CEU eTD Collection Forging Ninth and Tenth Century Western Europe: AComparative Western Europe: Century Forging NinthandTenth Study of the Viking and Hungarian Activities and Hungarian of theViking Study MA Thesis in Medieval Studies Central European University Central European Miklós Somogyvári May 2009 Budapest CEU eTD Collection Budapest Forging Ninth and Tenth Century Western Europe: AComparative Western Europe: Century Forging NinthandTenth Central Central University,European in Budapest, partial fulfillmentof requirementsthe Thesis totheDepartment submitted of MedievalStudies, Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU Study of the Viking and Hungarian Activities and Hungarian of theViking Study ______of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies Chair, Examination Committee Examination Chair, Miklós Somogyvári Thesis Supervisor (Hungary) May 2009 Examiner Examiner by ii CEU eTD Collection Budapest Forging Ninth and Tenth Century Western Europe: AComparative Western Europe: Century Forging NinthandTenth Central Central University,European in Budapest, partial fulfillmentof requirementsthe Thesis totheDepartment submitted of MedievalStudies, Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU Study of the Viking and Hungarian Activities and Hungarian of theViking Study ______of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies Miklós Somogyvári External Examiner (Hungary) May 2009 by iii CEU eTD Collection Budapest Forging Ninth and Tenth Century Western Europe: AComparative Western Europe: Century Forging NinthandTenth Central Central University,European in Budapest, partial fulfillmentof requirementsthe Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU Thesis totheDepartment submitted of MedievalStudies, Study of the Viking and Hungarian Activities and Hungarian of theViking Study ______of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies ______External Supervisor Miklós Somogyvári Supervisor (Hungary) May 2009 by iv CEU eTD Collection Budapest, 25 May Budapest, 2009 inbeen form submitted any this institution to other higher education forof an academic degree. infringes on any thesis nopart of the of and others, work the usewasmadeof illegitimate andunidentified person’s or and institution’smy research suchonly externalinformation on innotes andas properly credited based no bibliography.I declare that work, own my exclusively is thesis present the that herewith copyright.declare I also declare that no part of the thesis has I, the undersigned, I, the Miklós Somogyvári , candidate for the MA degree in Medieval Studies v ______Signature CEU eTD Collection pedx...... 77 Appendix Bibliography...... 71 ...... 68 Conclusions Historical Analysis of Pagan Attacks; What Devastation Contributed?...... 49 ...... 49 Chapter III The Social Background of Viking and Hungarian Raids...... 31 Chapter II...... 31 Weaponry, tactics, army structure and military intelligence...... 1 Chapter I...... 1 ...... iv Introduction iii Abbreviations...... General attributes of the Hungarian attacks, defensive attempts ...... 66 and conclusions Hungarian attacks in ...... 59 the Frankish Empire General attributes of the Viking attacks, defensive attempts and chapter conclusions...... 58 Viking attacks on the Frankish ...... 49 Empire Introduction...... 49 ...... 47 Chapter Conclusions Virtues and the world interpretation of the Hungarians...... 44 Virtues and the world interpretation in Scandinavia...... 37 The three-layered pattern of Hungarian society and the Hungarian state structure...... 35 The three-layered pattern of the Old Norse society and the Scandinavian state structure...... 32 Introduction...... 31 ...... 29 Chapter Conclusions Pagan military ...... 26 intelligence ...... 24 Hungarian Tactics Horses and harness...... 22 Hungarian weaponry in the ninth and tenth centuries...... 19 Hungarian army structure in the ninth and tenth centuries...... 18 ...... 16 Vikings Tactics ...... 12 Viking Ships Viking weaponry in the ninth century...... 10 Viking army structure in the ninth century...... 8 Frankish ...... 6 Tactics Frankish weaponry in the ninth century...... 3 Frankish army structure in the ninth century...... 1 Introduction...... 1 Setting the scene...... ix Sources and methodology...... vi Structure of the thesis...... v Foreword...... iv Table of Contents ii CEU eTD Collection DAI: De Administrando Imperio DAI:De Administrando Germanicarum, rerum Scriptores Historia Germaniae Monumenta S.: N. Germ. rer. SS MGH in usum Germanicarum rerum Scriptores Historia Germaniae Monumenta Germ: rer. SS MGH folio in Scriptores Historia Germaniae Monumenta SS: MGH Nova Series Nova editi separate scholarum Abbreviations iii CEU eTD Collection 1 other from each distant cultures two these for at least a century. Empire and Frankish the Europe threaten to were able cultures pagan howthese of question the To accomplish this goal I have chosen to writeterm. a comparative study in in Europe’s development they though they contributed still a long caused destruction Europe of their activities. I will examine these their can successthroughout Europe factorsbe explainedby mostexamining factors the important of as a complex that show to is goal My system. centuries. tenth and ninth the in I Italy also Northern and want Empire Frankish the to show that even Foreword already available and known ingredients. by the fact that a comparisonnot too significantin the first phase of the Viking and Hungarian attacks. My research isjustified is it but exist also differences willTemporal cultural. and geographical mainly alwaysis distance This them. create something between distance the because of probably each other, to compare them to asingle effort without new or something groups, treating every interesting and possible field within orHungarian Old Norse studies, but more from the societies. Hungarian inidentifying of Scandinavian similarities andthe activity patterns and peripheral the differences civilisation, as a test case. The Franks serve as a kind of control group or operational basehelp to Bothgeographical in and cultural sense. A further aim of the study is to raise new conceptions for reaching a better understanding for reaching abetter is raise study A further newconceptions to the aim of I have devoted my thesis a comparativeto study of the Viking and Hungarian activities in Numerous studies have dealt with the question of the temporary ascendancy of these of ascendancy temporary the of question the with dealt have studies Numerous Introduction 1 using the Franks, a Western European Christian European Western a Franks, the using iv CEU eTD Collection societies, examining their social stratification, layers defined by birth rights, fame or wealth. or fame rights, birth by defined layers stratification, social their examining societies, verify. to hard itself,but still has not gotten The credit. main for reason thisits is methods that are historically weaponry the than important more was opinion my in which intelligence, military the on stress ascendancy over Europe, therefore Ihave to proceed carefully when dealing with this field. I will pagan it the for that wasso responsible popular declared alone was factor military Formerly the intelligence. and tactics military war, of instruments the inshort, or horses, and ships, weaponry, conclusions. summary will focus only chapters the of historical. Each social the and the military, the namely, field, selected particularly on a general overview backed upStructure ofthethesis with some case studies and will endideas. earlier)nineteenth (and with basedon stereotypes from move away and societies ofthese impacts the help objectify will was studied getits correctplaceso farandfield ratio.This what in separately will correct the whereevery amatrixgroup factors of create to Iplan origin. of regardless Hungarian, Arab or extended Ph.D. research everyto attacking group, beitWestern or Eastern Scandinavian, Slavic, in be an appliedlater which findingand divergences can anticipate majorcorrespondences or social factors took part in the success of these peripheral cultures but a combination of these. I The second chapter will treat the social backgrounds of the socialthe will backgrounds andHungarian Scandinavian The of chapter second treat willThe firstmostchapter obvious deal with mostthe visible system, partof this and the This thesis has three chapters, each of them treats, compares and contrasts show not in only is activitiesthat to military goal toestablishAnother patterns pagan here one v CEU eTD Collection quite detailed concerning the Hungarians and sometimes even mention Scandinavians although mention andsometimesScandinavians even detailed theHungarians quite concerning Latin. The second great category is the group of Arabic sources or excerpts from them which are concerningboth Viking andHungarian movements and all Frankishthe sources in were recorded Ipredominantlywords. Latin they mostsources numerous use as extensive are the and field and archaeology. experimental providedby Iuse data the data caseof the them.archaeological In contextualise properly about this era and its events, although I had bearto in mind the circumstances of their creation to firsthandinformation Igot method With this in original. sources Latin the translations. Itreated case of Arab,the Greek,Old and Norse Old English sources I usedHungarian and English Sources andmethodology environmental history is animportantaspect in dealing with these topics. as attackers of homelands the mapsofthe addthree-dimensional Iwill appendix the military and social evolution and development through responses destructionto by the pagans. In describe to made, attacks these that show contribution is the to chapter last this aimof The main Christian and paganworlds. ledworld tothe brutality of and their attacks some of mutual the misunderstandings the between a closer look at the world views of these taken as virtues orshameful things. By this paganexamining segment of their Iwill introduce cultures societies. In my opinion their conceptionConnected toof thisthe topic I will examine the spiritual and physical abilities and features that were I will introduce the most important written sources that will appear in this thesis in a few in a thesis in this appear will that sources written important most the introduce will I important methodology.written a close-reading Inthe sources most I usedwith only the Italy. andNorthern Empire Frankish suffering the topic of the will treat section lastThe vi CEU eTD Collection Magno muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000692 (Accessed: 18May 2009). 13 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000890 (Accessed: 19May 2009). 12 2009). 11 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000869 (Accessed: 19May 2009). Einhard’s 10 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000883 (Accessed: 20May 2009). 9 2009). http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000868 (Accessed: 25May of parts used also 8 Critical edition: 15-285. Quellen zur Deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters Gestae Saxonicae the period between 830and882. between period the 7 1971). from until Lorsch 790 events the 873 Cologne treatingand Korvei,” 6 Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 50, (1890). I used to this Annales Laurissenses maiores Laurissenses Annales 5 Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, (Hannover: Hahn, 1883). 3 usum scholarum 6, (Hannover, 1895). maiores etEinhardi, 2 material on the Hungarians, consisting of only two works. is source Greek The third group Væringjar. theSwedish-Finnish of activity mostly the treating 4 Historica,Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum usumin scholarum 12, (1979). Critical edition: Critical edition: “Ekkehardi IV. Casus Sancti Galli / Ekkehard IV. St. Galler Klostergeschichten,” Critical edition: Albert Bauer and Reinhold Rau (eds. and trans.), “Die Sachsengeschichte des Widukind von Widukind des Sachsengeschichte “Die trans.), and (eds. Rau Reinhold and Bauer Albert edition: Critical Critical edition: Critical edition: Critical edition: Critical edition: Critical edition: Critical edition: Ermentarius, Critical edition: Einhard, Critical edition: , Among the Latin sources the first is first the sources Among the Latin 13 Quellen zur Geschichte der sächsischen Kaiserzeit, which was allegedly written by Notker Stammerer. the by Notker written whichwasallegedly Vita Karoli Magni Annales Xantenses Annales Annales Bertiniani, Annales regni Francorum inde aba. 741 usque ad a.829,qui dicuntur, Annales Laurissenses Annales Xantenses etAnnales Vedastini, Regino, Annales Laureshamenses, Alamannici, Guelferbytani, et Nazariani, De Carolo Magno, 6 ed. FriedrichKurze, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in written by Widukind of Corvey,and the work Annales Alamannici Annales Annales Iuvanenses, Vita Karoli Magni, Chronicon Aquitanicum Reginonis , Ex Miraculis Sancti Filiberti 11 , 2 Ermentarius’ which treats the period between 741 and 828. As between acomplement 741 and828. period whichthe treats 4 , a work that was compiled from two separate parts written in written parts separate two from was compiled that , awork ed. Georg Waitz, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum Scriptores Historica, Germaniae Monumenta Waitz, Georg ed. Iused some parts of the abbatis Chronicon cum continuatione Treverensi, MGH Germ.N.SS rer. 12, S. 76,Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html (Accessed: 18May , MGH SS 30.2,Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- 8 , (Darmstadt:Freiherr vom Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 10 1991), AnnalesIuvanenses Ex Miraculis Sancti FilibertiEx Miraculis , MGH SS 2, Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: 2, SS MGH , vii Annales Regni FrancorumAnnales Regni (Darmstadt: Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 8., ed. Bernhard vonSimson, Monumenta Germaniae , MGH Source:SS 15.1, http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Chronica 3 and the 7 of Ekkehard from St. Gallen. I , 9 Chronicom Aquitanicum 5 of Regino of Prüm,the Annales Bertiniani , 12 or, by other name, the work ed. Friedrich Kurze, Friedrich ed. MGH SS 1, Source: MGH SS 1, Ausgewählte De Carolo , dealing Res , 10 CEU eTD Collection America. This territory though did not mean him any more than Iceland of course what he also mentioned. also he what of course Iceland than more any him mean did not though territory This America. to reference first the is what Vinland – described European first the –as he which among ofNorway King the monsters sea huge command to able are they to which with come spells cast can there people the like ashore north, far of the description and their speech is like the grinding23 of the teeth.22 He even mentioned the21 farthest lands of 20 written downin England. around the sixth or seventhmentioned this word earlierthan Adam century of Bremen. It is highly likely that the poem was composedwhen inanoral form the Anglo-Saxons were still living in South Jutland, although it was only 19 Ascomannos… Aurum ibi plurimum, quod raptu congeritur pyratico. Ipsienimpyratae,quos illi Wichingos appellant,nostri personal Archbishopacquaintances, the Adalbertof Hamburg-Bremen, whotravelled personally 18 17 updated Hungarian translationof book.the farthe is north dubious, was named after the long north-south trade route along the western coast of the country. 16 of the coast western the along route trade north-south long the after named was named forits leading nation, asDenmark got its name from the Frankishborder county, Danmarc, while Norway this tribe importanceTheir and is justifiedDenmark. by Hedeby, and the fact thatRussia Sweden’s Novgorod, theSwedish between name, connections important most wordthe being North the in fame “ Sweden,in Uppland in the vicinity of today’s Stockholm. Their port cities, Birka and Helgö gathered a great deal of insularum aquilonis word Viking ( Sweden the Scandinavian customary law, customary Scandinavian the tomes and gives the first and sole account of Svear of – a pagan account sole andfirst the gives tomes and 15 University Press, 1959). And: Adamus Bremensis, Rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 2, (Hannover,1876). pontificum, Magistri Adam Bremensis, 14 Hamburg-Bremen.His the work, 1075,byAdamof centre around episcopal whowasthe canonandmagisterof Bremen, of His information seems to be correct only about Denmark and Southern Sweden, but he used tale elements in the in elements tale used but he Sweden, Southern and Denmark about only correct be to seems information His Johannes Brøndsted, Roesdahl 2007, 82. Roesdahl 2007, 74. The Old English poem, the Adamus Bremensis, Roesdahl 2007, 198-199. Else Roesdahl, The Critical editions: Svears The most important Latin source on the Vikings was written in the eleventh century, eleventh the in written was Vikings the on source Latin important most The 16 , mentioningnames, the of godsÓðin,Þór andthe Frey. were the original inhabitants and the most powerful Germanic pagan tribe in the central part of part central the in tribe pagan Germanic powerful most the and inhabitants original the were Source: http://hbar.phys.msu.ru/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm (Accessed:March 31 2009). wichingus A vikingek A Adamus Bremensis, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis A vikingek , to the geography and economy of the north. the of economy and geography the to , ríki HistoryArchbishops ofHamburg-Bremen, ofthe [The [The Vikings] ” meaning “kingdom”. Sweden is the only Germanic Scandinavian country that was that country Scandinavian Germanic only the is Sweden “kingdom”. ” meaning ) 23 18 Widsið his other data is ofhis becausehe his data accounts correct usedthe other mostly in a Latin source. [The Vikings], trans. Judit Vásárhelyi,(Budapest: Corvina Kiadó, 1983), 45-46. , whatpreserved inthe Codex Exoniensis, atenth-century codexfrom Exeter, ed. Bernhard Schmeidler, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Historica, Germaniae Monumenta Schmeidler, Bernhard ed. Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum 21 , trans. Vera Bánki (Budapest:PressGeneral Kiadó, 2007),27.used I the and he devoted his whole fourth book, the book, fourth whole his devoted he and Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte,Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae 19 viii He writes about the slave trade of the Vikings, Sverige , was formed from the self denomination of denomination self the from formed was , 15 – shrine or churchin –shrine or Uppsala, 22 17 F.J.Tschan (New ColumbiaYork: Although his data concerning Although his data He is the first to mention the , 14 contains four , Capitulum 6: Descriptio 20 CEU eTD Collection kormányzása. R.H. (Washington, J. Jenkins, 1967).And: GyulaMoravcsik, 31 Sukrullah, and Behgetüt-tevarih. 30 (Szeged: Szegedi Középkortörténeti Könyvtár7, 1995). 29 Vikings and theSetting the scene tribe confederation VII. Constantine knownthe sources, as HungariansKitab al-tanbikh/ (or Magyars, as they called 28 the Jaihani tradition, Jaihani the (The ornament workofJaihani, of preservedaccounts), the inthe ofhisfollowers only in works 27 olderoriginal manuscript according to Else Roesdahl. (Roesdahl 2007, 23.) Vikings,Records, Memorials and Myths, Kristó, Gyula by the AM 748 4 ChronicleAnglo-Saxon part of the used ashort Edda preservedEdda two in first,manuscripts, the the Codex Regius Gks 23654 parts of the Elder or Poetic Edda, the Poetic Edda, or Elder of the parts 26 Estridsen, and it is more likely, that a simple canon had to travel to meet the king(Roesdahl than vice versa. 2007, 130.)25 states 24 that he did go there. I also think that he went to Denmark, as he met the king Sven around 1050, court Danishroyal to the Constantine Porphyrogenitus, work the Al-Bakri, Gardezi, Rustah, Ibn were These Gyula Kristó, Critical edition: Critical edition: István Bernáth, István According Brøndsted 1983,45. to Brøndsted Adamof Bremen nevertravelled to RoesdahlScandinavia, although Roesdahl 2007, 63. All of the sources on the Hungarians were critically edited and translated into Hungarian into edited and translated werecritically onthe Hungarians All of sources the In my thesis I compare military and sociological aspects of the northern pirates known as [Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio], Administrando De Porphyrogenitus, [Constantine o Taktika A honfoglalás koránakírott forrásai was written somewhat later according to Ian Page. See: Raymond Ian Page, Ian Raymond See: Page. Ian to according later somewhat written was Skandináv mitológia The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, The Greenlanders' saga, 29 The book of warning), and the work of Al-Makdisi. I also used two Greek therefore I used his IusedareGardezi’s therefore Iused sources edition. The of Emperor León VI and the 30 the works of Al-Masudi (the Al-Masudi of works the . 28 Flateyarbók De Administrando Imperio, [Scandinavian mythology], (London: British Museum Press, 1995),12. These bothare copies of an trans. George Johnston(Ottawa: Oberon Press, 1976). from the from 24 ed. G. N. Garmonsway (London: J.M. Dent, 1992). Hávamál and the king of Denmark, Sven Estridsen. [The written sources of the era of the Hungarian conquest], Hungarian of the era the of sources written [The Grœnlendingasaga Hudud al-Alam ix , the , Greek texted.Gyula Moravcsik, English translation by Loddfáfnir Song Loddfáfnir De AdministrandoImperio Muru (Budapest:CorvinaKiadó, 2005),44. Elder The Bíborbanszületett Konstantín: Abirodalom [The borders of the World], Marvazi, Aufi, Marvazi, World], of the borders [The ÷ (Budapest, 1950, Szeged, 2003). al-dahab/ o was written around 1265, the second, 27 and for a short glimpse the and the and Golden and Fields, the Rígsþula Zayn al-akhbar Chronicles of the 31 25 of Emperor I used some used I . 26 I also CEU eTD Collection 33 below. 77 footnote See: known. also are Rus” Væringjar, “Vikings, or non-Scandinavian Christian as ethnicities or religion to reference any bear notions these (Uppland, Sweden).today Even call SwedesFinnish Stender-Pedersen’s explanation, orthe Finnish“Rus” probably originating from the geological nameRoþrsland Swedishword “Væringjar”,meaning “travelling merchantthe supply who can own business”his either according to Adolf used sources the “Viking” word of the instead East the in as West, the raiding were who Scandinavians piracy and “Viking”notion the plunder covers Therefore the meaning or role. of those peoplestanding from allsocialsocial strata their of temporarily regardless annuallyand campaigns on conducted go sea to raiding,able of physically were who of men anyconsisting group composite a I mean layer” land,social “vertical term new the Under society. Norse Old Western and traded explanationsthe instead. This means that the word “Viking” bootythroughout my work means a vertical social layerin aroundabroad this topic, althoughI am very well aware of it. Iinterpret the word as a composition of theexisting or at home.32 One can apply this term only to those abitAge on because thebeginningsof Vikingblurry Hungarian the Westare andattacks the the dates ofstickinginstead to method have this can be chosen dates added. I which,course, of my in of problem chapters thesis. the of complex this addressing themainelements asystem tothisAs a problem I created response andtwentieth century. nineteenth inthe tried scholars as reason, unitary a single explained with be simply not can and multilayered as be seen must success this for reasons The occasions. yearsa few for almost excepton ahundred attacks these adequately to was notabletorespond operation. for They successfully quite Europe raided along and time, for some reason Europe called Etelköz (Scandinavia in the case both groups acted samethe of way.They definedfollowed patterns, using their homelands the Vikings, and the area between the Dnieper and Vikings.confederacy the than Dniester rivers like coherent andits wasmore membersand organisation meant an tribal artificial “Magyar” layer member of social a vertical themselves). At first sight they seem to be far from each other. The word “Viking” referred to a Meaning the “Mid-Etel” where Etel means “river”. The word originates from the Turkish word Turkish the from originates word The “river”. means Etel where “Mid-Etel” the Meaning Theword “Viking” has triggered serious scholarly not debates. Iam intending toshow entire debatethe process The time of my range isdefined butdates study notby of to exact periods attacks the Despite fundamental differences, these cultures can be compared and contrasted because contrasted and be compared can cultures these differences, fundamental Despite 33 and later the Carpathian Basin in the case of the Hungarians) as bases of 32 in the early medieval Scandinavian society, while the name the while society, Scandinavian medieval early inthe ruotsalaiset x where the stem of the adjective is ätil ruots- . . None of CEU eTD Collection their success. their of factors similar the distinctive to findout and group Franks asacontrol activities, usingthe their and cultures peripheral non-Christian two these contrast and compare to opportunity they must have faced the same enemies with the same background. This fact raises the and background roughly social of the invaders.They the attacked therefore territories same the weapons tactics, the by explained be can success this extent what to out find to and ascendancy Merseburg/Riade in 933 and Augsburg in 955. at ofthe Magyars until defeats from severe the lasted 860s the period Western raiding means roughly years between 100 mid-780sandthelatethe 890s. Inthe Hungarian case the only new lands of the West and ended with serious military defeats. In the case of the Vikings, this era raiding parties. Thisfirstera slowly intoalargedeveloped scale pagan settler activity into the mostlyblows with small only dealing quick the originalreturned raiders homelandsthe of to from started and attack single whenevery tactic, hit-and-run socalled the began whatwith Age. Viking of the date starting than “official” later the years thatisforty only 833, after started assaults large-scale the but Frankish Empire and Northern Italy. The firstViking raidsreached the empirein 799 and810, in the West. The second problem beattested can paganpresence the before attacks these that consideration into taking eras without is the fact that new of points starting the as dates these used have myscholars isthat problem first the epochs thesisthese deals only with the for of beginning hasexactdates the one infamous raids.Although toparticularly and connected territory of the The main of see comparisonpurpose this is theto of Viking roots the and Hungarian era the Empire, Frankish the reached what movements the of phase first the examined I xi CEU eTD Collection attackers on thebattlefields. on attackers Frankish military independent connectorganisation studies theand two weaponry to onthe identicalthe and sense) religious and asocial both (in contemporaries their to background enemy,non-European their arrival, of time the striking, of way thethe was them between connection only The Franks.different. Therefore Viking were and andHungarian distinctive, quite travellingmethods rather,totally weaponry or the below, shown be will it as because, itimportant is This study. my of scope is the within not is it reasonable military background as for comparison, the a basis analyse not although itsI will as development to presentFrankish the describe I willfirst briefly group, To createthecontrol sources. from written a short overview aremainly strategies known graves, the while orleaders’ comes from warriors’ equipped well of thereason for this distribution is that most of the information about weapons, ships, and horses I based my study on archaeological finds supplemented by written ontactics. The bywritten sources findssupplemented my I based archaeological study on xii CEU eTD Collection element. unimportant an as cavalry Frankish described Agathias and Procopius Both army. Frankish Bernard the on accounts Byzantine sixth century two of interpretations on the debates scholarly triggered S. Bachrachleastfrom infantry ofFrankish The has at and cavalry Merovingian the question cavalry times. questionedFrankish army structure inthe ninth century this concluding shed light between Scandinavians similarities the on Hungarians. and the that thethey still managedFrankish to achieve inand and space technology from each other far were Hungarians and Scandinavians cultures. the same result cavalry against the Franks. Therefore was history of pagan destruction I founditbe the tomost important factor militaryI of success. will use them to the examining thoroughly after because intelligence military on the emphasis place aspecial will I Frankish Empire. the over formain the pagansuccess the been have could reason Vikings the of structure army the nor Hungarians the of tactics distinctive very the neither that show to Scandinavian and Hungarian cultures on the basis of the Frankish data. My main goal with this is Introduction Franks will serve as a control group as they were common enemies for both peripheral forboth common enemies as they were group serveasacontrol will Franks According to archaeological and written sources the Frankish army consisted of heavy of consisted army Frankish the sources written archaeological and to According of military the structure compare and tactics, the weaponry, to going Iam In thischapter Weaponry, army tactics, structure intelligenceand military Chapter I 1 CEU eTD Collection (Mainz: Hase & Koehler Verlag, 1968), 11. 42 41 40 Larsen, (London: Allen&Unwin,1930), 91. 617 although there is little evidence on that. See: Axel Olrik, Axel See: that. on evidence little is there although 617 as early as Isles British the reached already attacks Scandinavian that stated scholars Some 789. in Wessex south 39 Iberian Peninsula who attacked Aquitania and southernthe Frankish marks (frontier territories) since 711. 38 37 SaxonsThe had topay an annual tribute of 300 horses. 36 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 18. 35 34 against the Frankish inAquitania Empire in 799 more versatile but slower the theydefeated and still theFranksdid showed army upwith as a combined of attackers the Christiannone Therefore armies. horsemen. exclusively were Hungarians the while This cavalry had also they though was the time of the first pagans.the The twoVikings were predominantly foot soldiers in Westerntheir campaigns even Viking than attacks versatile more were probably Franks that means It cavalry. and infantry of army composite than horsemen Byzantine army. This inproportion casethe of Franksthe larger, was they hadfoot more soldiers own perception inhorses. yearly taxes pay to their on the army.process of empire building The proportion of infantry estates. breeding of horse to cavalry partimportant of army the laws according concerning to horsekeepingandthedeveloped system was one to one in the Hungarian raid in in Bavaria 862. Szabolcs de Vajay, Roesdahl 2007, 118. GwynJones, The first recorded Scandinavian – most likely Norwegian – attack against Western Europe happened in Portland, in happened Europe Western against – attack Norwegian likely – most Scandinavian recorded first The Ionly Viking the Hungariantreat and examples. first The non-Christian attackers were Muslims the from the Bachrach 1970, 439. Rosamond McKitterick, Charles Bowlus,R. Bernard S. Bachrach, “Procopius, Agathias and the Frankish Military,” When invaders first the Charles Bowlus also emphasised the crucial role of the Frankish heavy cavalry in the in cavalry heavy Frankish the of role crucial the emphasised also Bowlus Charles A History of the Vikings, 37 , but it did not mean that cavalry was unimportant to them. Der Eintritt des UngarischenDer Eintritt Stämmebundes indieEuropäische Geschichte(862-933), Franks, Moravians, andMagyars. ThestrugglefortheMiddle Danube,788-907, TheFrankish Kingdom under the Carolingians 751-987, 34 35 , and it is also very telling that the Franks in 753 wanted the Saxons 38 42 (London: Oxford University Press, second ed. 2001), 195. 2001), ed. second Press, University Oxford (London: arrived to the frontiers of the Frankish Empire they met a met they Empire Frankish the of frontiers the to arrived 36 Most likely the Byzantine authors were influenced by their by influenced were authors Byzantine the likely Most 2 40 Viking Civilization, and in Friesland in 810 Speculum trans. J.W. Hartmann and H.A. 45/3 (Jul. 1970): 435-441, 440. (London: Longman, 1983), 45. 41 and the first 39 CEU eTD Collection France KellyFrance and DeVries (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing2008), Ltd, 249-270, 262-263. sax was The asingle 48 case. one Gregory of Tours gives five accounts47 on the francisca1970, 436. and he mentioned they becan used, if necessary, throwingfor a like javelin, andin also, to hand combat…hand thatTranslation: Bachrach this weapon could be thrown only in 46 45 44 Kézikönyvtár, 1997),67. edged 43 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000871 (Accessed: 06May 2009). vocantur, regnum eiusdem populantur named the mid-length, barbed heavy javelin named javelin heavy barbed mid-length, the Inthe ninthavailableit weapons. could havecentury of consisted oflightspears, several types Frankish weaponry intheninth century due wrong to arrowheadfinds numerous the inFrankish graves. See also: but their common point was that the Franks diduse not bows. question in this differ basically Agathias of and Procopius accounts century Thesixth sources. Frankish and andof Byzantine comparison because of interpretation again the debated scholarly local counts. by conscriptions were made the the although king the only serve to had and lands their of revenues the from themselves Germanic, and Slavic wars. The core of the army was the infantry. The foot soldiers had equipto army butitstructures was reorganised during theeighth and ninth duringcenturies theMuslim, SimonCoupland, “CarolingianArms andArmorin Century,” theNinth Bachrach1970, 437. Although Procopius describes weapon this as mainthe throwing weaponof infantry, the Agathias, Bachrach 1970, 438. Bachrach 1970, 438. Imre Imre Papp, scramasax, sax, scramasax, The armament of the Frankish foot soldiers was very complex having a wide selection of selection a wide having complex very was soldiers foot Frankish the of armament The The Carolingian military hadorganisation its roots in Merovingian the and Gallo-Roman francisca Annales BertinianiAnnales Historiae NagyKároly és kora , what was also used as throwing weapon in close quarter combat, in quarter weapon close used asthrowing was also , what II.5: …The angóns ( or , MGH SS rer. Germ. 5, 60: semispatum [Charlemagne and his era], (Debrecen: Csokonai Kiadó, Történelmi Kiadó, Csokonai (Debrecen: era], his and [Charlemagne WD9 48 , in rare casesthedouble edgedlongsword ( ’ DJJZQD9 43 3 angón ) are spears which are neither very short nor very long; The question of infantry weaponry was also was weaponry infantry of question The Sed ethostesantea illispopulis inexperti,Ungri qui (’ . Source:. http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- DJJZQ 44 This perception was proved beto 45 ) 46 Warfare inthe Dark Ages, , the one- or two-bladed axe spata 47 the single the ed. John ) 49 , and , CEU eTD Collection 54 what meant that they expensive. they meant that were also what 53 value. 52 51 50 century. the ninth to disappeared it therefore redundant became manoeuvrable more sword the making grip inthe swordplay. Withtowards the combination weapon of the power ofthe of the longsword gravity and the the manoeuvrability shifting of the sax the lattertriangle elongated an form to started blades the and techniques metalworking better to place its gave technique damascene the century ninth the in while parallel were edges the and technique damascene with made were ones earlier ofthe blades The 800. before warriorsfoot only forthe horsemen. shape Its in the ninth century wassignificantly different from thelongsword 49 longsword. graves, but by lateeighthcenturythe sax wasthe already beginning todisappear dueto evolutionthe of the edged weapon made of iron, some 65 to 80 centimetres in length. In the seventhcentury it was a standard feature of shield of his enemy or even his person and give the final blow with another weapon. down the tear opportunity the to Frankish warrior gave the enemy fleshandshield of the or himself by cutting theironhead off of woodenhaft.the Theiron barbsin stuck armour,the freeing from thevictim coverprevented haft’siron the the barbed headwhile paralyse them with and along iron covered haft. Itwas used pierceto through the shields orarmours of enemies and edgemade well carburised pieceone of of joined coreby the to steel hammering. weight 700gramsaround Swords and from were the structure. constructed iron anda soft a core the centimetres, 90 around length the namely onwards, century fifth the from characteristics own smiths. These weapons of them of through Arabs from products their art tothe works Russiansandpreferringthese the had a very long prehistory in the Germanic past sharing the same and javelins. arrows. and bows Richard Underwood, Vasco La Salvia, high afairly means what solidi, seven to three between varied swords ofthese price The 262. 2008, Coupland Bachrach 1970, 438. Bachrach 1970, 438. Coupland 2008, 263.Due priceto high its 90-100the centimetres long longswords were not compulsory forthe Frankishfamous were longswords in ninth the century due totheir outstanding quality The most fearful of the Frankish weapons wasmaybethe weapons of Frankish The most fearful the 51 Archeometallurgy of Lombard swords, 50 It seems that the most important weapons were the different types of spears of types different werethe weapons important most the seems that It Anglo-Saxon Weapons and Warfare, 52 Nevertheless, this did not keep Nevertheless, this didnot Vikingsthe and 4 (Budapest: Central European University, 1996), 33. (Stroud: Tempus, 1999), 44. angón with a barbed iron head a barbediron with 53 54 CEU eTD Collection Gregory of Tours. Romans in thefourth century were stilland guarding their different ethnicity sixththe in century according to 59 58 57 56 55 Franks inminority inwere army their own the sometimes that fact the to led This army. the into them integrating without but Romans Frankish like rule Saxons, Taifals, Alemans,Alans, Burgundians and non-Germanic Gallo- composition. The Frankish army consisted not only of Franks but of other Germanic tribes under temporary armieslikely most made of leather. at that were cheaperones The metal objects. items wereexpensive these longswords similarly to that time implies that – only commanders of armies are expected tohave theirhelmets own andthis suggests did not have any regularised weaponry or regularisedMost of them though were probably armed only with axes or bows as these were the cheapest. were allowed andeager tokeep identity theirinside Frankish the army and Empire. in alien difference Hungarian aserious side resulting army The incorporated the units structure. galea ( helmets mention rarely Written sources ninth centuries. or from eighth the preserved expensive. which werequite have been combined with any type of armour from thick cloth or leather to metal breastplates Bachrach 1970, 435. Bachrach 1970, 435. This fact is Coupland 2008,proven 252. by those Coupland 2008,Taifals 258. who were Coupland 2008, 269.settled near Poitiers as garrison still by the ) and if they do, they do not refer to their shape or material. The words of the of words The material. or shape their to refer not do they do, they if and ) As the diversity of the war equipment shows the Carolingian army – just like any state they financial of warriors weapons. useany the these could According to the of For protection, round or elongated leather covered wooden shields were used. It could It protection, elongatedwooden For leathershields wereused. covered or round 57 56 The question ofhelmets is asnograveproblematic finds 58 what never what happened Scandinavian and in the 5 59 capitularia helmus, 55 CEU eTD Collection bow and a quiver arrows. of by scattering the remnants of the hostile army. hostile the of remnants the scattering by battle finishedthe cavalry flanking lines enemy.The of the breakthebattle a wedgeto forming by and thebattle begin wasto task Its were deeper. contingents Frank the although formation Tactics Frankish equalled price the of 50-60 cows. horse, the helmet, the iron breastplate or scalemail, the long shield, the leg armour and the lance elaborate, stronger and, therefore, more expensive.The whole gear of a mounted warrior with the more wasmuch mounted warriors of the armour the is that difference fight. Another mounted throwing weapons butpreferredthe flail asthis instead, for weapon especially was designed of the footwarriors. sax to Fulrad, abbot of Fulrad, inabbot of to year806. the Saint-Quentin the documents, two is basedon armament cavalry 64 63 62 61 60 ( alongsword with musta shield,lance, bearmed orders, by compulsory royal prescribed was weaponry Papp 1997, 111. Papp 1997, 110-111. Coupland 2008, 250. Coupland 2008, 250. or archbishops. bishops clerics, ranking orhigh counts local to given were capitularia The disappeared from the weaponry of the cavalry to the ninth century as well just like in the case The regular battle order of the Frankish infantry was the thick and closed, phalanx-like closed, and thick the was infantry Frankish the of order battle regular The used never cavalry the that was infantry the of weaponry the to difference significant A The Frankish cavalry was the core of the later classical medieval knighthood. Their knighthood. medieval classical later the of core the was cavalry Frankish The 62 The date of these sources must be taken into consideration the as consideration into be taken must thesesources of Thedate 63 6 64 61 Capitulare missorum Thismilitary had great though organisation spata These sources prescribe that every horseman every that prescribe Thesesources ), ashortsword ( capitularia . 60 Ourknowledge onthe and a royal letter written sax , semispatum ), and a CEU eTD Collection Viking attacks Vikinghad attacks begunandfort the fully wasfinished network developed endthe only at of developinbutthisregular into them,started the method onlyafter garrisons regions the coastal settle and develop forts build thesystem to was areas border and mark to such coastal and defendfrontiers. the Frankishto attacked way quickly The enemies and disappearing appearing when defence the to setback meanta serious – campaigns before the case in every organised be to had army the that meant what – army regular standing a of lack The armies. working 69 68 67 66 68, 45. BetweenUngarn,” East and West.Landnehmenden Über der die Taktik GrenzeDie – zwischen Hungarians Ost und ancient West. the of tactics military “The Hidán, Csaba See: day. War, of Art kilometres a day while he gives approximately fifty kilometres to mounted troops. See: Paddy Griffith, Hungarian and attacks. Viking Griffithof the speed calculated ofthe mirror thatthe aViking army in worse on foot even is couldspeed have marched marching approximatelyThis troops. the twenty-five behind oxcarts on carried presumably closer to the lower end of this range if65 I take into consideration that all the equipments of the army was territory to uphold the Frankish rule. camps. fortificated its from enemy the remove to supplies the off cut and energies their divide to directions different several from enemy the on converged units different The enemies. their against method flexibility interchangeability. the usually Onattacking and leaders used the pincers encircling individually scholarshipas earlier proposed. dux called simply leaders by led was it campaigns in lesser or army the led had themselves princes day.hoursfour per move to only three disadvantages. It took months to organise the army and its process was very slow as it could Bowlus 1995,20. Bowlus 1995,19. Bowlus 1995,19. Papp 1997, 111. 111. Papp1997, Basedmy own itcalculations upon more could meant than have nine-sixteen not kilometres aday . 66 The ninth century Frankish warriors and their allies were fighting as units and not and units as fighting were allies their and warriors Frankish century ninth The After conquering a given area only a low number of the troops ( of troops number the After a low agiven conquering area only (London: Greenhill Books,103. 1995), Csaba gaveHidán fifty sixty Hungariansto kilometres to the a 68 69 The defence of the Empire was adequate against similarly against adequate Empirewas of Thedefencethe 65 Following the Germanic habit the king or the royal 67 7 Between these contingents there was great was there contingents these Between ed. Csilla Siklódi (Budapest: Promptus, 1996), 39- scarae ) left in the new The Viking CEU eTD Collection 73 most detailed The account fromcountries. the Scandinavian in ruling kings more or three even were there sometimes that sources by Latin informed is also a significant difference that the fleet strong enough to give orders to the to orders give to enough strong fleet the grace of God, while a while God, of grace the eachother completely. A 72 territories. inland Russian to connected strongly more is though cavalry Swedish The Swedish. the like just elements, Roesdahl 2007, 203. From the Oseberg tapestry it seems highly likely Norwegiansthat also had some cavalry Source: http://thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 04May 2009). classe suanecnon etomni equitatu regni suiad quilocum, diciturSliesthorp, inconfinio regnisui etSaxoniae. the fact that every free man in the society was a warrior. The recruiting was done by local local done by chiefs The recruiting was a every freeman inthesociety warrior. was that factthe compared Christian to the Western European ones, namely speedof the gathering an army and as archaeology informs poetry and skaldic us. 71 70 included cavalryas well. armies Viking –the in Denmark least that–at sources written the is it from clear but territories was inwarriorWestern foot predominant the armystructure European Therefore raided the well but the transport capacity of the longships or warships were less than of the transport and as horses livestock transport ableto were Although ships Viking the armies. Scandinavian ships. Viking army structure inthe ninth century in first of incursions decades the the century. tenth Hungarian against had the I defense toorganise Otto I and where Germany Henry later and ninththe century. Kelly DeVries, Kelly The On the Danish Roesdahl 2007, 262. cavalry, konungr Significant differences can be seen in the military organisation of pagan societies pagan of organisation military the in seen be can differences Significant It seems self soldiers thatfoot evident madeupthepredominantmajority any of is usually translated as Medieval Military Technology 70 The same applies to the line of fortresses in the Eastern Frankish Kingdom fortresses inEasternFrankish the line the The to of same applies king konungr Annales Regni Francorum 71 is rather a Christian conception on the sole ruler of a country who ruled his lands by Annales RegniFrancorum In the West only the leaders (the leaders the only West the In is a Scandinavian lord very oftenwithout any land to rule only commanding a konungar king jarl s, the noble warriors who were richer than the common Scandinavian. It but I will avoid applying this translation as the notions do not match (in plural) were sometimes ruling simultaneously that is why we are (Petersborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 1992), 45. , 804: 8 is of course treating Denmark. treating course isof Eodem temporeEodem Godofridus rexDanorum venit cum konungr s and jarl s 72 ) had horses, 73 CEU eTD Collection http://www.northvegr.org/lore/flatey/001.php (Accessed: 23 April 2009). …there was a southern man with them, who (as) Tyrker was called. Translation and source: On Tyrker: Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 23April 2009). Angandeo,deinde ceteri honorabiles inter suos viri, ... etSuomi... OnSuomi: Scandinavia. from south lie areas European all that seeing exact debate as the Old Norse called was source latter the Finnish in refersFinnish” “Finland, tomeans him only as a 77 76 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000758 (Accessed: 27January 2009). Germanniam adversusHludowicum dirigit. Annales Bertiniani time. that at force large anincredibly is what Vikings thousand of 24-30 consisted been Bertiniani usually exactly75 “earl”. word English ofthe origin give the numbers of the Viking ships taking part in the described action. In 845 the duces 74 the of swiftness the and troop the of mobility the raid, the before intelligence were factors important most The that. than important more barely was troop the of strength the and men of loss failure and of the in risk factor decreasing important least the weaponry adequate was that inthe age.Heconcluded of parties Viking insmall raiding consideration attacks success of the if itit was possible. doing theyavoided fortresses; andbesieging assaulting weaknesswas greatest their were quick, from region same the necessarily come not Theydid of raids. armedusually 200-400 men,about crew four the of toten ships for accompanied only ashort set monasteries and then sailed away. The strength of such raiding forces most likely was not high, like places rich undefended or defended lightly looted and sail set army the gathering similarly to the Frankish case but not always to a royal order. These local leaders Swedes or in rare cases other ethnicities casesother in rare Swedes or Like in the case of a Finnish and a – probably – Hungarian or German Viking. The earlier was called was earlier The Viking. German or Hungarian – probably a – and Finnish ofa case the in Like Roesdahl 2007, 17. they but exaggerating, probably are They armies. pagan huge about speak sometimes sources the Although In the Latin sources they appear as . The Scandinavianterm to them was Paddy Griffith created a weighted graph about the factors that must factors intobe the that taken graphabout aweighted Paddy Griffith created described thelargest Viking army of six-hundred ships devastating Hamburg. Such aforce must have Flateyarbók, Grœnlendinga saga Annales Regni Francorum , 845, MGH SS rer. Germ. 5, 32: primores , 811: … : jarl …Þar uar sudr madr æinn j ferd, er Tyrker het. in contrary to their kings 77 (pronounced as (pronounced de partevero Danorum inprimis fratresHemmingi, Hancwin et worked together in togetherAlthough theWest. worked Viking armies Nortmannorum rexOricus sexcentas naves per Albim fluvium in suðr maðr 9 Tyrker meaning “The Turk”. His ethnicity is a matterof what only means “southern man” what is not too yarl *) whichmeant “noble warrior” and was the Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: reges 76 as Norwegians, Danes and even or the Frankish nobility denominated Suomi 74 Annales after what 75 CEU eTD Collection much in demandall Europe. over names of Ulfberth and Ingelri and Ulfberth of names Vikings. tradetothe in congregation horse Vikings864 prohibiting general Pîtres the at lawsleast issued the At areas. inland Western the cavalry Viking on the of development evidence tothe written West. Wehaveindirect in the activity army raiding and Frankish cavalry. and developmentchanged thewhole outlook of course This Scandinavian the territoriesterritories of the Frankish as well Empire by strike swiftly and then disappear. the they second needed werehalf the horsesbest of in thethe world toninth intravel the ninth century. centuryinland and what Since andmade itto possible theyfight forsettled theiragainst owners to down in the the main reasons of the weapon and horse shortage of the Frankish army and had to be prohibited by laws. by prohibited be to had and army Frankish of the 81 shortage horse and weapon ofthe reasons main the everyone to death who sold horses80 or swords to Vikings.79 This trade must have78 been very lucrative if it was one of the of one least because andare concerned.be with aswell, gravewith at finds This can written evidence proved Viking weaponry intheninth century action. Brøndsted 1983, 113. Roesdahl 2007, 258-259. In theyear 864Charles the Bald in the general congregation inPîtres sentenced Roesdahl 2007, 258-259. Griffith 1995, 111. 78 It is noteworthy that the Vikings seem to set European Western in upcavalry the is to seem Vikings the that It noteworthy The main weapon suppliers of the Vikings were the Franks themselves as far as swords far as themselvesas Franks Vikingswerethe the The mainweapon suppliersof This leads to one of the most important pillars of the Viking success, the ships, which ships, the success, Viking the of pillars important most the of one to leads This 80 Alsomany sword bladesfoundbeen in have Scandinavian engravedgraves with the capitularia is preserved prohibiting weapon–especially sword . They famous They smiths Frankishweapon were were products whose 81 The same applies to the armour trade prohibition what also prohibition what trade armour the to applies Thesame 10 79 imply this. imply í trade to the CEU eTD Collection axe ( 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 hvati them. Such were Such them. 84 straightand just like Frankishthe ones. To forge such a weapontook asmith approximately one month. 274. These usuallyswords blade a 90centimetreshad long ahiltand 10centimetres andwere long double edged 83 82 lawsthese hadtobe times. announced numerous successas expected the without apparently Carolingian rulers, the effort of was acontinuous was the influence of the Russian inland territories. Some Swedish platemails also preserved in the cemetery of the trading centre Birka, but its usage and a to well preserved long chainmail from a leader’s in grave Norway. South Gjermundbu, naval lifestyle therich preferredlightScandinavians chainmail according tothe written evidence by longbow whatpreserved sizeof the in 192 centimetres a gravein Hedeby, Denmark. edged doublethe inof form bladed which single were headbutthey and weight the the differed always frequent. Itis nota surprise that these swords had names fine,buy Frankishswords, to blades and hiltsthem and was gilded morewith adorn ornamented but they were works of art as well. Although Scandinavian smiths could also forge outstanding symbols of the Scandinavian invaders. symbols Scandinavian of the Roesdahl 2007, 190. Roesdahl 2007, 190. Roesdahl 2007, 189. 277. 1970, Foote-Wilson From the cheapthe From light and axe( hand Griffith 1995, 176. Griffith 1995, 173. Foote-Wilson 1970, 273. The known names usually contrasted the quality of the swords or the deeds done with Peter Godfrey Foote and David MacKenzie Wilson, MacKenzie David and Foote Godfrey Peter Coupland 2008, 259. breiðöx (“sharp”) The swords of the Vikings In the Western European region there are only few Viking armours finds. Because of the The most distinctive weapon of the Vikings was the axe. It became infamous of one the axe.It wasthe weapon of Vikings the distinctive The most ), what was a relatively late development appearing from the beginning of the eleventh century. eleventh of the beginning the from appearing development late a relatively was what ), , langhvass brynjubítr francisca (“long-sharp”) (“armour biter”) . Spears and bows were also frequent, although also there bowswere is . Spearsand only one handöx , miðfáinn 83 though were not only objects crafted to serve asweapons, objects crafted to werenot only though , fótbítr ) through the mid-weighted barbed axe( 86 In fact, there were several different types of axes (“adorned to the middle”) (“leg biter”) (“leg The Viking Achievement 11 82 91 , gramr 84 and were personified by skalds. (“strong”) , kvernbítr (London: Sidgwick&Jackson,1970), , gullinhjalti (“millstone biter”). skeggöx ) to the heavy wide (“golden-hilted”) 88 89 not like not 85 90 87 , CEU eTD Collection materials and using the same techniques what was used to build the original ships and they were successfully tested successfully were they and ships original the build to used was what techniques same the using and materials called RoarEge Saga and Siglarand the replica of the Gokstad warship called Viking were built from the same 95 94 93 century. eleventh in the later popular 92 seas. open on tested replicas of Viking ships named Saga Siglar, Roar Ege and the Viking were built and successfully by later. areprovidedas the archaeology Supplementary experimental down somewhat data depictions on Gotland picture stones, and from the sagas and skaldic literature that was written from someÄskekärr ships),contemporary Klåstad Skuldelev, are the and Hedeby,important five hundred Norwegian ship burials morefamous than mention from Tune, only the ones most the Oseberg,or to (Gokstad, leaders Viking Ships gravemost likelyGokstad leader the depicting of a ritual procession ceremony. from is a a wearingthing a tapestry showing such Thein only aScandinavian depiction combat. tapestry depictions. in seen beusually can that one pointed the of instead top a round had It in Norway. grave forms make Elongated only senseon horseback. soldier shieldswerealwaysthe foot navalandarmystructure his round. Duetothe thighs. Vikings. These shields werearound onemetre of protectingdiameter from wielder its neckhis to Roesdahl 2007, 121. andFoote-Wilson1970, 234. The ofreplicas freight the Skuldelev ships 1 and3,theso 233. 1970, Foote-Wilson Roesdahl 2007, 203. Roesdahl 2007, 190. pointed The helmet was the product of Eastern influence in theNorth andonly became From the expensive helmets only one preserved in the already mentioned Gjermundbu mentioned already in the preserved one only helmets expensive the From The large, colorful, round wooden shields with iron cores also became a symbol of the All that is known about these masterpieces came from ship burials of mostly Norwegian mostly of burials ship from came masterpieces these about is known that All 92 95 Contrary to the popular common place, Vikings never wore horned helmets 94 ), from the excavation of sunken shipwrecks (the most (the shipwrecks sunken of excavation the from ), 12 93 CEU eTD Collection 101 100 99 far. the Great in the eleventh century who had aship of sixty benches. No such formidable monsters have been found so end of the tenth century as hisit. mighty proves CE 320 98 around from boat ship, Nydam the as sails, the have not did 97 thirteen had to These thirthy-fourbenches. rowing their to according ones rowing-benches larger the while oars, two used man one where where oars onetwelve man used only one oar. 96 Foundland in28 days. on open seas. The Viking in 1893 even crossed the North Atlantic from Bergen, Norway via Iceland to New century. ship infrom Hoo verified Sutton by wordsare Procopius 560.His seventh the wrote the what is Isles British the in even not astonishing. Scandinavia, outside North the in else anywhere be attested not can All the seafaringVikings butalways refer number tothe of ships. vessels in the North used only oars without sails as movement on shallow rivers as its second great advantage was its small draft. Even the greatest the Even draft. small its was advantage great second its as rivers shallow on movement Mediterranean. sailsthe of triangular were double stones. Gotland picture of the on depictions the to according widths centuries eighth and sixth the between Scandinavia in developed of the ships and they were always rectangular, contrary to the average size. Presumably a ship with twentylocalto habits andmaterials access to they and developed during the long VikingAge. pair of oars, Foote-Wilson1970, 234-235. Jones 2001, 189. Royal ships could be larger, as in the case of the ship of Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway at the Per Bruun, “The Viking Ship,” to six having of ships consisted category The oars. of number the to according categorised were ones smaller The Brøndsted 1983, 23. Foote-Wilson1970, 240-241. The ships were built in different styles styles categories and in builtdifferent The shipswere The greatest advantage of the Viking ship was the combined usage of oars and sails that and of oars usage thecombined ship was Viking of the advantage The greatest This navigation method gave Viking the ship swiftness and mobility on seasand the safe 100 The sails, which were quite normal in the Mediterranean from ancient times, slowly times, ancient from Mediterranean the in normal quite were which sails, The 99 This is important information as the sources never give the exact number of number exact the give never sources the as information important is This 101 According to the Gokstad ship, the widths of sails enormous widths of ship,the Gokstad these the Accordingto JournalofCoastal Research Ormr inn langi 98 which meant at least forty men aboard, was the 13 13/4 (“Long thirty-four Serpent”) had benches,Knut or (1997): 1282-1289, 1282. firstThe Nordic ships 96 and used different materials different anddue used 97 CEU eTD Collection 105 (Accessed: 21May 2009). Source: http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html (Accessed: 21May Translation:2009), http://omacl.org/Anglo/part2.html were aground, whilst ships the Danish others the werewhere deep of the all side on theon that opposite stationed were side;Three so situated. that none uneasily of very also were them which could joinships, the rest… other the manned who those onward came Then wounded. severely were too they and five; except slain were men … Of the first three shipsþæt hire nemeahte nan to oðrum. … they took two at the oðera scipuæsæton,mouth onþahealfe þæsdeopes þæþaDæniscanscipuasæton wæran,oðru ealleonoðrehealfe, þa, outwards, and slewmæn ofslogon, þæt an oðwand,on þamwæron þa eac men ofslægene butan .v.,þa comon for ðythe onwegþara þe men; the third veered off, but all the 106 (Accessed: 21May 2009). Source: http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html (Accessed: 21May Translation:2009), http://omacl.org/Anglo/part2.html serviceable. most They were not shaped eitherothers. after Some the had Frisiansixty … Thenoars, or King the some AlfredDanish gavemore; ordersmodel, and for they building sylfum þuhte þætbut hi nytwyrðe beonmeahton. were … so long as bothshipshe himself againstswifter the esks,thought anduntealran ge eac hearra þonne ðaoþru,which næron hi steadier,nawðærne onFrysisc gesceapen ne onDenisc, werebutan swathat him full-nigh they and twice mightalso as longbewæronhigher fulneah twa swaas langeswa þaoðre,sumethe hæfdon .lx. ara, sume ma, þawæron than ægþer ge swiftran ge the others. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle fled. then ofships detachment smaller the attacked Vikings Danish sothe shore onthe stranded 104 103 102 Vikingthe ships. symmetrical form to sawing. The keel and cross beams provided the flexibility and stability and gave the well knowncow hair served as waterproofing. The keel was always madeTarred from rivets. one iron by piece of together wood withoutheld were and top the to bottom from starting overlapped planks traditional Anglo-Saxon way, namely without sails. building for unknown Alfredinreasons. 896 Great the still building insisted on largeships in the and Frankish ships. advantage riversin of smallestthe andtake Kent) British andslower (likeheavier Lympne the submergeintowater ship not than ships deeper Gokstad did like 90-95 centimetres the New Foundland, Canada. New Foundland, deepest draft of its replica, the Viking, was one metre during her way from Bergen, Norway to Roesdahl 2007, 114. Even the Anglo-Saxon Jones 2001, 187. Chronicle 242. 1970, Foote-Wilson justifies this fact when it describes that in 897 Alfred the Great’s ships were Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The body The body Vikingthe of shipwasmadeusing planking technique wheretheedges of the , MSD, 897(896): 104 , MSD,897 (896): The victims of the raids did not try to adopt the “Danish style” of ship 103 This ishow these explanation the of navigate ships even could on … Þa gefengon hy þaraþreora scipa twaþam muþan æt uteweardum, þa 106 … Þa het Ælfred… Þahet cyning timbrian langescipu ongean þas æsceas,þa DuringScandinaviansavoided buildingprocess the the 14 105 102 and the CEU eTD Collection Norway could have easily reached the region of the mouth of the Garonne and the coasts of coasts the and of Garonne the the mouth of region the reached easily have Norway could well provisioned fleet directly moving its towards destination setting sail from South Vestland, longships or warships were even faster and could have travelled farther. This must mean that a kilometres per hour (2 knots). wind. These two ships (9 knots) in kilometres perhour Ege reached16.668 did.conditions,a side asSagaSiglar Roar were able to sail against with wind knots) reach perhour(10 good shipsmusthavethe beenable18.52 kilometres to the wind at 60 degreesbased on the data provided by experimental archaeology. Accordingwith to the tests with the replicas, the speed of 3.7 missiles and to save storage space in the ship. of the upper plank of shipthe usuallyformed as an animal head was used to carrytime storms.of Two of their characteristics alsobecame the symbols of Vikings, that is, the stem the shieldswere flexible and could belaid downif shipthe hadtocross under bridges, if ithad tohide orin of the Vikings andnarrow low compared totheirlength. usually They madewere and of oak pine,masts their to protect thesay to thethat warships – which importantmoreinare study presentthe freight shipsthan –were rowers from is publications. inseveral has been enough my It already topicwell good andtreated the purpose 110 109 108 107 although if it was necessary they split woodinsteadthe of sawing. as farsawing the itwood to shapewas much, as Theytried not possible. too thenatural wood Roesdahl 2007, 124-125. Roesdahl 2007, 115-116. Although dragons and snakes were the most popular, wolves, herons and otherkinds Roesdahl of 2007, 115. birds can also be found. Since these replicas followed the building patterns of freight ships I conclude that I will gonot intoa detailed analysis of shipsthe because itwould me take toofarfrom To treat the speed and the action radius of these vessels I will use my own my own calculations use Iwill vessels of these radius action the speedand the To treat 110 108 109 15 which gave the ship her name, and the outer side outer the and name, her ship the gave which 107 CEU eTD Collection 07 May 2009). Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000758 (Accessed: naves per Albim fluvium in Germanniam ad versus Hludowicum dirigit. On the attack on Hamburg: 07 May 2009). Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000758 (Accessed: civitate, inferioris Aquitaniae partes depopulaturi adoriuntur Namnetum adgressi, interfectis episcopomultis et clericorum atque laicorum sexusque promiscui,depraedata On the attack on Nantes: on attack the On ships what Hamburgrazed to the ground in 845but these attacks were exceptional and royalcampaigns. numbers can also be foundlikethe sixty-sevenships raiding Nantes in843 the or incredible fleet ofsix hundred The LawsEarliest English Kings ofthe containing seven to thirty-five members. Over thirty-five the word “ “ word the uses it frequently most and troops of the denomination on the consequent very is source This Chronicle. ships did not exceed thirty-five. My conclusiononsmall war parties isbased wordingonthe of Anglo-Saxonthe 111 small troops. in probably targets orbarely protected unprotected against activities very plundering quick out Vikings Tactics four or three journey.times twenty-four hours approximately the halfmoor shipsso the noislands to are andIceland there theFaroe islands.Between Faroe of the distance hadVestland region, Norway isand Iceland approximately 1600 kilometres via the Shetland and to be travelled in one surely able travel forto longer seasdayandthe night for the distancebetween periods the course what probablyChanel withinor days seven-eight along coastof the Scotland and Ireland. were These fleets meant Aquitania, in Empireof within the English the southern part Frankishthe through days five hloþ This could mean either asfew as the three ships in first recorded attack in 789 or afleet where the number of the ” on the attacking Viking fleet. It is known from the Laws of Ine, that a“ The core element of the Viking tactic was swiftness. The Vikings used their ships to carry 111 Annales Bertiniani Annales Bertiniani (Cambridge: University 40-41.Press, 1922), Inothercases ofcourse larger 845, MGH SS rer. Germ. 5,32: 843, MGH SS Germ. 5,rer. 29: 16 . here ” is used. See: ed. trans. F.L. Attenborough, hloþ Nortmannorum rex Oricussexcentas ” is a troop of thieves, marauders Pyratae Nordmandorum urbem CEU eTD Collection 117 116 115 114 113 forces. large 4. “Royal Army Campaigning”: largest The true campaigns ledby orself-appointed kings involvingrulers truly non-royal blood from were stronger leaders than weaker kings. sometimes and same the were they basically as category third and any second find Griffith’s not I do between that add difference to have I Here land. on or sea on either involved robbing or men hundred a few ofpiratical with kind any activity meaning looting of type known and infamous most The A-viking”: “Going 3. retinue. immediate his and king ofthe activities plundering the Action”: Household “Royal 2. at carriednight out by a few men. 112 possible. honour” elements butwith addition the of cheating, tricking andevadeif straightconflict itis pride, “strength, classical the consisted of surely background The doctrinal size were different. attacks and the large scale royal campaigns, though these all shared the same attributes only their Viking “classical” The thesis. in my important is two which from three only are view my in engines in the territory of enginesin is,thesiegethat inthe 885-886. of territory Frankishthe Empire,of Paris hundred years VikingEratherewas of the only one significantand long lasting with siege war inform sources us Scandinaviansthe avoidtried to such battleslike just sieges. Inthefirst written evidences. archaeological and to according inera Merovingian the had started what trading activity the natural of andattendant very the traditional elaborated way of receiving andhosting guestsand the was intelligence the and interpretation world Nordic the by – opinion my in – boldness and the military intelligence on the raided areas. Roesdahl 2007, 191. Jones 2001, 82. Griffith 1996, 110-111. Griffith 1996, 109. Griffith 1996, 105-109. “Saga-warfare”: 1. duelstothe From very nocturnalburningpopular hall meaning toburn theneighbouring farm Paddy Paddy identifiedGriffith four differenttypes Large open fieldbattles between the Franks and Vikings are also known, but as far as the 114 The key elements of the tactics of the Vikings were the swift and fearless execution fearless and swift were the Vikings the of of tactics the elements Thekey 116 17 115 The swiftness was provided by the ships, the Theswiftness wasprovided 112 of Viking of attacks. the 113 These four types 117 The CEU eTD Collection 120 119 118 in a territorial basis and not only within the tribe itself. retinue organise their own leadersthese clan to to andopportunity gave what power the Etelköz in dissolve to started already Hungarians the of organisation tribal The scale campaigns. large leaders who either led their men to smaller campaigns or to the camp of the gyula/djilah to goHungarians. to headgroups of of thousands. leader Thearmy the military gyula/djilah, was the the of the Arab sources numberof the army the was twenty warriorsmounted organisedthousand into described above in the case of the Franks and Vikings. resulted in a completely different society, weaponry militaryand organisation tothat what Ihave about the mounted Hungarian in warrior ninth the and tenth century.Asian origin Their steppe Hungarian army structure intheninth and tenth centuries in chapter. in associety virtue show nextas Iwill the Old a great the also taken Norse Scandinavians preferred fortresses totake by ifittricks was possible István Dienes, István Ibn Rustah’s account. In: Kristó 1995, 32-33. Brøndsted 1983, 51. The Hungarians, justlikeThe Hungarians, every nation,According werebasicallyhorsemen.steppe to Because of the numerous archaeological excavations and written sources much is known sources and written excavations archaeological of numerous Because the 119 Most likely the gathering of the army was done in the winter months by local clan local by months winter in the done was army the of gathering the likely Most A honfoglaló magyarok [The conquering Hungarians], (Budapest: CorvinaKiadó, 1972), 23. 18 120 118 , as outwitting others was as others , outwitting CEU eTD Collection 125 124 graves. the in them of few 123 122 upper stratum of the society. the hips and the protecting waist armours of the warriors. light as Not served all also theobjects soldiers leather necessarily broad These plates. had this metal typeprecious of belt with but itwasdecorated characteristicfurther to the were sockets holder lighter –the nations steppe the among –exclusively Hungarians of case the In units. whole as taken were they onit held sockets holder lighter the and weapons the with along and embroidery and rivets plates, – copper or silver – gold, metal precious small with decorated were belts these owner of their status the to According lighters, dining cups – but also as ofcaftans indicators ridersthe and practically carrying everything whichwas crucialfor everyday –e.g.weapons,oflife tools, status within the societywas the most important partand of asthe clothing. symbols It served not only ofas a utilitarian the objectmanhood, holding together the looseadulthood. coats, (Budapest:K length of the whole blade. This part was used injureto or kill the horse of the enemy or to cut the the of fifth one the till for blade the of notch back, the on continued blade sharp the but edged single basically was sword The fight. mounted of product the clearly was and shape “S” slight Hungarians. Due to the long evolution of the weapon by that time the blade of the warrior. Hungarian century ninth-tenth sword had a 121 attested are also archaeologically. attested barely itwas far so but sources dagger. and a sabre singleedged weremainly iron. melee wieldedEurope flat madeof and They weapons as well, two acurved, against their attacks Hungarians started the by time arrowheads the Hungarian weaponry. The elements in important most werethe andleft arrows Bows side. the on quiverarrows of side of the warrior’s richly decorated belt Hungarian weaponry intheninth and tenth centuries K K Kristó 1986, 230-231. Kristó The1986, 232-233. lances probably served as grave markers, this should be the reason why there are so Katalin U. K U. Katalin Ę Ę halmi halmi 1972,191. halmi 1972,185. The sabre in the ninth-tenth century was the most important melee weapon of the The armament of the Hungarian soldier consisted of two reflex bows held in the right Ę rösi Csoma Kiskönyvtár,rösi Csoma AkadémiaiKiadó,112-113. The belt 1972), nomadic steppeof nations the Ę halmi, 124 although these weapons did not play serious role in the armament of the of armament the in role serious play not did weapons these although A steppék nomádja lóháton,fegyverben 122 The usage of lances and pikes are mentioned in written the mentioned are lances andpikes of Theusage 125 121 in or halfsoft hardened leatherbark or sockets, a 19 [The nomads of the steppes on horseback, armed] horseback, on steppes of the nomads [The 123 Long hafted, single bladed light axes Long light single hafted, bladed CEU eTD Collection distance of 50-100 metres. The demoralising effect on the enemy must have been great. The on have enemymust beengreat. the Thedemoralising effect metres. distance of 50-100 number of arrows must have been enough to break up enemy lines of the Frankish legions from a continuously shooting in thousands were organised soldiers wherethe largeof campaigns shower four musthavefive withinan meantof or a arrow minute.hundred arrows In cases single to four arrows in thirty-forty seconds while riding a horse. party consisting of several hundreds or less warriors according the less to hundredswarriors several or of party consisting sockets. instead of antler. of the instead wereused oxboneelements or hardwood otherwise ones expensive the caseof inantler the were also fixed with deer sidesfrom both and horn were weremadeofsofton core which bows wooden plates glued thin sinew. The two ends and the grip of the bow were made of carved warrior asin the case of long, straight, double edged Germanic swords. as its power was assured by the velocity of the horse and not by the personal strength of the Masudi in: Kristó 1995, 55. 134 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000869 (Accessed: 04May 2009) 133 132 estimating the exact shot numbers in a minute. Therefore age. young very a from archery horseback practicing when actually were who century counting ninth-tenth the in Hungarians with these data it must be born131 in mind that these 130 experiments offer only129 a weak hold small. were bows on reflex the all long two metres around was what though longbow soldiers foot a to Next large. were they horseback 128 127 126 strapping of saddlesthe by by riding enemy. the Like in the case of a battle between the Hungarian-Peceneg alliance against the Byzantines described by Al- by described Byzantines the against alliance Hungarian-Peceneg the between battle ofa case the in Like MGH SS 2, 105: Hidán 1996,46. These data provided by experiments most probably represent the worst possible level compared to the K Dienes 1972, 34. on bows used other to compared and development ofalong products the were Hungarians the of bows reflex The Hidán 1996,53. K Ę Ę halmi halmi 1972,185. halmi 1972,111. According to the results of experimental archaeology experimental of results the to According The most important and deadly element of the weaponry, the large the weaponry, the of element deadly and important most The 130 Silvis quoquecenteniminus interdum vel latentes eruperant… 129 These precious weapons were normally kept in loosened position in their 20 126 The sabre was designed for a mounted fight for amounted The sabrewasdesigned 132 During a charge of a Hungarian war 131 it was possible to shoot out three Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- 127 Casus Sancti Galli 128 and complex reflex 133 134 this the CEU eTD Collection 138 137 enough. 136 those of other nations of contemporary Europe?], ofcontemporary nations other of those than better Hungarians conquering the bowsof the were times many [How népeinek?” más Európa korabeli a mint distance around 170-180 metres. See: Gábor Sz Gábor See: metres. 170-180 around distance but manoeuvre this is impossibleproper without stirrups and saddles. asstand as shotas important archerbackwards weaponsthemselves the upandturn the hadto to improbable giveto anaimed shot. In fact touse these weapons the harness of horsesthe was just a longbow with small size resulting a short but strong bow. broken intotwo. Reflex bows were notsuperior to longbows, they only combined the strength of lengthbe70 centimetres simple stretchednot because bowwith have it could that to would a but centimetres 130 around was horseback on bows the of length ideal The weapon. infantry itwas atypical as beusedonhorseback not coulda longbow but was70centimetres longbow long a 200 centimetres of distance stretch average The longbow. asa same power with the missing. The second reason that the steppe tribes had to find asolution for creating ashorter bow was bows making forstrong goodenough material wooden steppesthe on the reason that needed why buildto such complex bowsreflex instead of using cheaper longbows. is an Therefore explanation bow. asareflex andas strong deadly length just was centimetres pierce the armour. Gábor Sz Gábor armour. the pierce 135 Sz Gábor of experiments The Europe. century metres sixty-seventy of weapons wasaround effectivethese range piercingarmour deadly, –meaning – Hidán 1996,47. Sz Sz Hidán 1996, Hidán 47.Themaximum range probably 200-250reached metres distance but this without at energy the to Ę Ę ll ll 135 Ę Ę The reflex bows though were not better weapons than any simple longbows in ninth-tenth longbows simple any than weapons better not were though bows reflex The It isIt highlylikelynumbers important as very were also that shooting at45 ssy 1995, 45. ssy 1995, 45. To finish a reflex bow took at least half a year. To finish a longbow two months were so the enemy most probably did not even have the chance to retaliate. to chance the have even not did probably most enemy the so Ę ll Ę ssy however gave 200 metres as the highest possible value preferring rather a lower rather preferring value possible highest the as metres 200 gave however ssy Ę Keletkutatás ll Ę ssy, “Mennyivel voltak jobb íjaik a honfoglaló magyaroknak, a honfoglaló íjaik jobb voltak “Mennyivel ssy, 21 Ę ll Ę (1995/fall): 37-51, 44. ssy have shown that a longbow around 200 around longbow a that shown have ssy 137 138 136 o Thefirst made it CEU eTD Collection 144 Múzeum, 1943). [The offind the Koroncósaddle and of conquering the Hungarians], (Budapest:Országos MagyarTörténeti 143 142 141 140 Exhibition Catalogue Hungarians,” ancient ofthe heritage archaeological “The Nepper, M. Ibolya and Révész László See: cemeteries. in attested also are clothes decorated richly very The caps. high the like just clothing of part the also were collars fur expensive and buttons gilded or carved richly The dolman. called coat or long caftan a embroidery silver onand it. gold The lower with brocade and classes silk in were dressed probably were society not ofthe so wellmembers equipped rich and wearing leaders the simpleaccount linen or leather clothing and 139 saddle.structure of Hungarians saddle the placedrawmeatunderthe the been found has also bone from sewn pieces armours or mails chain in but leaders the caseof the armour, them. on bone pieces scales andcarved or curbing leather pillows on it. like just theriderhold They when to thewere andrichly standing upinthesaddle. decorated stable to offer pommel a front were upright they with thein the together backwards while the with weremadeThe saddles wereleaning rearsaddlebows low,the wood structure, of a opened steppe nations. The harness consisted of the saddle, the two stirrups, the bridle and the strapping. Horses and harness finds in Hungary Pécs, it. showed grave the asoneof shape eastern a pointed, typically diameter, ironhadcircular a made of and Hidán 1996,45. K Hidán 1996,41. K K Rustah’s Ibn to According elaborated. and fine especially were Hungarians ofthe clothes The 39. 1996, Hidán Ę Ę Ę halmi halmi 1972,185. halmi 1972,184. halmi 1972,halmi 184.For adetailed study see: GyulaLászló, The clothes of the warriors and the harness were richly decorated, richly were harness andthe warriors the of The clothes The horses of the Hungarians had basically the same harness as the horses of the other the of horses the as harness same the basically had Hungarians the of horses The 141 otherwise armours were mostly made of leather or felt only. The helmets were (Budapest: Hungarian National Museum, 1996), 37-56, 52-55. 143 To protect the back of the horses from injuries caused bythewooden injuries caused from the back horses of the Toprotect 142 22 140 A koroncói lelet és ahonfoglaló magyarok nyerge These metal pieces also served as light served as metal also These pieces 144 The Ancient Hungarians. 139 having metal CEU eTD Collection 147 146 Hungarians. ofthe tactic the treat I will subchapter 150 centimetres. 144 and 128 between height the with category size small the to belonged century Although the (Miskolc: “A HonfoglalásMagyararchaeological 895-1895 Tokaj” Alapítvány HermannOttóand Múzeum, 1996), 335-345, 338. régészeti emlékei evidence is very narrow, it showed that 97.2% of the horses in the end of the ninth 149 148 Endangered Species. (New York: Albany State University of New York Press, 1994), 39-60, 52. Taxonomy,” and Habitat Horse. TheHistoryandBiologyofanEndangered Species.“Morphology, Groves, P. Colin straight.” profile the vaulted, broad, forehead cross; the mane, tail, shanks black; and a thick mane, semi-erect but falling somewhat to bothsides of the neck; the a bighead, small short and ears neck; «field-mouse-grey»a broaddorsalwith stripe and ill-definedan shoulder- probably looked following: likethe “…the DubrovkawasTaurian or tarpan described140-145 cm with high, […]as 145 from ancestorstype showing originated tarpan Arab influence. breeding Hungariansthe in end ninththe of the likelyvery century were small higher type from the South, from Bulgaria and a smaller one from the Kievan Rus. The horses of a breedcame heterogeneous this type. To European mainlysmall Eastern consisting breedingof divergent but a developed of state in a already were horses the likely that Itseems now. years hundred a than more for topic debate scholarly offers and that than complex more though horses ferus) ferus (Equus Inner Asiatic ones but the bridles and the whole outlook of the strapping of the harness. similarities it seems striking the of Asia. Because inInner nations steppe other of stirrups the to connection strong likely that not only lower part showsthe that the footwear of the Hungarianssaddles most probably had soft soles and it shows a and stirrupswarrior. standing the to stability possible greatest the offer to ribbed curved and were almost the same as the According to some photos from the nineteenth century depicting the last the depicting century nineteenth the from photos some to According K Vörös 1996, 339. István Vörös, “A honfoglaló magyarok lovai,” [The horses of the conquering Hungarians] conquering the of horses [The lovai,” magyarok “A honfoglaló Vörös, István Hidán 1996,45. K Ę Ę halmi halmi 1972,187. halmi 1972,To arrow 186.shoothalmi backwards anin45 The Hungarians most probably rode the small sturdy most thesmall The horse called probably Hungarians sturdy rode steppe wild tarpan was lower part their metal wood metal covered or made of either were The stirrups [The archaeological records of the era of the conquest], ed. Mária Wolf and László Révész László Wolf and Mária ed. conquest], the of era the of records archaeological [The 147 which became extinct in the nineteenth century. nineteenth in the extinct became which 23 ed. Lee Bold and Katherine A. Houpt. SUNY Series in o the soldier had to stand up in the stirrups. In the next tarpan 149 the horses of the Hungarians’ 150 , warm , warm blooded Eurasian 148 The question of the A honfoglalásA korának 145 The curved The Przewalski’s 146 CEU eTD Collection thus the larger hiding part of the Hungarian army could encircle the attacking enemy. Lastly larger Lastly the could thus enemy. theattacking army Hungarian encircle partof the hiding Whenattack. happened that theHungarians flightdraw imitated enemythe to pursuitinto and provoke their linesto enemy atthe shooting arrows skirmish theenemy to started detachment opportunity arose. opportunity using and tricks, traps they notmindusually did tobreak their andif oaths contracts a good 153 sources. Western the as features same the 152 151 the detailed account, most recall of the data hereto the is enough information tactics the of about andtheirleadershipHungarians during it timesof therefore war VI, the the workmentioned be must ones important most the Among Hungarians. of Al-Masudi and ReginoHungarian Tactics of Prüm. These sources basically thirty days. tellingBavaria in twenty-two days, the valley of the Po River in twelve days, Provence and Burgundy in via Saxony days, the sixteen in Gallen St. of region the days, in twelve sameapproximately territories dwelling Hungarian the middle of the from reach Bavaria to Hungarians the possible to kilometres for a 50-60 riderlightly armoured day Although this Greek language source describes the Hungarians according to their southern activities it describes it activities southern their to according Hungarians the describes source language Greek this Although Hidán 1996,45. Taktika The strong, sturdy body structure of this type of horse allowed the horse to easily carry a carry easily to horse allowed the horse of of type this structure body sturdy The strong, The Hungarians – just likeThe just Hungarians – – the were untrustworthy Vikings people and preferredthey Numerous written sources treated the appearance and warlike nature and the tactics of the of andthetactics nature warlike and theappearance sources treated written Numerous XVIII. 47. In:Kristó 1995, 105. 153 Before battles the larger part of the army were hidden while a smaller while hidden of army the were larger part the battles Before 24 151 what according to my made to calculations according what Taktika Taktika . 152 of Emperor León CEU eTD Collection 156 itself. I am fully aware of this matterbut to treat such a question here is impossible as could fill an entire MA Thesis in 158 157 from each a distance. other communicate to signs horn and smoke fires, large using were that detachments small these between connections the of is areference there work same the In warfare. Viking the to feature similar 154 military free, upper, armed cooperation two the of coordinated the butvictimstheir compared to blows countryside anywhereas dealing the I havequoted in small of ahundredgroups around made what warriors them toswarm possible whole the and siege very only engines. constructed rarely flight. imitated its started army the of body main the while manoeuvre encircling army still. stood flanks the If managed to trigger attack the of otherthe army theirthey started towards the other endride to started flanks andthe lines long several formed army hide thewhole to were noplaces of the line shooting hiding togiveforests arrowsit the army place butineffective agood was to rather sieges.If during there to the enemy army while the middle of enemy trapped around them incrawling large circles. the their on direction every from arrows shot they so back turned contingent Hungarian fleeing 155 fortifications giveup the to force them to the defenders of all resources cut the to tried rather they places besiege fortified hadto Hungarians the in If sieges. itwas ineffective fact that that Vikingin the similar isvery to case.TheHungarian warfare battlelikein the previous the was The serious question of the number of the Hungarians in the ninth and tenth centuries has triggered long Kristó debates.1995, 247. AlMasudi, Taktika Taktika In conclusion it can be said that the Hungarians were relatively few in numbers in few relatively were Hungarians the that said be can it conclusion In Attimes oflarger campaigns –exceptfor largethe field battles – the Hungarians attacked shrubs or field wherethere were battles inopen effective This tactic was especially XVIII. 60. In:Kristó 1995, 107. XIV. 42.In:Kristó 1995, 102. Muru ÷ al-Dahab . In: Kristó 1995, 55. 157 25 154 Casus Sancti Galli above. This is a 155 The end of 156 158 , CEU eTD Collection first the in decadesbegan attacks of the earliest seventh the that century, stated also Olrik to Axel belike precise scholars in some 617. and 41.), See: 2001, Olrik (Jones 521 1930, in 91.Friesland 165 164 163 162 Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 18May 2009). viamerchants. Annales Regni Francorum, 809: … 161 160 159 The show. attacks first the as useful been have would information and data these all movements, continent the with contacts had they and Era intelligence. andand beattributed tocareful good blows can planning surely devastating Their quick attacks. first their time of the areas evenat their target of circumstances geographical and political various the knew already Hungarians the and Vikings the both that think I question. the of is out significance its although been have should it as much as emphasized been not Pagan military intelligence mentioned. asRegino of Prüm was dangerous it therefore armies toEuropean unusual unknown and was fact tactics their helped bythe that was also success Theirmany times. victory intelligence earned them military combined strata with their regions. and goods looted slaves furs, sold mostly Scandinavians as the different, slightly were however “goods” traded merchants andcases both andhospitality, travelling trade guests Some sources (like the Widsið and the Beowulf) even give account on an allegedly early Viking attack against attack Viking early allegedly onan account give even Beowulf) the and Widsið the (like sources Some Jones 2001, 82. Gyula Kristó, Roesdahl 2007, 146. The Griffith 1996, 145. Regino of Prüm, Annales FrancorumRegni The ancestors of the ninth-century Vikings sailed the Northern Sea from the Merovingian the from Sea Northern the sailed Vikings ninth-century the of ancestors The has pagans attacking intelligence of the of factor military the the earlier As Imentioned 165 From From ninth the century onwards, with the beginninglarge of scale Scandinavian Az Árpád-kor háborúi Chronicon 162 while their traded in Hungarians military the firstplace. prowess the , in: Kristó 1995, 198. explicitly mentions that the Danishking, Goðfreð sent messages to Charlemagne [The Wars of the Árpád Era], Árpád of the Wars [The Godofridus rex Danorum per negotiatores quosdam mandavit… 26 164 so they had the time to explore the coastal explore the to time the had sothey 159 (Budapest: Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, 1986), 8. 161 played a crucial The role. played acrucial 163 160 In CEU eTD Collection in 810. methods are not exactly known. Neither the Vikings nor the Hungarians had maps of the of maps had Hungarians the nor Vikings the Neither known. exactly not are methods attack. Hungarians’ position of their enemies and offered help inlogistics of their enemies.break resistance the himself to even pope the or kings or lords, princes by rivalling mercenaries It is likely that the employersattacks. were eager to give detailedin Aquitania accounts ofthe coasts of the North Sea. The same appliesthe to the first two attacks against the Frankish Empire Lindisfarne. This demonstrated that the Scandinavians knew where tolook for easy targets along Annales Regni Francorum of the words the least At landfall. their about was informed Charlemagne before even them from toll heavy a took and times three Frisians the defeated raid quick a were farfrom Friesland. His formidable fleetof 200 ships (meaning approximately nine-ten thousand warriors) with 169 Empire. Frankish Western the against operations these goods was on the island of Noirmoutier (See: Jones 2001, 211.) what later became Garonne and Loirea permanent weretrading richroutes offeringwine themaintrading saltand and andredistributing centre of base of Viking 168 a singleeven longship could have laid it waste. market. the to them escort 167 to trust with them approached reef shire fated ill why the is that all at unusual Brithric.king The Anglo-SaxonChronicle informs us,that appearance the of North the menastraders was not – shipsmoored at theshore and because of some kindof misunderstanding the crew the killed bailiff reef)(shire of 166 second recorded bank of the river in Bulgaria. in river the of bank against Simeon’s troops sent and aByzantine fleet Danube to the to transport the Hungarian detachments to the right 170 Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 08 May 2009). iam essesolutas,… commisisse Danosque victores tributum victis inposuisseet vectigalis nomine centum argentilibras aFrisonibus adiacentes insulas essevastatas iamque illum exercitum in continenti esseternaque proelia cum Frisonibus meditans nuntium accepit, classem ducentarum navium de Nordmannia Frisiam appulisse totasque Frisiaco litori Again, the Danish king, Goðfreð knew that with a quick action he can challenge and defeat the Franks as they as Franks the defeat and challenge can he action a quick with that knew Goðfreð king, Danish the Again, Aquitania was far from the Frankish core territories but it was a lucrative The target monasteryfor the Vikings, as the valley of never hosted too many monks, Norwegian –probably three The raid. Viking theirclassical a not was 789 in Wessex Portland, in one first upperthe Actually limit was probably ten or twelve which means that Just as in the the case Just in Byzantine-Bulgarian as of the 894-895warin whenEmperor León the VI hired Hungarians 169 The problem with the exact process of gathering military intelligence, however, isits that however, intelligence, of military process gathering exact The problem the with as hired were as they especially of Hungarians the attacks the to The sameapplies Later examples also show that the Vikings collected information before launching before information collected Vikings the that show also examples Later 168 in inFriesland 799 and undertheleadership of Danish the himself, Goðfreð king, 166 Viking attack on butundefendedsmallmonastery rich England hitthe Vikingattack , 810: Taktika Imperator vero Aquisgraniagenscontra Godofridum adhuc et regemexpeditionem XVIII. 42, in: Kristó 1995, 103. Annales Regni Francorum 27 170 to assure the effectiveness of the of effectiveness the assure to let me derive this information. 167 of CEU eTD Collection enlisted Jutland as the part ofDenmark. part the as Jutland enlisted his in ofBremen Adam as century eleventh the to changed had conception this was onthe left side, onthe East he must have meant that Götaland belongs to Denmark and Jutland is not. Although the ship. Óttar sailed in the Skagerrak between Jutland and Götaland (today in Sweden) and if he said that Denmarkmentioning that the this. voyage spokenHe conclude had me about voyage let his – from Skiringssalr/Kaupang to Hedeby istravelling from(that translation northto south) Orosius lasted Great’s the Aelfred in preserved for– Óttar jarl, five Norwegian the of account days from which in the first three174 days Denmark was on the173 left side of 172 1995, 224. enemies. who famous were for theirhospitality even though their could guests havebeenregarded as the king and his son, kingand who the his was king’sthe son-in-law with allied againstOtto I. Widukind, between war civil ofthe state the on spy to came fact they in but Hungarians, and Germans the between relationship his work, that the Hungarians arrived court atthe of the king seemingly to uphold oldthe loyalty and good 171 connection Scandinaviansmanoeuvrablefindor andnimbleopponenthisto baseof operations. ahighly localise to is hard it while hit and find to iseasier victim immobile An still. suchstanding localisationnamely, that they were the aggressors, was the moving even enemyinformation, to get and give news in the form of simplewho chatting, gossip or tales andhad court poetry. moreto find the otherdifficult who was as they same atthe time. information did not collected reach theseareas managed to who travellers and envoys messengers, merchants, have anyFrankish Empire or any kind of compassesland to navigate in this realm but it seems likely that their vassal,in Haraldr klak, 815. When Frankishthe Denmarkthe army reached enemies of Haraldr, Danish his of favour in throne Danish the over fight the in intervene to decided I Louis when Except for Griffith 1995,Jutland 145. what Griffith 1995, 145. was not taken as the part of Denmark tough in the ninth century, at least the travel Like in the case of a Hungarian embassy to the German king, Otto I, in July 955. Widukind of Corvey states in The Scandinavians and the Hungarians though had an advantage that the Franks did not, did Franks the that advantage an had though Hungarians the and Scandinavians The 172 174 It seems sure that behind the hospitality there was the constant need for the flow of with the Frankish Empire. This caused great difficulties with the Frankish Empire. causedgreat as campaigns, This during 171 The same applies to the courts of leaders and kings of the pagans 28 Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis Chronica 173 In the case of III.in: Kristó 42, CEU eTD Collection mobility mobility and adaptability inboth military the and social senses. Versatility was important, also than sheer numbers,just like the methods of recruiting and setting up armies. The keywords were for known achievingthe were unimportant pagan results. Franks. This mustmean that although weaponry or tactics might have madethe invasions easier against they result same the attained they but Vikings, the than tactics and weapons different used Hungarians The latter as asoleexplanation. often give the sources written Christian although invaders, of number the or armaments the not was Italians and Franks the over success Chapter Conclusions invaders. numbers place of the the exact or finding out in difficult more task enemy’s the make to and allies with plans make to view, of points different winter camps. This constantmove made it possible to meetmore people, to get information from namely, hosting andguests, travellers sending outmerchants and spies,moving and between 175 place. took military actions usually no enormous fleet of two hundred ships, sonsthe forcesGoðfreð, of themainFyn their withdrew it islandof andsurrounded to an with 177 HungariansThe usually organised and started campaignstheir during winter.the See: Bowlus 1995,236. Saxon king, who unusual,had which iswhy it wasto so effective. Theraidflee almost delivered a death blow toto the reign of the greatestthe Anglo- Vikings,marshes to whosave attackedhis life176 as theAlfred VikingPrehistory to 1520. theattack Great caught in Wessexhim completely in the offmiddle guard. of the winter. This kind of warfare was totally Inge Skovgaard-Petersen, Inge making of “The Danishkingdom,”the Griffith 1996, 146-147. Jones 2001, 223.A winter campaign isknownfrom England in January executed878, by and Guþorm his I found that well planned, swift coordinated, execution of important raidsthe wasmore for pagan the mainreason the that Iconclude data these and examining listingAfter The time for information gathering and pondering all the questions was the winter, when winter, the was questions the all pondering and gathering information for time The ed. Knut Helle (Cambridge University Press, 2003),168-183, 173. 175 176 making it impossible for the Franks to cross. Data collecting included the methods mentioned above, mentioned methods the included collecting Data 29 177 The Cambridge History ofScandinavia. Vol. I. CEU eTD Collection among whatwould those, have significantly helped pagans the against theChristians. be can counted not this factor therefore better, were in Franks the case as Ihaveshown,this but 30 CEU eTD Collection 179 University Press, 2000). Chicago Press, 1990), William IanMiller, trans. E.O.G. Turville-Petre (Odense: Odense University Press, 1983). Sørensen, Meulengracht Preben Jenny Jochens, 2006). D.M. Hadley, András Róna-Tas, Kiadó, 1980). formation clanofstructure and the socialthe level conditions conquering of Hungarians],the (Budapest: Akadémiai Jesse L. Byock, L. Jesse See: examined. been 178 were involvedwhatin raidingthe activity. triggered or helped these attacks. Another goal was to identify those elements orlayers in society purpose of previousthe research inthisfield identify was to social conditions which could have Scandinavians both of societies pagan successesand also the also butcapability suffered urgetogo the to raidits neighbours. mobilisation military hada swifter men armed free and of community The raids. the causeof the helped pagans the of versatility and flexibility The social Franks. the to compared disadvantages to their enemies. Second, worldviewthe of pagans the and their needfor social basically display theirdetermined approach I will point out thatstandards paganof Old Norse and societiesHungarian societies. My goalenjoyed here is twofold. First,certain I will show thatadvantagesIntroduction and Károly Mesterházy, Károly The studies so far have not treated the question of Old Norse society in general, only different subfields have Scholars have already examined some segments of the possible social reasons for the for reasons social possible the of segments some examined already have Scholars In this chapter I will examine the social conditions, social structures andbehavioural social structures Iwill examineIn conditions, thesocial chapter this The Vikings in England: Settlement, Society and Culture Women in Old Norse society Medieval Iceland: Society, Sagas, and Power A honfoglaló Magyar nép Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law,Society in Saga and Iceland The Social Background ofViking andHungarian Raids Old Icelandic literature andsociety Nemzetségi szervezet és az osztályviszonyok kialakulása ahonfoglaló magyarságnál The Unmanly Man:Concepts of Sexual Defamation inEarly Northern Society, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1995). [The [The conquering Hungarian nation], (Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 1997). Chapter II Chapter 31 , ed.Margaret, Clunies Ross (Cambridge: Cambridge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). . (Manchester: Manchester University Press, University Manchester . (Manchester: 178 and Hungarians. (Chicago: University of 179 The main The [The CEU eTD Collection free armed farmers – bondsmen –, craftsmen and traders all Scandinavia. around traders and –,craftsmen –bondsmen free armed farmers age oreven their gender, to regardless colour. belonged,skin be richer or poorer, as this layer was very diverse concerning wealth as layer very bethis and poorer, concerning occupations. wealth diverse was richer or servants, and slaves of layer the was Edda 185 society. (Wife). As the names show, these people were the members of the widest stratum that formed the(Warrior). baseAmong daughtersthe were(Wise),of Snotr Brúðr Old (Bride), Norse Svani (SeaFljótr bird), (Swift,Diligent),Víf and (Smith), Breith (Broadone), Þegn(RoyalRetinue),servant, Bondi (Farmer),Brattskegg Smið (Steep bearded), Seggr and (Warrior), Drengr (Hero), Halr were sons their Among woman. Scandinavian typical and adecent (Bride), man), he was strong,184 sturdy,Africa. Northern from – them called Scandinavians the as people” “blue blámenn, – men black had numerous were there them flashingMediterranean between 862 859 and actually brought lotsofwarbluecaptives to slavethe markets of AmongDublin. eyes, them. from he originated 183 hadof servants race The lands. plough his the dunging own houses,ugly. They numerous childrenhad doing all thelowly ingloriousand jobs herding, likeswine digging up turfand oxen, and(Servant), hewas ugly, blackskinned, wrinkled with curved legs.His wife(Servant was Þír carts. maid)who was also His wife182 wastelling names to each memberSnör of the givenfamily. Old Norse society. The work uses allegoric pictures of families and theirwealth to show the different layers, givingmanuscript. It tells the story of the travel of the god181 Ríg – an aspect of Heimdallrwere low, itwas still – greaterthrough than in the Christian the societies. social layers of the 180 lords richer werethe Scandinavians,could who provide to afford warshipstogoraids. common feature of this group was that they sold theirmilitary prowess. They served armed, their society. whole the of majority pattern society consisted freeformed men wasandlayers, armed the who two of three out though, these that threefold Christian the from difference A crucial members. its of rights birth the The three-layered pattern oftheOldNorse society andthe stateScandinavian structure Roesdahl 2007, 76. The names of the parents were Afi and Amma (Grandfather and Grandmother), their child was Jones Karl 2001, (Boy, 216. Free Irish sources testify that the three-year campaign of the jarls Hástein The names of parents the were Aiand Edda (Grand-grandfatherand Grand-grandmother), and child their was BjörnÞraell járnsiða in the century fourteenth a in only preserved but century tenth the to dated probably work poetic A 42. 2007, Roesdahl spheres public in however women of the number The of course. women were population ofthe half the Around , which describes the three traditional layers of Scandinavian society. The lowest stratum This stratification is vividly described in the so-called in the described vividly is stratification This The second layer was the core of society, the widest stratum, consisting of the common The Old Norse society like many societies in the world, had three major strata defined in defined strata major three had world, in the societies many like society Norse Old The 180 182 where all the – mostly non-Scandinavian – war captives war – non-Scandinavian mostly – the all where 32 183 Rígsþula , 181 a poem from the 184 They could 185 Elder The CEU eTD Collection king who was depicted in the Whiter her neck than new-fallen snow. new-fallen than neck her Whiter Herbrows were bright, her breast was shining, Broad was train,her of bluewas her gown, clasps, were breast onher cap, was her Gay sleeves; the fitted and cloth, the smoothed She 189 43 “Konrverse ungr” in meaning “Kon theyoung”contains while wordthe text “konungr” means original “king”. the game; word a is there Here 299). 2005, Bernáth See: “Offspring”. means Kon (Overlord)Hersir and among their children theyoungest wasKon(according tothe translationof BernáthIstván horse, how to swim and how to use the secretwas Jarl (Nobleman). knowledge Heimdall called Jarl ownhis son. Jarlof was taughtthe how to runes.handle all weapons, how His to ride a wife was Erna the wise,188 the daughter known. also are Gunborga, of carver, rune afemale and skaldmær Jórunn skald, female One warriors. werefemale there sources written Irish to according but numbers in groups (félag), but at home they enjoyed ahigher status than their husbands. Women inthe public domaindifferent, were few were of course, roles, The general. in men to asas equal women treated always were they as activities Viking didthe in part not have the right to go to the assemblies187 (þing) and they186 did not have small but coherent members asall societies, Christian European Western over ascendancy for themilitary main reasons earlier. imagined itwas as democratic militaryconditions through as campaigns, astheScandinavian society not static and was forces behind the aneed Thisneed of created largequantities for of wasone metals. social precious driving the raids. The lowerVikingAge, its therefore richermembers had an displayurgentneed to their wealth, which side of this class also had the chance to reach better life to battles,to Scandinaviansthe them warriors understood as thetrue whowere born fight andleadto people commoners free the than number in fewer were they though even and rich truly were group this According tothe in word. one military the aristocracy kings (konungr), time. The names of the parents were Faðir and Móðir (Father and Mother), they were noble and beautiful, their child Roesdahl 2007, 80-82. I do not need to limit my statement here only to menas it isknownthat evenwomen took Roesdahl 2007, 76-78. Rígsþula, This layer wasvery mobile was and social on way the to transformation during the The third layer was the stratum of leadersthe of the society, thenoble warriors (jarl), and 187 188 verse 29: The lady sat, at her arms she looked, she arms her at sat, lady The 29: verse of this stratum was not only free men, farmers or craftsmen, but soldiers at the same while women in this group probably in while age. ideal the group represented women that of type this Rígsþula 186 was inspired by a crow – I interpret thisinterpret asanallegoric –I byacrow inspired was In my opinion, this need and this mobile layer were the were layer mobile this and need this opinion, my In 33 Rígsþula the members of the 189 The CEU eTD Collection years of wererule able to unify Norway orA not. detailed study was offered by KragClaus in 2003. See: Claus were – or rather are – the 198 dates of his rule,197 the dateevents Denmarkin of at this time. the major battle of Hafrsfjord and whether his nearly fifty 196 onwards. Kanhave channel on the island of Samsø in726, the construction works of the first phase on the Danevirke from 737 195 194 territories.Its inhabitants were southnamed Danes in the poem Widsið. 193 192 191 Rígsþula 190 onward century eighth the from government political arenotknown.units these of might and extent the but power, their exercised lords rulers, local where kingdoms Instead, Scandinavian exist. werenumerous there not Norway Denmark didknown andas today of his probably neighbours, regionsthe referring to of Don the and rivers. Dnieper picture of Óðin, who was the god of war, among other things charismatic leader to becomeleader to soleruler. charismatic attempt a of mostexperiencedhistory successful the hárfagri for inher Haraldr first time the of became Sweden. part the later temporarily country in culminatingof conflict the over massacre Danishthe throne in the house royal 854. Scandinavian asterritories the hadrelatively Denmarkunited fallen apartafter aserious andlong Otherwise, other parts of Denmark and thewhole of Norway were dividedpetty into kingdoms. manpowermore around that time thanlocal could mobilised. started needed have ruler a simple Roesdahl2007, 100.Theruleof Haraldr hárfagri hastriggered scholarly topicsdebates. ofthese The debates Brøndsted 1983, 69. Jones 2001,109.The The foundation of the Roesdahltrading 2007, 98-99. centre of Ribe on the Danish ofthe rest the to western independent was and Sillende called was territory the coastsources written more to According of Jutland around 700, Roesdahl 2007, 87. the construction of Bernáth2005, 300. the The animals associated to Óðin were the ravens Huginn and Muninn. Although the original wording of the It seems likely that in southern Denmark in southern that likely seems It Towards to end of the ninth century toendTowards ofthe ninth sharply differentprocesses in century developed these It isimportant to emphasize that in beginningthe of the era I treat here, the political units uses the term kráka “crow” and not hrafn“raven” I still think that the inspiration here comes from Óðin. Annales Regni Francorum 192 198 offers avery detailed contemporary account on all the political 194 34 because all the large scale building activities building scale large the all because 193 197 there was a certain kind of centralised Norway under the long, iron fist rule of 190 – to go to rob and burn the lands the burn and rob to go to – 191 196 The 195 CEU eTD Collection there are no place names originating from the combined name, Kürt and Gyarmat can only be found separately. found be only can Gyarmat and Kürt name, combined the from originating names place no are there 127-128.) It is likely the tribethat Kürtügyarmatu originally was two wastribes and contracted into one later as 203 202 (Hudud al-Alam). base The form must soundedhave like 200 he Guðmundsson, Þorgisl master, became his a smith,from back a respected freedom member of his got any he community after at that and time.slave a was Toke Denmark. Hørning, 199 University Press, 2003), 184-201. come to an end somewhere in the region of Magna Hungaria, as the eight tribe names tribe asthe eight Hungaria, in an of Magna end region comethe somewhere to –Magyars name their own used rather political Arab independent a“nation”tribal or asall authors unit, confederation, the an –theHungarians todeal formed started with Magyars the 830s –when sources Muslim 201 Hungarians. by written nothing and sources written few with evidence, The three-layered pattern ofHungarian society andthe Hungarian statestructure Krag, “The early unification ofNorway,” unification early “The Krag, jobs, bewho could kind –with of either ornon-Scandinaviansdealing–probably Scandinavians any strata had different wealth and rights, and under them was the lowest class of slaves and servants, society belonged into theof Mostthe for power. fights seriousinternal with century ninth the through occurred processes two upper strata, which all territories,the and the population livedwere insegmented small Unificationcommunities. free and armed. The forover centralised upastrong, theScandinaviansaccess evengovernment themselvestobuild members of these The tribe of the Kabars, Dienes 1972, 9. Nyéki, Gyarmati, Kürtügyarmatu, Tarján, Jeneh, Keri, Keszi. ( Ido not take Anonymus’ Roesdahl 2007, 75-76. Not necessarily only the lowly ones, as a certain Toke is known from a rune stone from The sources use the name forms name the use sources The 199 but warfare. but The structure of Hungarian society is mostly known from archaeological and place name To sum To inisup onelarge sentenceknown,Scandinavia whatdifficult wastoo andtoo of Gesta Hungarorum 201 – when they mentioned them. mentioned they –when mu ÷ f.r Ư ya The Cambridge history of Scandinavia (IbnRustah), as a relevant source for the ninth and tenth century. tenth and ninth the for source a relevant as 35 ma m. ÷ƥ ÷ƥ ar .r Ư ya Ư yan . See: Kristó1995, 39. n.74. (Gardezi), 202 The nation formation must have must formation nation The m.hf.r 200 , ed. Knut Helle (Cambridge Ư First, at least from the ya (Al-Bakri), and DAI 40. In: Kristó 1995, Kristó In: 40. 203 given by ma ÷ƥ ari CEU eTD Collection vertically divided into eight parts, tribes. parts, eight into divided vertically layers three Scandinavian society due to its smaller size and smaller dwelling place. It consisted of the same Baskiria. Basin and Carpathian the confederation, where the main representative of the people before the gods was the sacral ruler sacral the was gods before the people of the main representative the where confederation, 211 210 1972, 20. 209 208 207 Khaganate. Khazar different tribal fragments into one tribe, and it joined the tribal confederationonly afterit had left theterritorymostly of alienthe – Turkish – elements. The eighthtribe was totally alien; the Khazartribe was organised from three tribes, atleast four outof the original seven had non-Hungarian names, implying that those tribes consisted of 206 culture. Bjelo Brdo so the called of graves the in be attested can what culture the to belonged men armed free the stratum, second the and ratherI think thatDienes. thewith military agree not do I aristocracy,therefore the actual bodyScandinavians, of case of the the mounted in done army been have was could the same part the of the wealth, uppermost their stratum 205 204 in the VII Constantine Emperor except times of war. of times except place Basin,895 onwards. from which took of Carpathian the diminish conquest the to before itstarted ninth century the grave findsof (genus) –clan family big one newsystem,In the century. of tenth the organisation the territorial place to it society relationshipsbased gave ofthe blood seems structure late but the on that process, sure regardless of the vertical divisions (tribes). of vertical divisions the regardless Dienes 1972, 23. According to György Györffy these territories correspond to the later territories of the counties. See: Dienes Dienes 1972, 21. Most likely five clans formed one tribe. Dienes 1972, 12. A different question is how many of the eight tribes were actually Hungarian. According to the names of the Dienes 1972, 18. Although Dienes 1972, 8. Dienes divides the second stratum, the free commoners into two layers according to Taktika Hungarian society in the ninth century was more compact and more complex than the 208 The XVIII. 43. and 46. In: Kristó 1995, 104-105. – held power over large over areas –held power Taktika 205 as the Old Norse according to grave finds, but at the same time it was also of Emperor León VI mentions that the Hungarians were led León by leaders Hungarians were VI mentionsmany thatof the Emperor 211 One iswellinformed about the typical Asian leadership of dual tribal the De Administrando Imperio 204 206 209 210 The tribal division was artificial and according to the and recruited its military retinue from this territory this from retinue military its recruited and 207 The dissolution of the tribe system was a longer a was system tribe the of dissolution The 36 can be found in place names both in both names in place found be can CEU eTD Collection shoot arrows. shoot to how and ride to how servants and children their taught diligently Hungarians the that stated slave – stratum also took part in the raiding activities, based on the work of Regino of Prüm, who them. campaigns. whenfragmented The later, were raids tookpartin territorial only different groups actedasone earlierthe inunit the– unlike though Vikingcase–thesestrata times the just Scandinavians. as in case of the the involved men, free were armed of thelayer the one, institute to of the leadership.dual sacral leader, Kussal, was by assassinated Bavariansthe in 907, laws. customary the according to defeat, serious the time after the – was sacrificed leader in Álmos at sacral 895. –the attack blow thecombinedserious Bulgarian-Peceneg during 217 which means that the earlier South the unity to one Westand of the to the one upper time; same layersthe at involved organised in were the campaigns raids was surely raiding two when year divided first the at least into two. 216 215 214 213 properly by and andrestricting severalthings. restraining Thesemorals, ethical the and unethical be socialised people to tothe giving examples society, by members that of the lifefor of ethical Virtues andtheworld interpretation inScandinavia and the seems highly likely, itscharacteristics may have originated from the KhazarKhaganate but identifying the 212 called Regino of Prüm, Kristó 1986, 25-27. It seems sure that only a few clans took part in the raid of 906 Kristó in1986, 181. Saxony. Otherwise, 917 was Kristó 1986, 10. Ibn Rustah’s account IbnRustah’s in:Kristó 1995, 32-33.There are still questions around leadership. the dual Its existence Annales Alamannici, 216 kündü/kändä gyula In the raiding activities the uppermost class was the best represented but also the second the also but represented best the class was uppermost the activities raiding In the Every society in the world has norms and paradigms which tell and circumscribe the way Iconclude from thatperhaps sources the some members appropriate of thirdthe –the with knowncontemporary leader names is often a problem. 217 The numbers of these auxiliary forces, however, were surely relatively small. Chronicon , while the military leader wasthe military , while the 907. In: Kristó 1995, 202. in: Kristó 1995, 199. 37 gyula/djilah 214 . 212 which most likely put an end an put likely most which This dual system suffered a 213 Thenew 215 kändä In CEU eTD Collection 219 218 soawide undesirable features, personal and–letme addin worldview advance –controversial was already decided? inhibitions – especially in connection with “other”the folks – if everything and fate everyone’s world viewinfluenced wildbehaviour the of the Why hadhave Vikings. would one any fallen. gods the all almost when Ragnarök, the world, the of end the aggressiveness of untameablethe Fenrir the first wolf were signs of comingthe Fimbulvetr and possibly change it. ever – could tried they hard very although themselves, gods the even not – nothing therefore every living Their beinglifeless thing intheScandinavian and universe. decision was definite, fateof for unchangeable the –wereresponsible determining andPresentFuture Past, Skuld, the noplace concerning doubts for one’sfate. with nature had totally world the interpretation a serious, determined of their that self-preference “others”, but in the case of Scandinavians I think it was also important in addition to the normal shown scientifically isit that normal member for a of any preferto group hisher or groupover has Psychology Scandinavians. the among popular so later was Christianity why see to and of world the Christian conception life the on over paganideas the elevated that pillar spiritual shape of lawsorpromulgations.divine the often lawsandrules itself.take laws, andinby These end customary the community the sinfulor arethings defined by basicthe worldview, thereligious life of society,the by the Bernáth2005, 19-20. Bernáth2005, 11. The ancient, and in the first times shapeless, spirits, the spirits, shapeless, times first in the and ancient, The Scholarshipwhat informed iswell the about Scandinavianssaw as and desirable In my itopinion is crucial examine if to this question one wants to understand main the 218 And therewerefrightening bad omens. Balðr, The death of a god, and the 38 Norn 219 Thisdarkandinevitable s – Urð, Verðandi and s –Urð,Verðandi CEU eTD Collection guests guests and newcomers in his house, welcome always should one that are rules general important most the these Among life. everyday asto matters, wereconnected behavioural these and strongly guests receiving community ritualthe initiationof manhood. to Loddfáfnir section, the so called so the section, Vikings. the of virtues the see can also one virtues in their freefarmers, the from mostly formed was layer social vertical this that seeing but Vikings, the mention explicitly not does It centuries. eleventh to ninth the in farmers free Northern the of life everyday and community the concerning admonitions and councils Óðin’s contains stanza ninety-three oldest major sections from which the first two contains information that pertains here. The first and work without any external signs of separation. layers to mixed in Vikings. issues two the appear avoiding These connected stereotypical the the of a goodfarmer who only cares hisabout crops, homestead and life, everyday of pleasures likevirtues bravery, and pride being cunning andoutwitting others.The enlists other the virtues layeredfor teaching Scandinavians. the “classical” the layerspeaksabout One Scandinavian call down | every evil on your limbs. your on evil every | down call Hávamál verse 136: Powerful is that beam | mustthat movefrom side to side | opento for all;|give a ring, | or itwill 224 223 222 221 to teach the sociological norms to them separately. community. Tobe aViking was an occupation just like as being a farmeror amerchant therefore there was no need 220 the of pages inthe appears Hávamál verse 132: …never mock or laugh | at a guest or traveller. or guest a | at laugh or mock …never 132: verse Hávamál Bernáth2005, 165. Bernáth2005, 163-164. Preserved in the manuscript Codex Regius (Gamle Kongelige Samling 2365) written around 1260. Inmy opinionthis means that the Scandinavians did not take the Vikings as a separate unit or social layerin their The most important common and simple virtues are the ones connected to travelling, to connected ones arethe virtues simple common and important The most The means “he little” headed”) and likely to it or“empty knows who most connected was Hávamál 221 Loddfáfnir Song Loddfáfnir is a long poetic workconsisting of1082lines in 164 verses.Ithas three Elder Edda Elder 223 224 , most probably contains admonitions for young people (as he should be always happy and friendly to the guests and guests the to friendly and happy always be heshould . The . 220 Hávamál 39 , the sayings of Óðin, conveyed a two- 222 The second The CEU eTD Collection The same applies to the simple manners, common sense; common manners, simple the to applies same The the properly the behaviourguest properly the of timed Each man must be | moderately wise, | but never too wise; | no-one should know beforehand | his fate; | for that one that | for fate; care. | his from free most mind the beforehand is know should no-one | wise; too never | but wise, moderately be| must man Each owns it is completely wise. Each man must be | moderately wise, |but nevertoo wise; | because the wise man's heart | is seldompleasant glad, | if to he wholive | when they don't know a great many things. 232 himself. about searches wise of the each | so eyes; with examines 231 stays a long time | in the hall of another. 230 sense or be silent. | No man blames you | of bad manners, | that you go early to sleep. 229 drunk, | sometimes it wasn't ready; |the unwelcome one seldom hits the spot. 228 stomach gains ridicule, | when he comes among wise men, | forthe foolish man. Hávamál verse 20: A greedyhang | at a loyal friend'sman, | where I had eaten| unless one. he knows his 227 mind, | inreturn. often silence and of speech | it, get can he if causes his life's sorrowThere is need of water,| for by the one who comeseating; for ameal, | of towel andfriendly intonation;| often | of good disposition,clothes| the | for the man | who has journeyed on the mountainside. 226 monstrous fool, | the one who knows how to say almost nothing: | it is the charactermindful of the unwise. and225 fluent, | if he wants to be well-informed; | he shoulda value.also often speak of shouldgood be medium, no one should be too wisethings. or too foolish in order to reach happiness, which is | He is Theone’s measureof wits limitations. but clevernesswith value wisdom as a take and great called a rather realistic, showing the Norsemen’s simple conceptions of life and its beauty, as these verses rolebeing Thesharp wits,mind of being acleverwith words. lines and good about cleverare the host should be always ready to speak fast andwise words, perfect occasion for the host’s for host’s he perfect occasion social the inshow couldoff his wealth display gained where the as thegluttonous guest. company andentertainmenthisto guests, Hávamál verses 54-56: Each man must be | moderately wise, |but nevertoo wise; |forthose people | it is most Hávamál verse 7: The wary guestwho | comes for ameal | is silent with strained hearing, | listens with ears | and Hávamál verse 35: The guest must go, | he must not be | always in the same place; | loved becomes loathed | if he Hávamál verse 19: Do not let a man hold on to a goblet, |but let him drink mead in moderation, | let him talk Hávamál verse 66: I came to many places | very much too soon, | and too late to some; | sometimes Hávamál verse the67: Hereale and wasthere | I would be invited home | if I needed no food at meals; | or two hams would Hávamál verses 3-4: There is need of fire | for him who is come in | with cold knees; | there is need of food and Hávamál verse 103: At home a man must be glad | and cheerful with guests, | knowing about himself, | The timing of these social events is also treated from the time of guest’s arrival The role of this strictly organised social activity must have been twofold. First, it was the 232 227 226 229 as the speechless and avaricious host was just as bad as just was host avaricious and speechless asthe till the proper time to leave the house of the host. 40 231 arather long part covers the desirable 225 offering meals, offering drinksand good 228 through 230 CEU eTD Collection society have their rightful and useful place. The only useless state isdead. herebeingmen of state only useless The place. and useful rightful havesociety their andaggressivelifestyle,proud here too Viking even ageandhandicappedmembers old the of men, as tools of outwitting others. Norse society the lies,suspicion. trickssilent or irony acrimonious manner, and flatteryfriendly is a it if hadmatter no other, the from their gets he what give always rightfulshould everyone restriction: place among the virtues of common one should oneself andothers. about think how to choose friends and keep them close, how to win love even with another’s wife, another’s with even love win to how close, them keep and friends choose to how be blind | thanburnt: | no-one is helped by a corpse. The lame man rides a horse, | the one-armed fire burnthe up| before a rich man, | manbut deathwas outside drivesthe door. the herd, | the deaf man fights and 238 is useful; | it is betteryou speakfair must toto |and him, think deceitful thoughts, | giveand deception in return fora lie. gifts. such for repayment be should | There thought. 237 your than other speak | and him with laugh should 236 does not know | what he must say in reply, |if men test him. Hávamál verse men. wise among sits he |when 26: him against malice The express if they even | unwisenotice man | thinks he knows everything235 most | bethe ale if with | hewary: wary too has| not and withbut | be, another'syou refuge bid woman,… I …wary 131: verse forHávamál wary. be himself to has one but allowed in a corner | but he LoddfáfnirSong gives atypical middle way perceptiononthis matter. It is asinbut if one to has commit it, it is 234 speedy – | a steed is useless | if he breaks a foot –| a manshould not be so trustfulHávamál | that he trusts all these. versebroken sword, | 89:a bear's game | or a king'sIn son,… his brother-slayer,Hávamál verse 86: …a flyingwere shaped | on a spear,(potter's) | turningthough wheel, | | anda ficklenessfalling placed in their he breasts.wave, is | metice233 one onnight the old, road, | a coiled | snake,in a | half-burnta bride's bed-talk | orhouse, a | in a horse too- news. andreceiving for spreading itwas perfectoccasion the Second, roles insociety. strengthen thenewof justified status new social these upcoming men.Wealth theirclaimsto joinsuch adisplay would to campaigns. to Such raids, guests the surelyinspired which Hávamál verses | 70-72: him, from Itgood is bettersomething get to forwant you the | but livingmistrust, you | than| whom for another thehave you If dead, 45: verse | the Hávamál living man always gets the cow; | I saw Hávamál verse 46: There is more about the one | whom you mistrust | and whose disposition Hávamál you suspect: verse | you 24: The unwise man | thinks them all to be | his friends, Although adultery general wasin taken asacrime withvery serious consequences (See:those Roesdahl2007, 82),the who laugh at him; | he does not Hávamál verse 84: No-one should trust | in the words of a maid, | nor in what a woman says, | for their hearts This layer of the The Hávamál does not leave any doubt concerning whom or what one should trust, Hávamál 237 is full of the joy of life. Here there is nothing about the too the about nothing is there Here life. of joy the of full is 235 It places happiness over strife, but with a strict 41 236 Contrary to the Christian worldview, in Old 234 what 238 233 CEU eTD Collection friend of a friend | of his foe. | ofhis friend of a friend 243 can't be sure | when, outside on the roads, | a spear will be needed by a warrior. 242 because one can't know for sure | where enemies | sit in the hall beforehand. 241 http://hbar.phys.msu.ru/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm#descrip (Accessed: 11May 2009). mox utceperit, inius famulicii velsocio vendit vel barbaro. acceperunt, saepeabutantur insuos;adeo fide nullautrique ad invicemsunt, etsinemisericordia quisquealterum, 240 239 unless a kinsman should raise [them] to kin. A son is better, | though he be late-begotten, | after a man is gone; | memorial stones seldom | stand by the road | else. anyone to as kinsmen their Scandinavian were safe from the attacks of their own kind, as the Vikings were just as ruthless to everyday life. This seems apparent Norseculturalthe rather environmentor totheirgroup where narrower rulesguided these in Adam of Bremen’s account,Theiracts weremost influenced by probably victims theirbelong fact that simple the to not did who states that not even theScandinavians were, arrogant, doubtless boldandof behaviour against the Christian people ofWestern The Europe. course, not againstinthink background that success spiritual the of their theseideaswere for responsible the Christianity or against I of had tothe worldinterpretation Vikings. the and led which conceptions virtues examine those any religious attitude at all. mostthe avoidable thing. hereappears as ideas onlifeandprideasdeath from Viking the sharply This differs conception blood, and blood, be braveand is till comes. Death enthusiastic death notadreadful in thing this in fightcold needarises, or whenever opportunity fight eagerto and Always beready deeply. the friends of enemies. new places, or known to going when ever-vigilant be should One century. ninth the of life everyday the to Hávamál verse 43: A man must be a friend | to his friend, |for himself and forthe friend, | but no man must | be a Hávamál verse 38: A man in the open country must not | go more than one step | from his weapons; | because one Hávamál verse 1: Before one would advance | through each doorway, | one must look about Adam of Bremen,| and peer around, | Page 1995, 139-141. To turn to the more warlike and aggressive aspect of the Old Norse society I will The more aggressive aspect of of aspect the The more aggressive 241 should not be unarmed at any time, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis 243 239 After these basic directives comes what saturated the Viking mentality Viking the saturated what comes directives basic these After 240 Hávamál , capitulum 6: 42 242 starts with simple safety connected safety advices with simple starts and treat true friends well but never talk to Unde etiam contingit, utquam licentia, in hostes Source: CEU eTD Collection collective memory of society, of the memory collective no peace. no 250 centuries. twelfth without exaggeration that skaldic poetry was the most difficult to create and to understand in Europe inthe ninth- length of thehexameter lines basedwhatthe skalds. Their style actually was more complexmakespoetry. and rigid than the style of the elaborated classical Roman these Rigidness 249 poems does Cattle die,even | kinsmen die, | notthe self dies likewise;harderapply | I know one thing | that never. |dies fame nevergood dies: to | the reputeto of theeach of the dead. translateword order 248 butand to interpret.the strict247 rules wolfIn | get aham |or asleepingmy ofman victory. opinionthe metrum itand246 can the bemight spare him.said The foolish man | thinks he will live foreverhappy and cheerful | until suffershe death. | if he avoids battle; | but old age gives | him245 no peace, | though spears 244 act. intolerable raids, the of reputation. gain notions Sincekey to reputation behindand fame were thedriving spiritual force handwent inhand in eraasinsultsput Viking the weremeant shame to fame on one’s and and pride Revenge village. insult family or revenge to a rival was simply to take or on purpose its century; eleventh the was heyday Its activity”. “social popular a became – it termed Griffith I have already mentioned inthe hall namely, firstchapter, burning” “nocturnal – as that Paddy humiliate them and also gives permission doto that. vengeance. The Sayings of Óðin give advice on how to rob, mock or kill one’s neighbours to they fear death and foolishly hope to have eternal life. becausecowards fights to andfoolish people whoescape hereoldshameful ageis as attributed kinsmen. Scandinavian own one’s or Christians against fighting during isit notconception, andit matterheroicdoes rather adesirable if and event, someoneitreaches Hávamál verse 127: …whenyou come upon misdeeds | speak out about those misdeeds, |andgive your enemies by level high very on a pursued poetry court of heroic help invaluable the with accomplished was elevation This Hávamál versesScandinavia. in than life better a and wealth gain to wish 76-77: mundane more the with together Ofcourse Cattle die, | kinsmen die, | the self dies likewise; Hávamál verse 58: He must rise early, |the one| whobut wants to havethe another's | wealthrenownor life; | seldom does | a lyingfor the one who gets Hávamál verses 15-16: Page 1995, 105-106. A ruler's son must be | silent and thoughtful | and brave in battle; | each man must be | Another important topic layer”Another inthe“Viking of the 247 250 and also the main virtues to elevate someone to an immortal an andelevatemain someonevirtues toimmortal the to also status 249 any insult or shame on pride by an enemy was taken as an 43 246 245 This aspectis probably connected to what Hávamál is questionthe of pride and 244 Togrow old is rather 248 inthe CEU eTD Collection 253 region], (Miskolc, 1996), 187.Tisza Upper ofthe history tenth-century the to data Archaeological Karos. in cemeteries period conquest [The concerning the behaviour and society of the Magyars. It states “Turks” thatthe [Hungarians] – Magyars.It the behaviour society of and theconcerning Hungarians – as I havein shown previousthe chapter – italso contains afew bits ofinformation 252 251 belts andclothes. weapons, gilded wearing exception alivelygiving vividand picture of friendlythe and human side of pagans.the Heribald onthe Hungarians invading the monastery in 1 the of May 926 maybe the only positive Gallen, Sankt of monk handicapped mentally the of account The centuries. tenth and ninth the Magyarsin on the badlight shed avery mostly and and exaggerated whichareone-sided sources other upon rely to has one Therefore, themselves. Hungarians the by produced materials written Virtues andtheworld interpretation oftheHungarians they they in occupied interpretation traditional of the world a high culture. Therefore I think this statement was not against the Hungarians themselves but against the state lowbarbaric, people. class as in general nations the nomadic simply steppe author(s) took way of showing off wealth. direct very a showing clearly owner, the of cloth the to sewn were objects these that implying coins were found in 930s.a leader’sgraveAll from the around hadholes coins two the in them gold wherenumerous andBenepuszta, Karos of finds as such cemeteries the archaeological people. Kristó 1995, 42. László Révész, Kristó 1995, 38. 253 According to Gardezi the Hungarians liked splendour and to show their wealth by theirshow wealth andto splendour liked Hungarians Gardezi the to According no are asthere is more problematic, Hungarians of the worldview the of The question However the However The work Probably this conception of the Hungarians originated from the fact that the Muslim the that from fact the originated Hungarians the of conception this Probably A karosi honfoglalásA karosi kori temet Hudud al-Alam Taktika 252 of Emperor León VI is the finest source on the tactics of the describes Hungarians aswealthy and butcoarse primitive Ę 251 k. Régészetiadatoka Fels The words by arefurther Thewords confirmedof source the 44 Ę -Tisza-vidékX. századitörténetéhez CEU eTD Collection 255 254 of continuedwhofrom Ratpert’s fairEkkehard, work the accounta contemporary followed similar patterns that were different from the Christian regulations of the society. I will treat in detail one can infind striking similarities with thethe description of the Vikings shown above. Although conclusion– as – thespeak. behavioural patternsto beof wild,the pagan they societies were andproud rebellious, untrustworthy everybody.and disrespectful towards Theirnature was very alwayssurelywere Hungarians the that chronicle his in states He ready Magyars. the concerning be true to believed to wage war on anyone,the Hungarians, and they would rather still act itthan they had sufferedacrushing defeat. is worthafter except fighting up gave never they and kinsmen own their mentioning of betrayal the was eyes in their asfoes. their defeat and outwit lies to and theirtricks rather but prowess military it shows some opportunity striketo them –ifdown. The Hungarians they had achance –didnot use their topics whatinformed political concerningvictims,affairs the spying of thebesttheir out precariously the Latin authorexposed their natural cold,conditions likeheat or they were unfriendly, cunningand neveruntrustworthy, real intentions,extreme to were resistant leaders.also They fearedtheir because of butthey only disciplined, andwar their greedinessunlike other Scythe knewnations no– obeyed limits. the orders of Usuallya single leader they[probably were only in timeswell of 256 257 258 Kristó 1995, 105. Kristó 1995, 199. Taktika Taktika Taktika 254 258 ] but otherwise they were ignorant concerning community community duties. concerning ignorant ] butotherwise theywere So far I have only shown negative perceptions of the Hungarians, but fortunately there is there fortunately but Hungarians, the of perceptions negative shown only have I far So general The and of isonthehabits andPrüm exaggerated of of Regino origins work too It seems likely that Regino followed the mandatory inlikelymandatory as pagans, seemsfollowed describing the the Regino Ittopoi that XVIII. 43, in: Kristó 1995, 104. XVIII. 67 and 74, Kristó in: 1995, 108-109. XVIII. 46-48, in: Kristó 1995, 105. 257 45 255 The Hungarians were Hungarians The 256 The greatest sin Casus Sancti CEU eTD Collection friendly attitude with the help of small presents like wine or food. earn a to eager always nevertheless they were everything, makingof fun andobscene, were rude Magyars although the was that whole the picture to addition Thefinal leaders’. buttheir orders likethough, thathedidnot wildnobody’s that theHungarians obeying wereso and rampant to it.for Headded he and food lavishly asked him whenever people, drink generous gave who state. mental handicapped his from but bravery from come not based on the tale of the monk Heribald, the only one who did notflee with the others. His act did Scandinavians had.Scandinavians asthe anduniverse fate had a deterministic they such is nosign that Scandinavians. There the popular among Hungarians. Kussal, the feasts were great and gatherings social that is itknown as one, Scandinavian the similar to any inhibitions, or beinglike keepingfriendly demeanour towards givingtravellers, enjoyingsmall lifepresents, silentwithout and ready to act. Probablybreaking in oaths gain hopeof the foundgreater were also among just the Scandinavianvirtues, the perception lies, and trickiness,behaviour, free wild isand aggression, Pride, of warlikethe concerned. aspect everyday life was as farleast as at ones, Scandinavian less tothe similar more or were standards moral Hungarian 260 259 Galli Kristó 1995, 251-252. Kristó 1995, 246. . 259 Heribald stated the he had never before met such a friendly, cheerful, playful and playful cheerful, friendly, a such met before never had he the stated Heribald Not as muchNot is thereligious knownabout worldview of paganHungariansthe asabout From these extreme accounts I conclude that the major patterns virtues of and the major Iconcludethe patterns accounts that From extreme these The account of the Hungarians attacking the monastery inGallen is 926partly Sankt monastery of attacking the of Hungarians Theaccountthe kändä was even assassinated in such a feast. 46 260 CEU eTD Collection not mean safety from destruction the asits did lord, ÓðinValhöll was devoured by place, Fenrir wolf. The prestigious topic a widehas most the literature. even that knew Scandinavians the Therefore netherworld. the of level every in everyone almost destroyed Worlds Nine of the end The Ragnarök. the in destroyed were – Gjallarhorn his with carried tohellby Niðhöggrdragon.the Nevertheless these numerous eternal places were who –afterHeimdallr hadgivensign damned, the receive to –meant name her gave actually she which to – netherworld the of bowels deepest Freya’s palaceopened righteous,the for bold brave and warriors, the halls ofgods other hosted other men,while thegoddess was the place262 for women.261 Hel, the daughter of the mysterious Loki was the eternal queen of the innations general andpeople treatdifferent concerninghowto features some common shared andpagan cultures views. Both world was crucially different Europe structure their social Chapter Conclusions although they although of hadthey netherworld.the conceptions wildly.At same the time the pagans–atleast Scandinaviansthe –had nohope for eternal life in heavenin certain circumstances, which – at least theoretically – keptthemfrom behaving too slave status. ran and if they did not have weapons it was their own fault, originating from their cowardice or for every man tobe a soldier. They did not care if their victims were monks or craftsmen, if they destined was it that thought probably they and men saw only they as man, every against brutality and wealth weapons. to wield the had right society of the the part narrow pagans where–compared –only the communities settledto a against the Christian life,better togetfame simply or survive. Thisto probably boosted theirradically effectiveness power,opportunity right, use andtoo to obligation theira the iftheywantedtoget weapons structures. had societies similar both The Scandinavians in fact believed in more netherworlds in the same time. The Halls of Óðin, the Valhöll was Valhöll the ofÓðin, Halls The time. same inthe netherworlds more in believed fact in Scandinavians The The personal level –asusually – was friendly quite as Heribald’s account and Hávamálthe showed. A similarly important factor would have been that Christians were promised eternal life eternal Christians werepromised wouldthat been have factor important A similarly I think – at least in the times of the first encounters – that was the reason for the Viking peopleMost inboth cultures belonged the free to and social armed layers whohad the I think that one of the most important key factors of pagan ascendancy over Western over ascendancy pagan of factors key important most the of one that think I 47 262 Therefore thepagans had only one chance 261 and CEU eTD Collection RaymondPage, Ian (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1996). survival and contributed Highthe Middle Ages. the Christian faith of adaptation the and Atlantic North in the colonisation Norse are the versatility by of this examples both cultures in thesurvivelifeand made anything Thetwomost else, in it tellingeasier to conditions. different eleventh century, or weaponry whether asuseful, was regarded cultures what whatever target the from over which was a tool for take to madea possible It both cultures. of survival for thesuccessful important successful was This factor be adaptive. to societies peripheral both of ability the and versatility flexibility, the success, White Balðr-Christ. resurrected adaptation of in notion the of a safe the form the andafterlife of an eternal newgod, emerging quick aliens, the second, behaviour towards the unscrupulous effects. First, hadfatalism two 264 263 Press, 1990). H.R.E. Davidson, are: works classical others numerous Among Origins, Changes and Interactions eds. Andrén, Anders Kristina Jennbert, Catharina Raudvere, publication: newest the see treatise longer For Fora short overview see: Bernáth 2005, 10-21. the about told were they as fatalists, to commemorate their name for eternity, that is, their very lifetime on earth. They probably were On theViking versatility see: Roesdahl2007, 243-244. Bernáth2005, 19. I also add have to one more key notion to this analysis of socialthe backgrounds of pagan Scandinavian Mythology Norse Myths (The Legendary Past) (Lund: Nordic Academic Press,2006). 263 (London: Hamlyn, 1969).Reissued as Norn s who had already decided everyone’s fate. This fate. decidedeveryone’s had already s who (London: BritishMuseum Austin:and University of Texas 48 Old Norse Religion inLong-Term Perspectives: Viking and Norse Viking Mythology 264 CEU eTD Collection 266 other. each against campaigns seven eighty led Irish the time same inthe while five years of the Scandinavian– mostly Norwegian – raids the Irishwritten sources mention twenty six Viking raids these territories are out of the scope of my present work. Still it is important to note that in Ireland in the first twenty 265 coming from coming from Ireland. Itwasmost by likely executed Norwegians coast. Aquitanian archipelago alongdistant the the only empire, the of areas important any hit not did though, one, first The Charlemagne. of Viking attacks ontheFrankish Empire ninth and tenth century Western Europe. although causedthey suffering aninspiring –wererather force behind renewal the and revival of the damage caused by the internal wars among fellow Christians in the empire. in the Christians fellow among wars internal by the damage caused the Christian world they still contributed to the rise of the High Middle Ages. show even damagedthe pagan cultures both that is historical to though with overview this My main goal states. successor later and Empire Frankish the namely West, of the development Introduction Jones 2001, 195. Roesdahl 2007, 286. This statement is true and justified inother territories as well, like the BritishIsles, although My presumption isMy thatthe proportion causedby presumption of damage the paganswaslessthan the affected historical In this Viking Iwill the and show howthe Hungarian attacks chapter The first Viking attacks on the empire happened in 799 and in 810 during the reign sole on and empirethe happenedin The firstattacks Viking799 Historical Analysis of Pagan Attacks; WhatDevastationContributed? 266 This event was so unimportant that neither the neither that unimportant so was event This Chapter III 49 265 Annales Regni The attacks – attacks The CEU eTD Collection the northern frontiers of the Empire and the Danesempire, hostile. to Friesland, between the therelationships turned 810that between 804 and aprocess show clearly sources with two hundred ships. He exploited the system trade their insecuring wereengaged me Danes the let that conclude evidence archaeological lands more than the Danes, attacked the latter latter territories. the attacked Danes, morethe than lands lacked arable who mostly Norwegians, wasthat probably reason Isles;the British the against ledfull-scale Viking first by attack of one Danish the Goðfreð. kings, Annales Regni Francorum negotiatoribus,soluta classe ad portum, qui Sliesthorp dicitur, cumuniverso exercitu venit. dicebaturRericmagnam et regnoillius commoditatem vectigalium persolutionepraestabat, translatisqueinde Godofridus vero, priusquam reverteretur, distructo emporio,quod in oceani litore constitutum lingua Danorum suum ad Albiam cum valida Francorum et Saxonum manu misit… river Treene going to the Northern Sea. On the date of the building see: Roesdahltime 2007, 178. border onward southernmost the on wall fortified the obviouslyof Denmark, Danevirkethe was started to be built in737 and was dendrochronology continuously to enlarged and supplemented from this according evidence archaeological the to to Turning protect the Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.htmltown (Accessed: 18 May 2009). of Hedebyinfecto discessum est. and to serveinter partes enumerari potuissent. […]multisque hinc etindeprolatis atque enumeratis rebus negotio penitus as a channelatque suorum iuxta terminos regni sui transAlbim fieret, inquores invicem gestae proferribetween et emendatione digna the Schlei fjord and the Annales RegniFrancorum equitatu regni sui ad locum, qui dicitur Sliesthorp, in confinio regni sui et Saxoniae. Annales Regni Francorum year. next the in attack Viking a to led events These fruitless. was gathering In 809 Goðfreðpowers. two the asked between the emperorplace took to keep battle no a but general assemblyGoðfreð, against where son he wanted his sent to settle emperor the The matter Danes. the in peace, and butempire the townof Reric and the Frankish ally Slavic Obodrite (“Abodritus”) tribe that triggered open hostilities betweentheSlavic tribes just south of the Danishfrontier, and in 808 he led a full-fledged campaign against the rival merchant 271 the Danish court – most probably served as a good and baleful example to the Danes.the dangers of the Frankish conquest in their very vicinity. ill fate The of Widukind – a Saxon prince and refugee in 270 269 sources. the from tell wecan as 268 267 Francorum The Frankishsource gives an account of the Danes from 782 onwards. In 804 it implies that Goðfreð attacked the The Saxon wars of Charlemagne from 772 till the early years of 11. the ninth1970, century surely Foote-Wilson made the Danes wary of The Danes were who started to attack the This attackEmpire was mentioned from in a letter 810 of Alcuinonwards,of York. the Norwegians joined up only later as far 269 The The Vikings started their attacks against the empire more than twenty later than years moretwenty than empire againstthe their attacks started The Vikings centred in Hedeby, was which threatened by Franksthe andtheir Slavic allies. nor the nor Annales RegniFrancorum Annales Xantenses Annales , 808: , 809: , 804: …Godofridum regem Danorum inAbodritos cum exercitu traiecisse, Carlum filium …Godofridus rex Danorum […]Petebat etiam, utconventus comitum imperatoris Eodem tempore Godofridus rexDanorum venitcumclasse suanecnon etomni 271 recordedit. describes thatduring raid the of 810 Goðfreð arrivedat 50 267 The second one in 810 can be taken as the as be taken can in 810 one second The 268 Annales RegniFrancorum and the and 270 The CEU eTD Collection Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 18 May 2009). mortuo Hemmingus filius fratris eius in regnum successit ac pacem cum imperatore fecit. Danish king,Hemming, at the end of year the 810. new the with peace make immediately could they – because later kings Danish other assassinated they – as leader 277 Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html (Accessed: 18May 2009). videlicet, qua non minus insignis erat, conpulsus ad lacrimas. Karoli Magni, also perished. Einhard wasemperor asthe stunned contrary stronglamented spirit, crying. his to Einhard, right before the coming battle and his favourite white elephant, Abu Abbas – thegift of the Caliphof Baghdad – 276 (Budapest:Corvina Kiadó, 2000), 277. 275 2009). http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000692 (Accessed: 18May 274 planning. of careful result the surely was attack Danish of the timing the that Accessed: accept 18May 2009). I latter the information asthe expeditionem meditans nuntium accepit… 18 May latter2009). The states that Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000692 Accessed: Germ. N. S. 12, 76. previous work states that states work previous 273 Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html (Accessed: 08May 2009). Frisonibus iam esse solutas,… Frisonibus commisisse Danosque victores tributum victis inposuisse etvectigalis nomine centum libras argenti a Frisiaco litori adiacentes insulasesse vastatas iamque exercitum illum incontinenti esseternaque proelia cum expeditionem meditans nuntium accepit, classem ducentarum naviumde Nordmannia Frisiam appulisse totasque marched against the Danes he hesitated to pick fight. the to up Danes hehesitated the marched against The other reason for the postponed battle was that although Charlemagne collected his armyGoðfreðlead strifeby sons sothe waskilled duringhis didnot one thisof raid toopen war. and 272 omens Magno arrival of the raiders. Friesian inland troops three times. All happenedthis before Charlemagne wasinformed about the swiftness of his army and destroyed the archipelago along the Frisian coast and defeated the simply knew that the situation would be solved with the death of Goðfreð. In my opinion it can not be excluded that the Franks were somehow involved in the assassination of the Danish ofthe assassination the in involved somehow were Franks the that be excluded not can it opinion my In According to Einhard’s S. Fischer-Fabian, S. Although there is a contradiction between the works De CaroloMagno Annales Regni Francorum 276 the Danes had carefully chosen the time of of attack. thetime chosen carefully Daneshad the right before the conflict which may have kept him from rushing into battle or maybe he maybe or battle into rushing from him kept have may which conflict the before right caput19: Nagyaz els Károly, II.13: Mortes filiorum acfiliaepromagnanimitate, quaexcellebat, minuspatienter tulit, pietate 272 Cum vero pernonmodicum tempus latissimum peragraret imperium… VitaKaroli Magni The attack was surely well planned; according to the work , 810: …consecutus eumfilius suus… Imperator Aquisgrani vero adhuc et Godofridum agens contra regem Imperator veroAquisgrani adhucagens et contra Godofridum regem Ę európai one of his daughters, Rotrud and two of his sons, Pippin and Carl died (Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html Annales Regni Francorum [Karl der Grosse. Der Erste Europäer], trans. Tamás Szántó Tamás trans. Europäer], Erste Der Grosse. der [Karl 51 De Carolo Magno Annales (MGH, SS rer. Germ. N. S. 12, 76). Source: is a contemporary source with the addition 275 273 and the Hehad tragic some experienced This source also mentions that mentions also This source , 810: Annales FrancorumRegni …Godofrido Danorum rege 277 (MGH, SS rer. De Carolo . The Vita 274 CEU eTD Collection 282 281 280 successibus vico quodam, quivocatur Buyn, adintegrum depopulato cum ingenti praeda ad propria reversaesunt. litoris custodibus, quinque suorum interfectis inritae recesserunt.Tandem in Aquitanico litore prosperis usae casae vilesincensaeparvus et pecorisnumerus abactus Sequanaesimiliaest. Inostio temptantes resistentibus sibi praedari molientes ab his, quiin praesidio repulsaeerant, sunt; ubi tamen abeis propter custodum incuriam aliquot Annales FrancorumRegni robbed coastal the region. mouth of the Seine but theyIt is also known thatdid thirteen Vikingnot ships triedhave to attack Flanders any in 820 but withoutluck luck,Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/annalesregnifrancorum.html therefore here they (Accessed: went 18May to either.the2009). The smallpetunt et fratremfleet suum Hemmingum sibi remittithen rogant. sailed to Annales RegniFrancorumAquitania wherecaptivity. Frank from they be released should – power the seized king previous the with identical – not withHemming the same name brother, who diedtheir in812 and whose that and death triggeredpeace for the throne asked fight in Ragnfrið which and Haraldrklak klak and RagnfriðHaraldr Francorum four years. structure. military 279 278 in 834. hit empire only the attack Viking decades thenextserious as two in next the well served system defense system along coasts the of Friesland and LowCountries.the This newlyintroduced Friesland andFlanders in 833. death the of Hemming, king the made who peace with Charlemagne in 810 andin 811 as well. sons in the battle of in sons of battle the Colmar, were alsoinvolved as soldiers of Lothar against Louis I. Vikings Danish the where 829, after empire in the out broke war Civil affairs. internal Frankish and throne aspirants were already the vassals of Louis I so they had a good insight into the Papp 1997, 146. Roesdahl 2007, 255. Roesdahl 2007, 90. The sources Brøndsted 1983, 47. speak about smaller attacks, though. In 812 there is an implicit reference in the 278 There were only smaller skirmishes between the Vikings and the Franks in these twenty- in these Franks the and Vikings the between skirmishes smaller only were There After the first large-scale raid Charlemagne started to build up a fleet andacoastal build afleet up to started Charlemagne raid large-scale first After the The next attack inThe nextattack 834 wasnotacoincidence atall. By timethis of some Danishjarlsthe that implies that there must have been some armed conflict between Danes and the empire as the kings the as empire the and Danes between conflict armed some been have must there that implies that This was the first contributory step of the Vikings to the development of the imperial 279 The Franks were also helped warsin The after by chaotic werealso internal the Denmark Franks throne , 820: , 812: de Nordmannia tredecim vero piraticae navesegressaeFlandrensi primo in litore Harioldus etReginfridus reges Danorum missa adimperatorem legatione pacem 282 which led eventually to weakeningthe of coastal the indefenses 52 281 Emperor Louis I was defeated byhis Louis Emperor Iwasdefeated Annales Regni 280 CEU eTD Collection the island of Noirmoutier. raid inthis the territory after time of first the empirethe forthat the invadinghappened fleet It Norway. didnot in return home to of Vestfold Scandinavia butregion the spent to the winterrefers on “Wesfaldingi” name The 2009). http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000869 (Accessed: 19May 289 288 287 286 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000692 (Accessed: 18May 2009). depopulati suntaut multisacceptis pecuniis territa reliquerunt. captivitatepessumdederunt etomnia monasteria seu[quae]cumque locaflumini Sequanae adhaerentia aut Rotumam irruentes,rapinis, ferro ignique bachantes, urbem,monachos reliquumque vulgum etcaedibus et 285 infinita diversi generis pecunia. city of Nantes during the fair of St. Ivan. The crews of the sixty-seven ships proved their in captives. takingmany monastery the Walcheren, destroyed Christian destroyed by ina flood 864. Accordingtothe 284 283 Norwegians attested first forthe good dissolved empire was – what in waslooted 842. trade Frankish-English of the centre trading –the defendanything Quentovic do to not he could Rouen andinvaded destroyed and 837. 834 between year and–every wealth trade many city’s lucrative the for years becauseof target this. of the Theauthor estate. an honorary Walcheren monastery as of received the inLothar, service of named Haraldr like king a Danish them. army against even an gather Jones 2001, 210. Roesdahl 2007, 255. Jones 2001, 210. Roesdahl 2007, 254. Annales Bertiniani Chronicon Aquitanicum Annales Xantenses 287 Civil war raged in the empire, the emperor was defeated by his brothers at Fontaneum so Fontaneum at brothers byhis wasdefeated emperor the in empire, the Civil war raged The well informed Danish Vikings immediately andstruck Dorestad looted – theirmain From this time the Viking attacks against the empire became regular. In 841the Danes became regular. In empirethe against Vikingattacks From timethis the 283 Dorestad was Dorestad also robbed in846-847andfor last the time in 863 asthe city was , 841,MGHGerm. 5, 25: rer. SS. , 837: , MGH, SS 2, 253: …pagani vastaverunt Walicrum multasque feminas inde abduxerunt captivas cum 288 Source: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/xanten.html (Accessed: 18May 2009). In the year of the Treaty of Verdun where the nominal unity of the of unity nominal the where Verdun of Treaty the of year the In 285 under the leadership of Asgeir and left before the Franks could 286 The Vikings wereapparently informedwell as theirleaders, Annales Bertiniani …Eo quoqueNamnetis anno aWesfaldingis capitur… 53 …Interea pyrataeDanorum ab oceano Euripo devecti, Annales Xantenses Annales 289 was obviously shocked at hearing at shocked was obviously arrived in the empireattack to the Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: in “pagans”837 the also 284 Source: CEU eTD Collection loðbrók, in loðbrók, of service the Goðfreðsson, Hröríkr Lothar. 296 onwards. 295 The Danishsettlement started only later as they had enough lands forcultivation. 294 against attackinghis brothers,Lothar and Louis theGerman and the rebellious Aquitanian king, Pippin II. that Charles the Bald had the wealth to pay to get ridof the smallerbad thing, the Vikings, while he saved his forces 293 Bald. the of Hamburg. ofCharles treasures onthe devastation himself to the buy of to peace managed because Hröríkr angry obviously was who king German enraged the from peace buy to “gift” a as German the Louis to treasures Parisian of the vividly part is large a offered situations he that fact by the political on opinion my king in attested Danish of the sight keen The Goðfreðsson. Hröríkr to treasures the giving court 292 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000758 (Accessed: 19May 2009). per Albim fluvium in Germanniam ad versus Hludowicum dirigit. history.Sunday, of March, collectingfirstDanegeld the the 28 hundred ships of order and king,the attacked Hamburgwith Goðfreðsson six Hröríkr – totally destroyed thousand warriors. 291 290 territories andfought Pippin II their civil war. Aquitania ships hundredfifty one attacked than upin30 kilometres full Loire, dangerous and the of rocks sandbanks. fair, the in and wholewhen the Nanteswith gathered many countryside they goods sailed more outstandingmilitary intelligence ability at managedandas navigation they hit city to the during which happened in 861. One of which happenedinfamousmost in861.One of járnsiða, the Viking jarls, Björn onan settled against Frankish other kings. Roesdahl2007,Charles 258. the Bald to gaveGoðfreð land to Haraldssonuse forces the his Emperor,against 820s the from estates had lords Viking the andFlanders inFriesland as Seine river the along areas the Meaning lands. arable seeking were they as Aquitania in down settled Norwegians the attack the After 212. 2001, Jones Jones 2001,212-213.The Danegeld was 7000poundsofsilver(3175 kgs).Thefact was that only it paid attests Roesdahl 2007, 257. He was in the service of the Danish king because after the attack he returned to the Danish Most largest Viking probably forcethe attested. Six ever ships hundred should atleast27-30 have meant Jones 2001, 211. 845 was perhaps the most lucrative year for the Vikings. In this year the Danes – by – yearthe theDanes for Vikings.In this the lucrative year most 845 wasperhapsthe In the 850s Western Frankish kings made the first attempts to settle Vikings in the main in the Vikings settle to attempts first the made kings Frankish Western 850s the In 295 of the country to use as defense against their own kinsmen and as mercenaries 291 Annales Bertiniani while another fleet under the command of the infamous Norwegian Ragnarr 296 , 845, MGH SS rer. Germ 5, 32: An was madeattemptalso tohire against Vikings Vikings, 294 along the Garonne River where Charles the Bald the Charles where River Garonne the along 54 292 attacked and devastated Paris on Paris Easter on anddevastated attacked …Nortmannorum rex Oricussexcentas naves 293 Still in the same year a fleet of fleet a year same the in Still Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: 290 CEU eTD Collection 300 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000890 (Accessed: 19May 2009). atque Baiocasreliquasque undique secuscivitates invadunt Melduorum capiunt civitates necnon Melidunensium devastant castellum; capitur Carnotis; Ebroicas populantur malum. Invadunt Rotomagensium civitatem populantur incendunt;Parisiorum deinde, Belvacensium, atque multitudopene naviumNortmannorum ingreditur Sequanam fluvium.Nihilenim illis in partibusminus grassatur Turonensium,perinde etAurelianensium civiates pessumdantur. ...Deindepost aliquantulos annos innumerabilis capitur Budegalensium, Petrocorium, Santonum, Lemovicensium, Egolisma atque Tolosacivitas; Andecavensium, quamdiu saeculummanifestis stabit, patebitindiciis. Capiuntur quascumque adeunt civitates, nemine resistente; numerus nortmannorum; fiunt passim christianorum strages depraedationes,vastationes, incensiones, sicuti, Eastern Frankish kings. For instance, Charles the Bald was eager to return to eager Bald the was instance, Charles For Frankish kings. Eastern and Western the to services their tooffer opportunities againfound Vikings Meerssen – the 299 298 on the island. 297 –picture about of kingdom. tragicthe surely situation the although exaggerated – a proper gives Ermentarius monkof of Noirmoutier, the account The farfrom my subject. too happened, mostly in the western Frankish Kingdom, even that enumerating them mewould take structures. besieginggood at such defensive too not Vikings were bridges Seine Riverasthe overthe system fortifieddevelopfluvial fort of consisting to start a decidedAfter Charles episode this to bribe of six thousand pounds of silver and thatthey after laid the countryside waste together. a to take group other the from – agreedwith Charles asapaymentsilver thousand pounds of five failed taking asWeland–after and island.Theattempt Vikings onthe attack dispersethe engaged hehis forces,attacks Viking under hired therefore Weland acertain to another group getcould rid not ofhim becauseand his troops hisbrother’s, Louis German’sthe continuous island Seineof the in River 856 and ravaged the surroundingyears. landsfor Hröríkr had been expelled from his estates earlier in the 860s by the inhabitants themselves. inhabitants by the 860s the in earlier estates his from expelled been had Hröríkr Ermentarius, Jones 2001, 215-216. threeBjörn campin859to Although longMediterranean years left go tothe campaign his had Vikings stood his After the year 870 – when the empire was finally divided into two by the Treaty of I will not go intoinmany Viking detailsI will nottheseyears go concerning the860sas so raids Ex Miraculis Sancti Filiberti , MGH 302: SS 15.1, 55 Augescitnumerus navium, crescit innumerabilis . Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- 300 297 the estates around estates the 299 Charles the Bald 298 CEU eTD Collection killing the killing only royal prince, battlethe Franks of Thuin, Belgium at Eastern the defeated diedeven Scandinavians andthe had kings the of two where Kingdom, Frankish Eastern the of state unfortunate the of advantage 304 303 (876-887). Kingdom Louis Germanwas the followedby three his sons, Carloman(876-880), Louis III(876-882) Carland III soondied sohe sons inherited his hisrealm, Louis III(879-882) Carloman and (879-884). EasternFrankish Inthe 302 301 nineteen. ageof the year at from profitin he inthenot his successas next died battle force881. Hecould of atthe Saucourt alarge as IIIdefeated like Viking rulera charismaticthough, Louis Western the young king along rivers these sailing and upandeven raiding Trier Cologne. attacked along the Loire and Schelde-Somme rivers, looting Ghent, Tournai and the monasteries Frankish king in 882. Frankish statesmoreby changesin swiftthe Frankishthe power In kingdoms. years afterten 877the two had six even strengthened instability was political kingdom. The Alfred Great’s of the instead states kings, most attack Frankish the into decided 878sothey inEngland defeats serious suffered Scandinavians of them rulingand the atpolitical thecentury same to invade time.instability the states of the Franks. Betweenhelpedto Western the Frankish Kingdom. 875 and 877 theall three cause Frankishsecure after Meerssenbelonged just to Flanders which jarl,to acertain Dorestad Danish Hröríkr, rulersof thedied Vikings very well. What is more, the Roesdahl 2007, 261. Brøndsted 1983, 52. Inthe WesternFrankish Kingdom Charles the Bald was followedby son, Louishis the Stammerer(877-879), but Roesdahl 2007, 260. At the same time the Scandinavians swarmed the Western Frankish Kingdom. They Kingdom. Frankish theWestern swarmed sametime Scandinavians the At In secondthe half of 870s the Vikingsthe hadlast their great opportunity in ninth the 303 so Carl III became the emperor in 881 and the only Eastern 301 56 304 They unstoppablenot were 302 The Vikings took CEU eTD Collection the armies of Arnulf. Arnulf was the first Frankish king who managed to capture sixteen Viking sixteen capture to managed who king Frankish first the was Arnulf Arnulf. of armies the AlainBretagne of by of in armies the Bretagne crushingdefeats two suffered the Scandinavians 890 and891 when are FrankishEmpire of territories the former the returned to Paris, but for the lasttime. for the but Paris, to returned youngtwo andenergetic warlords, Odoin WestandArnulfthe in In East.889aVikingthe fleet 312 311 310 309 308 307 riverbanks like Cologne,the on cities Aix,the ships, Trier, Viking Liége, with Rouen, swarmed were Paris, rivers Oise Soissons,the and Bayeux, Garonne the or Vire, St.the Lô Aisne, werethe raided. 306 305 892. former the of empire. territories the in river every almost raid to Vikings the allowed ability leadership assured chosetopay Carl victory III Danegeld again. encircled formidable butstill in Vikingforce atElsloo of 882. Instead battlegoing to for reapan and a smaller he met when army large Frankish a was commanding He against them. fight the country north of the Seine to attacked Carl who besiegingthe paid didIII, notloot Vikings, Danegeld again andletthem them punish some of his rivals. city, fame thank could andlaterkingdom military his his to success. the defended successfully who Odo, Count history. European and Frankish of flow the changed in warfare, Viking Roesdahl 2007, 250. Jones 2001, 225-226. Brøndsted 1983, 52. Jones 2001, 225. Jones 2001, 225. Jones 2001, 224. Maine, the Rheine, the Loire, the Seine, the Marne, the Somme, the Meuse, the Scheldes, Both 224. 2001, Jones Jones 2001, 224. 310 Carl III, after such a shameful deed was deposed from his throne in 887 to givein his placeto from 887to throne after suchashameful Carl deed wasdeposed III, Although Carl III became the sole ruler of inhisbecameAlthough Carl Frankish thesole 885,poor III ruler of all the territories The Vikings unwillingly helped Carl III to become sole ruler and he was not eager to 306 Even Paris was besieged between 885 and 886, which was a significant development significant which wasa between 885and886, wasbesieged EvenParis 307 as they even constructed and asthey usedsiege constructed Again,even engines. Vikings the 311 The forending dates thefirst Vikingin raiding period 57 305 309 The Vikings rampaged there till 312 308 and in Dyle, Belgium by He helpedwas also by CEU eTD Collection 314 313 battle banners, which was indeed the sign of an overwhelming victory. rulers. At endof the realised only ninth the century Franks the that swiftand wellplanned Frankish little other –and success against –with Scandinavians other against as mercenaries likeinlandstructures againstbribe bridges, andfleets Vikings. They the to tried them,them use quick and well planned butsometimes included sieges as well. These still attacks inlandremained more attacks. cavalry raised andScandinavians organised although didthis not keep them from attacking lords their own hisor enemies. After settling the Frankishvassals usuallyjarls baptised and thea became ruler, whoof were orkonungrs, newly territories. Vikingsettlementoccupied was alwaysbyScandinavian coordinated lords, from these attacks their started they empire the of – islands mostly areas– incertain settled and field Scandinavia to returned open neverincluded asthe Later, and or battles. sieges Vikings wereof quick attacks the andhit rich and undefendedplaces usinghit-and-run tactics. planned beforehand and werebased on data the provided by Viking military intelligence. Most werecarefully attacks All the area. a certain in aruler of absence the to or in theempire wars General attributes of the Viking attacks, defensive attempts and chapter conclusions circular coastal fort –like Souburg on the island of Walcheren – dates from the early 890s. many century innew fortresses northernwere built France andin Probably Belgium-Zeeland. the important that even the Roesdahl 2007, 262. Roesdahl 2007, 191. The Frankish rulers and lords started to organise coastal defenses, building forts, fortified from started in beginning raids.In the of they the course the There wasadevelopment overviewAs this short has internal Vikingthe shown were attacks alwaysconnectedto Anglo-Saxon ChronicleAnglo-Saxon 58 gave accounts of them. To the end of the ninth 313 Both defeats were so 314 CEU eTD Collection Such a force surely would not leave Etelköz without properpaymentand agreement or leave without not Such aforce previous surely Etelköz would Franks. the against fought were battles two year this In army. full with campaign organised together withSvatopluk Franks againstthe and–according wording tothe of primary – arrived sources the Kabars. Frankish Kingdom in Austria, Kärnten and Pannoniain 881. The Hungarians came as an ally of This implies that their attack was not a simple raid, but a well incursion. Sangallenses Annales maiores a HungarianA from an inis to reference given attack exaggeration. also pages 863 of the the “earlier unknown “earlier the 318 317 316 315 Franks in862 for eastern time firstthe namely, whentheyattacked Hungarian attacks inthe Frankish Empire of Germany. and France raised Vikingneedtherefore attacks an for urgent such rulers, helped which surely formation the needed, were rulers sole and charismatic achieve that, to order In Vikings. the stop would defeats Carloman’s father, the king Louis the German. against Rastislav Wendhis ally andSlavic Carloman of open tothe rebellion is connected andin Etelköz, firstincursion theCarpathian –homeland.The not theirlater–andBasin present Bowlus 1995,237. Bowlus 1995,26. Bowlus 1995,126. de Vajay 1968, 11. The second attack in Austria was similarly connected to the internal wars of internal Eastern wars of the to the connected wassimilarly inAustria attack The second In the case of Hungarian attacks a difference can be seen compared to the Scandinavians, to the beseencompared adifference can attacks caseof In the Hungarian 317 Ungri ” depopulated the Eastern itdepopulated Frankish Kingdom can surely be taken as but itsources speakabout thesameseems thatthe two but likely 59 316 Although the Although Annales Bertiniani 315 they still lived in lived still they reported that 318 CEU eTD Collection 322 the money of their current employer whoever it would be. the however Hungarian mention not He does sources. Ottonian century tenth ofthe charges the with agrees and campaigncampaigns Italian against Arnulf321 in 894 what proves320 that the Hungarians319 were not faithful to anyone but to contract. making itHungarians thatthe possible Frankish reach theWestern Kingdom and even the West the towards removed was also tribes the Magyar of radius action The territories. Western in military the appearance of Hungarian the character changesinthe serious West resulting Etelköz. on attack Bulgarian-Peceneg León VIthustriggering asimultaneous emperor of mercenaries asthe served Hungarians the warwhere Byzantine-Bulgarian to the was connected The event Basin. the Carpathian of conquest theforced ledto eventually 895 what due totheir amorenumber –were smaller local keep in problem easier to bay. – and Hungarians the mercenaries with Scandinavian some experience had already they because alwaysplanning. careful after but payment for aproper wars in different intervene to eager nation steppe mercenary warlike as mercenaries. In fact from the firstmentioning of the Hungarians in the 830s they appeared as a Magyars namely, from the lords time werehiredbyrivalling that attacks, first the Scandinavian imperial throne. Western in Hungarianssighted of short on Europe support his butsuccessful tothe aspirations helping again. Svatopluk Hungarians,the again as mercenaries, intervenedin thefight side892 atthe Arnulf of and in894 Kristó 1986, 21. Bowlus235. Bowlus Hungarians the 1995, that states remained alwaysfaithful who to Arnulf in his used them Kristó 1986, 8. de Vajay 1968, 16. This attack reallocated the Hungarian homelands eight or nine hundred kilometres to the to kilometres hundred nine or eight homelands Hungarian the reallocated attack This A serious changein happened locationthe centrethe of of Hungarianthe inpower 894- the to be seen can West in the appearance Hungarian inthe pattern adifferent again Here 319 Taking advantage of of Taking warsbetweenArnulf advantage the in Austria and Svatopluk and Pannonia 321 320 Tenth century Ottonian authors accused Arnulf of releasing the 322 I think that the Western powers treated like treated this Hungariansthe Western the powers that Ithink 60 CEU eTD Collection the Bavarians offering help against the Moravians whom they attacked inafter but while alittle attacked whom they help Moravians againstthe Bavarians offeringthe to envoys sent they again: here showed is Hungarians the of intelligence military The territory. Moravian Pannonia andlooted inwars raided preparation – EasternFrankishthe ratheror state Germany by Arnulf 900 –causedbythedeath andthe of paidleave Hungarians tothe to his and whohappily the left.domains accepted treasures Arnulf. enemy of abitter Berengar, largerarmy king of times three number of includedforcesthe fivewas around and seriously this army the thousand defeated Bavaria. attack that the Franks hold Pannonia under their control after this raid. 329 328 327 326 margraves. Arnulf’s by controlled was what Hungarorum Strata the via Alps the crossing troubles serious met have would pagans the Hungarians 325 tribes who were therefore pushed forward to the open territories of the West justyears bywas approximatelythe very only need the ofone fifth living of the territoryspace. size in Etelköz what was undoubtedly too little for the 324 323 called later region from Pannonia. forces pagan the by caused threat the deterring thus Italy Northern attack to though Hungarians thetime they theirneighbourhood, in very attacked Franks hired Arnulf Pannonia. Basin what made cattle herding possible with relatively few men around. intheCarpathian life conditions herdsand better the majority cattle of lossthe of duetothe men Peninsula. Iberian Bowlus246. HungariansThe 1995, did not conquerPannonia at thistimeasthe Eastern Frank tax registers show Kristó 1986, 18. Bowlus 1995,236. Kristó 1986, 14-15. Bowlus 1995,245.Charles Bowlus out pointed very properlywithout anagreementthat betweenArnulf and the Not to mention the fact that the size of the territory of the new dwelling place in the Carpathian Basin inthe first Asthe account of Al Makdisi informs us about aHungarian (Turk) attack against Al-Andalús.Kristó 1995, 67. On returning from Italy the Magyar forces taking advantage of the political instability of instability political the of advantage taking forces Magyar the Italy from returning On After a few years of recovery the Hungarians attacked again in 898 and 899 but at this at but 899 againin898and attacked Hungarians the years of recovery After afew 327 326 The Magyars wenttotheirfirstlong campaignin Italy 899-900 to via the Arnulf thoughdiedin endof the whatmade899 possible to Hungariansthe to 323 Strata Hungarorum Strata After the conquest there was a sudden surplus of armed and unemployed , the territory between the Drava and Sava rivers. The rivers. Sava and Drava the between territory the , 61 329 of the permanent conquest of the 328 Berengar after his defeat 324 325 the CEU eTD Collection 334 20 May 2009). Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000883 (Accessed: ab Arnulfo duce Bawariorum 910. Bellumfuitiuxta Nuchinga cumUngaris. 912.Bellum fuitcum Ungaris adAeni flumen Ungari et superatisunt 333 332 20 May 2009). Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000868 (Accessed: Liupoldi etErchangerus cum Perahtoldo etUadalrico cum eis pugnaverunt et eossuperarunt. Francis pugnaverunt eosque913. vicerunt. UngriinAlamanniam; quibus perBaioariam redeuntibus Arnolfus filius in Alamanniam,et cuminnumerabili preda hominumanimaliumqueUngri reversisunt.910. cumAlamannis et ab Ungaris occiditur. ItembellumBauguariorum cum Ungaris insuperabile… 908. UngariinSaxones.Ungari 909. Maraha cum Ungaris etpatria victa. 903. Bellum Bauguariorum cumUngaris. 907. Baiovariorum omnis exercitus UngrisNorici cum pugnaverunt,partera et exeisocciderunt.901. Iterum Ungari Italiam… in 902.Etbellum in 331 330 continued their from raids 907 destroyinglarge Frankish armies. the to According Basin. Carpathian the and Pannonia over conquest permanent their ensure to Germany Hungariansnumerous fought battles in Moravia,the LowerAustria andin different regions of a crushing defeat to the Germans pulling the frontiers forward till the region of the Enns river. –theHungarians dealt status Bavariansknowing their they that –properly the and against turned – learned and used the tactics of the Hungarians against the Magyars returning from from France returning Magyars againstthe of Hungarians the thetactics learned used – and Hungarian indefeat Bavaria in 913 byArnulf, prince of Bavaria as he –according to sources the France raidingAquitania Burgundy, andthe Low Countries. new from ledtaxes faras Hungarians 911 onwardsthe king,Conrad.Also campaign as of the but not for a long timefor Moravian Hungariansawhile the Hungarian –disoriented alliance the against war parties as the accounts lost kändä, the Kussal ofinin 904or 907. Most probably issue justthis like – theBavarian- the most of times the victorious years were and inthirteen eleven campaigns least at Kristó 1986, 26. Bowlus 1995,250-251. Kristó 1986, 19-20. Annales Iuvanenses Annales Alamannici, The attacks The attacks Germanyagainst from endthe yearthe of 911 had ensure one purpose, to the In the first decade of the ninth century – after the Viking attacks ceased for a while – the Annales Alamannici Annales , MGH 742:SS 30.2, MGH SS 1, 53-56: . whatgives agoodbutlaconic accountHungarians the led 907. Bellumpessimum fuitad Brezalauspurc(Bratislava/Pressburg?). 899. Ungri Italiam invaserunt, et Langobardos bello vicerunt. 900. 62 Annales Iuvanenses Annales 334 I have to separately mention the mention separately to have I 333 also show the Hungarians the show also 331 although they 330 332 CEU eTD Collection 340 339 338 337 336 335 rearrange extendhis basisof nine yearsand power. hebut to usedthese peaceforaccepted meaning nineyearshe had pay that to inevery yeartaxes Hungarians the to Henry year this In state. German young the of revival the to and activity raiding Hungarian the of Holy till See 929 then they changed sidesandhelped Hugo. Italy again theJohnas pope, X hired them hisagainst enemy, The Hungarians Hugo. servedthe his army. collect Hungarians appeared andquickly disappeared too and the king of Francehave didnot time to stop them notas the even IIIcould in Charles 924and in Berengaralso and the payroll of in insackeddefeated in919,920 924,they Italy newGerman the 919and Henry king connected to private the of affairs clan from the for sureas I have906 mentioned already –werealways power shifts and ruler later. changes in Germany,exploited it not offered was butthe in truly the Western tactics opportunities a breakthrough France pagans. andhis the of trapping largerhiding troops part the and Northern Italy. They regions in 926 attacking the monastery of Gallen.Sankt Hungarians,butitdid keep not pagansthe attacking from Bavaria, Alemannia andtheSwiss de Vajay 1968, 72. de Vajay 1968, 79-80. Kristó 1986, 28. Kristó 1986, 27-28. samecampaign. to the refer two these maybe dubious, are dates two The Kristó 1986, 26. The Hungarian victory in Saxony over Henry in 924 was crucial for the later development later the for crucial was in924 Henry over inSaxony victory Hungarian The From timethis onwards thelarger campaigns –although raidsthe to become started to Saxony got peace forpay Saxony got nineyearsin toyearly tothe 924 asHenry accepted taxes 337 63 338 In the next year, In next the 927they to arrived 335 339 This victory and development was development and victory This 340 There is no is There 336 , 922 CEU eTD Collection the new king who proved to be a ready and quick foe, as he immediately marched against the his son, Otto in his936. Otto son, might to inherited his fame personal kingit causeand who Henry, of butrather servedthe Italy, and Metz campaigns in Byzantine andin Aquitania934 towards Empire and 935 against France, keep Merseburg notleadalready who Hungarianssuffered somethe new defeats. did backto two 343 slain. was Hungarians few a only cavalry heavy German ofthe those than faster obviously were horses their since and likely to me though– is another account stating that the Hungarians simply fledwithout their treasures and captives, that in eighty years this numberwould have multiplied to five times bigger. The otherextremity what seems– more Hungarian tribe confederationwas twenty thousand inthe middle of the ninthcentury and it does not seem likely Hungarians were slain atMerseburg, what is simply impossible seeing that the numberof the armed forces ofwhole 342 341 and field the open battle as much as possible and find safety in flight. to use their military intelligence and manoeuvrability very well as they evaded the German army not the best for the Hungarians as they were forced to fight aclose quarter combat, they was managed situation the Although Merseburg. of vicinity the in probably Riade to arrived army Henry’s when engines siege with towns fortified besieged even and pillage its continued however part part invading Western the army. Eastern of The Hungarian the embassy, defeated and Thüringen. Henry gathered hisforces quickly, orhe already had them gathered by the time of the andinvaded into Saxonyand two thetheirwho Dalamancs–divided army – allied with pay payinga Hungarianrefused however.led who obligation anymore Henry to of to attack This is known except for the very fact of the raid – and another one to Germany to lengthen raids some small though. were scale there the tax informationHungarian raids between Westabout 927 and933inexclude whatcannot the that Kristó 1986, 36. thousand hundred that stating ofthem one extreme, very are battle the on accounts The 32-33. 1986, Kristó Kristó 1986, 32. The defeat at Merseburg was more important world totheWestern Hungarians at Merseburgthan The defeatwas moreto the The yearlarge 933brought two Italy Hungarian campaigns, to whatnothing one – about 343 The campaign against the Germans in 937 was meant to test the mettle of the test meantto was in937 Germans the against Thecampaign 341 64 342 CEU eTD Collection The pagans surely thought that the civil war will let them break through the defenses as they had they as defenses the through break them let will war civil the that thought surely pagans The itspies. messengersis supposed:theHungarian but were highlytext of likely the source what the friendshipseek the officiallykingthe of to courtof the arrivedOtto In 955Hungarianenvoys to Belgium andFrance looting and theHungariansafter via theseareaswent Northern homeItaly. hiredinvitedagainst itself,army but andsent Otto’s Hungarians the notthey against them rebels The king. the against revolted Red the Conrad son-in-law, and Liudolf son, Otto’s when Hungarian in raiders Italy were justwho returning from Aquitania after asuccessful campaign. anddefeatunified leadership brother his German Henry under Otto king able to the was even frontier. for Hungarianthe firsttimeGermansattacked 951the when of the end By the the inimmediately attacked 948 butthey again.were defeated same happened The in949and 950 of the Hungarians who behaviour break warlike the not Itdid defeat. suffered aquick and Bavarians metthe Enns, they were aware to the fact river atthe frontier the barely passed the Hungarians failure as met acomplete Bavaria towards that the princein 943 campaigns the of One Peninsula. ofIberian the to them Bavariasent and pagans the to money died in 947 so they German inpolicy creating barrier afortified Hungarians against shape.the slowly took although here they sufferedOttodefeated defeat. the Hungarians again in938. 346 345 winter. wintertime. Bowlus evenconcluded that itwas aHungarian habit to start raiding campaigns in the middle of the 344 May or early June as as early Ocean of Atlantic the coast the reached even they France where to from Saxony fled Hungarians The them. defeated and attack coming their of news the heard he when Hungarians Kristó 1986, 39. Kristó 1986, 37-38. Bowlus236. 1995, This means that their campaign– just like many beforeother –must have started during the The defensive system sealing off the Western territories broke upfor broke ashorttime in953 territories sealing off Western the The defensivesystem We know about Hungarian campaigns to Italy in 940 and 942 when offered Hugo king Hungarian Italyin940and 942when about We campaignsto know 344 and in their wayback home they Aquitaniadepredated and Italy again, 65 345 Thepurposeful 346 CEU eTD Collection 348 347 better. was intelligence for German oncethe realm but Otto’s military attacked they Therefore 955. of beginning in the Otto and rebels the between fight the about know to battle again. Hungarianshadflee to battleand fight another in11August against prince Boleslav and lost the legionshis and eightwere scattered Conradthe Red wasdead. Hewonthebattle thoughand the of out three Hungarians the of main body the attack as ableto Otto time the By army. German therearlegions of the itattacked crossing and bank after in river, of the marched right the manoeuvre, evasive an took army Hungarian the but Lech river the of bank left the at August 10 Hungarian intelligence was better. Otto started his march against the Hungarian camp at dawn of on his side. Spies were sent out from each side tomap exactto place of the armies, but again, the besiege itwith siege engines. Otto arrived justin time to save the city and he even had the rebels down to defenddown from and area incursion because theMagyarsthe probably of Hungarians other hire neversettle lords Hungarians. Theynever tried butthey tried them them other to against to way other around. wentthe in of attack change size the the the where attacks Viking the to is adifference This ones. predominantly smaller 880sandlater the after decades three first in the campaigns scale large led They time. first the from mercenaries appearedas TheHungarians areas. target the wasinternal wars of the Hungarian attacks General attributes of the Hungarian attacks, defensive attempts andconclusions Kristó 1986, 42-43. Kristó 1986, 40-41. The lootingHungarians after the lands around Augsburg gatheredunder city the to The Franks and Italians used the Hungarians as mercenaries only against other Christian other against only mercenaries as Hungarians the used Italians and Franks The the background of Italian political and theFrankish case Viking the Similarly to 348 This double defeat meant the end of the Hungarian raiding activity in the West. 66 347 CEU eTD Collection Empire as well. Byzantine the attacked who Hungarians the over success military by the helped somehow was Emperor Western 349 attacks. be Hungarian aresultGerman of the also ruler can later Frankish and Eastern tothe remained here.Maybe thatthe title of connected of Magyars Emperor the the incursions continuous to the be connected –canalso Emperor the and Papacy the between fights serious defenses against Hungarians.the The German footholdin Northern Italy led– whatlater to the have organised could who rulers nocharismatic sole were there Arnulf’s death where after tothe Scandinavians. habitthis experienceconnected with bad had already lords Western the and Basin Carpathian in the homelands own their had Maybe the success of the Ottonian rulers in making Byzantium and acknowledge theirclaims of the title of the The main contribution of the Hungarian attacks was the revival of the German state theGerman of revival was the attacks theHungarian of The maincontribution 67 349 CEU eTD Collection and took advantageand of took situation loyalties.the of divided neighbour rich their of situations political the awareof wereperfectly cultures Both peripheral trading activity. and andto ofhosting guests travellers system developed the was connectedto which intelligence, military mobility and wasthepagans’ factor An important Italy. Northern and Empire Frankish warsof the internal tothe wereconnected victories theirthat unprecedented also helped Western European expansion. eleventh century on, bothterritories Western taken up Christianity, eagerly joining crusadesthat from the Lastly European economy. boosted systems that trade flourishing had and wide systems cavalrynewpagan Both fortarmoured andassociated landsystems. tenure cultures and gain strong footholds in Northern Italy. These Viking and Magyar attacks gave rise to the heavily on imperial Western the Hungarians, when they andthrone Germans the helped defeated surely Empire may even have helped the Ottonian rulers to make Byzantium acknowledge their claims theByzantine on attacks pagans.the TheHungarian against organisedefence the emerge to Empire. lateFrankish states of the formation successor of the state the hastened forced and Hungariansthe appearing inlarge massesin 840sandthe in 880s territoriesthe of empire the findhad them. deter Western to Europe solution pagan and Scandinavians to The a reappearance really destroyed important raids these attacks of stage the first the In destruction. than more development caused long term in segmentsItaly Northern and Empire Frankish the on attacks Hungarian and of Viking the that Westernpresumption society and economy but with the continuous I have offered a possible matrix for assessing the question of the pagan success stating sole rulers helped charismatic impact, and direct aconstant by creating Their attacks, From all material the I havehave coveredabove I re-formulated my previous Conclusions 68 CEU eTD Collection was different, but as I have shown, these differences were caused only by different military bydifferent only caused were differences these have shown, as I but was different, mostly The Scandinavians thesameas weapons Franks the used Hungarian did.The weaponry forces. pagan any than versatile more was army Frankish the fact in Christians, the to weaponry a large population couldthat outnumber theChristians. Noneof pagan culturesthe had superior hadsuch cultures pagan none peripheral pagan it of the likely that seems swarms, about pictures mostly thesources exaggerated invaders.give Although numbersthe orthe of technologies survive. simply to or in gain own society new their a to place military actions in part constant take obliged to or eager were either who men free, armed by formed predominantly were societies higherin that,unlikewas stratum.society, social Christian a a greatadvantage the pagan It charisma. There was no placefor those who did not recognise the rule of someone who was born skills military and one’s personal to connected was elevation social wheredynamic, the belief, neither of the by but outwitting enemy the organisingfeasts.or great pagan societiesuniverse – and that was the short time spentin this world. Fame could be created not only by war was staticdeterministic. and They democratic. societies.had Secondly, probablyonly the personal outlook of peopleone in both societies chance was strongly to aristocracy establish thatTheir was expected to show off its wealth by the strong needsfame for social socialdisplay in both – the onlyFirst everlastingstructure the thingconstantvariousforces. spiritual therewere in of Christianity.Behind theattacks driving the expansion in thewas need for wealth to support the newly emerging social layer, a new war Pagan worldviews also played a crucial role in the process of military victories andlater military of process inthe also acrucial played role Pagan worldviews Despite inherent drama, the least important factor was the weaponry, the military was weaponry,the factor the leastimportant the drama, inherent Despite commonplace the to Contrary in success. the arole also played structure Pagan social 69 CEU eTD Collection overpopulation which was taken so far as the main social factor of of paganattacks. farthe so mainsocial factor taken asthe which was overpopulation social conditions Ihave shown world viewthat weremoreimportant social structure and than and structure habits of Anotherknowledge pagansocieties. contributionthe is to under that in social aredeeply the methods rooted The authenticate. arehard its methods to because credit notions were intelligencecountries. Ihave shown that weaponry or numbers were unimportant in militaryand success. The key mobility.extroverted and strong of emergence and revival the served it term long in Europe, I Western stressedin destruction intelligence caused attacks of phase first the though even that shown have I unsatisfactory. as this factor so are their success of explanations pagansand the of perceptions farclassical stereotypical that has not get waswell Europe radiuswithin action of the pagans. the Western of territory whole army. The Frankish the speedof the to compared very This quick was day. each travel of kilometres sixty to fifty meant which days, thirty-forty within empire whole within eight days of travel.With the tarpan horses the Hungarians could reach the territory of the victims. As I have shown, with Viking ships their than even position thea better farthestinto pagans coastalbrought what factors regions only the were of themobility and empirespeed were swords. or longbows Frankish simple the strategies, otherwise neither the famous reflex bowsnor the sabres were better or stronger than The main contribution knowledgeto thatI have madeinis this study Ihave that shown Viking tools wereperfect Theirhorses shipsinthese andHungarian victories. travelling 70 CEU eTD Collection Bauer, Albert and Reinhold Rau, ed. and trans. “Die Sachsengeschichte des Widukind von des Widukind “DieSachsengeschichte and trans. Rau, ed.and Bauer, Albert Reinhold Annales Xantenses et Annales Vedastini. Annales regni Francorumqui indeaba.741usque ad a.829, dicuntur,Annales Laurissenses Guelferbytani,et Nazariani. Laureshamenses, Annales Alamannici, Iuvanenses. Annales Annales Bertiniani. Chronicle. Anglo-Saxon Al-Bakri’s account. ed. Gyula Kristó. ed. Gyula account. Al-Bakri’s Al-Makdisi. “KitAl-Makdisi. Al-Masudi.“Muru Bremensis. Adamus sources: Primary Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe 8,1971. Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe Korvei,” Historica, Rerum Scriptores Germanicarum in usum scholarum 12. 1979. Rerum Germanicarum in scholarum usum 6. Hannover, 1895. maiores etEinhardi. May 2009). (Accessed: 25 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000868 http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- May 2009). (Accessed: 20 muenchen.de/dmgh_new/app/web?action=loadBook&bookId=00000883 Germanicarum in usumscholarum 5. Hannover: Hahn, 1883. Hungarian conquest]. Szeged: Szegedi Középkortörténeti Szeged: Szegedi 1995, 67. Könyvtár Középkortörténeti 7, Hungarian conquest]. Kristó. Könyvtár 7,1995,52-57. Középkortörténeti Szeged:Szegedi conquest]. of of Hungarian the era the sources written 1995, 39-40. Könyvtár Szegedi 7, Szeged: of Középkortörténeti conquest]. eraof the Hungarian the Historica, Rerum Scriptores Germanicarum in usum scholarum 2. Hannover, 1876. pontificum, Magistri AdamBremensis. A honfoglalás koránakírott forrásai Quellen zur Geschichte der sächsischen Kaiserzeit. sächsischen der Geschichte zur Quellen Ɨ b al-bad’ wa-l-tb al-bad’ ÷ ed. Georg Waitz. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum Scriptores Historica, Germaniae Waitz. ed.Georg Monumenta al-Dahab.” ed.Gyula Kristó. Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Kirchengeschichte, GestaHammaburgensis Hamburgische ed. G. N. Garmonsway. London: J.M. Dent, 1992. MGH SS 30.2, Source: http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- Source: 30.2, SS MGH ed. Friedrich Kurze. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Germaniae Historica, Kurze. Monumenta ed.Friedrich Ɨ rikh” [The book of Beginning and Chronicle]. ed. Gyula of book andChronicle]. rikh”Beginning [The A honfoglalás korának írott forrásai írottA honfoglaláskorának Bibliography ed. Bernhard von ed.Bernhard MonumentaGermaniae Simson. ed. Bernhard Schmeidler, Monumenta Germaniae 71 A honfoglaláskoránakírott forrásai [The written sources of the era of the Darmstadt: Freiherr-vom- MGH SS1,Source: [The written sources written [The [The CEU eTD Collection Notker the Stammerer. the Notker “Loddfáfnir Song, Edda.” Trans. Edda.” “Loddfáfnir Bernáth, István. Song, Kristó. Gyula ed. “Taktika.” León VI. Ibn Rustah’s account. ed. Gyula ed. Kristó. Ibn Rustah’s account. of World].Kristó.“Hudud ed.Gyula [Theborders al-Alam” the “Zayn al-akhb Gardezi. The Greenlanders' Saga. “Hávamál, Edda” [The sayings of the High One]. Trans. Bernáth, Trans. István. One]. “Hávamál, of High the sayings [The Edda” Ermentarius. GallerKlostergeschichten.” St. IV. /Ekkehard Galli Casus Sancti IV. “Ekkehardi Imperio “DeAdministrando VII. Constantine Chronicon Aquitanicum Einhard. mythology] Könyvtár 7,1995,31-34. sources Szeged:Szegedi Középkortörténeti of eraof Hungarian the the conquest]. http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz- 1995, 101-109. 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Norse Myths (The Legendary Past) Myths(TheLegendary Norse Viking Civilization. Nagy Károly és kora A koroncói lelet és a honfoglaló magyaroknyerge és ahonfoglaló lelet A koroncói AVikingek A karosihonfoglalás kori temet A honfoglaló Magyarnép A honfoglaló Chronicles of the Vikings, Chronicles of MemorialsandMyths Records, Bíborbanszületett Abirodalomkormányzása Konstantín: Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law, and Society inSagaIceland. Feud,Law,Bloodtaking andPeacemaking: [The formation of the clan structure and the social level conditions among Nemzetségi szervezetNemzetségi ésaz osztályviszonyok kialakulásaa honfoglaló Trans. E.O.G. Turville-Petre. Odense: Odense University Press, 1983. The Frankish Kingdom underThe Frankish theCarolingians751-987. [The Vikings]. Trans. Vera Bánki. Budapest: General Press Kiadó, [The conquest period cemeteries in Karos. Archaeological Archaeological to cemeteries period inKaros. data conquest [The Trans. J.W. Hartmann and H.A. Larsen. London: Allen&Unwin, The Unmanly Man: Concepts of Sexual Defamation inEarly Sexual Defamation Conceptsof Unmanly Man: The [Charlemagne andhis era] [Charlemagne . London: British Museum and Austin: University of 75 [The conquering Hungarian nation] Hungarian conquering [The Ę k. Régészeti adatoka Fels Budapest: Hungarian Museum,National . [The find of andthe Koroncó [Thefindof Debrecen: Csokonai Kiadó, Csokonai Debrecen: . London, British Ę -Tisza-vidék X. [Constantine . Budapest: London: CEU eTD Collection Vörös, István. “A honfoglaló magyarok lovai” [The horses of the conquering Hungarians]. In: Hungarians]. conquering the of horses [The lovai” magyarok honfoglaló “A István. Vörös, de Vajay, Szabolcs. Underwood, Richard.Underwood, Sz In: kingdom.” making“The Danish the of Inge. Skovgaard-Petersen, Clunies, ed. Margaret Ross, Ę ll Ę ssy, Gábor. “Mennyivelssy, voltakjobb íjaik Gábor. ahonfoglalómagyaroknak,mint akorabeli 895-1895 Tokaj” Alapítvány Múzeum,and Hermann Ottó 1996. „A Magyar Miskolc: Honfoglalás ed. Máriataking], 335-345. Wolf and László Révész, korának régészeti emlékei. honfoglalás (862-933). better than those of other nations of contemporary Europe?], Hungarians conquering bowsof the many werethe mástimes [How Európa népeinek?” University Press, 2003. Scandinavia. Vol.I.Prehistory to1520 University Press, 2000. Mainz: Hase&Koehler Verlag, 1968. Der EintrittdesUngarischenStämmebundesdieEuropäischeGeschichte in Anglo-Saxon Weaponsand Warfare. Old IcelandicLiterature andSociety. , ed. Knut, ed. Helle, Cambridge: 168-183. Cambridge [The archaeological records of the era of the land 76 Stroud: Tempus, Stroud: 1999. Keletkutatás The Cambridge History of The CambridgeHistory Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: (1995):37-51. A CEU eTD Collection 1. Map of the main territories of Norway and Denmark in the Ninth century. Appendix 77 CEU eTD Collection 350 2. Detailedmap ofNorway intheNinthcentury. Foote-Wilson1970, 30-31. 78 350 CEU eTD Collection 351 3. Detailed map of Denmark in theNinth century. Jones 2001, 362. 79 351 CEU eTD Collection 5. Perspectives from Scandinavia towards Western Europe. 4. Map of the main dwelling places of the Hungarians in the Ninth and Tenth centuries. 80 CEU eTD Collection 81