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US Politics of Betrayal: the Urdu Press on Pakistan-US Relations Since the 1971 War

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US Politics of Betrayal: the Urdu Press on Pakistan-US Relations Since the 1971 War US Politics of Betrayal: The Urdu Press on Pakistan-US Relations Since the 1971 War by Shakil Akhtar A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire February 2016 STUDENT DECLARATION Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards Either *I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution or *I declare that while registered for the research degree, I was with the University’s specific permission, a *registered candidate/*enrolled student for the following award: __________________________________________________________________ Material submitted for another award Either *I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work or *I declare that the following material contained in the thesis formed part of a submission for the award of _________________________________________________________________ (state award and awarding body and list the material below): * delete as appropriate Collaboration Where a candidate’s research programme is part of a collaborative project, the thesis must indicate in addition clearly the candidate’s individual contribution and the extent of the collaboration. Please state below: Signature of Candidate Type of Award PhD School Humanities and Social Sciences II ABSTRACT This research examines the history and structure of the Urdu press discourse on Pakistan-US relations since the 1971 War in order to understand its perceptions of US betrayal. Two of the most popular Urdu newspapers in Pakistan have been studied with reference to three alleged cases of US betrayal. These are: the US failure in the 1971 War to provide sufficient military support to Pakistan to prevent its disintegration; US opposition to Pakistan's nuclear program and ignoring of the security concerns of its ally in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s; and the unilateral US operation conducted on 2 May 2011 targeting Osama bin Laden which violated Pakistan’s sovereignty. The Urdu press has not only been identifying examples of US betrayal of Pakistan since the 1971 War, but also has developed a structure for that discourse. The dominant voices of the discourse generally argue that the US not only betrays but also conspires against Pakistan's security. The discourse offers certain modalities of US conspiracy, such as pressurising tactics like sanctions and attaching conditions onto economic and military aid to Pakistan, or interfering in Pakistan's domestic affairs through diplomatic or undiplomatic means. Further, US conspiracy and betrayal is also rationalised by mainly offering three types of causes. First, it is argued that the US betrays Pakistan in order to pursue its own strategic interests in South Asia. Second, it is argued that the US is a hegemonic, capitalistic force, which conspires against Pakistan in collaboration with the Pakistani ruling elite and betrays it in order to protect its own material interests. Third, it is argued that the US is an anti-Islamic force, which conspires against and repeatedly betrays a Muslim country. Interviews with some of the prominent journalists and politicians conducted for this research also identified some excluded voices within Pakistan which did not agree with this discourse of a US politics of betrayal. Thus, this study analyses the history of the Urdu press discourse which contributes to the social construction of the idea of a US politics of betrayal, but in so doing, it also builds understanding of its structure, and helps to rationalise the perception of a US politics of betrayal since the 1971 War. III TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDENT DECLARATION ______________________________________________ II ABSTRACT _________________________________________________________ III LIST OF FIGURES ____________________________________________________ IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ____________________________________________ XVI ACRONYMS ______________________________________________________ XIX CHAPTER ONE Introduction _______________________________________________________ 1 1.1 Background: Perceptions of a US Politics of Betrayal Expressed as Anti- Americanism in Pakistan ____________________________________________ 1 1.2 Do Public Perceptions Really Matter? __________________________________ 4 1.3 The Media and Public Perceptions _____________________________________ 7 1.4 The Urdu Press: An Important Media in Pakistan _________________________ 8 1.5 The US Politics of Betrayal and the Urdu Press ___________________________ 9 1.6 Literature Review _________________________________________________ 11 1.6.1 Literature from the Realist Perspective ____________________________________ 12 1.6.2 Memoirs and Personal Accounts of Government Officials _____________________ 16 1.6.3 Literature Describing Pakistan's Preoccupations with the Internal and External Factors Affecting its Relationship with the US ______________________________ 18 1.6.4 Literature from Marxist Perspective ______________________________________ 23 1.6.5 Literature Attempting to Understand the Discourse on Pakistan-US Relations ____ 26 1.6.6 Discussion of the Reviewed Literature ____________________________________ 31 1.7 Methodological Framework for This Research __________________________ 34 1.8 How can the History and Structure of Discourse in the Urdu Press be Studied for a Period of over 43 Years (1971-2015)? ________________________________ 35 1.8.1 The 1971 War ________________________________________________________ 36 1.8.2 Pakistan's Nuclear Program _____________________________________________ 40 1.8.3 The Abbottabad Operation _____________________________________________ 40 1.9 Methodology ____________________________________________________ 41 1.10 Limitations of this Research _______________________________________ 42 1.11 Structure of the Thesis ___________________________________________ 43 IV CHAPTER TWO The 1971 War and the US Politics of Betrayal: A Story of Shattered Hopes ____ 44 2.1 Perceived Strategic Advantage of the US-China Rapprochement ____________ 45 2.1.1 Expected increase in Pakistan's Influence on the US _________________________ 46 2.1.2 More Aid to Pakistan __________________________________________________ 48 2.1.3 Strategic Disadvantage of India __________________________________________ 48 2.1.4 Diplomatic Disadvantage of India ________________________________________ 52 2.1.5 Balance of Power Shifting in Favour of Pakistan - Yet Not Enough to Save it from Disintegration ________________________________________________________ 54 2.2 A US Politics of Betrayal Rationalised through the Idea of Conspiracy _______ 62 2.3 Modalities of "Conspiracy" Explained through Discourse _________________ 66 2.3.1 Diplomatic Means Utilised to Conspire ____________________________________ 66 2.3.2 The CIA, Media, NGOs and Other Sources Believed to have been Used to Interfere in Pakistan's Internal Affairs ______________________________________________ 70 2.4 The Causes of US Conspiracy Explained through Discourse ________________ 76 2.4.1 US Strategic Interests in South Asia ______________________________________ 76 An Impression of the India-US Nexus against Pakistan and China__________________________________ 76 US Desires to Forge India-Pakistan Confederation _____________________________________________ 79 US an "Enemy in the Guise of a Friend" ______________________________________________________ 81 US Policy to Appease India ________________________________________________________________ 85 2.4.2 The US Described as an Anti-Islamic Force and Part of an International Non-Muslim Nexus Against Islam ___________________________________________________ 90 2.4.3 The US Described as an International Capitalist Force Causing the Underdevelopment of East Pakistan to Protect its Own Interests _______________________________ 95 2.5 Retrospective Analysis of the Discourse ______________________________ 100 2.5.1 Internal Factors were More Important In Causing the Disintegration ___________ 101 2.5.2 Biased and Misleading Discourse _______________________________________ 102 2.6 Conclusion ______________________________________________________ 104 V CHAPTER THREE Pakistan's Nuclear Program and Doubts about US Intentions ______________ 106 3.1 The US Politics of Betrayal vis-à-vis Pakistan's Nuclear Program ___________ 109 3.1.1 Security Threats due to an Imbalance in Conventional Weapons Pushing Pakistan to Nuclear Weapons____________________________________________________ 109 3.1.2 Expression of Pakistan's Security Concerns vis-à-vis India's Nuclear Program ____ 112 3.1.3 US Response to Pakistan's Security Threats _______________________________ 117 3.1.4 Indian Criticism on US Response ________________________________________ 119 3.1.5 Pakistan's Doubts on US Intentions______________________________________ 122 3.1.6 Confirmation of a US Politics of Betrayal _________________________________ 129 3.2 Claims of a US Conspiracy Against Pakistan's Nuclear Program ____________ 134 3.3 Modalities of alleged US Conspiracy against Pakistan's Nuclear Program ____ 143 3.3.1 Media Used for Propaganda ___________________________________________ 143 3.3.2 Pressures Exerted on Pakistan __________________________________________ 146 US Aid Used as a Pressure Tactic __________________________________________________________
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