3):221-229. Merry, B. J. (1975): Mitochondrial structure in the rat adrenal cortex. J. Anat., 119(3):611-618. Negrie, C.; Naltchayan, S.; Bouhnik, J. and Michel, R. (1979): Comparative effects of dexamethasone and Phenobarbital on adrenal cortex, liver cytochrome P450 contents and serum thyroid hormones. J. Steroid Biochem., 10(4):431-435. Nussdorfer, G. G. (1986): Cytophysiology of the adrenal cortex. Int. Rev. Cytol., 98:1-405. Nussdorfer, G. G.; Mazzocchi, G. and Meneghelli, V. (1978): Cytophysiology of the adrenal zona fasciculate. Interna. Rev. Cytol., 55:291-365. Nussdorfer, G. G.; Mazzocchi, G.; Robba, C.; Belloni, A. S. and Rebuffat, P. (1977): Effects of ACTH and dexamethasone on the zona glomerulosa of the rat adrenal cortex: an Ultrastructural stereologic study. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.), 85(3):608-614. Obara, T.; Mikami, K. and Strott, C. A. (1984): Differential suppression of the outer and inner zones of the adrenal cortex of the guinea pig. Endocrinology, 115(5): 1838-1841. Pecori Giraldi, F.; Pivonello, R.; Ambrogio, A. G.; De Martino, M. C.; De Martin, M.; Sacchi, M.; Colao, A.; Toja Lombardi, G. and Cavagnini, F. (2007): The dexamethasone-suppressed corticotrophin-releasing hormone stimulation test and the desmopressin test to distinguish Cushing’s syndrome from pseudo-Cushing’s states. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.), 66(2):251-257. Reynolds, E.S. (1963): The use of lead citrate at high pH as an electron opaque stain in electron microscopy. J. Cell Biol., 17:208-212. Rhodin, J. A. G. (1970): The ultrastructure of the adrenal cortex of the rat under normal and experimental conditions. J. Ultrast. Res., 34(1/2):23-71. ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 75

Ricciardi, M. P.; Pelligrini, A.; Giannessi, F. and Paparelli, A. (1984): Morphological and histochemical study on the adrenal cortex of the dexamethasone-treated albino rat. Int. J. Tissue React., 6(4):333-337. Sherif, S. M. and Salwa, A. A. (2006): Long-term application of 0.1% dexamethasone may affect the lens capsular lipids. Internat. J. Pharmacol., 2(3):298-302. Silvan, G.; Martinez-Mateos, M. M.; Blass, A.; Camacho, L.; Gonzalez-Gil, A.; Garcia-Partida, P. and Illera, J. C. (2007): The effect of long-term exposure to combinations of growth promoters in Long Evans rats. Part 1: Endocrine adrenal function. Analy. Chim. Acta, 586(1-20:246-251. Szabo, D.; Toth, I. E. and Szalay, K. Sz. (1996): Viscosity of rat adrenocortical lipids in different functional states: Morphological characteristics. J. Stero. Biochem. Molec. Biolog., 58(3):329-335. Vahouny, G. V.; Chanderbhan, R.; Noland, B. J. and Scallen, T. J. (1985): Cholesterol ester hydrolase and sterol carrier proteins. Endocrin. Res., 10(3-4):473-505. Van Leeuwen, F. X. R. (1994): Dexamethasone. 812 WHO Food Additive Services 33. P. 1-13. Vazquez, R.; Bermejo, F.; Martin Castro, A. and Barahona, M. (1978): Ultrastructural changes in the adrenal cortex of rats exposed to extremely low temperatures. Zbl. Vet. Med. Anat. Histol. Embryol., 7:289-299. Watson, M.L. (1958): Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. J. Biophys. Biochem. Cytol., 4:475-478. Xu, T.; Bowman, E. P.; Glass, D. B. and Lambeth, J. D. (1991): Stimulation of adrenal mitochondrial cholesterol side-chain cleavage by GTP, steroidogenesis activator polypeptide (SAP), and sterol carrier protein. J. Biol. Chem., 266(11):6801-6807. Ye, P.; Kenyon, C. J.; Mackenzie, S. M.; Nichol, K.; Seckl, J. R.; Fraser, R.; Connell, J. M. C. and Davies, E. (2008): Effects of ACTH, dexamethasone and adrenalectomy on 11β-hydroxylase (CYP11B1) and aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) gene expression in the rat central nervous system. J. Endocrinol., 196:305-311.

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Legend of Figures Figure 1: Electron micrograph showing part from a cell of zona glomerulosa of a control rat. Mitochondria (M) with tubulovesicular cristae are numerous and extensively filling the cytoplasm. Profiles of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) are seen scattered in the cytoplasm and few lipid droplets (L) may be demonstrated. (X10000) Figure 2: Two neighboring cells from the cortical zona glomerulosa of a rat injected with dexamethasone (4 mg/Kg) for 5 consecutive days. Mitochondria (M) are slightly hypertrophied and their cristae are mostly tubular. Lipid droplets (L) are abundant and of variable size. Some lipid droplets tend to coalesced together (arrow). Note the nucleus (N) and the intercellular space (arrowheads). (X6700) Figure 3: Another electron micrograph from zona glomerulosa of a rat received 5 doses of dexamethasone. Mitochondria (M) showing slight hypertrophy and tubular cristae and intramatrical elongated or spherical strongly osmiophilic clumps (arrows) are seen inside them. Lipid droplets (L) are numerous and large in size. (X10000) Figure 4: Two neighboring cells from the cortical zona glomerulosa of a rat injected with dexamethasone (4 mg/Kg) for 10 consecutive days. Mitochondria (M) reveal lower electron density. The cytoplasm of the cell on the left is crowded with lipid droplets (L) that are coalesced together (arrowheads). The nucleus (N) of this cell is deeply indented. The cell on the right possesses a very large lipid droplet. A junctional complex (arrow) is seen between the two cellular membranes. (X10000). Figure 5: An electron micrograph showing cells from the cortical zona fasciculata of control rat. The cytoplasm harbors abundant mitochondria (M) of variable size and possessing vesicular cristae. Numerous lipid droplets (L) of different size are also seen. Bundles of collagen fibers are observed between the neighboring cells (arrows). (X 5000) Figure 6: Zona fasciculata cells in control rat adrenal cortex loaded with mitochondria (M) with vesicular cristae. The heterochromatin lining the nuclear envelope is deeply osmiophilic and continuous. Elements of cellular junction (arrows) are seen between membranes of contiguous cells (left of micrograph). (X 8000) Figure 7: Electron micrograph passing through parts of three neighboring zona fasciculata cortical cells from a rat injected with dexamethasone for 5 days. The nucleus (N) reveals slight indentation and the cytoplasm is crowded with a huge number of lipid droplets (L) of variable size and mitochondria (M). (X 6700) Figure 8: Two neighboring cells from zona fasciculata of rat injected with dexamethasone for 10 days. Mitochondria (M) display hypertrophy and are of lowered osmiophilia. Lipid droplets increased in size and number. Numerous ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 77 lipid droplets are coalesced together (arrows) but each of them still keeping its individuality. (X 6700) Figure 9: Part from a cell investigated from zona fasciculata of a rat injected with 10 doses of dexamethasone. The cytoplasm is abundantly loaded with lipid droplets (L) with larger size and many of them melt together (arrows). Mitochondria (M) show hypertrophy while the nuclear envelope is indented. (X 10000) Figure 10: Section passing in cells of zona reticularis of control rat. Nuclei (N) contain strongly osmiophilic heterochromatin. Mitochondria (M) with tubulovesicular or vesicular cristae are abundant. A few lipid droplets (L) and lysosomes (LY) are demonstrated. (X 5000) Figure 11: Parts from cells of zona reticularis from a rat injected with dexamethasone for 5 days. Cells surround a blood sinusoid (BS) enclosing a blood cell (BC). Lipid droplets (L) increased in number (compare with the previous micrograph). The heterochromatin exhibited lower osmiophilia. Lysosomes (LY) are numerous. (X 5000) Figure 12: Three neighboring cells from zona reticularis of rat injected with dexamethasone for 5 days. Nuclei (N) display lower osmiophilia of both euchromatin and heterochromatin. Some mitochondria (M) show slight hypertrophy and lipid droplets (L) are of variable size. The intercellular spaces contain collagen fibrils (arrows). (X 5000) Figure 13: Parts from neighboring cells from zona reticularis of rat injected with dexamethasone for 10 days. Nuclei (N) exhibit to a large extent features of pyknosis and mostly possess a bizarre shape. Lipid droplets (L) are numerous. Some mitochondria are demolished loosing their cristae and others contain vacuolar degenerations (arrows). (X 5000) Figure 14: Another section in a cell from zona reticularis of a rat received 10 doses of dexamethasone. The tubular mitochondrial cristae are demolished. Numerous free ribosomes are seen scattered in the cytoplasm while lysosomes (LY) and lipofuscin bodies (LP) are present in abundance. (X 5000) Figure 15: An electron micrograph from zona reticularis of a rat injected with 10 doses of dexamethasone. Mitochondria (M) are of lowered osmiophilia and demolished cristae. Lipid droplets (L) are of variable size. Ribosomes visible scattered in the cytoplasm. A conspicuous apoptotic figure (AP) is seen at the left side of the micrograph. (X 6700) 78 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid

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82 Kamel Zaki Hemmaid

ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF THE ADRENAL CORTICAL CELLS 83

اﻟﺼورة اﻟﺨﻠوﻴﺔ اﻟدﻗﻴﻘﺔ (ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻴﻛروﺴﻛوب اﻹﻟﻛﺘروﻨﻰ) ﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ ﻗﺸرة ﻏدة اﻟﻛظر أﺜﻨﺎء ﻛﺒت اﻹﻓراز ﺒﺎﻟﺤﻘن ﺒﺎﻟدﻴﻛﺴﺎﻤﻴﺜﺎزون ﻛﺎﻤﻝ زﻛـﻰ ﺤﻤﻴـد ﻛﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﻠوم ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ اﻟزﻗﺎزﻴق ﺘﻬدف اﻟدراﺴﺔُ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌرف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻐﻴرات اﻟﻤورﻓوﻟوﺠﻴﺔ وﻛذﻟك اﻟﺘرﻛﻴب اﻟدﻗﻴق ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘوى اﻟﺨﻠوى ﻓﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺎطق اﻟﺜﻼث ﻟﻘﺸرة اﻟﻐدة اﻟﺠﺎرﻛﻠوﻴﺔ (اﻟﻛظر) ﻟﻠﺠرذان اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء ﺘﺤت ﺘﺄﺜﻴر اﻟﺤﻘن داﺨﻝ اﻟﺘﺠوﻴف اﻟﺒرﻴﺘوﻨﻰ ﺒﺎﻟدﻴﻛﺴﺎﻤﻴﺜﺎزون (4 ﻤﺠم/ﻛﺠم) ﻟﻤدة ﺨﻤﺴﺔ وﻋﺸرة ٍأﻴﺎم ﻤﺘﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ. وﻟﻘد أظﻬر اﻟﻔﺤص ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻴﻛروﺴﻛوب اﻹﻟﻛﺘروﻨﻰ أن اﻟﺤﻘن ﺒﺎﻟدواء أدى إﻟﻰ ٍزﻴﺎدة ﻓﻰ أﺤﺠﺎم اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت اﻟدﻫﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﻴزة ﻟﺘﻠك اﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﻤﻔرزة ﻟﻺﺴﺘﻴروﻴدات، وﻛﺎﻨت اﻟزﻴﺎدةُ واﻀﺤﺔً ﻓﻰ ﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﻤﻨطﻘﺔ اﻟﺤزﻤﻴﺔ (اﻟﻌﻨﻘودﻴﺔ) واﻟﻤﻨطﻘﺔ اﻟﺸﺒﻛﻴﺔ، وﻛذﻟك ازدادت ُأﻋداد ﻫذﻩ اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت اﻟدﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻤﻨطﻘﺘﻴن اﻟﺴﺎﺒﻘﺘﻴن ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻨطﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﻛﺒﺒﺔ (اﻟﻤﺤﺒﺒﺔ) اﻟﺴطﺤﻴﺔ. وﺘزاﻤن ﻤﻊ ﻫذﻩ اﻟﺘﻐﻴرات اﻟﺨﻠوﻴﺔ ٌﻨﻘﺼﺎن ﻓﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺼر اﻟﺸﺒﻛﺔ اﻻﻨدوﺒﻼزﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﺴﺎء واﻟﻤﻤﻴزة ﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﺎطق اﻟﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺸرة اﻟﻛظرﻴﺔ، وﻛﺎن ﻫذا ُاﻟﺘﻨﺎﻗص ُأﻛﺜر وﻀوﺤﺎً ﺒﻌد اﻟﺤﻘن ﻟﻤدة ﻋﺸرة أﻴﺎم. أﻤﺎ اﻟﻤﻴﺘوﻛوﻨدرﻴﺎت اﻟﺘﻰ ﺘﻌد ﻤن اﻟﻌﻀﻴﺎت اﻟﺨﻠوﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﻬورة ﻓﻰ ﺘﻠك اﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ ﻓﻘد أظﻬرت ﺘﻀﺨﻤﺎً طﻔﻴﻔﺎ ً، وﻓﻰ ﺒﻌض ﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﻤﻨطﻘﺔ اﻟﺸﺒﻛﻴﺔ ﻓﻘدت أﻋراف اﻟﻤﻴﺘوﻛوﻨدرﻴﺎ طﺒﻴﻌﺘﻬﺎ اﻷﻨﺒوﺒﻴﺔ. وازداد ظﻬور ﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎت اﻟﻠﻴﺒوﻓوﺴﻴن وﻛذﻟك أﺸﻛﺎﻝ اﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺘﻌﺎﻨﻰ ﻤن اﻟﻤوت اﻟﻤﺒرﻤﺞ. أﻤﺎ ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻸﻨوﻴﺔ ﻓﻘد أظﻬرت أﻏﺸﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺘﻤوﺠﺎً وﺘﺜﻠﻤﺎً ﺤﻴث وﺠدت ٍطﻴﺎت ﻋﻤﻴﻘﺔ ٍواﻨﺒﻌﺎﺠﺎت ﻟﻠداﺨﻝ ﻓﻰ أﻏﺸﻴﺔ أﻨوﻴﺔ اﻟﺨﻼﻴﺎ ﺒﻌد اﻟﺤﻘن ﺒﺎﻟدﻴﻛﺴﺎﻤﻴﺜﺎزون.

وﺘﺨﻠُ ُص اﻟدراﺴﺔ إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﺘﻐﻴرات اﻟﺤﺎدﺜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘوى اﻟﺨﻠوى ﻓﻰ ﺨﻼﻴﺎ اﻟﻔﺌران اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ ﺒﺎﻟدﻴﻛﺴﺎﻤﻴﺜﺎزون ﺘﻌﻛس ﺠﻠﻴﺎً ﻛﺒت إﻨﺘﺎج اﻟﻛورﺘﻴﻛوﺴﺘﻴروﻴدات ﻤن ﺨﻼﻴﺎ ﻗﺸرة اﻟﻛظر، وأن طوﻝ ﻤدة اﻟﻌﻼج ﺒﻤﺜﻝ ﻫذا اﻟﺠﻠوﻛورﺘﻴﻛوﻴد اﻟﻤﺨﻠق ﻟﻴس ﻤن اﻷﻤور اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﺒﺔ ﻨظراً ﻟﻤﺎ ُﻴﺤدﺜﻪُ ﻤن ٍآﺜﺎر ﺴﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺘﻌوق وظﻴﻔﺔ ﻫذﻩ اﻟﻐدةُ ُاﻟﺼﻤﺎء اﻟﻬﺎﻤﺔ . Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 85 - 97

STUDIES ON HAEMOGREGARINE SPECIES PARASITE OF WHITE SPOTTED GECKO (TARENTOLA ANNULARIS)

Zein Abd-Al Aal, El-Sayed Aly, Sabry Ahmed & Saeed EL-Raey Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University

ABSTRACT The present study described the developmental stages of a Haemogregarine species in blood of Tarentola annularis annularis (white spotted gecko Geoffory) with an infection rate (prevelance) 75%. Blood samples were taken from 150 specimens of gecko. The blood stages were found in the vertebrate host's erythrocyte in two forms:(trophozoites & gamonts), the gamont has a karyolitic effect on host nucleus it is short present inside erythrocyte, measured (11.4-12.9µm) in length & (2.9-1.2µm) in width with a mean size ( 12.2 x 2.1 µm ) while banana shaped mature gamont measured .(14.9-16.2 µm ) & in length &( 5.2-6.7µm) in width with a mean size(15 X 12.1 µm)

INTRODUCTION Members of family Haemogregarinidae are Apicomplexan parasite belonging to Eucoccidia Suborder Adeleorina. Recently most studies had been done on the structure of coccidia using light and electron microscope on reptiles geckoes not take a suitable part of these studies A Haemogregarine species ( Karyolysus sp.) invested the lizard ( Lacerta saxicola) (Bayer et al 1983) the gecko Tarentola annularis were infected with Haemogregarina sp.& Haemogregarina annularis in the area around Khartoum in Sudan El- Wasila ( 1989) Also,Abdel-Ghaffar et al.,( 1994)studied blood and merogonic stages of Haemogregarina sp .infected gecko Ptyodactylus hasselquistti from Egypt.IN (1995)Ramadan et al., studied ultastructure of Haemogregarina tarentannular i infecting gecko Tarentola annularis. Ibrahim (1999)studied the gamont ofHepatozoon gamezi using light microscopy from the lizard Ctenosaura similis .Jovani et al.,(2004) studied only the double gametocyte infections of some parasite infecting reptiles also (2006) Hussein studied a Haemogregarine in naturally infected fan-footed gecko (Ptyodactylus hasselquistii).

86 Zein Abd-Al Aal, El-Sayed Aly, Sabry Ahmed & Saeed EL-Raey

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Tarentola annularis gecko were captured from different areas (Abu-Rawash,Gizza, Ismaliya Governorates& Burg-El-Arab) 150 geckoes examined. The blood films were taken from each animal by cutting its tail then air dried, fixed in 100% methanol for 10 minutes then stained by 3% Giemsa over night ,washed by distilled water and examined by light microscope (Olympus BX40 at x 1,000 oil immersion objective. RESULTS In the peripheral blood smears of 150 specimens of gecko ,112 found infected with Haemogregarina tarentannulari (75 % ) .The parasites are usually found intracellular and infecting exclusively erythrocytes of the host ( Figs.10-50) and non of leucocytes (WBCS) to be found parasitized (Figs.4&7).Also, extra cellular parasites are sometimes seen (Figs.1-9).Single infection was found(Figs.10-25) sometimes heavy infection present as (Figs.17&18).Also double infection present inside erythrocytes by several ways (Figs.26-50). The blood stages were differentiated into two forms: The youngest or immature form (Trophozoite) which lie along the length of erythrocytes and ranged between 9.5-10.8 µm in length and 3.9-6.1 µm in width with a mean of, 10.1x4.9 µm .The nucleus measured between 4.6-6.8 µm in length and 3.1-5.4 µm in width with a mean of, 5.7 x 4.21.These trophozoites markedly changed the shape of erythrocytes .The largest or mature form( gamonts) are elongate form may be longer than the erythrocytes .usually curved around the host nucleus and measured ( 11.4-12.9µm) in length &( 2.9-1.2µm ) in width with a mean size ( 12.2 x 2.1µm ). The parasitophorous vacuole could be recognized by light microscopy. (Figs.26&46).The parasite`s nucleus situated centrally (Fig.24) or sometimes pushed towards the end of the parasite (Fig.14).Also the erythrocytes undergo hypertrophy according to the size of parasite. The mature gamonts form produce more hypertrophy to the host cell (Fig.24).While the double infection pushed the host cell nucleus towards one end of the erythrocytes (Figs.26,29,33&46) or may surrounded it(Figs.30,32&50) .

Discussion Ramadan (1974) described Haemogregarina tarentannulari from (74.3 %) of Tarentola annularis, while Saoud et al.,( 1995) recorded lower percentage ( 44.3 %) from some host. Blood stages of Haemogregarina tarentannulari (Plimmer 1912); differentiated in to two STUDIES ON HAEMOGREGARINE SPECIES 87 forms (tropgozoite&gamontes),this agrees with other Haemogregarina recorded before ( Ball et al.,1969; Beyer,1977, Bashtar et al.,1994, Afifi 2001) In the present study the trophozoite (immature form) observed only in the red blood cells of infected gecko, having oval and elongated trophozoite, but the measurements show some differences. Haemogregarina sp. Characterized by presence of a parasitophorous vacule,separating the parasite from the host cell cytoplasm, this vacuole was easily differentiated in the present study. Gamont stage of the parasite present usually lay in a transperant paraistophorous vacuole in infected erythrocytes ( El-wasila,1989,Abdel-Ghaffar et al.,1994.)The infected erythrocytes with Haemogregarine tarentannulari were hypertrophied if infected with any type of Haemogregarine (Mansour & Mohammed,1966, Shazly et al.,1992 and Ramadan 1996). In present study no effect were induced by the parasite to erythrocyte nucleus neither in position nor its shape or structure due to parasite occurrence ,but in case of double infection of gamonts ,the nucleus of erythrocytes displaced and hypertrophied may lyse or fragment the host cell nucleus ( Reichenew,1913).

REFERENCES Abdel-Ghaffar F, Abdel Aziz A, El-Toukhy A, Abdel-Gawad M (1994): Light and electron microscopic studies on the blood stages and merogony of Haemogregarina sp. infecting the gecko, Ptyodactylus hasselquistii. J Egypt Ger Soc Zool 14:341–363 Abdel-Nasser A. Hussein (2OO5): Light and transmission electron microscopic studies of a Haemogregarine in naturally infected fan-footed gecko (Ptyodactylus hasselquistii) Ball, G.H.;Chao, J. and Telford, (1969): Hepatozoan fusifex sp. n. a Heamogregarine from Boa constrictor producing marked morphological changes in infected erythrocytes. J. Parasitol., 55:800-813. Bashtar A-R, Ghaffar FA, Mehlhorn H (1984): Hepatozoon aegypti nov. sp. 2. Electron microscope studies on the erythrocytic stages and schizogony inside the snake, Spalerosophis diadema. Z Parasitenkd 70:43–52 Beyer,T. V. ( 1977): Electron microscope study of Karyolysus sp. and changes induced in the infected host cell.Protistologica,13: 65-66. El Wasila M (1989): Haemogregarina sp. (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) from the gecko Tarentola annularis in the Sudan: fine structure and life-cycle trials. Parasitol Res 75:444–448 88 Zein Abd-Al Aal, El-Sayed Aly, Sabry Ahmed & Saeed EL-Raey

Ibrahim AFA (1999): Studies on some parasitic Protozoa naturally infecting reptiles in Egypt. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, Egypt. Jovani R, Amo L, Arriero E, Krone O, Marzal A, Shurulinkov P, Tomás G, Sol D, Hagen J, López P, Martín J, Navarro C, Torres J (2004): Double gametocyte infections in apicomplexan parasites of birds. Mansour,N.S. and Mohammed, A.H.H. (1966): Development of Haemogregarina pestanae in the toad Bufo regularis.J.Protozool.,13:265-269. Pilmmer, H. G. (1912): On the blood parasites found in animals in the zoological Gardens during the four years 1908-1911.Proc.Zool.Soc., 49-55. Rmadan, N.F. (1974): Morphological and systematic studies on protozoan blood parasites of Egyptian reptiles.Ph.D.Thesis.Faculty of Science, Ain-Shams University Cairo, Egypt. 222pp. Ramadan, N.F.; Saoud, M.F.A.; Mohammed, S. H. and Fawzi. S. M. (1996): Haemogregarina domiettae sp.n. a blood parasite of the lacertid Acanthodactylus in Egypt.Acta Parasitologica,41(2): 76-80. Reichenow, E. (1913): Karyolysus lacerta, ein wirtwechselndes coccidium der Eidechse Lacerta muralis und der Milbe.Arb.Gesundh..,45: 317-363. Saoud M.F.A. and Younis,S.A. (1969): A preliminary note on a Haemogregarines from the gecko Tarentola annularis in the Sudan.Curr.Sci.,38:369-370. Shazly, M.A.; Abdel-Aziz, A.;Ahmed, A. K. (1992): Light and electron microscopic study on blood stages and merogony of Haemogragarina boueti infecting the Egyptian toad Bufo regularis.J.Egypt.Ger.Soc.Zool.,8:459-476

STUDIES ON HAEMOGREGARINE SPECIES 89

Figures Caption

Giemsa stained light micrographs of blood stages of "Haemogregarina tarentannulari" infecting the gecko Tatrntola annularis annularis.

Figs (1-9):

An extracellular parasite (P) of Haemogregarina tarentannulari, X 1700.

Note: (Figs.5, 6, 8 and 9) the parasite (P) invades the host cell erythrocyte (E) .X 1700.

Figs (1o-25):

A single infection of young or immature oval form of the parasite (P) showing: the structure of its nucleus (N). Note in Fig. 12 the parasite (P) enclosed within parasitophorous vacule (PV) & a heavy single infection of parasite ( P ) in Figs.17&18.; X 1700.

Figs (27-32 & 40-41 and 47-50):

Showing a different forms of a double infection of elongate trophozoite of the parasite (P) enclosing the host- cell nucleus (HN) between them. X 1700, Figs. 46-48 X 3400.

Figs (26, 33&35)

Showing a double infection of the parasite (P) enlarged in size the host nucleus (HN) present at the periphery of he erythrocytes (E ), WBCs were not infected by the parasite as shown in Fig.35.

90 Zein Abd-Al Aal, El-Sayed Aly, Sabry Ahmed & Saeed EL-Raey

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96 Zein Abd-Al Aal, El-Sayed Aly, Sabry Ahmed & Saeed EL-Raey

STUDIES ON HAEMOGREGARINE SPECIES 97

ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻔﻳﻠﻰ ﻫﻳﻣﻭﺟﺭﻳﺟﺎﺭﻳﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺹ ﺍﺑﻭ ﺍﺭﺑﻊ ﻧﻘﻁ

ﺯﻳﻥ ﻋﺑﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻝ – ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ – ﺻﺑﺭﻱ ﺍﺣﻣﺩ – ﺳﻌﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﺭﺍﻋﻲ ﻗﺳﻡ ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﻳﻭﺍﻥ – ﻛﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺯﻗﺎﺯﻳﻖ

ﺗﺗﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺻﻑ ﻣﺭﺍﺣﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺣﻳﺎﺓ ﻁﻔﻳﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﻳﻣﻭﺟﺭﻳﺟﺎﺭﻳﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺹ ﺍﺑﻭ ﺍﺭﺑﻊ ﻧﻘﻁ 0 ﻭﺗﻡ ﺍﺧﺫ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﻣﻥ 150 ﻋﺎﺋﻝ ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻌﺩﻝ ﺍﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻁﻔﻳﻝ %75 ﻭﻭﺟﺩﺕ ﻣﺭﺍﺣﻝ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻳﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻛﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﻣﺭﺍء ﻟﻠﻌﺎﺋﻝ ﻭﻗﺩ ﺃﻣﻛﻥ ﺭﻭﻳﺋﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻳﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺭﺣﻠﺗﻳﻥ ( ﺗﺭﻭﻓﻭﺯﻭﻳﺕ & ﺟﺎﻣﻭﻧﺕ ) ﻭﻗﺩ ﻭﺟﺩ ﻟﻠﺟﺎﻣﻭﻧﺕ ﺗﺄﺛﻳﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﺋﻝ ﻭﻗﺩ ﺗﻡ ﻗﻳﺎﺱ ﻁﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻣﻭﻧﺕ (15.9µm-14.4) ﻭﺗﻡ ﻗﻳﺎﺱ ﻋﺭﺿﺔ (6.2µm-4.9) ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﺗﻭﺳﻁ ﺍﻟﺣﺟﻡ (5.3µm-15) ﻭﻗﺩ ﻭﺟﺩ ﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺇﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﺯﺩﻭﺟﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻳﻝ ﻟﺑﻌﺽ ﻛﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﻣﺭﺍء

Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 99 - 111

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS FOR EL- SHARKIA GOVERNORATE USING DIFFERENT METHODS OF ESTIMATION OF EXTREME VALUE MODELS

H. M. Barakat,* E. M. Nigm,* A. A. Ramadan$, O. M. Khaled § *Department of mathematics Faculty of Science Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt. *Department of mathematics Faculty of Science Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt. $National Center of Nuclear Safety and Radiation Control, Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo Egypt. §Department of basic Science Faculty of engineering, Sinai university, El-Arish, Egypt

ABSTRACT

In this study the generalized extreme value model and the generalized Pareto distribution are used to evaluate and compare the measurements of pollutants Ozone O3, SO2 and PM10 in two cities, Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan of El-Sharkia governorate. Simulation study is used to choose the threshold of generalized Pareto model. Maximum likelihood and Pickand methods are used to estimate the parameters of the models. We improve these estimates by using the bootstrap technique.

Key words: Air pollution; Generalized extreme value model; Generalized Pareto Distribution; Maximum likelihood method; Pick and estimate; Bootstrap technique.

INTRODUCTION The overall objective of this paper is to support environmental decision-making in El- Sharkia governorate to control air pollution. Our task will focus on the following major components:

1. Detailed analysis of available emission data, ambient concentrations, and meteorological data, during high-pollution episodes in urban locations in El-Sharkia governorate. 2. The use of classical extreme value models and generalized Pareto distribution to simulate the spatial and temporal distributions of different pollutants in El-Sharkia governorate. 3. The use of models and measurements to estimate emission controls needed to control the pollution in El-Sharkia governorate.

El-Sharkia governorate’s geographic location and its industrial and population development make it vulnerable to the problems caused by atmospheric pollutants. Because of the situation outlined above and El-Sharkia governorate’s location at latitude 30o N with more than 340 days of sunshine per year, it is expected that high H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 100

levels of photochemical smog occur in the area today, with higher levels predicated for the near future. DATA A number of studies have shown a positive association between air pollution and human health effects, so that we choose three pollutants Sulphur Dioxide, Ozone and Particulate Matter in Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan cities. The studyof the Ozone pollutant will be restricted on 10th of Ramadan city. A set of selected pollutants were measured to assess the quality of air in El-Sharkia governorate. The measurement unite of the pollutants is µgm/m3.

Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) is formed by the oxidation of sulphur impurities in fuels during combustion processes. A very high proportion of SO2 emissions originate from power stations and industrial sources. Though virtually no SO2 is emitted from petrol engine vehicles, it is emitted from diesels which lead to increase of SO2 concentrations in the urban and roadside areas. The data are record every one hour through year 2008 for the two cities

Figure 1: hourly average Sulphur Dioxide concentration for 10th of Ramadan

Figure 2: hourly average Sulphur Dioxide concentration for Zagazig

Ozone: A background Ozone concentration exists in the atmosphere due to mixing of Ozone from the stratosphere and its generation in the troposphere. The background concentration depends on latitude and time of year. The concentrations of COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 101

Ozone is depleted by deposition to surfaces and reaction with other Pollutants (primarily N Ox) in the atmosphere. The reactions producing Ozone occur, under appropriate meteorological conditions, in the plume of such sources as it moves downwind; Ozone formation can occur over a time scale of a few hours to several days. Several studies of Ozone and all-cause mortality in single pollutant models suggest thresholds at 40 to 100 µg/m3 8 hours average (see Wong et al., 2001); µg/m3 50 to less than 120 µg/m3 1 hour average (Kim et al., 2004) or 36 to 50 µg/m3 24 hours average(see Goldberg et al., 2001).

Figure 3: thirty minutes average of Ozone for 10th of Ramadan

Particulate Matter: Particulate matter is the term for solid or liquid particles found in the air. Some particles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke. Others are so small they can be detected only with an electron microscope. Because particles originate from a variety of mobile and stationary sources (diesel trucks, wood stoves, power plants, etc.), their chemical and physical compositions vary widely. Particulate matter can be directly emitted or can be formed in the atmosphere when gaseous pollutants such as SO2 and NOx react to form fine particles.

Figure 4: hourly average of Particulate Matter concentration for 10th of Ramadan

H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 102

Figure 5: hourly average of Particulate Matter concentration for Zagazig

MODELING TECHNIQUE

Generalized extreme value distribution (GEV)

Let X1, X2 · , Xn be independent identically distributed (iid) random variables (rv’s) with common distribution function (df ) F (x) = P [X ≤ x]. Suppose that Xn:n = max{X1, X2, . . . , Xn }. The cornerstone of extreme value theory is the Ex- tremal Type Theorem (ETT), see Leadbetter (1983), which states that: If there exist sequences of constants an > 0 and bn , such that

 X n:n − bn  n w P ≤ x = F (an x + bn ) →G(x), as n → ∞, (1)  an 

Where w→ denotes the weak convergence, for some non-degenerate distribution G, then G is of the same type as one of the following distributions:

Gumbel:

G(x) = exp(-exp(-x)), − ∞  x  ∞;

Fre´chet:

0, x < 0, = G(x)  -α exp(-(x) ), x > 0,α > 0;

N egative Wibull : exp(-(-x)-α ), x < 0,α > 0, G(x) =  1, x ≥ 0.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 103

For statistical purposes, it is in convenient to work with three distinct classes of limiting distributions as in the ETT, so it is preferable to adopt a parametrization, which unifies these distributions. Von Mises (see Reiss, 2003) derived the generalized extreme model (GEV (µ, σ, γ)), which is described by the familyof df's

−1/γ    x-μ   G(x,μ(x,μ, = exp− 1+ γ   (2)    σ   . Gumbel corresponding to γ = 0 (taken as limit γ → ∞ i.e. GEV (0, 1, 0) = Gumbel. . Fre´chet corresponding to γ > 0, GEV (1, α−1, α−1 ) = Fre´chet. . Negative Wibull corresponding to γ < 0, GEV(−1, α−1 , α−1)= Negative Wibull.

For this model, the parametric approach to modelling extremes is based on the assumption that the data in hand (X1, ..., Xn ) form an iid sample from an exact GEV(µ, σ, γ) df in (2). In this case, standard statistical methodology from parametric estimation theory can be utilized in order to derive estimate of the parameter µ, σ and γ. In this paper we used the maximum likelihood method (ML) and improve this estimate by the bootstrap technique. However this approach is adopted whenever the data set consistent of maxima of independent samples, this method is often called method of the block maxima, which is initiated by Gumbel (1958). In practice, some blocks may contain several among the largest observations, while other blocks may contain none. Therefore, the important information may lose.

Moreover, in the case that we have a few data, block maxima can not be actually implemented. For all these reasons, the method of the block maxima may see restrictive and not very realistic. In our study, we used this method to get the preliminary result, which help us to estimate data with the same nature of the real data.

Generalized Pareto distribution (GPD)

The generalized Pareto distribution is used to model data arising as independent threshold exceedances. Namely, the threshold approach is based on the distribution of exceedances over a hight threshold u (say). Given that an observation exceeds u, the probability that it exceeds u, the probability that it exceeds by at least x is

H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 104

1− F(x + u) F [u] (x) = P(X > x + u X > u) = . 1− F(u) (3)

Under the same condition as lead to (1), this may be approximated for large u by the family −1/γ  x  W (x; σ , γ ) = 1− 1- λ  (4)  σ  valid on 0 < x < ∞ if γ ≤ 0 or 0 < x < σ/γ if γ ≥ 0. This is generalized Pareto distribution of Pickand (1975). There is a simple analytic relationship between the standard GPD (W(x)) and standard extreme value distribution (G(x)), which is given by

W (x) = 1 + log G(x) if log G(x) >—1.

Evidently, in the statistical modeling of threshold exceedance data, the whole data reused, in opposite of the case of the method of block maxima. Possibly the most important issue in statistical modeling of threshold exceedances data is the choice of threshold u. Did we choose a hight enough thresholds? The threshold should be a hight enough to justify the assumptions of the model but low enough to a capture a reasonable number of observations. A threshold choice based on the observed sample is required to balance these two opposing demands. In this paper we used the simulation technique to choose optimal threshold value. Namely, we first note that the GPD functions are only the continuous df ’s F such that for a certain choice of constants bu and au,

[u] F (bu + au) = F (x) (5) is again the exceedance df at u. This property is the peak over threshold ( POT)- stability of GPD. Let the parameters of GPD (shape and scale) be chosen as the same as the preliminary estimates of these parameters, obtained by the method of block maxima, and simulate data from this known GPD. In view of the POT stability property of GPD, The simulated data will satisfy two properties . The simulated data have the same nature of the realistic data, which were collected (nearly, the realistic and the simulated data have the same range and center). . Any POT u from the simulated data follow GPD with the same shape parameter.

Therefore, we choose the value of u, which makes the estimates of known parameters (shape and scale), as best as we can. Finally, we take this value of u as a suitable threshold for our real data. Again, the bootstrap technique will be applied in each step (simulated and realistic data) to improve the accuracy of the results.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 105

Bootstrap technique

The bootstrap is a data-driven method that has a very wide range of applications in statistics. This technique is initiated by Efron (1979), and the use of the term bootstrap perhaps derives from the phrase to pull oneself up by one’s bootstrap. The bootstrap is away of finding the sampling distribution, at least approximately, from just one sample. Here is the procedure: Step1: Resampling. A sampling distribution is based on many random samples from the population. In place of many samples from the population, create many resampls by repeated sampling with replacement from this one random sample. Each resample is the same size as the original random sample. Step2: Bootstrap distribution. The sampling distribution of a statistic collects the values of the statistics from many samples. The bootstrap distribution of a statistic collects its values from many resample. The bootstrap distribution gives information about the sampling distribution.

Estimation Methods

Maximum likelihood estimation

All the models described so far can be fitted by the method of maximum likelihood, see Cox and Hinkley (1974). In this section we give a very brief overview of the main principles behind this approach, with a view towards the GEV.

Suppose we have data x = (x1,x2 ,...,xn ) whose density is defined by some m- dimensional parametric model with parameterθ = (θ1,θ2 ,...,θm ) . Write the density evaluated at X = x in the form

f( x,θ ). (6)

The likelihood function for θ based on data x is just f( x,θ ).interpreted as a function of

θ . Usually we work with the log likelihood

( x,θ ) = log[ f( x,θ )]. (7) The maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) θˆ is the value ofθ , which maximizes ( x,θ ) . Usually we assume ( x,θ ) is differentiable with a unique interior maximum, so the MLE is given by solving the likelihood equations

∂( x,θ ) = 0, j =1,…,m. (8) ∂θ j For the GEV, the density g(x; µ, σ, γ) is obtained by differentiating (2) with respect to H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 106

the parameter vector (µ, σ, γ). The likelihood functions based on the df (2) is

n ∏g(xi , µ,σ ,γ ) . (9) i=1 Therefore the log likelihood function is given by

(x;µ, σ , γ ) = - n log(σ ) - 1  -  n  x − µ  γ 1  γ ( x − µ  . (10) ∑- 1+ ( i ) - (1 + )log1+ i    σ  γ  σ  i-1  

x − µ provided {1+ γ ( i ) > 0} for each i, otherwise (10) is undefined. For the σ maximization of (x;µ, σ , γ ) for a general model indexed byθ = (µ,σ ,γ ) , this may be performed using a packaged nonlinear optimization subroutine, of which several excellent versions are available. Also the log maximum likelihood for General Pareto distribution 1 k  γ x  * (µ, σ , γ ; x) = - n log(γ ) - (1 + )∑log(1+ i  , (11) γ i=0  σ 

Where " k" is the number of POT. Finally, we should say something about the theoretical status of the approximations involved. The asymptotic theory of MLE for the GEV model is valid provided γ  −0.5 (Smith, 1985). Cases with γ ≤ −0.5 correspond to an extremely short upper tail and hardly ever occur in environmental applications. A more serious problem is that even when γ  −0.5, the asymptotic theory may give rather poor results with small sample sizes. In summary: it is possible that MLEs will fail either numerically or in terms of their asymptotic properties, especially if sample size is small. The user should aware of there possible difficulties but should not be deterred from using these extremely powerful and general methods.

Pickand estimation (of the shape parameter)

This is a class of estimators of the shape parameter γ that are linear combinations of ratios of spacings given by Pickand (1975)

1  x n-k:n − x n-2k:n  γˆ = log  . log(2)  x n-2k:n − x n-4k:n  Remark1. If γˆ  −0.5 then one should apply the ML, see Reiss and Thomos (2003).

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 107

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

First, we fit our data by the GEV model by using the ML method and then we check the validity of this fitting by using Probability Plot (P-P). It will be seen that this model gives good estimates for daily maximum measurement values. In order to fit our data by the GPD model we have to determine the best threshold value. This will achieved by using the simulation technique as we have mentioned before in Subsection 3.2. It was found that this value is about 24% from the total number of the collected data. Moreover, in this case we used the ML and Pickand methods. However, as we will see that all estimates of the shape parameter is greater than -0.5, then according to Remark 1, Pickand method here should be discarded.

Table 1: Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan for GEV

MLE univariate parameters

SO2 P M10 O3

γ µ σ γ µ σ γ µ σ

Zagazig 0.16 21.9 11.72 0.099 196.78 66.01 10th of Ramadan 0.106 81.24 39.49 0.22 249.75 67 -0.087 54.9 9.6

(a) (b)

Figure 6: (a) P-P of GEV of so2 Zagazig, ( b)P-P of GEV of so2 10th of Ramadan

0.9999

0.9995 0.999

0.995 0.99 Probability 0.95 0.9 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.00.01

(a) (b)

Figure 7: (a) P-P of GEV of PM10 Zagazig, ( b)P-P of GEV of PM10 10th of Ramadan

H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 108

Figure 8: P-P of GEV of Ozone 10th of Ramadan

Table 2: Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan for GEV after bootstrap

MLE univariate parameters

SO2 P M10 O3 Zagazig γ µ σ γ µ σ γ µ σ

10th of Ramadan 0.15 21.6 11.69 0.094 197 67.5 0.1 81.3 39.4 0.22 249.8 65.9 -0.1 54.98 9.5

Table 3: Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan for GPD

MLE univariate parameters

SO2 P M10 O3 γ σ γ σ γ σ Zagazig 0.16 7.1 0.062 55.86 10th of Ramadan 0.057 32.6 0.11 70.7 -0.081 8.8

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 109

Table 4: Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan for GPD after bootstrap

MLE univariate parameters

SO2 P M10 O3 γ σ γ σ γ σ Zagazig 0.165 7.1 0.062 55.5 10th of Ramadan 0.055 32.8 0.12 70.7 -0.08 8.7

Table 5: Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan for GPD after bootstrap

Pickand estimation univariate parameters

SO2 P M10 O3

γ σ γ σ γ σ

Zagazig -1.3 13.33 -1.0 88.8 10th of Ramadan -0.33 37.29 -0.25 122.7 -1.3 13.32

The diurnal of SO2 is characterized by maximum concentration in the morning. th Higher levels of SO2 during morning hours in Zagazig and 10 of Ramadan are due to the combinations of anthropogenic emissions, boundary layer processes, chemistry as well as local surface wind patterns.

During night hours, the boundary layer descends and remains low till early morning thereby resisting the mixing of the anthropogenic emissions with the upper layer. Hence, pollutants get trapped in the shallow surface layer and show higher levels. The monthly variation in average SO2 concentrations ranges from a minimum value of about 20 µgm/m3 to a high value of about 55µgm/m3 in the two cities.

The hourly measurements of PM10 in Zagazig and 10th of Ramadan are clearly correlated with each other. There are two distinct peaks during the period of the analysis. One peak appears during the spring (March- May) and the second appears during the fall (October - December). The spring maximum is related to the Khmasin conciliation over Egypt and the associated sand storms, while the fall maximum is related to more local pollution conditions. Noticeable also is the relatively longer durations of the full pollution episode (although with smaller values) than the spring pollution episode (with higher values): this reveals the nature of the sand storms, with sharp snapshots that last for a few days. Khamasin conditions are regional phenomena that extend beyond the urban scale. The summer season in the city 10th of Ramadan has the largest diurnal variation, with the tendency of the daily Ozone maximum to occur in the late afternoon. The daily maximum during the transitional seasons (spring and fall) are very similar in magnitude, although higher Ozone concentrations are found in the spring, during the night and morning. Another interesting feature is the apparent decrease is Ozone during the early morning hours during summer, spring and fall. This can be attributed to fresh NOx emitted by early morning rush hour traffic into a relatively shallow boundary layer H. M. Barakat, E. M. Nigm, A. A. Ramadan, O. M. Khaled 110

depth, followed by titration of residual night-time Ozone. The night-time concentration of Ozone is significantly higher at 10th of Ramadan. This is because there are no fast-acting sinks, destroying Ozone so that the average night-time concentration of Ozone is maintained at 40 ppb at that site.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author's work is supported by Zgazig University under a project titled: Order Statistics and Modeling Study of Pollution Episodes over El-Sharkia governorate/2008-09.

REFERENCES

Cox, D.R. and Hinkley ,D.V. , Theoretical Statistics. Chapman and Hall, London.(1974)

Efron, N. Bootstrap methods: another look at the jackknife. Ann. Stat. 7, 126 (1979)

Gumbel, E.J. . Statistics of Extremes. Columbia Univ. Press, New York, N.Y.(1958)

Goldberg, M.S., Burnett, R.T., Brook, J.,Bailor, J.C., Valois, M.F.,and Vincent. R .Associations between daily cause-specific mortality and concentrations of ground-level ozone in Montreal, Quebec. American journal of epidemiology, 154: 81726 (2001).

Kim, S-Y. Lee, J-T., Hong, Y-C., Ahn, K-j. and Kim,H,. Determining the threshold effect of Ozone on daily mortality: an analysis of Ozone and mortality in Seoul, Korea, 1995 1999. Environmental

Leadbetter,M.R., Lindgren, G. and Rootzen, H. (1983). Extremes and Related Properties of Random Sequences and Processes. Springer, New York.

Pickands, J., .Statistical inference using extreme order statistics. Ann. Statist. 3,119- 131 (1975) Reiss, R. D and Thomas, M. statistical Analysis of Extreme Values from insurance, Finance, Hydrology and other fields. Berlen: Birkhäuser Verlag (2003). Smith, R.L. Maximum likelihood estimation in a class of nonregular cases. Biometrika 72, 67-90 (1985) Wong, C.-M., Ma, S., Hedey, A.J. and Lam,T-H., Effect of air pollution on daily mortality in Hong Kong. Environmental health perspectives, 109: 335340 (2001).

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE AIR POLLUTANTS 111

Uﺍﻟﻣﻠﺧﺹ

ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍء ﻓﻰ ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻁﺮﻕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻠﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻻﺣﺼﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻄﺮﻓﺔ

ﻓﻰ ﻫﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻰ extreme value model ﻭ generalized Parto

ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﺯﻭﻥ ﻭﺛﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻳﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺴﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻗﻄﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ 10 ﻣﻴﻜﺮﻭﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﺰﻗﺎﺯﻳﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﺷﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺭﻣﻀﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ . ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ simulation ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻹﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ threshold ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ generalized Parto ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺘﻰ maximum likelihood and pikand. ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﻫﺬﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺴﺘﺮﺍﺏ

Fourth Environmental Conference, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, 2009, 113 - 131

ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ (ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺑﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﺎ ً)

ﺍﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﺣﺴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﻴﺮ ﺃﺣﻤﺪ ﺷﻔﺸﻪ ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪ- ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻳﺔ- ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻫﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺒﻴﺔ

ﺃﻭﻻً ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻳﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻋﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺬﻭﻟﺔ ﻭﻓﻖ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻣﺮﺳﻮﻡ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺴﻴﻖ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ، (1) ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﺮﻓﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﺸﺔ 0Tﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ 0T 0F. ﻭﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺗﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻜﻞ ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ. ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻟﺺ (ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ) ﻓﻘﺪ ﺷﺎﻉ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﺭ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﻴﺔ، ﻭﺗﻠﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻴﻦ ﻏﺮﺑﻴﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﻀﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻛﺘﻤﻠﺖ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ (ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﻠﻔﺔ). ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﻬﺪ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺟﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺒﺪﺍﻝ ﺗﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﻠﻔﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ، ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻘﺎﺱ ﺑﻤﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ، ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﻳﺎﻡ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺩﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻻ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﻜﻞ ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺜﺮﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻔﻄﻴﺔ ﺭﻏﻢ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺭﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻛﺪﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﺩ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻭﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ، ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻘﺎﺱ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ (2) ﺑﺄﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﻄﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻹﺳﻬﺎﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ 0Tﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ 0T 1F. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺃﺧﺬ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻁﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺎﺱ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ، ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺑﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻠﺪ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ. ﻭﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﻭﻻ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻤﺎﺕ ﺭﺃﺳﻤﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻷﻱ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ. ﻓﺎﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺷﻴﺌﺎً ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺗﺴﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻻ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺷﻴﺌﺎً ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺗﺴﺘﻮﻁﻦ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻭﻓﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻁﻔﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺴﺔ ﻭﻳﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻜﺎﻥ. ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺷﺎﻉ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻮﺣﻆ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺧﻠﻔﺘﻪ ﻧﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻨﺰﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻳﻬﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ.

(1) ﻤﺤﻤد ﺴﻌﻴد اﻟﺤﻔﺎر: اﻟﻤوﺴوﻋﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ، اﻟﻤﺠﻠد اﻟﺘﺎﺴﻊ (اﻟدوﺤﺔ، دار اﻟﻛﺘب اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ، 1998) ص8771. (2) د. أﻨور ﻋﺒد اﻟﻤﻠك: ﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ أم ﻨﻬﻀﺔ ﺤﻀﺎرﻴﺔ (ﺒﻴروت، ﻤرﻛز دراﺴﺎت اﻟوﺤدة اﻟﻌرﺒﻴﺔ، 1982) ص43. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺗﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺣﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﺑﺸﺮﻁ ﺃﻥ ﻻ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺟﻨﺒﺎً ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻨﺐ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﺘﺮﻁ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺹ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﻴﺪ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﻧﺼﺎﻑ ﻟﻸﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ. ﻭﺃﻫﻢ ﺷﺮﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺩﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺻﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ، ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻛﻮﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﻋﺪﺗﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ (ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﻭﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺱ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺘﻀﻴﻬﺎ ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ). (1) ﻭﻗﺪ ﻋﻘﺪﺕ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺟﻮﻫﺎﻧﺴﺒﻮﺭﻍ 0T 2F 0T ﻋﺎﻡ 2001، ﺇﺫ ﺃﻁﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ: 1- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺗﺮﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻢ: ﺇﺫ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻭﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﺂﺳﻲ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺸﻲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﺍﻷﻭﺑﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﺠﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﺤﻄﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﻮﺽ ﺑﻤﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻫﻢ ﻭﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﻣﺢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎﺕ. 2- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ: ﺇﺫ ﺗﺘﺠﺴﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻁﺮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻤﻮﺭﺓ. 3- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﻮﺽ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﻔﻴﺔ: ﻳﻌﻴﺶ 60% ﻣﻦ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺭﻳﺎﻑ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﻀﻢ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﻓﻘﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﻌﻴﺸﻮﻥ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺧﻂ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ (ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ)، ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻻ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﻟﻬﺆﻻء ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻭﻣﻨﺤﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ. 4- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻡ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ: ﺇﻥ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻡ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺑﺄﺑﻌﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻘﺎﺋﺪﻳﺔ. 5- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺠﺴﻴﺪ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ: ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺗﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺆﺳﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﻳﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﺒﺎﺕ.ﺩ 6- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺸﻔﺎﻓﻴﺔ: ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺭﺍء ﻣﺜﻞ ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻣﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ. 7- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ: ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻮﻫﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﻴﺌﻮﻱ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﺰﻥ. 8- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺮﻣﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺨﻠﻒ: ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻨﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ. 9- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ: ﻭﻳﺘﺠﺴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻌﺎﺭ (ﻋﻦ ﺇﻏﻨﺎء ﻭﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺎﺗﻨﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺗﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ). 10- ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻣﺤﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺎﻛﺔ: ﺇﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺎﻛﺔ ﻛﺎﻹﻳﺪﺯ ﻣﺜﻼً ﺗﻬﺪﺩ ﻭﺗﻌﺮﻗﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻬﻮﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﺬﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺏ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ. ﺇﻥ ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺃﻧﻤﺎﻁ ﺗﻨﻤﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ، ﻭﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﻈﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺧﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻸﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ. ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻠﻔﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻧﺎﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻨﺘﺠﻪ ﻭﻳﺴﺘﻬﻠﻜﻪ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﺍء، ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎً ﺗﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ﻗﺪﺭﺍً ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍً ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﺩ ﻭﺗﺴﺘﻨﺰﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﺋﺪ ﺍﻷﺳﻤﺎﻙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﻠﺤﻘﺔ ﺃﺿﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻣﻠﺔ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺧﺸﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﺿﺔ ﻟﺨﻄﺮ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﺮﺍﺽ. ﻭﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺇﻥ ﺿﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺿﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩﻫﺎ، ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﻴﺮﺓ، ﻳﺠﺐ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻧﻤﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ، ﻓﻤﻨﻈﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ِﺗﻮﻟّﺪ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ

(1) ﻤﻨظﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﻗﻤﺔ ﺠوﻫﺎﻨﺴﺒورغ (ﻨﻴوﻴورك: ﻤﻨﺸورات أﻤﺎﻨﺔ اﻹﻋﻼم ﻓﻲ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة، 2001) ص38. ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻧﻴﺔ، ﻭﻣﺼﺎﺋﺪ ﺍﻷﺳﻤﺎﻙ ﺗﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺪﺍﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ ﺟﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﻭﺩﻳﻦ ﺑﻤﻌﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺨﻔﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻁ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﺨﻄﺮ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﺮﺍﺽ. ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻧﺺ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻷﻟﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ: (ﺩﻣﺞ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ (1) ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪ ﻭﺑﺮﺍﻣﺠﻪ، ﻭﻗﻠﺐ ﺧﺴﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ 0T 3F (0T. ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎً ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻄﺮﺃ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ، ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻛﻼً ﺃﻭ ﺟﺰء ﻋﻦ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ، ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ، ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺒﺪﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻏﻮﺏ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﺙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﻨﺎ، ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻌﻴﺶ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ (2) ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ 0Tﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ 0T 4F. ﻭﻗﺪ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻔﻘﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ (3) ﺳﻼﻣﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻘﻮﻝ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎً ﻭﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺎً ﻭﻋﻠﻤﻴﺎً ﻟﻠﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ، 0Tﻓﺘﺘﻀﻤﻦ 0T 5F: 1) ﺗﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻻﺯﺩﺣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻔﺔ. 2) ﺗﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍء ﻣﻤﺎ ﺗﻨﻔﺜﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺤﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ. 3) ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺨﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻔﻴﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ٍﺣﺪ ﺳﻮﺍء. 4) ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﺨﺎﻁﺮ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﺔ. 5) ﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ. 6) ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺝ ﻭﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻳﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ. 7) ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻘﺲ ﻭﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺯﻭﻥ. ﻭﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﻳﺔ، ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ pollutants ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻭﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﺎﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﺃﻛﺎﺳﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺮﻭﺟﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﺒﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺧﺎﻥ ﺍﻵﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﻭﻏﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻮ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻋﺸﺎﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﻣﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮﺭ ﻭﺃﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻀﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻮﺍﻋﻬﺎ، ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﺑﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺤﻘﺔ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺐ ﻣﻴﺎﻫﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ (4) ﺍﻷﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻤﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ 0Tﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ 0T 6F. ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ: ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺸﺪﻳﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﺮﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪﺭﺕ ﻣﻄﻠﻊ ﺍﻷﻟﻔﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﻮﺍﻟﻲ ( 24) ﺗﺮﻟﻴﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎً، ﻳﻌﻴﺶ ﺯﻫﺎء (1،2) ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺘﻰ ﺃﻧﺤﺎء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎً ﻭﻫﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻮﺻﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻓﻘﺮ ﻣﺪﻗﻊ ﻭﺗﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻌﻒ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﺽ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻓﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻷﻭﺍﻧﻬﺎ،

(1) ﻤﻨظﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎم 2003 (ﺒﻴروت: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺒرﻨﺎﻤﺞ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة اﻹﻨﻤﺎﺌﻲ 2003) ص123. (2) د. ﻓؤاد ﺤﺴن ﺼﺎﻟﺢ، د. ﻤﺼطﻔﻰ ﻤﺤﻤد أﺒوﻗرﻴن: ﺘﻠوث اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ( ط را ﺒ ﻠ س: ﻤﻨﺸورات اﻟﻬﻴﺌﺔ اﻟﻘوﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﺤث اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ، 1992) ص11. (3) ﻤﺤﻤد ﻨﺒﻴﻝ اﻟطوﻴﻝ: اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ واﻟﺘﻠوث، ﻤﺤﻠﻴﺎً وﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺎً (دﻤﺸق: ﻤﻨﺸورات دار اﻟﻨﻔﺎﺌس، 1999) ص50. (4) د. ﻓؤاد ﺤﺴن ﺼﺎﻟﺢ، و د. ﻤﺼطﻔﻰ ﻤﺤﻤد أﺒوﻗرﻴن: ﻤرﺠﻊ ﺴﺎﺒق، ص12-11. (1) ﻭﻧﺼﻒ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻳﻌﻴﺸﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻭﻻﺭﻳﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ ً 0T 7F 0T، ﻭﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺇﺷﺒﺎﻉ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻋﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ. ﻓﺰﻫﺎء 60% ﻣﻦ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻬﻢ 4,4 ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻳﻔﺘﻘﺮﻭﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻲ، ﻭﻳﻔﺘﻘﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺜﻠﺚ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻣﺪﺍﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻴﺔ ﻭﻳﻔﺘﻘﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻹﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻼﺋﻖ ﻭﻳﻔﺘﻘﺮ 20% ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ، ﻭﻻ ﻳﻨﺘﻈﻢ 20% ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻁﻔﺎﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﺭﺱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺒﻠﻐﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ، ﻭﻧﺠﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ (1،1) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻠﻮﻍ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺋﻴﻴﻦ، ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻓﺰﻫﺎء ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻓﻲ (2) ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻘﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ (ﺍﻷﻧﻴﻤﻴﺎ 0T 8F (0T. ﻭﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻓﺮﺓ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﻤﻌﺪﻻﺕ ﺃﺳﺮﻉ، ﻓﺄﻥ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ ﺗﺪﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ً. ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺃﻧﺼﺐ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ، ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻬﻢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻴﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻘﺮ ﻭﺳﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﺠﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻭﻓﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ (3) ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻭﻓﺮﺓ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ 0T 0T0T 9F 0T ﻳﻌﻜﺲ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ: ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻁﻔﺎﻝ (ﺳﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ) ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺼﻨﻮﻥ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﺻﺤﻴﺔ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺒﺔ ﻣﺤﺴﻨﺔ (%) ﻣﺤﺴﻨﺔ (%) ﺍﻟﻨﺮﻭﻳﺞ 100 100 92 93 ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﻟﻴﺎ 100 100 - 93 ﻫﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ 100 100 96 96 ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ 100 100 99 96 ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺍ 100 100 97 89 ﺳﻠﻮﻓﻴﻨﻴﺎ 63 92 89 97 ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺮ 99 99 99 99 ﺳﻠﻮﻓﺎﻛﻴﺎ 100 100 93 99 ﺗﺸﻴﻠﻲ 96 93 97 97 ﻛﻮﺑﺎ 98 91 99 99 ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺴﻴﻚ 74 88 99 97 ﻓﻨﺰﻭﻳﻼ 68 83 94 49 ﺭﻭﻣﺎﻧﻴﺎ 53 58 99 98 ﺗﺎﻳﻼﻧﺪ 96 84 99 94 ﺑﻴﺮﻭ 71 80 88 97

(1) World Banck: international divlopment report 2000-2001 (New Yourk: Oxford univ, press 2001) P 12. (2) ﻤﻨظﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﺎم 1998 (ﻨﻴوﻴورك: ﺒرﻨﺎﻤﺞ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة اﻹﻨﻤﺎﺌﻲ 1998) ص66. (3) ﻤﻨظﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎم 2002 (ﺒﻴروت: ﺒرﻨﺎﻤﺞ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة اﻹﻨﻤﺎﺌﻲ 209402) ص256. ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻁﻔﺎﻝ (ﺳﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ) ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺼﻨﻮﻥ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﺻﺤﻴﺔ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺒﺔ ﻣﺤﺴﻨﺔ (%) ﻣﺤﺴﻨﺔ (%) ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺒﻴﻦ 83 86 45 75 ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ 90 82 89 90 ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ 100 95 94 94 ﻋﻤﺎﻥ 92 39 98 99 ﻟﺒﻨﺎﻥ 99 100 - 94 ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ 99 96 - 99 ﺗﻮﻧﺲ 84 80 97 92 ﺍﻟﺠﺰﺍﺋﺮ 92 89 97 83 ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ 90 80 99 93 ﻟﻴﺒﻴﺎ 97 72 99 93 ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺮﺏ 68 80 93 96 ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ 62 75 51 67 ﻧﻴﺒﺎﻝ 28 88 84 71 ﻣﺪﻏﺸﻘﺮ 42 47 72 55 ﻏﺎﻣﺒﻴﺎ 37 62 99 90 ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ 54 62 54 40 ﻣﻮﺭﻳﺘﺎﻧﻴﺎ 33 37 70 58 ﻏﻴﻨﻴﺎ 58 48 71 52 ﺭﻭﺍﻧﺪﺍ 8 41 74 78 ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ 25 70 38 29 ﺃﺛﻴﻮﺑﻴﺎ 14 24 76 52 ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﺮ 20 59 99 51

ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻧﺼﻮﺹ ﺑﻼﻏﻴﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﺃﻭ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻄﺮﺣﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ، ﻓﺘﻘﻮﻝ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ (ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻴﻄﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮ ﻭﺳﻠﻮﻛﻬﻢ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ، ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺿﻨﺔ ﻛﻘﻴﺪ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻳﺤﺪ ﺃﻧﻤﺎﻁ ﺍﻷﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺎً ﻭﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺎً ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ، ﻓﺈﻥ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺗﻴﻦ ﻗﺎﻣﺘﺎ ﺑﻮﻅﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺯﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ، ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺗﻴﻦ؛ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻭﺍﺻﻞ ﺳﻴﺮﻭﺭﺍﺕ (1) ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﻭﺇﺿﻔﺎء ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ ﻣﺒﺪﻟﺔ ﻟﻸﺭﺽ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ 0Tﺻﺮﻳﺢ 0T 10F. ﺇﻥ ﻛﻮﻛﺐ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻟﻠﻜﻮﻛﺐ، ﻓﻔﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ

(1) ﻤﺎﻴﻛﻝ زﻴﻤرﻤﺎن: اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ، ﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻋﺎﻟم اﻟﻤﻌرﻓﺔ 333 (اﻟﻛوﻴت: اﻟﻤﺠﻠس اﻟوطﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ واﻟﻔﻨون واﻵداب 2006) ص56. ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﺳﻮﺍء ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻴﺎﺓ، ﻭﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻓﺮﺹ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ (1) ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ 0Tﻭﻫﻲ 0T 11F: • ﺗﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﺍﻟﻐﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩﺓ (ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ) ﺃﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩﺓ (ﻛﻤﺎ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﺮﻧﻮﺑﻴﻞ) ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻠﺒﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ. • ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ: ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻢ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺃﻭ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻷﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ. • ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ: ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺟﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺛﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺇﻋﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﻛﻮﻗﻮﺩ ﻧﻮﻭﻱ ﻭﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺗﻤﻮﻳﻦ ﻭﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﺩ ﺗﺘﺴﺮﺏ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺸﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺿﻴﺔ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺇﻥ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻁﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻳﻨﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺗﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﻴﻦ، ﻭﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻗﺼﻴﺮﺓ –ﺃﻗﺼﺮ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ- ﺗﺨﺘﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ ﻓﺘﻮﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺿﺮﺍﺭ ﻭﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﻀﺖ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻬﺎ ﺳﻨﻴﻦ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ، ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﻗﺪ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺷﻬﻮﺭ ﻗﻼﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺭﻭﺗﻨﻐﻦ ﻟﻸﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻨﻴﺔ (ﺍﻛﺲ)، ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻻ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺇﻻ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺳﻨﻴﻦ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ، ﻭﻗﺪ ﻋﺮﻓﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻟﻺﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺮﻁﺎﻥ (2) ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻛﺲ ﻋﺎﻡ 0T 12F T19020، ﻓﺎﻻﻳﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﻴﺌﺘﻬﻤﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺧﺺ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ، ﻓﺎﻻﻳﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺗﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﺭﺳﻬﺎ ﺳﻮﺍء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ (ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ (3) ﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻲ)، ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺣﻮﺩﺙ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﺙ 0Tﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ 0T 13F. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺃﻥ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺺ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ Toxicology ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻣﺔ (ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ) ﻭﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ، ﺃﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻳﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺤﺪﺛﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻣﺔ (ﺍﻷﺩﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ، ﻣﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻵﻓﺎﺕ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ) ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻲ ﻭﺑﻴﺌﺘﻪ. ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ: ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ، ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻄﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ (4) ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ 0Tﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ 0T 14F، ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ (ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ) ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﱡﻳﻬﻤﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻁﺎﺭ ﺑﺤﺜﻨﺎ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺇﺫ ﻳﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺸﺄ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﺃﻭﻝ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﺃﻛﺎﺳﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺘﺮﻭﺟﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﻧﻊ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﺩﺣﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮﻭﺭ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ. ﻭﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻸﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺸﺎءﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺻﻔﺔ ﻭﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﻹﻣﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻲ، ﺃﻭ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻷﺿﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﺳﻤﺪﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻋﺸﺎﺏ، ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺃﺧﺬ ﻳﻜﺎﻓﺢ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻶﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ

(1) د. ﻤﺤﻤد ﻋﺒد اﻟرﺤﻤن ﺴﻼﻤﺔ: ﻤراﻗﺒﺔ ﻗﻴﺎس اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺼر اﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘرﺒﺔ، ﻤﻨﺸور ﻓﻲ وﻗﺎﺌﻊ إﻋداد ﺒرﻨﺎﻤﺞ اﻟرﻗﺎﺒﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ (اﻟﻘﺎﻫرة: اﻟﻬﻴﺌﺔ اﻟﻌرﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠطﺎﻗﺔ اﻟذرﻴﺔ 1995) ص296. (2) د. ﻤﺤﻤد اﻟرﺒﻴﻌﻲ: اﻟوراﺜﺔ واﻹﻨﺴﺎن، ﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻋﺎﻟم اﻟﻤﻌرﻓﺔ 100 (اﻟﻛوﻴت: اﻟﻤﺠﻠس اﻟوطﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ واﻟﻔﻨون واﻵداب 1986) ص141. (3) إﻴﺎن ﺴﻴﻤوﻨز: اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ واﻹﻨﺴﺎن ﻋﺒر اﻟﻌﺼور، ﺴﻠﺴﺔ ﻋﺎﻟم اﻟﻤﻌرﻓﺔ 222 (اﻟﻛوﻴت: اﻟﻤﺠﻠس اﻟوطﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ واﻟﻔﻨون واﻵداب 1997) ص75. (4) د. إﻓﻀﻴﻝ ﻋﻤر اﻟﻌواﻤﻲ، و د. أﺴود ﺠدوع اﻟﻤﺠﻴد، ﻤﻘدﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠم اﻟﺴﻤوم (اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻤر اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎر 2004) ص3. (1) ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ 0T 15F 0T ، ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻵﻓﺎﺕ ﻛﻮﻧﺖ ﺳﻼﻻﺕ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺎﺕ، ﻭﺍﻷﺧﻄﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺃﻥ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﺒﻘﻴﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﺎﻅﻢ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﻣﺘﺒﻘﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺋﻴﺔ، ﻭﺗﺄﺛﺮﺕ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﺪﻓﺔ (ﺍﻷﺳﻤﺎﻙ – ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻮﺭ – ﻣﻠﺤﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺯﻫﺎﺭ – ﺁﻛﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﻳﺔ... ﺍﻟﺦ)، ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍً ﺳﻴﺌﺎً ﻓﺘﻌﺎﻅﻢ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺁﻓﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ، ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﺤﻠﻞ ﺣﻴﻮﻳﺎً ﻗﺪ ﺳﺒﺒﺖ ﺃﺿﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻭﻅﻬﺮﺕ (2) ﻣﺴﺎﺅﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻥ 0T 16F 0T ، ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺭﺃﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻛﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﺑﺪﻳﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ، ﻭﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ Biological control ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺘﻬﺎ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻀﺒﻂ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﻮﺕ ﺣﻴﻮﻳﺔ Biotic moragents، ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻔﻆ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻋﺪﺍ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﺗﺰﺍﻥ، ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩﻱ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﻻ ﻳﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻏﻴﺎﺏ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ، ﻭﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻸﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻞ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺮﻭﺑﻴﺔ، ﻭﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎً ﺗﺪﺍﻭﻝ ﻣﺪﺭﻭﺱ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺳﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺠﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺔ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﺣﻴﺔ. ﻭﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎً ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻌﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻴﻌﺔ ﻟﻺﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻵﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ (3) ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺣﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺣﻴﻮﻳﺎً ﻣﺸﺘﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ 0Tﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ 0T 17F. (4) ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ 0T 18F 0T، ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺘﻐﺬﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﺩ ﺃﻱ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﺎً ﺃﻭ ﻓﺸﻼً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺳﻮﺍء ﺑﺈﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ، ﻓﻤﺜﻼً ﺃﻥ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺃﻭ ﻏﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻘﺤﺎﺕ، ﻭﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻔﻌﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ، ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﺩ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﻴﺶ ﻭﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺃﻭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎً ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺎً ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍً ﻳﺘﺠﺴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺋﺮ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﻠﺺ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﻲ ﻟﻠﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﻭﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﺯﺣﻒ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﺃﻭ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﺎﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻟﻌﺪﺓ ﺑﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ.

(1) روﺒ رت و. ﺒﻼﻨﻛﺎرد: أﻤراض اﻷﺸﺠﺎر، ﺘرﺠﻤﺔ ﻋﺒد اﻟﻘﺎدر ﻋﺒد اﻟرواف اﻟﻤﺎﻟﺢ (اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺠﺎﻤﻊ ﻋﻤر اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎر 1992) ص303. (2) د. ﻋﺼﻤت ﻤﺤﻤد ﺤﺠﺎزي و د. ﻤﺤﻤد أﺒو ﻤرواﺴﻲ اﻟﺒﺎروﻨﻲ: اﻟﻤﻛﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻟﺤﻴوﻴﺔ، ج1، اﻟﺤﺸرات اﻵﻛﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﺸرات (اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻤر اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎر ﺒدون ﺘﺎرﻴﺦ ﻨﺸر) ص23. (3) اﻟﻤﺼدر اﻟﺴﺎﺒق: ص26. (4) د. ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﺒد اﻟﻘﺎدر ﺒطﺎو: ﻋﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﺸرات ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺒﺎت (اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻤر اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎر 2000) ص1. (1) ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ 0Tﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ 0T 0T0T 19F – ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ (1000) ﻛﻢ2 ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ -1990 2005-1990 2005 2005 2005 % ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﻟﻴﺎ 21.3 1,636,800 42,3 0.2- ﻛﻨﺪﺍ 33.6 3,101,300 00 00 ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻳﺪ 66.9 275,3 1,6 00 ﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻥ 68.2 248,7 0.8- 00 ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ 28.3 155.5 10.2 0.5 ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ 33.1 3,030,9 44.4 0.1 ﺍﺳﺒﺎﻧﻴﺎ 35.9 179,2 44.4 2.2 ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻤﺎﺭﻙ 11.8 5,0 0.6 0.8 ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ 11.8 28.5 2.3 0.6 ﺇﻳﻄﺎﻟﻴﺎ 33.9 99.8 16.0 1.3 ﻛﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻴﺔ 63.5 62.7 1.1- 0.1- ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺎ 63.5 208,9 14.9- 0.4- ﻛﺎﺯﺧﺴﺘﺎﻥ 1.2 33.4 0.9- 0.2- ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ 21.2 1,972,9 401.5 1,7 ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ 13.2 101,8 5.0 0.3 ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺒﻴﻦ 24.0 71.6 34.1- 2,2- ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ 6.8 10.8 0 0 ﻓﻴﺘﻨﺎﻡ 39.7 129.3 35.7 2.5 ﺃﻧﺪﻭﻧﻴﺴﻴﺎ 48.8 885.0 280,7- 1,6- ﻣﻨﻐﻮﻟﻴﺎ 6.5 102.5 12,4- 0.7- ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ 28.4 675.5 88,4- 0.8- ﺗﻮﻧﺲ 6.8 10.6 4.1 4.3 ﺍﻟﺠﺰﺍﺋﺮ 1.0 22.8 4.9 1.8

ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ (1000) ﻛﻢ2 ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ -1990 2005-1990 2005 2005 2005 % ﻟﺒﻨﺎﻥ 13,3 1.4 0.2 0.8 ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ 2.5 4.6 0.9 1,6 ﻣﺼﺮ 0.1 0.7 0.2 3.5 ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺮﺏ 9.8 43.6 .08 0.1 ﺟﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺮ 2.9 0.1 0.1- 3.9- ﺟﻴﺒﻮﺗﻲ 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ 1.0 5.5 0.0 0.0 ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﻞ 57.5 4.777,0 423,3- 0.5- ﻛﻮﻟﻮﻣﺒﻴﺎ 58.5 607.3 7.1- 0.1-

(1) اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ 2007-2008، ﻤﺼدر ﺴﺎﺒق، ص290 وﻤﺎ ﺒﻌدﻫﺎ. ﻓﻨﺰﻭﻳﻼ 54.1 477,1 43,1- 0.6- ﺍﻻﻛﻮﺍﺩﻭﺭ 39.2 108.5 29,6- 1,4- ﺑﺮﺍﻏﻮﺍﻱ 46.5 184,8 26,8- 0.8- ﻧﻴﻜﺎﺭﺍﻏﻮﺍ 42.7 51.9 13,5- 1,4- ﻏﻮﺍﺗﻴﻤﺎﻻ 36.3 39.4 8.1- 1,1- ﺍﻷﺭﺟﻨﺘﻴﻦ 12,1 330.2 22.4- 0.4- ﺗﺸﻴﻠﻲ 21.5 161.2 8,6 0.4- ﻛﻮﺳﺘﺮﻳﻜﺎ 46,8 23.9 1,7- 0.4- ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺴﻴﻚ 33.7 642.4 47,08- 0.5- ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﻮﻥ 84.5 217.8 1,5- 0.0 ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ 7.6 92.0 0.0 0.0 ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺒﻴﺎ 9,3 76.6 11,0- 0.8- ﻏﻴﻨﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻮﺍﺋﻴﺔ 58.2 16.3 2.3- 0.8- ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﻐﻮ 65.8 224.7 2.6- 0.1- ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻴﺮﻭﻥ 45.6 212.5 33,0- 0.9- ﻛﻴﻨﻴﺎ 6.2 35.2 1,9- 0.3- ﺗﻮﻏﻮ 7.1 3.9 3,0- 2.9- ﺃﻭﻏﻨﺪﺍ 18.4 36.3 13.0- 1.8-

ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ Desertification ﻓﻴﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻸﺭﺽ، ﺃﻭ ﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻭﺳﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﺸﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء، ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺪﻩ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﺤﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻨﻌﻘﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻴﺮﻭﺑﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1977 ﻭﻋﺮﻓﻪ ﺁﻧﻴﺎ-ﺟﺎﺭﺩﻳﻨﻮ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ (1) ﺇﻓﻘﺎﺭ ﻟﻸﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﻧﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ 0Tﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ 0T 20F. (2) ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻋﺮﻑ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ، ﺑﺄﻧﻪ 0T 21F 0T ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﻭﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ Biomass ﻓﻴﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺻﻼﺕ، ﻓﺎﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﻭﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻸﺭﺽ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻬﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﺤﺮﺍء، ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻧﻌﺪﺍﻡ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ، ﻓﺘﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻋﻲ ﻋﻦ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﻋﻲ ﻭﻳﻔﺸﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺰﺭﺍﻉ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﻭﺗﻬﺠﺮ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﻳﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﻼﺡ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ. ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻈﺎﻫﺮ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺔ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎً ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍً ﻳﻬﺪﺩ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﻭﻳﺴﺘﻮﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﻮﺽ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻏﻤﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺣﺚ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﻓﻖ ﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ.

ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎً ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺑﻐﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻳﺤﺼﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺨﻮﻧﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﻭﻳﺮﻓﻌﺎﻥ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ. ﻟﻘﺪ ﻣﺮﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻁﻮﺍﻝ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻬﺎ ﺑﺘﺄﺭﺟﺤﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ

(1) د. إﺒراﻫﻴم اﻟﻤﺒروك ﺼﻘر و د. ﻋﺒد اﻟﺴﻼم أﺤﻤد اﻟوﺤﻴش: اﻟﺘﺼﺤر ( ﺘ رﻫ و ﻨ ﺔ: ﻤﻨﺸورات ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻨﺎﺼر 2005) ص18. (2) د. أﺤﻤد ﺤﺴﻴن اﻟﻠﻘﺎﻨﻲ وﻓﺎرﻋﺔ ﺤﺴن ﻤﺤﻤد، اﻟﺘرﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺒﻴن اﻟﺤﺎﻀر واﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻝ (اﻟﻘﺎﻫرة: ﻋﺎﻟم اﻟﻛﺘب 2003) ص80. ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻻﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ، ﻭﻳﻌﺪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ ﻣﺎﻧﻌﺎً ﻋﻤﻴﻘﺎً ﻟﺤﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﻣﺼﺪﺭﺍً ﻟﻌﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻜﻴﻦ، ﻭﺳﻴﺮﻏﻢ (6.2) ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﻳﺘﺤﻜﻤﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻢ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻟﻠﻴﺲ ﻟﻬﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺻﻮﺕ. ﻟﻘﺪ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 1900 ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ (1) 2000 ﻣﻦ (534) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﻣﺘﺮﻱ ﻋﺎﻡ 1900 ﻟﻲ (6,59) ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﻁﻦ ﻣﺘﺮﻱ ﻋﺎﻡ 0T 22F 1997T 0. ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺫﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﻊ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﻣﻦ ( 1،6) ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ (6,1) ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻨﻄﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﺩ (ﻧﻔﻂ، ﻏﺎﺯ، ﻓﺤﻢ)، ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﺔ ﻭﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺿﻴﺔ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻨﻘﺺ ُﺳﻤﻜﻪ ﺑﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎً، ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﺟﺮﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻼﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻀﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ (ﻧﺎﺳﺎ)، ﻭﻳﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻋﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺣﻞ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻼﺣﺘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺟﻢ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ. (2) ﻭﺣﺴﺐ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﺟﺮﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ 0T 23F 0T ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﻳﻐﺮﻳﻨﻼﻧﺪ ﻳﻔﻘﺪ ﺯﻫﺎء 51 ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮﺍً ﻣﻜﻌﺒﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎً ﻭﻫﻲ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﺮﻓﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺎﺭ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ 0.01 ﺳﻨﺘﻴﻤﺘﺮ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎ ً. ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺎﺭ ﻻ ﻳﻬﺪﺩ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻞ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ، ﻭﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻮﺍﻣﺶ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﺗﻤﺮ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ، ﻭﺇﻥ ﺗﻀﺎﺅﻝ ﺳﻤﻚ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﺳﺮﻋﺔ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻷﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺎﺭ، ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺒﻲ ﻭﺃﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺘﻰ ﺃﻧﺤﺎء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻗﺪ ﺻﻐﺮ ﺣﺠﻤﻬﺎ ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺍً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻘﻠﺺ. ﺃ- ﻣﺪﻯ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ: ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 1997 ﺧﻄﻮﺓ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﻠﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺧﻔﺾ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻋﺎﻡ 1990 ﻋﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺑﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ 2012 ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺗﻠﻚ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ. ﺭﻏﻢ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺒﻨﺖ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺿﻌﺔ ﻳﺪﻭﺭ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻄﻬﺎ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ (5%) ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ. ﻟﻘﺪ ﺃﻳﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻋﺎﻡ 1997 ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺟﺮﺕ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﻣﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻭﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎﺕ ﺩﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ، ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺣﻘﺔ (ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﻮﺵ ﺍﻻﺑﻦ) ﺩﻋﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻄﻠﻊ ﻋﺎﻡ 2001 ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻳﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﻔﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ، ﻭﺯﻋﻤﺖ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻔﻴﻀﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﺳﺘﻠﺤﻖ ﺃﺿﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ، ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ %4.6 ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﺭﺑﻊ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ، ﻭﻫﻮ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﺃﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺤﻤﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ (3) ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﺭ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ 0Tﻛﺒﻴﺮ 0T 24F. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﺳﺒﺒﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﻡ 1990 ﺑﻤﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ 4,818,3 ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻼً ﻗﺪ ﺳﺒﺒﺖ ﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ 733.6 ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ، ﻭﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩﺕ ﺣﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﺘﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ

(1) ﻤﻨظﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎم 2008، ﻤرﺠﻊ ﺴﺒق ذﻛرﻩ، ص38. (2) Karbill.w and authers: High-elevation balance and peripherl thinging- science magazine No.289 NewYourk 2000. P.428. (3) اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺴﻛﺎن اﻟﻌﺎﻟم ﻋﺎم 2001، ﻤﺼدر ﺴﺎﺒق ص20. (6,045,8) ﻋﺎﻡ 2004 ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﺄﺳﺮﻩ ﻗﺪ ﺑﻠﻎ 22،705،5 (1) ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ، ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ 0Tﺫﻟﻚ 0T 25F. (2) ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻳﺒﻴﻦ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ 0Tﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ 26F (ﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ) ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ (ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ) ﻟﻜﻞ ﻓﺮﺩ (ﻁﻦ) ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ (%) 2004 1990 2004 1990 2004 1990 ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﻟﻴﺎ 278.5 326.6 1.2 1.1 16.3 16.2 ﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻥ 1.0707 1257.2 4.7 43 8.7 9.9 ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ 363.8 373.5 1.6 1.3 6.4 6 ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ 20.6 19.3 20.9 21.2 6.045.8 4.818.3 ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ 579.4 586.9 2.6 2 10 9.8 ﺃﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺎ 980.4 808.3 4.3 2.8 13.3 9.8 ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ 2.398.9 5.007.1 10.6 17.3 2.1 3.8

ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ (ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ) ﻟﻜﻞ ﻓﺮﺩ (ﻁﻦ) ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ (%) 2004 1990 2004 1990 2004 1990 ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ 10.6 13.4 5.3 8.8 1.524.1 1.984.1 ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪ 681.7 1.342.1 3 4.6 0.8 1.2 ﺇﻳﻄﺎﻟﻴﺎ 389.7 449.7 1.7 1.6 6.9 7.8 ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ 43.4 99.3 0.2 0.3 20.3 37.1 ﻗﻄﺮ 12.2 52.9 0.1 0.2 24.9 79.3 ﺍﻹﻣﺎﺭﺍﺕ 34.1 27.2 0.5 0.2 149.1 54.7 ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ 11.7 16.9 0.1 0.1 24.2 23.9 ﻟﻴﺒﻴﺎ 37.8 59.9 0.2 0.2 9.1 9.3 ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ 254.8 308.2 1.1 1.1 15.9 13.6 ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ 10.2 16.5 - 0.1 3.1 2.9 ﻟﺒﻨﺎﻥ 9.1 16.3 5.6 - 0.1 3.3 ﺗﻮﻧﺲ 13.3 22.9 0.1 0.1 1.6 2.3 ﺟﻴﺒﻮﺗﻲ 0.4 0.4 - - 1.0 0.5 ﺟﻨﻮﺏ 9.8 9.1 1.5 1.5 436.8 331.8 ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ 45.3 114.0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.9

(1) اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة: ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﺎم 2008، ﻤﺼدر ﺴﺎﺒق ص298. (2) ﺘﻘرﻴر اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺸرﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﺎم 2008، ﻤﺼدر ﺴﺎﺒق ص298. ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻐﺎﻝ 3.1 5.0 - - 0.4 0.4 ﺗﻮﻏﻮ 0.8 2.3 - - 0.2 0.4 ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻴﺮﻭﻥ 1.6 3.8 - - 0.1 0.3 ﺯﻣﺒﺎﺑﻮﻱ 16.6 10.6 0.1 - 1.6 0.8 ﺃﻭﻏﻨﺪﺍ 0.8 1.8 - - - 0.1 ﺃﺛﻴﻮﺑﻴﺎ 3.0 8.0 - - 0.1 0.1 ﺗﺸﺎﺩ 0.1 0.1 - - - - ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ 0.1 0.1 - - 0.3 0.2 ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ

ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ (ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ) ﻟﻜﻞ ﻓﺮﺩ (ﻁﻦ) ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ (%) 2004 1990 2004 1990 2004 1990 ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺴﻴﻚ 413.3 437.8 1.8 1.5 5 4.2 ﺍﻷﺭﺟﻨﺘﻴﻦ 109.7 141.7 0.5 0.5 3.4 3.7 ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﻞ 209.5 331.6 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.8 ﺑﻨﻤﺎ 3.1 5.7 - - 1.3 1.8 ﻛﻮﺑﺎ 32 25.8 0.1 0.1 3 2.3 ﺃﺭﻏﻮﺍﻱ 3.9 5.5 - - 1.2 1.6 ﺩﻭﻣﻨﻴﻜﺎ 0.1 0.1 - - 0.8 1.5 ﻓﻨﺰﻭﻳﻼ 117.4 172.5 0.5 0.6 6 6.6 ﺑﻮﻟﻴﻔﻴﺎ 5.5 7.0 - - 0.9 0.8 ﻏﻮﺍﺗﻴﻤﺎﻻ 5.1 12.2 - - 0.6 1.0 ﻛﺎﺯﺍﺧﺴﺘﺎﻥ 73.7 52.4 52.6 28.2 14.5 14.5 ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ 53 85.2 26.4 44.6 35.1 5.4 ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ 68.8 162.5 0.7 71.9 47.5 25.4 ﻓﻴﺘﻨﺎﻡ 24.3 51.3 15.8 11.3 24.3 - ﻣﻨﻐﻮﻟﻴﺎ 3.4 2.6 75.0 24.5 22.7 - ﻛﻤﺒﻮﺩﻳﺎ - 4.8 0 - 26.6 - ﻣﻴﻨﺎﻣﺎﺭ 10.7 14.7 0.6 6.9 13.7 7.1 ﺑﻨﻐﻼﺩﺵ 12.8 24.2 1.4 14.7 19.1 29 ﻧﻴﺒﺎﻝ 5.8 9.2 2 4.5 9.2 - ﺑﺎﻛﺴﺘﺎﻥ 43.4 76.3 5.3 25.2 21.9 23.2

(1) ﻟﻘﺪ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ 0T 27F 0T ﻛﺨﻄﻮﺓ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ، ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﺮﻋﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ (ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺭﻳﻮﺩﺟﺎﻧﻴﺮﻭ 1992) ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﻁﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ (ﻗﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ)، ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻴﺌﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﻟﻠﺤﻴﻠﻮﻟﺔ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ، ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ، ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ

(1) WWW.Unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kparabic.pdf ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ، ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﺪﺃ ﺳﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮﻝ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 2005 ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻡ 2008. ﻭﻗﺪ ﻭﺍﻓﻘﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺧﻔﺾ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺠﻲ ﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻨﺤﻮ (5.2%) ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺳﻨﺔ 1990 ﻛﻌﺎﻡ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻟﺰﻡ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﺑﺘﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﻗﺪﺭﻩ (8%) ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ (11,205،2) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﻡ 1990. ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ 7% ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺳﺒﺒﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺑﻨﻌﺎﺙ ( 4,818,3) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﻡ 1990، ﻭﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻥ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ (6%) ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻥ ﺳﺎﻫﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺑﺤﻮﺍﻟﻲ (1,070,7) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻁﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 1990، ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﺸﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎً ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻞ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ 8% ﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﻟﻴﺎ ﻭ10% ﻻﻳﺴﻼﻧﺪﺍ. ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺘﻴﻦ: ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ: ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻌﻬﺪ ﻛﻞ ﺃﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺑﺎﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ. ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ: ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﻴﺎً ﺇﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎء ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺔ، ﻭﺃﻫﻢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻗﻴﺎﻡ ( 38) ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺑﺘﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻨﺴﺐ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺠﺮﻱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﺤﺪﺩﺓ ﺗﺒﺪﺃ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 2008 ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ 2012. ﻭﺗﻀﻤﻨﺖ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﺤﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻮ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ، ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﻬﻢ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻧﺴﺐ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ. ﻭﺗﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﻭﺿﻊ ﺑﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻁﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﺃﻭﺳﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻭﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ. ﻭﻳﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺑﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﻭﻣﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻬﺪﻑ ﻟﻠﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﻧﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻴﺌﺔ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﺣﺚ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻭﺻﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺻﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻙ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﻭﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻗﻪ. ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﻧﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻵﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﻷﺧﺬ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺣﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﻴﻒ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ، ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﺑﺄﻗﻞ ﺧﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﺔ ﻭﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻞ ﺧﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﺑﻞ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻣﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﻴﺔ. ﻭﺍﻧﺴﺠﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﻊ ﻣﻘﺮﺭﺍﺕ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ 1992 ﻓﺈﻥ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻟﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﻧﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻟﺨﻔﺾ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻟﻌﺪﻡ ﻣﺴﺎﻫﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﺪﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻴﺌﺔ. ﻭﺗﺘﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻤﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﺗﺴﻬﻴﻞ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻴﻔﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺍً ﻭﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺻﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺘﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺻﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ، ﻟﻺﻳﻔﺎء ﺑﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﻳﻤﺔ. ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺗﺘﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺑﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻵﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ.

ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﺭﻧﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺭﺩﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻓﺈﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ: - ﻳﻀﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺐء ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ. - ﺇﻟﺰﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻹﻋﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ. - ﺃﻟﺰﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﻟﺘﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻧﺴﺐ ﻭﺟﺪﺍﻭﻝ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﺤﺪﺩﺓ. - ﺃﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻣﺨﺎﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺍً ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺗﻔﺮﺿﻬﺎ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﻭﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺴﻄﺢ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻒ ﺣﺠﺮ ﻋﺜﺮﺓ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﻬﺠﻬﺎ، ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺍً ﺗﺮﻯ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺿﺤﻴﺔ ﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻁﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺒﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ. - ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﺃﺳﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﺠﺤﻒ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺴﺠﻢ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﻬﺎ، ﻓﺎﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺑﺄﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺩﻭﻻً ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺳﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼً ﺩﻭﻻً ﺻﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﺮﻯ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺍﻋﻲ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻗﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ. ﻭﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﻓﻘﺔ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺠﺤﻔﺔ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺫﻛﺮﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ، ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﻠﻤﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ (1،313،000) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺇﺣﺼﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻡ 2005 ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ (299،8) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ، ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪ ﻓﺘﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻧﻬﺎ (1,134،400) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 2005 ﺃ ﻳ ﻀ ﺎ ً. ﻭﻟﻮ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 2005 ﻗﺪ ﺑﻠﻎ ( 6,514,8) ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻟﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺛﻠﺚ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً، ﻭﻣﺎ ﻳﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﺃﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ، ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺭﻓﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺃﻭﻟﻰ ﺑﺄﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ. ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺾ ﻭﻣﺎ ﺟﺎء ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺒﻖ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺑﻮﺵ ﺍﻻﺑﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺩﻋﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺗﺼﺪﻳﻖ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﺠﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻔﻌﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﺒﻨﻮﺩ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﻀﻴﻌﻪ ﺟﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ، ﻭﻫﻮ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻻ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻻ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﺎﻉ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺭﺟﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ، ﻭﻫﻮ ﻳﺤﺎﻭﻝ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺇﻁﺎﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ (ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪ) ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ، ﻭﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﻣﻠﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺟﺤﺎﻑ ﺇﺫ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻤﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻓﻴﺘﻢ ﺍﺣﺘﺴﺎﺑﻬﻤﺎ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺪﺙ ﺫﻟﻚ، ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﺮﺍﺕ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺛﻠﺚ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ. ﺏ- ﻣﺪﻯ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ: (1) ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺛﻼﺙ ﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﻧﺔ 0Tﻫﻲ 0T 28F: ﺍﻵﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ: ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺇﺫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ (37) ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺗﺼﺎﺭﻳﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻓﺎﺋﻀﺎً "ﻣﻦ ﺣﺼﺺ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻷﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺗﻠﻮﻳﺜﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ، ﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺺ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ. ﺍﻵﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ: ﻭﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻴﻔﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺳﻤﻨﺘﻴﺔ، ﻣﻊ ﺗﺸﺠﻴﻊ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ. ﻭﺗﺘﻮﻟﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﺃﺭﺻﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺣﻘﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ، ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺘﻀﻴﻒ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻴﻔﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻴﻊ ﺍﻷﺭﺻﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻷﺭﺻﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﻮﻓﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ.

(1) WWW. Ar.cop15.dk/climat+facts ﻭﺗﻌﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺪ ﻁﻨﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺃﺭﺻﺪﺓ "ﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻴﻔﺔ" ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺳﻤﻨﺘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺰﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ. ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ، ﺃﻣﺎ ﺃﺭﺻﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻓﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺳﻤﻨﺘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ. ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ ﻭﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ. ﻭﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺭﺧﻮﺍً ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﺇﻟﺰﺍﻡ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻷﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﺎﺩﻗﺖ (1) 0Tﻋﻠﻴﻪ 0T 29F. ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﺮ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 2008 ﺍﻧﻌﻘﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺣﺘﻀﻨﺘﻪ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ ﻏﺮﺑﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ. ﺇﻥ ﻏﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ ﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﺧﺎﺭﻁﺔ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ 2009 ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﻴﻌﻘﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺻﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻤﺎﺭﻛﻴﺔ ﻛﻮﺑﻨﻬﺎﻛﻦ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ 2009، ﻭﺃﻗﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﺧﺎﺭﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻖ ﻟﻸﺷﻬﺮ ﺍﻻﺛﻨﻲ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺟﺪﻭﻻً ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺎً ﻭﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺠﺎً ﻟﻠﻤﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ. ﻭﺳﺎﻫﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ( 11) ﺃﻟﻒ ﻣﻨﺪﻭﺏ ﻣﻦ ( 190) ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺷﻜﻜﻮﺍ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺇﻟﺰﺍﻡ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺮﺃﺳﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺑﻮﺵ ﺍﻻﺑﻦ، ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺃﻱ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻷﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ ً. ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻓﺪ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ (ﺑﻮﻻ ﺩﻭﺑﺮﻳﺎﻧﺴﻜﻲ) ﻭﻛﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﺸﺆﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺆﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺻﺮﺣﺖ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺑﻼﺩﻫﺎ "ﻣﻠﺘﺰﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺑﺤﻠﻮﻝ (2) ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ 0T 30F 0T ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺎﻡ 2012 ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺎً ﻭﻣﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺎً، ﻭﻧﺤﻦ ﻧﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﻠﻂ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ ﺿﻮءﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺑﺤﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻴﻔﺔ ﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ ﺁﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺔ، ﻭﻧﺤﻦ ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻧﻈﻴﻔﺔ". ﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻮﻳﻒ ﻟﻠﺨﻄﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ، ﻓﻜﻤﺎ ﺫﻛﺮﻧﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎً ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ 20% ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ، ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻓﺮﻉ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ. ﻓﻤﻦ ﻳﻘﺮﺃ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻓﺪ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺑﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻢ ﻭﻟﻦ ﺗﺼﺪﻕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ؛ ﻷﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﺩﺧﻞ ﺣﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ 2005 ﻭﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ 2008 ﻭﻟﻐﺎﻳﺔ 2012، ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻌﻘﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻮﺯﻧﺎﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﺳﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻠﺘﺰﻣﺔ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺎﻡ 2012، ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﻭﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻭﺗﻔﺼﻴﻼ ً.

ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺗﻤـــــــﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﺍً ﻟﻠﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﺮﻡ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻲ ﻭﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ، ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻮﻏﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺋﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ، ﻭﻳﺠﺮﻱ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ.

(1) ﻤوﻗﻊ اﻟﺴﻼم اﻷﺨﻀر:WWW.greenpeace.org (2) ﺒواﺒﺔ ﻋﻤﻝ ﻤﻨظوﻤﺔ اﻷﻤم اﻟﻤﺘﺤدة ﻓﻲ ﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺘﻐﻴر اﻟﻤﻨﺎخ.WWW.un.org/arabic/climatecenge ﻭﻳﺘﺠﺴﺪ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ ﺑﺎﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺒﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺋﺮ ﻟﻸﺧﺸﺎﺏ ﻭﺯﺣﻒ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻨﺰﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﺏ ﻭﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺑﺔ ﻭﻏﺎﺯ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺑﻮﺟﻪ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﺑﻴﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻮ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﺛﻨﻲ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺿﻌﻔﺎً ﻣﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻋﺎﻡ 1900 ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﺪء ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺟﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﻴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺒﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺠﻪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ. ﺇﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺳﺘﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺧﺘﻔﺎء ﺟﺰﺭ ﺑﺄﻛﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﺯﺣﻒ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺍﺣﻞ ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﺮﺍﺽ ﺇﺫ ﺳﻴﺘﺮﻙ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺃﺛﺮﺍً ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ. ﻟﻘﺪ ﺍﻧﺘﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻭﻣﺴﺒﺒﺎﺗﻪ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻙ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻁﺎﺭ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺰﻣﺔ ﻟﻀﻤﺎﻥ ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ، ﻭﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ: - ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺎﺭ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 1982. - ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﻨﺎ ﻟﺤﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺯﻭﻥ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 1988. - ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺮﻳﺎﻝ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﻨﻔﺬ ﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺯﻭﻥ 1989. - ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻁﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ 1992. - ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ 1992. - ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ 1994. - ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ 1997. - ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻗﺮﻁﺎﺟﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ 2000. - ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﻛﻬﻮﻟﻢ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ 2001. ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﻌﻘﺪ ﻻﺣﻘﺎً ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻛﻮﻛﺐ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ. ﻟﻘﺪ ﺭﻛﺰﻧﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺧﻄﻴﺮﺓ ﺗﻬﺪﺩ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﻭﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺤﻪ ﺃﻻ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﺒﻬﺎ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﻏﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺑﺔ ﻭﻏﺎﺯ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺑﻮﺟﻪ ﺧﺎﺹ، ﺇﻥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻁﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 1992 ﻗﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﺜﻘﺖ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺩﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ، ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻳﻀﻊ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻁﺎﺕ ﻭﺁﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺪﻋﻮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺻﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺮ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻀﻊ ﺑﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ. ﻭﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ – ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻗﻴﻞ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ، ﻭﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺘﻬﺎ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺪﻳﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻤﺎً ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ 20% ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﺿﺦ ﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺭﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻫﻮ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎء ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻷﻳﺪﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ. ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﺼﺪﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻮﺗﻮ، ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻬﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﻉ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﺎﺗﻪ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ (36) ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﺮﻯ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺻﺎﺩﻓﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻛﻮﻝ ﻭﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎً ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎً ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍً ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ 2005. ﺇﻥ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻻﻳﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺔ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻻ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﺤﺪﺩﻩ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﻞ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﺪﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻌﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ ﺗﻀﻤﻦ ﻋﻴﺶ ﺍﻷﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﻜﺮﺍﻣﺔ ﻭﺗﻀﻤﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﺟﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻼﺣﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻘﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻴﺶ ﺑﻜﺮﺍﻣﺔ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ً.

ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺟــــــــــــﻊ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ: 1) ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺮﻭﻙ ﺻﻘﺮ: ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ (ﺗﺮﻫﻮﻧﺔ: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻧﺎﺻﺮ 2005). 2) ﺃﺣﻤﺪ ﺣﺴﻴﻦ: ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ (ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ: ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺐ 2003). 3) ﺃﻧﻮﺭ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ: ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺃﻡ ﻧﻬﻀﺔ ﺣﻀﺎﺭﻳﺔ (ﺑﻴﺮﻭﺕ، ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ، 1982). 4) ﺇﻓﻀﻴﻞ ﻋﻤﺮ: ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻮﻡ (ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎﺭ 2004). 5) ﺇﻳﺎﻥ ﺳﻴﻤﻮﻥ: ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﻮﺭ، ﺳﻠﺴﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ 222 (ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ: ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻨﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻵﺩﺍﺏ 1997). 6) ﺑﻮﺍﺑﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ. 7) ﺭﻭﺑﺮﺕ ﺩ. ﺑﻼﻧﻜﺎﺭ: ﺃﻣﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ، ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ: ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﺢ (ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻊ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎﺭ 1992). 8) ﻋﺼﻤﺖ ﷴ ﺣﺠﺎﺯﻱ: ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ، ﺝ 1، ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻵﻛﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ (ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎﺭ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻧﺸﺮ). 9) ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﺭ ﺑﻄﺎﻭ: ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ (ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎء: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎﺭ .(2000 10) ﻣﺎﻳﻜﻞ ﺯﻳﻤﺮﻣﺎﻥ: ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ، ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ 333 (ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ: ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ .(2006 11) ﺩ. ﷴ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ: ﺍﻟﻮﺭﺍﺛﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ، ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ، (ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ، ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ، .(1986 12) ﷴ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﺭ: ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ، ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ (ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺣﺔ، ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ، 1998). 13) ﷴ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ: ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ (ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ، ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ، .(1995 14) ﷴ ﻧﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ: ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺙ، ﻣﺤﻠﻴﺎً ﻭﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺎً (ﺩﻣﺸﻖ: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺎﺋﺲ، 1999). 15) ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ: ﻗﻤﺔ ﺟﻮﻫﺎﻧﺴﺒﻮﺭﻍ (ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮﺭﻙ: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻣﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ، .(2001 16) ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ: ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻡ 2003 (ﺑﻴﺮﻭﺕ: ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻧﻤﺎﺋﻲ 2003). 17) ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ: ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻌﺎﻡ 1998 (ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮﺭﻙ: ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻧﻤﺎﺋﻲ .(1998 18) ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ: ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻡ 2002 (ﺑﻴﺮﻭﺕ: ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻧﻤﺎﺋﻲ .(209402 19) ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﺍﻷﺧﻀﺮ. ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ: 1- Karbill.w and authers: High-elevation balance and peripherl thinging- science magazine No.289 NewYourk 2000. 2- World Banck: international divlopment report 2000-2001 (New Yourk: Oxford univ, press 2001). 3- WWW. Ar.cop15.dk/climat+facts

4- WWW.greenpeace.org1T 1T

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