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A Methodological Reconsideration of Early English-Indigenous Communication in Sixteenth Century Northeastern America

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A Methodological Reconsideration of Early English-Indigenous Communication in Sixteenth Century Northeastern America A Methodological Reconsideration of Early English-Indigenous Communication in Sixteenth Century Northeastern America by Tabitha Robin Renaud A thesis submitted to the Department of History In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (August, 2019) Copyright © Tabitha Renaud, 2019 Abstract In August 1576 five men serving the Elizabethan explorer Martin Frobisher disappeared following an Inuk guide at Baffin Island. Over the next two years the English tried various methods of communication with the Inuit – including miming, drawing, writing and kidnapping “interpreters” – but were unable to recover their lost men or even learn their fate. During this frustrating period English-Inuit relations deteriorated steadily from friendliness to bloodshed. Frobisher’s experiences with the South Baffin Inuit illustrate how limited communication could be between European explorers and Indigenous peoples during early contact and offer a unique glimpse at the mechanics of how this nonverbal communication functioned. Despite its centrality to understanding early contact, studies specifically focused on the initial experiments with nonverbal communication are rare. Many historians gloss over the subject, assuming miming occurred and that little can be discerned about this process. However, a close reading of certain explorer narratives reveals descriptions of how these makeshift exchanges took place. These texts also indicate the types of assumptions made by communicators when creating and interpreting messages and the preconceived notions that produced such assumptions. This dissertation examines communication in three English ventures in sixteenth century Northeastern America: The Frobisher Encounters with the South Baffin Inuit (1576-8), The Davis Encounters with the Greenland Inuit (1585-7) and the Roanoke Encounters with the Carolina Algonquin (1584-7). This study will serve as a point of departure for researchers to consider the uncertainties surrounding early communication and the implications this has for both methodological approaches and traditional historiographical interpretations. ii Acknowledgements I cannot begin to express my thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Jane Errington, for all the guidance and support she has provided me throughout the dissertation process. This study would not have been possible without her training, expertise and encouragement. I am especially grateful for the compassion and flexibility she demonstrates with all her students through life’s inevitable disruptions and emergencies and I am very fortunate to have worked with her. I would also like to express my gratitude to my dissertation committee. I appreciate all the excellent feedback I received from Dr. Elizabeth Manke, Dr. Brian Osborne, Dr. Jeffrey Collins and Dr. James Carson on this research. I would also like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program and the History department at Queen’s University for this special opportunity. I am extremely grateful to my partner, Jeremy, for his tireless love, teamwork and proofreading. With deep affection I would also like to thank my family and friends for all their encouragement. I would be remiss if I did not thank my schoolmates as well as my friends in the Exams Office, the Registrar and the Engineering Department for contributing to my great experience at Queen’s University. Many thanks also to my many colleagues in Kingston’s cultural heritage sector for all of the valuable professional development opportunities I have had over the last few years. iii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2 Setting the Stage: Influences of Communication and Contact ................................................... 20 Chapter 3 The Frobisher Encounters, 1576-8 ............................................................................................. 60 Chapter 4 The Davis Encounters, 1585-7 ................................................................................................. 113 Chapter 5 The Roanoke Encounters, 1584-7 ............................................................................................ 151 Chapter 6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 192 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 199 Appendix A Expeditions Leaders ............................................................................................................. 218 Appendix B Expedition Narrative Titles .................................................................................................. 219 iv List of Figures Figure 1: Map of the Frobisher Expedition Routes ..................................................................................... 65 Figure 2: Map of the Davis Expedition Routes ......................................................................................... 116 Figure 3: Map of the Roanoke Expedition Routes .................................................................................... 155 v List of Tables Table 1: Christopher Hall's Vocabulary List, 1576 ..................................................................................... 82 Table 2: The Davis Vocabulary List, 1586 ............................................................................................... 131 Table 3: Expedition Leaders ..................................................................................................................... 218 Table 4: Narrative Titles ........................................................................................................................... 219 vi Chapter 1 Introduction The Elizabethan explorer Martin Frobisher had misgivings as he instructed five of his men to ferry a visiting Inuk from their ship to the shore. It was August 1576 at what is now “Baffin Island” and the English and Inuit had only just met. Communication between the two peoples was limited and uncertain and Frobisher could only hope that smiles meant that his men would be safe ashore. Though the five men were instructed to remain within sight and return immediately, they disappeared around a bend in the landscape and did not return. The day waned and there were no additional long boats with which to investigate. The next day the Inuit returned without the five Englishmen and the cryptic communication between the two parties was so ineffective that Frobisher was at a loss. Over the next two years, the English tried various methods of communication – including miming, drawing, writing and kidnapping “interpreters” – but were unable to recover their lost men or even learn their fate.1 During this frustrating period, English- Inuit relations deteriorated steadily from peacefulness to animosity and then bloodshed. 1 Martin Frobisher embarked on three expeditions to the arctic from 1576-8 for England. The disappearance of the five Englishmen occurred during the first expedition to present-day Nunavut, specifically Baffin Island. The information is relayed in the accounts of contemporaries Christopher Hall, George Best and Michael Lok. Christopher Hall, an eyewitness, was Frobisher’s pilot. Christopher Hall, “The Frobisher Expedition of 1576,” The Principal Navigations. Volume 7 (Glasgow: MacLehose, 1903), 210. There is much historiographical debate about the circumstances of the five mariners in relation with Inuit oral history, but the following works provide a summation: Peter Mancall, “The Raw and the Cold: Five English Sailors in Sixteenth Century Nunavut,” The William and Mary Quarterly 70:1 (January 2013), 3-40. Susan Rowley, “Frobisher Miksanut: Inuit Accounts of the Frobisher Voyages,” Archeology of the Frobisher Voyages. William Fitzhugh and J.S. Olin, eds. (Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1993). Robert McGhee, The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher: An Elizabethan Venture. (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press), 2001. James McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001). Robert Ruby, Unknown Shore: The Lost History of England's Arctic Colony. (New York: Henry Holt, 2001). Meta Incognita: A Discourse of Discovery: Martin Frobisher's Arctic Expeditions, 1576-1578. (Hull: The Museum of Civilization, 1999). For the original English recordings of the Inuit oral history, see: Charles Francis Hall. Life with the Esquimaux. (London: Low, Son and Marston, 1864). 1 Frobisher’s experience is a telling example of how uncertain the earliest communication between Europeans and Indigenous peoples could be. The Frobisher
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