Revolutions in the Wake of the Enlightenment: AP World History
Review: In response to the age of Absolutism (a response to the period of Religious wars) Europe saw a massive resurgence in abstract thought. The initial form of this thought process occurred in the form of the Scientific Revolution and later mutated when social scientists applied these notions to their respective societies. The results were amazing. Volumes of political literature were composed in response to the growing discontent of absolutism. The results are the works of John Locke, J.J. Rousseau, and Baron de Montesquie amongst others. Out of the movement two schools of thoughts emerge; Liberal: a school of thought promoting change and the rights of the individual. These individuals promoted equality and liberty of ideas and opportunity. Conservative: a school of thought interested in preserving the status quo, more interested in the power of the monarch, clergy and aristocracy.
The political undercurrents in Europe in the mid 18th century were divided yet the ideals were clearly conquered by the monarchies. All of Europe was ruled by Monarchies. While some were parliamentary in nature, it is clear that the social undercurrents of the Enlightenment were impacting their success as people began whispering for “Life, Liberty, and Property”. The words of the Social Contract now refined by Locke and Rousseau were on the lips of every liberal on the continent. Clearly the environment was ripe for a change. The first example of change occurred in the New World in the Colonies held by mother England.
Revolution in the United States:
Causes of American Independence: A growing sense of patriotism and national identity. Increased resentment of the British policies of economic dominance over the colonies. The British Mercantilist policies called for a dominance of colonies and their trade and acts such as the navigation acts severely limited the economic policy making institutions of the colonies. Increased resentment of British Taxation: the colonists didn’t realize that their levels of the taxation were amongst the lowest in the world…however, it was not necessarily the amount of taxes they paid (at least to the enlightened populace of the East coast), rather it was the notion that they were being taxed without receiving a say in Parliament. Stamp Act Tea Monopoly were also painful to the colonists American merchants and their desire to gain independence of their own economic destiny, Adam Smith’s capitalist doctrines had inspired this powerful class. The influence of the Enlightenment, which had reached the parlors of Boston as it had the salons of Paris. Especially powerful were the ideas of Rousseau on Thomas Jefferson. The Seven Years War‐aka French and Indian War. This conflict an extension of European global politics during the 1760’s saw fierce battles rage in the colonies between the English and French. The result a massive increase in colonial taxation, in the form of parliamentary acts. American independence and geography: England’s scattered politics prior to the 1770’s along with the distance between “Mother and child” provided the colonies to become very self‐ sufficient and independent politically.
The catalyst: the Boston Tea Party of 1773 which saw the colonists outraged over a forced monopoly of Indian Tea, harvested by the British. The tea was of a higher quality than any the colonists had seen and was actually significantly cheaper, however it violated the principles of the enlightenment. The result‐tea flavored fish!
The early governance: the first colonial attempts at governing came in the form of the continental congresses. The First called met in Philly in 1774. The first was a meeting of radicals who did little more than debate and attempt reconciliation. The result was war in April of 1775 at Lexington and Concord.
The American Military effort: can only be described as weak. The poorly trained, poorly funded, outmatched, outnumbered battalions had only two advantages over the superior Brits. 1. They had a cause, the British didn’t even do all the fighting, leaving that to Hessian mercenaries. 2. They had only one foe; the British were involved with several major European powers in warfare and did not turn their full attention to the Colonists.
The situation was so bleak for Washington and his men that they all had non‐staggered 1 year enlistments that expired every new years eve! The war was about to be lost until the quartet of actions listed below: 1. The publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine, a European Enlightened philosopher whose brilliant, motivating attack, riled the colonies in support of the war effort. 2. The passage of the Declaration of Independence: on the surface at the time a powerless annoying document to the British, but one that served to inspire the colonists and is now a national symbol. 3. The victory at Trenton: during which Washington crossed the Delaware on Christmas Eve and surprised a battalion of Hessians for a major victory. Inspiring the men to stay on for the next enlistment year. 4. In late 1787 the victory at Saratoga brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists. Louis XVI convinced that the colonists could win the war with French Naval and economic support tilted the side.
Other advantages/notes: ∙ The colonists were fighting at home ∙ The colonists had tremendous military leadership in Washington ∙ The colonists had tremendous political leadership in their enlightened class which consisted of Jefferson, Hancock, Adams’s, and Madison amongst many ∙ The strength and stability added by the first governing body in the United States…the Second Continental Congress, which began to act as a unifying force in the colonies.
Future: The Treaty of Paris 1783 is a unique document in which the Colonists claimed the land to the East of the Mississippi River but also saw the colonists make a fairly positive break with the British. Both sides knew that they were not going to survive without the economic cooperation that had marked their relationship for the first 200 years of their existence.
Politics: The colonists in a knee‐jerk reaction to the hated absolutism (perceived) of King George III drew up the Articles of Confederation which placed the decision making powers in the hands of the states and gave them very few powers to govern. The effects were disastrous as the colonies were hardly united… It became obvious to the forefathers that this political arrangement was totally ineffective and did not support a developing nation. The result was a scrapping of the Articles in 1787 at Philadelphia. It is at this time that our remarkable Constitution known for its flexibility and power was adapted. The debates raged as the colonists debated enlightenment principles and eventually decided on a document based on a separation of powers, delegation of powers, and a federal republic. The needs of the Anti‐Federalists (state’s rights) were met with the inclusion of a Bill of Rights to preserve the Lockian principles of natural rights.
The French Revolution: Chronology ‐ Sketch of Events 1788‐89 French State undergoes a massive revolution in politics but also in society and the way people think. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the catalyst for the Revolution. 1789‐1792 ‐ Liberal Revolution 1792‐1794 ‐ Radicalization 1795‐1799 ‐ Ineffective Reaction 1799‐1815 ‐ Napoleon ‐ did he destroy or establish the FR?
A. The Estates System 1. First Estate: The Clergy 1% of pop, with 10% of land.They had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the peasantry, the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than the local parish priest. The First Estate was perhaps 100,000 strong. But note that there were many poor clergymen in this Estate, and they were going to support the Revolution. 2. Second Estate: The Nobility 2‐5% of pop, with 20% of the land. They also had great wealth and taxed the peasantry: There was a ʺfeudalʺ resurgence in 18th century. 400,000 people. The great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse dʹepee, dating from the Middle Ages, and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession of public offices. 3. Third Estate: Everyone Else 95‐97% of the pop. There were some few rich members, the artisans and all the peasantry. These were also class divisions. In the modern world we only consider the Third Estate. Its Victory has been total. B. Subdivisions of the Third Estate 1. The Bourgeoisie 8% of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20% of Land. They often bought land and exploited the peasants on it. In Third Estate, the most important group politically was the Bourgeoisie. The Bourgeoisie had been growing throughout the century, to some extent encouraged by the monarchy. By 1788 it was very important and its members were well read, educated and rich (fivefold increase in trade 1713 ‐1789). But this important group had no say in running the country. 2. The Peasants with 40% of the land, formed the vast majority of population. There was population growth in this period: perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. Peasants paid the most tax: aristocrats did not pay. Peasants alone paid the taille. They alone had to give labor service to the State. They also had to pay the tithe, in kind, to the clergy. As well as these taxes, peasants had to give services to their Landlords: this is sometimes called `feudalʹ service. They also pay dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold land that was in all other ways their own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region. Peasants farmed the land, and regard it as their own, but it was not legally theirs. What they wanted was to own their own property. This was radical only at to start with. Later it was to be a conservative desire. Cf. Bourgeois leaders of the Revolution at first wanted to keep labour services etc. as they thought they were a form of property for the landlords. 3. The Urban Poor of Paris Artisans ‐ factory workers, journeymen. They very poor were probably less involved in politics. Artisans had different interests than the bourgeoisie. but they played important role at several points. They were the most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high literacy. [Note on Literacy: Literacy was comparatively high amongst all classes in northern France. This had the effect that everybody could imbibe the new ideas that came out in pamphlets. ] C. Assessment of Class Division as a Cause Despite the class divisions and tensions outlined here, the Revolution actually began as an aristocratic revolt against the monarchy, but two main groups of poor people did affected the revolution decisively.
Inspired by the success of the United States, the French also attempted to embrace the philosophical undercurrents of the Enlightenment to alter their society.
The causes are complex and operate on several levels: The wide social and economic gap between ordinary citizens and the countries elite. The unfairness of the Tax system, from which the wealthy were exempt! The frustrated ambitions of the growing middle class, who possessed wealth and education but because of the “caste” system and their 3rd estate status were barred from social advancement. The influence of the US success (what were the differences) The influence of the enlightened ideas, the desire for fair government, equality and separation of powers. Absence of Civil Rights. Political ineptitude of Louis XV and Louis XVI Long standing economic crisis Long standing inferiority complex with regards to Britain, long standing defeats.
Financial Crisis: Make no mistake about it that the French revolutions #1 cause was the dire economic situation that had arisen in France over the past 100 years. The inexplicable absence of aristocratic tax revenue, as well as failed military ventures contributed to the disaster. The expenditures spent on the US during their revolution as well as Louis XVI’s lavish family contributed to the disaster. In the 1780’s 50% of the nations revenue went to the INTEREST, not principal of their national debt. Only 20% of the resources were for the function of the state. They had no banking system, no system of currency or means of credit. Famine, poor harvests, and unemployment sealed the deal by 1787…France was in a revolution.
Legal matters and Social Realities: The groups in France were legally, not treated with any consistency, except for the minority of aristocrats. The inequity of land ownership and was astonishing. See numbers above. The feudal system in France was woefully outdated. The great problem was the relationship between the nobles (hereditary) and wealthy members of the 3rd estate known as the Bourgeoisie, this middle class began to grow in rank, number and power and made up powerful sums of wealth and culture. They will make up the ranking class of the revolution. The Medieval structure of society provided the nation with tremendous conflict.
The Estates General and Revolution Desperate for the chance to tax the nobility, the King called the Estates General in 1789…a body, which had not met since 1714. This national assembly composed of delegates from the three estates. The 1200 delegates met with the King at Versailles. The Third Estate made up of mainly middle class lawyers and civil servants fully expected the opportunity to make serious changes in the taxation system. Their hopes were soon dashed when the calling was nothing more than a sham to squeeze more money out of the lower class. The voting was to occur as follows: Each estate was to receive one vote. So the 300 members of the first estate were to receive 1 vote, the 300 members of the 2nd estate would get 1 vote and the 600 members of the third estate would get 1 vote. When it came to vote on the revocation of the ordinance preventing the taxation of the 1st and 2nd estate…three guesses what the vote was! This overshadowed the consensus on limiting the monarchy, legal changes in the nation. The Third estate revolted over the voting practices and called themselves the national Assembly after taking an oath on a tennis court at Versailles. They swore not to disband until a new constitution had been achieved. Louis pretended to participate and recognize them but had secret plans for their arrest. When this got out they called on Parisians for support against this tyranny, they responded in masses thanks largely to the lower class radicals known as sans‐culottes (by the type of pants they wore). Riots and violence erupted for days the climax was the dramatic revolt against the hated prison the Bastille. The prison was believed to be a haven for debtors and repressed…it didn’t…but it did hold one valuable commodity: gunpowder. The cities population saw unemployment of nearly ¼. The governor of the prison was hacked to death after his order to fire killed 98. The American Revolution hero the marquis de Lafayette was appointed commander of the cities army. The revolution gradually spread from the cities to the countryside where people were suffering tremendously. The Feudal system was being turned upside down by the violence. The rebellion became known in part as the Great Fear as a fear of unparalleled proportions gripped all who lived in France…violence was the norm. In response to the Kings inactivity the duke of Aiguillon called for an end to the inequality of taxation and elimination of feudalism. This swift law was designed to quell rebellion and bring about equality. The end of feudal duties was a huge victory and slowly quelled the violence of the great fear.
Declaration of Rights and Man: Based on the US model the declaration declared all men born free and equal in rights. The rights of liberty, property and security were preserved. Every man innocent until proven guilty. This brings about the zenith of the revolutions first phase, a constitution had been drafted. The National Assembly ruled along side its king.
A Revolution in three phases: Moderate phase: 1789‐1791 A radical period: 1791‐1794 Conservative backlash: 1794‐1799
The failure of the Moderate Phase: the explosion of 10‐5‐89 saw the true problems of the revolution. The country could not support itself economically. A group of women revolted and were poised to take over the royal palace.
The end of the monarchy: in September of 1791 the National Assembly abolished the nobility and a constitutional monarchy was established. The church property had been nationalized, the nations economy simplified and rights equalized. The attempted take over the church divided society and will signal the second phase.
Problems with the first phase: Rights and ideals were applied only to white catholic makes. Economic chaos Treatment of women Religious confusion. Declaration of war against France
The Radical Phase and the Reign of Terror: ∙ In 1792 the French political scene took a sharp turn from moderation to the left. In April they went to war with Austria and Prussia…wars they couldn’t afford. They would be at nearly constant war for the next 20 years. ∙ The economy was now amongst the worst in Europe the mood of the population was impatient and eager…they were willing to listen to anyone who could put bread on the table. That man was Maximillian Robespierre who will lead the radical phase of the rebellion. Rioting and violence toppled the legislature and prevented the constitutional monarchy from functioning. The National Convention emerged and placed the King and Queen under house arrest in 1794. The chief party within the national convention the Jacobins led the NC; their leadership body came in the form of the leftist‐fascist Committee on Public Safety, which quickly seized all control in a Cromwellian fashion. The radicalism continued and expanded the war effort in Europe to include Britain, Holland and Spain in 1793 (economic effects?). It put the king on trial for treason and executed him in 1‐1793, his wife would follow 9 months later. ∙ The reign of terror: Robespierre led a massive movement for total state obedience that would become known as the reign of terror. This organization constantly searched for anyone who may be a spy, a traitor, a counterrevolutionary or subversive. Radical parties, moderate parties even his friends’ fell the reign of terror. All told in one year 50,000 people were put to political deaths as the madmen who ran the national convention led by Robespierre. The Jacobins had expelled and killed huge numbers of the Girondins their political counterparts for fear they would turn to the nobles and conservatives. The engine of the movement was the sans‐culottes (without the breeches) the lower class radicals. ∙ The economics didn’t improve as many were still without bread with no noticeable changes being made the situation grew dire. The total management style of Robespierre was failing. ∙ Gradually Robespierre expanded too far with terror. He had imprisoned ½ a million people and executed another 50,000. The nationalism promoted by Robespierre and his total draft had inspired some major military victories that were achieved in 1793. All persons had to participate in the war effort; Robespierre was trying to use war to pull the nation out of debt. ∙ The victories in war could have allowed him to relax controls, which he did economically but not socially. He was viewed by many as a madman; he was executing those close to him. The second phase came to an end in 7‐1794 when Robespierre was arrested and executed by fellow members of the committee on public safety. This is known as the Thermidorian reaction. This begins the third phase of the revolution, the anti‐radical backlash that attempted to bring order and normalcy to France. This phase lasted for 5 years. A new constitution was written and it gave power to a group of five known as the directory. This five‐man executive gave support to French military expansion and used their victories to cut down on unemployment at home. Many developed a widespread disgust for war and starvation. The Directory fearing for its safety began to rule absolutely and will be overthrown in 1799 by a young military leader Napoleon Bonaparte.