INDIA: Common-wealth

Sir Francis Low

NDIA took her place in the British formulated the national demand and I Commonwealth on 26 January, 1950, fought for it on the basis of Mahatma as a "sovereign democratic republic". Pre- Gandhi's creed of non-violence, had for vious to that date she had been, since years proclaimed as its objective an Indian 15 August, 1947, a Dominion- a status republic completely severed from Britian. conferred upon her when India and Pakis- So deeply engrained was this principle tan were granted full self- on in the Congress organisation that even the partition of the British Indian . today many Congress members have Both the new countries automatically doubts about the change. But the wise inherited all the privileges of Dominion- statesmanship of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru hood, including the right to decide their and the other Congress leaders- as dis- own future either inside or outside the tinct from the political immaturity of Commonwealth. India acquired her pre- Burma's national leaders-sought to main- sent status of her own free will, and by tain ·close relationship with the country the willing consent of the other members which had granted them their freedom of the Commonwealth, whose Premiers without at the same time compromising decided the issue at a conference in London their political testament. Pandit Nehru in the spring of 1950. Thereby the Com- put India's attitude in a nutshell when monwealth Premiers changed the wLole he said that his country had to be a Commonwealth concept in order to meet republic, but it desired "some sort of India's wishes, but on balance it was link" with the Commonwealth which would agreed-and rightly agreed- that the not restrict its freedom. Commonwealth gained more than it would This was the problem which Pandit have lost if this great democratic country Nehru placed before the Commonwealth of over 300 million people had been com- Premiers; the answer was their acceptance pelled to cut itself adrift from an associa- of India as a sovereign independent republic tion dating back to the days of the East which recognised the as "the symbol India Company. of the free association of its independent No one who knows the background of members". Broadcasting on his return the Indian struggle for complete self- to Delhi, Pandit Nehru undoubtedly voiced government can fail to sympathise with the feelings of the great mass of his country- India's attitude towards the British Com- men when he declared it was a good monwealth as it existed before 1949. augury for the future that the old conflict The Indian National Congress, which between Britian and India should be /

COMMONWEALTH REPUBLIC 33 resolved in a friendly way. By an over- tunity; and to promote among them all whelming majority the Indian Constituent ]'RATERNITY, assuring the dignity of Assembly, to which the London agTee- the individual and the unity of the nation." ment was submitted, took the same view. Enshrined in the Constitution is an ex- The factor which made India's voluntary haustive declaration of human rights. membership of the Commonwealth pos- This was considered essential in view of sible was Indian graditude to the Parlia- the need ·to safeguard the interests of ment and people of Great Britain for the India's many minorities, whose communal willing transfer of power. Britons were representation of British days has given never so popular in India as they are way to a common electorate, based on today. adult suffrage, enfranchising 170 million people. How this colossal electorate, most NDIA'S first task on receiving her of which is illiterate, will discharge its I freedom was to devise a Constitution. electoral duties is one of the problems To that end there was set up a Constit- facing the new . It represents uent Assembly based on the popularly in truth, a very great experiment. elected members of the existing legis- In structure, the Union of India is a latures and taking the place of the former federal republic comprised of States, with Central Legislature. Nearly three years a popularly elected legislature at the passed before the Constitution was finally Centre and in each . The States adopted ''amid scenes of solemnity and are the former British India provinces joy"; at the end of that time the Assembly and Indian Princes' States, or amalgama- produced what is probably the most tions of former Indian States. At the elaborate Constitution framed by any head of the Republic is the President, _ country in the ' world. It consists of a elected by the members of the Federal preamble, 395 articles and eight schedules, and State legislatures; at the head of each owing their inspiration (in the words of State is a Governor (or Rajpramukh in THE 'l'IMES) mainly to western political the case of former Indian Princes' terri- philosophy and more especially to British tory) nominated by the President. From liberal thought which, from the birth of there downwards the machinery of govern- Indian nationalism in the latter part of the ment closely follows the British model. last century down to date, has powerfully The Federal and State executives are influenced Indian leaders. While the fed- Cabinets responsible to the legislatures, eral character of the new Union of India with a Prime Minister in cha:i.·1·e. Unlike made borrowing from the the President of the United States, the and Canadian Constitutions inevitable, President of the Indian Republic acts underlying the Indian Constitution are on the advice of his ministers except in the principles of the British parliamentary a national emergency, when he has special system, recalling Mahatma Gandhi's powers. Residuary powers, as in the famous remark on an earlier occasion Canadian Constitution, vest in the Centre. that "parliamentary mentality has comti The Canadian model is also followed in to stay." (This was said at a time when that the Constitution contains provisions he would have preferred a more revolu- for the units as well as for the Centre. tionary mentality!) · Of special interest to the other members The preamble to the Constitution re- of the Commonwealth is the decision that, flects the general tenor of the document, while Hindi is to be the official language and is worth quoting. It runs as follows: of the Union, English should for fifteen ''We, the people of India, solemnly years be used for all official purposes. resolve to constitute India into a sove- reign democratic republic, and to secure to all its citizens: JusTICE, social, eco- II nomic and political; LIBERTY of T is one thing to formulate a written thought, expression, belief, faith and wor- I Constitution; it is another to have a ship; EQUALITY of status and oppor- unified territory to which it can success- 34 PUBLIC AFFAIRS fully apply. British India consisted of selves. Two States, Hyderabad and My- British administered provinces and a patch- sore, retain their original frontiers; 216 work of Indian states- self-governing but States were merged into neighbouring owning the suzerainty of the Paramount provinces; 275 States were fashioned into Power- which grew up on the ruins of six unions which have become new federal the Moghul Empire and at different times States; 61 States are administered by the entered into treaty relationship with the Centre; while the future of one State British Crown. With the departure of which acceded to India, Kashmir, is still British authority, these States were left in dispute. There has thus been brought to make their own arrangements with into the Union of India nearly 400,000 the succession of India and square miles of former Indian State terri- Pakistan. There were no fewer than 565 tory with a population of over sixty States, ranging from large and populous millions. The transfer of political power territories like Hyderabad to petty estates from the rulers to the Central Govern- of a few square miles. '11 hey varied tre- ment is complete, and this power is now mendously in administration and develop- exercised by the people through legisla- ment. All were in greater or less degree tures. One difficulty has been the dearth autocratic; several of the larger States of skilled administrators in areas formerly were well governed, with popular repre- ruled by the Princes and their dewans; sentation in the legislatures, while others this deficiency is being made good by the were very backward and very poorly temporary appointment of Regional Com- administered. In some States, as in Hyder- missioners and Advisers. Some of the abad and Bhopal, a Muslim dynasty former rulers have become Rajpramukhs ruled over a predominantly Hindu popula- (or Governors) of the new federal States; tion, while in Kashmir, on the other hand, others are employed in Government ser- a Hindu Maharajah held_ sway over a vice, but all are in receipt of privy purses population mainly Muslim. from a Consolidated Fund guaranteed Clearly this heterogeneous collection of by the Constitution. The complete in- autonomous principalities, with widely tegration of these princely units is a differing standards of public administra- remarkable achievement, reinforcing in tion, had no place in a modern State. no small degree the essential unity of the Under the strong hand of Sardar Vallabh- country. bhai Patel, the deputy Prime Minister, the Indian States within India's orbit- III 552 in number-were rapidly brought into the general scheme of things, some VER since the Dominions of Ind1a and willingly, some unwillingly, but all eventu- E Pakistan were constituted, their atti- ally realising that integration in the India tude towards one another has unfor- Union was inevitable. Only in one case tunately been clouded by mutual hostility. was force used. That occured in Hyder- The roots of the malaise, which lie deep abad, where a Muslim clique seized power in history, were responsible for partition, in a state preponderantly Hindu. What- the contention of the All-India Muslim ever the rights and wrongs of India's League being that in a self-governing methods in this particular instance-and India the political, religious and cultural India's action aroused wide-spread criticism rights of the Muslim minority would - the fact remained that the Indian Union not be adequately safeguarded. This al- could not possibly have in the centre of its legation was strongly repudiated by the territory a hostile regime unrepresentative Indian National Congress, which included of the people over whom it ruled. Once some Muslims as well as Hindus, but in resistance collapsed, His Exalted Highness the end partition was effected in an the Nizam came to terms with the Govern- atmosphere of intense communal hatred, ment of India. accompanied by widespread massacres and The form in which the States were migrations on both sides of the Punjab integrated varied like the States them- border. These tragedies left a grim legacy COMMONWEALTH REPUBLIC 35 of communal ill feeling. Without fresh lim inhabitants of Poonch, another part fuel the hostility might have died down of the State adjacent to Pakastin, rose in in a few years, but it had been kept alive support of their co-religionists. The onset in a highly dangerous form by several of winter brought about a stalemate which incidents, by far the most serious of has continued ever since, with the rebels which is the dispute over Kashmir State. and their friends holding some western Kashmir is important to both India and and northern portions of State territory, Pakistan because of its position on the and the State Government, backed by northern frontier of the two countries. Indian troops, administering the main Pakistan considers that Kashmir should bulk of the State. Some time after hos- form part of the Muslim Dominion be- tilities began Pakistan troops entered cause of the predominantly Muslim char- Stat,3 territory in areas where :fighting was acter of its inhabitants and its c1ose in progress on the grounds that the economic ties with Pakistan. India, on Pakistan Government had to protect its the other hand, claims special kinship frontiers. with Kashmir because of the support given by the Indian National Congress HE dispute was referred to the Security in the past to Sheikh Abdulla's popular T Council of the , which party which, by virtue of the Maharajah's drew up a plan-accepted in principle decision, is now the ruling party in the by both India and Pakistan-for holding State. J\foreover, the Indian Government a plobiscite of the inhabitants to decide insists that Kashmir should not go to the State's future. While the "cease fire" Pakistan merely because the Kashmiris under the plan became effective on Janu- are mainly Muslims, but that they should ary 1st., 1949, the U. N. Commission be entitled to choose for themselves, which visited Kashmir to work out the ' without reference to religion, which coun- details of the plebiscite failed to secure try they desire to join. The Maharajah's agreement. It is not within the scope of Government had not decided its accession this article to follow in detail the progress policy when, in the year following parti- of the dispute before the United Nations; tion, Kahsmir was suddenly invaded by all that need be said is that the two fanatical Muslim tribesmen whose move- countries eventually accepted, in April ments the Pakistan authorities were appar- of this year, the appointment of Sir Owen ently unable to control. Dixon, a distinguished Australian judge, A few days after the tribal invasion began to be Mediator in place of the Com- the Kashmir Government hurriedly acced- mission so as to prepare the way for a ed to India and asked the Indian Govern- plebiscite to be administered by Admiral ment for armed protection. This was Chester Nimitz. Men of goodwill every- speedily granted. Indian troops were where must sincerely hope that the latest flown to Srinagar, the State capital, where plan will lead to a peaceful solution, they reached the airport just ahead of since it cannot too strongly be emphasized the raiders. Leaving a trail of loot and that the Kashmir dispute has poisoned murder behind them, the tribesmen had ludo-Pakistan relations since it began, made extremely rapid progress; rushing and will continue to poison them until up the Jhelum Valley, the main approach it is settled. With Indian and Pakistan to Kashmir from the V-l est, they de- i;roops both in · the field in Kashmir the bouched on to the far-famed Vale of two countries were, before the cease fire, Kashmir and headed towards Srinagar. almost in a state of war with one another. On the first flat ground of the Vale they It needs no imagination to envisage the were no match for the war-seasoned troops complete disaster to democracy in Asia of the Indian army, who drove them back which would ensue should there be war to the Jhelum valley and along it for some between India and Pakistan. distance until increasingly difficult ter- How near that danger sometimes is rain and tribal resistance brought their can be judged from recent events in Bengal. progress to a stop. Meanwhile the Mus- Owing to the state of tension between 36 PUBLIC AFFAIRS the two countries, anti-minority riots broke background, enabled the country immed- out in April in the Indian State of v\Test iately to play her full part in the councils Bengal and its neighbour, East Pakistan, of the Commonwealth and the United accompanied by the flight of thousands Nations. From the outset of her career of Hindus from Pakistan into West Ben- as a completely self-governing unit, India gal, and of thousands of Muslims from has been on terms of the closest and most West Bengal into East Pakistan. Highly friendly understanding with Great Britian. inflammatory articles appeared in the news- The long contact between the two countries papers on each side, with open talk of and the goodwill which characterised their war by extremist parties. It was here political settlement, made this remarkable that Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime accord possible. As a member of the Minister of India, and Liaquat Ali Khan, present British Government put it, their the Prime Minister of Pakistan, rose to minds work along the same lines and in great heights of statesmanship. They affairs of state they talk -the same langu- met in Delhi and evolved an elaborate age. India's relations with the other plan to safeguard in future the interests members of the Commonwealth, with the of minorities in both their countries . In exception of Pakistan and South Africa, return for Liaquat Ali Khan's visit to have been uniformly excellent. When, Dehli, Pandit Nehru shortly afterwards for example, Pandit Nehru visited Canada went to Karachi to discuss further out- during his tour of the United States, he standing problems, including inter-Dom- was deeply touched by the wa,rm th of inion trade, which had reached a deadlock his reception from the Canadian people owing to Pakistan's decision not to de- ·which, it was remarked, had a real family value her rupee in terms of sterling de- atmosphere. Even in the case of South valuation. Nevertheless, so strongly had Africa, where the Union Government's feelings in West Bengal been roused that treatment of its Indian citizens and the two Bengali members of Pandit Nehru's Union's racial policy generally are strongly Cabinet resigned in protest against the resented, Pandit Nehru put the issue in a "appeasement" of Pakistan. India and nutshell when he said that the quarrel Pakistan are fortunate in having at their between India and the Union was a family head two Premiers of the calibre of Pandit affair, capable of being dealt with on a Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan. Their family basis. In: his contacts with his continuance in office is one of the best fellow Premiers of the Commonwealth at guarantees of peace between their two the 1949 conference in London, Pandit countries, and of the survival of democ- Nehru earned their affection and esteem, racy in Asia. thereby adding not only to his own per- sonal stature but to that of his country.

IV NDIA'S voice is also heard with respect in I the United Nations, where her spokes- NDIA'S unhappy relations with her men are invariably found on the side of I closest neighbour cannot, however, ob- the smaller nations and of subject peoples scure her assured status both in the everywhere. The part already played Commonwealth and in world affairs. The by the Indian Government in international coming of political freedom found her with affairs is illustrated by its intervention a strong popular Government at the in the Indonesian impasse early in 1949. Centre and popularly elected Governments Following Dutch military action, Pandit functioning in the provinces. Thanks Nehru took the unusual step of inviting to the "Parliamentary mentality" to which thirteen Asiatic, African and Pacific coun- Mahatma Gandhi referred, there was tries to a conference in New Delhi, and it built up during British rule a system of was to him a source of great satisfaction that democracy and of democratic institutions the recommendations of the conference were which gave India marked stability. That very much on the lines ultimately adopted stability coupled with her democratic, by the United N;:i,tions. India has indeed COMMONWEALTH REPUBLIC 37

entered fully into all her United Nations some sterling balances to their credit as responsibilities. the result of the war, and India has a In the field of foreign policy, Pandit highly developed textile industry, big iron Nehru's Government pursues a cautious and steel works (the Tata Iron and Steel course. During his visit to the United Company), a flourishing tea industry and States last year on the invitation of an almost completely nationalised system President Truman, the Indian Premier of railways and irrigation. But parti- was repeatedly pressed to declare himself tion unbalanced India's economy by giving specifically on the side of the Western to Pakistan jute, cotton and food producing Powers. His invariable reply was that areas. India thus found herself in the while India gladly welcomed mechanical same position as Great Britain, with her and technological aid and · cooperation imports greatly exc~eding her exports. on terms of mutual benefit she did not Her main problem is food. Despite its desire to align herself with a particular huge size, pre-partition India imported nation or group of nations. But, he food, mainly rice from Burma, but this added, ''where freedom is menaced· or , shortage became much more acute for the justice threatened or where aggression new India when Pakistan broke away. takes place we cannot be and shall not A recent estimate put India's food deficit be neutral." Nor does Delhi's attitude as four million tons a year; in the last of detachment, which Western observers financial year it was expected that India's may find puzzling but which has its origin adverse balance of trade would be in the in India's recent history, mean that neighbourhood of Rs. 180 crores, or rough- the Government of India is neutral ly £135 millions sterling. In an endeavour in its dealings with Communism in its to redress this adverse balance the Govern- own country. Stern action is taken against ment of India inaugurated a food pro- Communists and others who openly ad- duction drive on a large scale, Pandit vocate the overthrow of popular govern- Nehru's avowed aim being to stop food ment by violent means. The progress of imports entirely by 1951. On the advice Communism in Asia is undoubtedly as . of Lord Boyd-Orr a coordinated food • much of a worry to India as it is to the plan embracing the Centre and the fed- Western . Should the Com- erating States was adopted last year. munist Government of China bring Tibet By more intensive cultivation, reclama- under its ideological sway by force, as it tion of weed infested and new land, tube threatens to do, India will have a Com- well irrigation and the diversion of 'acreage munist State on her borders, although under sugar cane, among other methods, divided from her territory by the main ·it is hoped to increase food production Himalaya range. Her future, as well as by nearly 4½ million tons by the end of that of Pakistan and Ceylon, will be next year. Nobody expects that India watched with concern not merely by the will become fully self-supporting in food rest of the Commonwealth but by the by that date, but there should be a sub- whole Western world, since the three stantial reduction of the present food countries constitute- with India as the deficit. In her uphill task India has centre- a bulwark of democracy in an received a loan of ten million dollars from Asia either Communist or directly menaced the International Bank for the purchase by Communism. of agricultural machinery to bring weed infested land under cultivation. Her dif- ficulties are augmented by the rapid rise V in the population, which grows at the rate of over three millions annually. NDIA'S economy has been subjected to Along with Great Britain, India became I severe strains and stresses since parti- involved last year in the dollar crisis. tion. vVhen the two new Dominions were The devaluation of the pound made a formed, they were left a good legacy by similar revision of the dollar-rupee rate the British Government. They had hand- almost unavoidable, although Pandit Neh- 38 PUBLIC AFFAIRS

ru, announcing the fact, emphasised that heavy electrical and radio plant. To devaluation was only a palliative and assist output, the International Bank has that India's economy depended on in- loaned India 18½ million dollars for the creased food production. Pakistan's de- Damodar Valley project in Bihar and cision not to devalue her rupee-based vVest Bengal. By this project it is hoped on the fact that her economy, thanks to to develope electrical energy so as to her primary products, was balanced- increase India's coal production and at caused serious repercussions in India by the same time lower its cost. Planning completely upsetting all commodity pay- on a large scale is also being undertaken ments. The political ill-feeling between by a National Commission, its object the two countries over Kashmir undoubted- being the coordination of the country's ly prevented a friendly settlement of the economic development. At the end of devaluation problem, with the result that last year, India's Finance :Minister, Dr. complete chaos in their trade relations John Matthai, was able to express the soon developed. There was witnessed the hope that the country had tided over its ridiculous spectacle of India seeking raw worst economic difficulties. The devalua- cotton from overseas, of Pakistan ordering tion of the rupee has led, as in Great coal from South Africa, and of tea being Britain, to a rise in exports, and early in flown from the Bengal and Assam gardens May of this year it was announced that because it could not be transported by India had practically balanced her foreign rail across East Pakistan. Happily the trade in the first nin_e months of the reapproachment between the two Prime current financial year. Ministers which followed the communal While foreign capital, as already noted, outbreak in divided Bengal led to a similar has continuep to play it; part in India's agreement in the economic field. Both industrial development, Indian capital has Governments endorsed terms reached by not done so to the same extent since their delegations in Karachi at the end of partition. This was due in the first years April according to which Pakistan will of independence to a feeling of uncertainty sell raw jute to India and take in return _among industrialists, business men and Indian manufactures. The agreement, the investing public concerning the in- which lasts for three months in the first dustrial policy of the Government of instance, is hailed as an initial step in India. It was feared that the aim of the the revival of trade on a balanced basis Congress Party administration was to between India and Pakistan. foster a ",V-elfare State" by wholesale nationalisation of industries, by widespread N addition to increased food production controls, by 'extravagant concessions to I and the revival of trade with Pakistan, labour and by vast Government-promoted India is now tackling her third hurdle in development schemes. Inflation added the race to balance her economy, namely, to the general nervousness by continuing the scaling down of inflated Government at an alarming rate. More recently con- expenditure. Here again strained rela- ditions have changed for the better. The tions with Pakistan are responsible -for Government, realising that neither Indian defence costs far beyond the normal re- nor foreign capital- both of which are quirements of both countries. Drastic needed-is encourgaed by wholesale na- pruning has meantime been effected in tionalisa~ion and control, has modified capital expenditure schemes. Simultan- its views on those projects. In his last eously with a cut in costs and the arresting Budget the Finance Minister went out of inflation the Government of India is of his way to reassure industry, and it is stimulating industrial production. :F'o- the general view that owing to a shortage reign countries are being encouraged to of technicians, if for no other reason, the invest capital in the country; factories Government is unlikely to consider the in which British, American and Swiss nationalisation of industries other than capital is interested are being planned for those already announced. Legislation to the m.a:nufacture of machine tools and of control industries now before the Central COMMONWEALTH REPUBLIC 39

Assembly is to be radically amended, and body in the country. Already there has some of the Government's costly develop- been a bl'eak away from the Congress of ment schemes have been dropped because its left wing elements, who recently formed of the clamant need for retrenchment a Socialist Party. At the other end of the in public expenditure. political scale are the right wing com- Thanks to Government support, labour munalists, represented by the Hindu conditions have improved tremendously Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Shevak in recent ye_ars . . The result is that Indian Sangh, whose emphasis. is on India as labour is no longer cheap. Nevertheless, Hindu State with a correspondingly stiffer instead of going ahead immediately with attitude towards Pakistan. It does not I a national health service as the Labour seem at the moment that any of these Government did in Britain, the Govern- parties will displace the Congress at the ment of India has wisely decided to hold next elections, although they may gain an inquiry into its feasibility and the in strength. extent to which such a scheme could be But the greatest hope of India- as well supported by both Government and the as of its neighbour Pakistan- is that the public. two countries should live in peace and amity. The chances of them doing so have been immensely fortified in recent VI months by their agreements over the min- ority problem and on the resumption of O sum up, the new India, a member trade. Addressing a joint meeting of T of the British Commonwealth by hel' Indian and Pakistan newspaper editors own free will, already has taken her due at Dehli early in May, Pandit Nehru place not only in the Commonwealth but declared: "It is inevitable that within in the world. The astonishing thing is the next few years India and Pakistan not that she has had setbacks and dif- will not merely be two countries friendly ficulties-these were inevitable- but that to each other but will come far closer to her progress has been so great in so short each other than friendly countries ordin- a time. vVith a population of nearly 350 arily are." He went on to develop the millions, India is bound to play an in- theme that India and Pakistan should creasingly important role in Common- evolve a co_mmon policy in external affairs wealth and international affairs. as in defence, so that, acting together in Internally she is preparing for one of friendly alliance, they could play a power- the greatest experiments in democracy ever attempted-the enfranchisement in ful role npt only in Asia but in the world. , 1951 of over 170 million people, the vast Therein Pandit Nehru showed not merely majority of whom are illiterate, in a true statementship but political vision. country-wide general election. That elec- The two countries al'e essentially one in tion will determine the kind of Govern- that their interests are fundamentally the ment that is to succeed the present one, same. It is by a recognition of this fact which was chosen by the Congress leaders • that they can best serve their own people, as representatives of the largest political the Commonwealth and humanity.