Guidelines for the Environmental Management

GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF SALTWORKS MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

GUIDELINES FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF THE MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA SALTWORKS (MANAGEMENT MODEL) LIFE + MC-SALT I LIFE + MC-SALT IN THE NATURA 2000 NETWORK Project “LIFE10 NAT/IT/000256 Environmental Management and Conservation in Mediterranean saltworks and Coastal Lagoons – Acronym: MC-SALT”

GUIDELINES FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF THE MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA SALTWORKS (MANAGEMENT MODEL)

IN THE NATURA 2000 NETWORK

Massimiliano Costa (coordinator) Fabrizio Borghesi, Lino Casini, Zsuzsa Fidlóczky, Francesca Migani Project “LIFE10 NAT/IT/000256 Environmental Management and Conservation in Mediterranean saltworks and Coastal Lagoons –MC-SALT”

Action D.8 “Elaboration of a management model for salt works”

Steering Committee: Graziano Caramori; Massimiliano Costa; Dimitar Popov; Lorenzo Serra; Marc Thibault

The Authors would like to thank the steering committee and the technicians of the project partners for their cooperation and for the revision of the text.

Production: Ente di gestione per i Parchi e la Biodiversità-Delta del Po

Designed and printed by: Tipolitografia Baraldi snc - Cento (FE)

Cover pictures: Lino Casini (Flamingos) Massimiliano Costa (Dunaliella in the saltwork of Trinitat) Parco regionale del Delta del Po (Visitor centre in the saltwork of Cervia) Parco regionale del Delta del Po (Evaporation basins in Cervia) Parco regionale del Delta del Po (Sentry-box in the saltwork of Cervia) Marc Thibault (Habitat 1310, annual saltwort grasses) Fabrizio Borghesi (Saltwork of Molentargius)

Photographers: Antoine Arnaud, Fabrizio Borghesi, Lino Casini, Massimiliano Costa, Patrick Rigaud, Marc Thibault, Parc-naturel-regional-de-Camargue, Parco regionale del Delta del Po, Tour du Valat

2016 ENTE DI GESTIONE PER I PARCHI E LA BIODIVERSITÀ-DELTA DEL PO

Reccomended citation: Massimiliano Costa, Fabrizio Borghesi, Lino Casini, Zsuzsa Fidlóczky, Francesca Migani, 2016. Guidelines for the environmental management of the Mediterranean and Black sea saltworks (management model) in the Natura 2000 network. LIFE10 NAT/IT/000256. Summary

Introduction 1) Basic aspects of the saltworks, including habitats and species, and cultural aspects at risk due to loss of traditional activities 1.1 General and specific characteristics of the salt marshes of the Mediterranean 1.1.1 The salinas of the Mediterranean 1.1.2 The functioning of saltworks 1.1.3 The abandoned saltworks 1.1.4 Saltworks as ecosystems and conservation areas 1.1.5 Pressures and threats 1.1.6 Alternative uses of saltworks

1.2 Importance of habitats and species associated with the management and the abandonment of salt production 1.2.1 Key habitats of saltworks 1.2.2 Key species of saltworks 1.2.2.1 Plant species (Annex II 92/43/EEC) 1.2.2.2 Bird species (Annex I 09/147/EU and other important species) 1.2.2.3 Fish species (Annex II 92/43/EEC and other important species) 1.3 Culture, folklore and traditions of the salt in the Mediterranean

2) Main forcing changes of former and active saltworks 2.1 Dinamycs of active saltworks 2.2 Dynamics of disused saltworks 2.3 Territorial changes affecting the salt marshes 2.4 Climate change affecting the salt marshes

3) Conflicts and synergies between the practices of salt production and biodiversity conservation, implementation of measures related to biodiversity in production sites and analysis of best practices 3.1 Issues of salt production in relation to the conservation of important species of birds and fish 3.2 Coastal retreat and management of coastal habitats 3.3 Synergies 3.4 Implementation of measures related to biodiversity in production sites - Analysis of best practices carried out in southern France

4) Management of the environmental conditions favouring the main habitats (period of submersion, seasonal fluctuations of water levels and the onset of salt to help the species protection, including colonial nesting birds) 4.1 General planning management and strategies for conservation 4.2 Water levels management

3 4.3 Land habitats availability 4.4 Good practices for management aimed at conservation and habitat - species improvement in the treated saltworks 4.4.1 Maintenance of salt water circulation in the basins 4.4.2 Regulation and monitoring of water levels for bird colonies protection 4.4.3 Monitoring water quality 4.4.4 Monitoring of habitats and plants 4.4.5 Monitoring of animal populations of species of Community interest and conservational concern 4.4.6 Limiting predation on breeding colonies 4.4.7 Actions against Yellow-legged Gull 4.4.8 Maintenance of embankments and islets with conservation purposes 4.4.9 Avoiding disturbances to colonies 4.5 Sheets of habitat requirements

5) Legal aspects 5.1 Legislation at national level in the Mediterranean countries of Europe 5.2 Is salt production an agricultural or industrial activity? 5.3 The need of a European Directive for wetlands protection and the regulation of production (salt, fish, etc.) in wetlands

6) Costs for biodiversity conservation 6.1 The cost analysis in all possible cases of industrial production / artisanal production / environmental management / abandonment 6.1.1 Industrial production 6.1.2 Artisanal production 6.1.3 Environmental management 6.1.4 Total abandonment 6.1.5 Some examples of environmental management costs 6.2 Ecosystem services of saltworks 6.3 The analysis of possible revenue from traditional activities (salt) and alternative / innovative activities (fishing, fish farming, Artemia, halophilic bacteria and archaea, mud, brine, other types of salts, etc.) 6.3.1 Fishing and fish farming 6.3.2 Mud, brines and thermal waters 6.3.3 Biological products 6.3.4 Energy production

7) Guidelines and model of sustainable management 7.1 Role and importance of saltworks 7.2 Targets 7.3 Activities 7.3.1 General tips 7.3.2 Environmental management 7.3.3 Water management 7.3.4 Maintenance and creation of islets and of the safety conditions for the nesting birds 7.3.5 Management of the presence of Yellow-legged Gull 7.3.6 Conservation of conditions for habitats and plants 7.3.7 Conservation of conditions for fish and other aquatic animals

4 7.3.8 Give an added value to solar salt 7.3.9 Conservation of tradition and culture, also as an added value 7.3.10 Tourism 7.3.11 Other activities 7.3.12 Rules 7.3.13 Monitoring and research 7.3.14 General management 7.4 Conservation activities for habitats 7.5 Conservation activities for species

8) Bibliography 8.1 Documents provided by Partners 8.2 General bibliography (only documents referred to the text)

Annex I. List of saltworks included in Natura 2000 network I.1 Methods I.2 Mediterranean and Black Sea marine saltworks included in the Natura 2000 network: remarks I.2.1 Romania I.2.2 Bulgaria I.2.3 Greece I.2.4 Croatia I.2.5 Slovenia I.2.6 Italy I.2.7 Malta I.2.8 France I.2.9 Spain I.3 List of Natura 2000 sites referred to the presence of active solar saltworks (salt production by natural evaporating) or abandoned ones.

Annex II Nomenclatural notes

Introduction

In the Mediterranean basin and the Black Sea region there are more than 170 saltworks in 18 countries. 90 are active saltworks, 75% are located in the northern and central Mediterranean countries: Spain, Greece, Italy, France and Portugal. Traditional salt pans and small salt pans are in continuous decline in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions from the 50s of the twentieth century. The saltworks are man-made environments obtained from lagoons, salt lakes or portions thereof, which most often artificially reproduce coastal ponds behind the dunes, natural elements nowadays very rarefied, which are characteristic of the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. For this reason, many wild species, more or less specialized, find here favourable habitats or replacement of lost natural habitats. The strategic importance of saltworks for the conservation of biological diversity is, in fact, tied to the drastic disappearance of natural coastal ecosystems that saltworks reproduce, due to increased human settlements along the coastline, or as a result of developments for tourism, industry or agriculture (Masero 2003; Lopez et al. 2009). “Saltscapes” are landscapes with long lasting salt-making activity, thus embedded with a blend of salt-related characteristics that marked them physically, ecologically, economically, and culturally (Petanidou & Dalaka, 2009). In particular, the value of the saltworks as a habitat for waterbirds has been highlighted for a long time (Hoffmann (1964); Britton & Johnson (1987); Sadoul et al. (1998)). The ecological analysis of waterbirds in a saltwork (Casini et. al. 1992) has highlighted the considerable structural complexity of the bird community in all periods of the year and the tremendous ability of this environment to support breeding populations of some species related to salt or hyperhaline waters. The saltworks are also key sites for many halophytes, various invertebrates and euryhaline fish, both as a breeding and growth site. The management of saltworks would be more effective in terms of conservation if water levels and salinity are mo- delled on their natural course and the less the morphologies are simplified to increase productivity. On the other hand, there is an intrinsic potential, so far hardly been used in the artificial management of the saltwork, that is to be able to mitigate some of the effects of the natural hazards that sometimes hit the species sensitive to weather changes, water level variations or other factors, living in environments totally left to natural dynamics (exceptional drought or rainfall events, entry of predators, etc.). But it is a fact that in the active saltwork there can be conflicts between the trend of the water levels and the needs of wild bird species (Tucker & Heath 1994; Tucker & Evans 1997), many of which are protected by Directive 09/147/EU. Birds, in particular, are regarded as "umbrella species" because their conservation is related more generally to the whole aquatic ecosystem (Stolen et al. 2005; Rendón et al. 2008). Many saltworks in the Mediterranean are abandoned, because of the crisis of salt production, caused by other systems for the conservation of food (other chemical preservatives, refrigeration, Modified Atmosphere Packaging) and for the lower cost of production of salt through industrial processes, in a context of globalization. The abandonment of saltworks is considered negative for local salt culture and sometimes for biodiversity and therefore accelerates further loss of cultural and natural heritage (Petanidou & Dalaka, 2009). A comprehensive analysis of the causes of the crisis of the salt of the Mediterranean during the last 50 years is provided by Dolores Coelho, da Cunha Hilário and Ramos Duarte (2014): - high production costs in comparison with other salt productions styles; - global competition with an increased market liberalization scenario; - land pressures in a tourism driven demographic change context; - lack of technological innovation; - the appearance and development of semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture in the same areas; - changes in hydrological regimes; - the lack of the idea of environmental integration. In the abandoned saltworks without or with lack of restoration of physical conditions, the environmental conditions tend to change over time, often to the point of losing the hyperhalinity characterizing these habitats and of decreasing the water circulation, not being the morphologies, the distance from the coast, the coastal succession, the relationship between the sea and artificial ponds such as to allow the natural dynamics of coastal wetlands (Crisman et

7 al. 2009). In some cases, this can lead to a progressive loss of the biodiversity associated at typical hyperaline habitats. On the other hand, there are some cases of saltworks no longer producing salt where biodiversity has increased, most often as a result of active wetlands restoration actions. The development of the management model must start from the above considerations, to successfully hit the target to ensure maximum biodiversity and an adequate level of conservation, as required by Directives 92/43/EEC and 09/147/EU. This goal, however, must be pursued in a strategic manner, taking account of the economic management. Salt production, in fact, has a cost, which is offset by the sale of the product formed. Even the creation of hyperaline habitats for biodiversity conservation, can be seen as "production" and, therefore, the budgetary outcome also has in this case a strategic importance. The development of management models must, therefore, start from the analysis of the costs and identify, together with the added value in terms of nature and landscape elements not monetized, saleable products, supplied by a management aimed at preservation, aimed at the guaranteed income supplement from the salt in the active saltworks and to replace it entirely in disused saltworks. Production of salt and other products, however, must always take into account the unavoidable needs of conservation, with particular attention to protected habitats and species, threatened habitats and species, habitats and species characteristic of hyperaline environments in the Medi- terranean and the Black Sea. In addition to salt, products obtained from saltworks may be those traditionally considered as fish, molluscs or crustaceans, environmental tourism, bird watching, but also new forms of use of the products of saltworks, such as the ecosystem services provided by saltworks as well as the alternative products such as salt gems of gypsum of first evaporation ponds, the mud and the brine used in spa, folklore and cultural issues related to traditional craftsmanship (festivals, merchandising). Even the electricity can be included as one of the products of these sunny environments, for example by setting up solar panels on the roofs of modern salt stores. This, in particular, allows the saline to become at least partly energy self-sufficient, by folding this significant part of the costs of production. Moreover, in view of the classification of saltworks, historically established as industrial, it is strategic instead to innovate the concept and show how the production of salt and hyperaline habitats constitutes an agricultural activity, like fish farming and environmental management of wetlands and lagoons; direct consequence of this desirable review of the sector, would be to be able to benefit, even for these management systems, the funds EAFRD. The optimization of production (of salt or of hyperaline habitats) to make it economically sustainable, need comparisons between different sites, taking note of the experience of production and management (collecting good practices and positive results from several LIFE projects regarding saltworks), analysing the production and management strategies contained in the program- ming documents, such as management plans for sites in the Natura 2000 network. This management model and the guidelines are not necessarily aimed at a general increase in biodiversity in the saltworks, but in the conservation and, if possible, increase of the biodiversity associated to the hypersaline specific habitats, typical of the Mediterra- nean salinas.

In the text, we use the distinction among different kind of saltwork management: Fig. 1 The Greater Flamingo is a flag-species of Mediterranean - active (productive) saltwork: a saltwork in which salt saltworks (ph. M. Costa) is still produced; - industrial saltwork: saltwork in which the salt production is conducted with industrial mechanized methods - artisanal saltwork: saltwork in which the salt production is conducted with traditional craft methods; - former / non-productive saltwork: a saltwork in which salt production has ceased; these include not abandoned saltworks and, in particular, saltworks managed for biodiversity; - abandoned saltwork: a saltwork in which salt production is stopped and which is not managed at all (completely abandoned); - salinas: a hypersaline wetland, natural or natural-looking (former or abandoned saltwork).

8 1) Basic aspects of the saltworks, including habitats and species, and cultural aspects at risk due to loss of traditional activities

1.1 General and specific characteristics of the salt The complicated part of the process is how to obtain marshes of the Mediterranean salt as pure as possible, considering that natural brines contain many other salts apart from sodium 1.1.1 The salinas of the Mediterranean chloride, NaCl (including considerable amounts of Salt is an essential element to mankind, first because potassium, magnesium, and calcium bounded to it is part of our physiological requirements (as impor- chloride, carbonate, and sulphate in various pro- tant regulator of neurological transmission as well as portions), as well as various diluted organic and muscular function), second because it constitutes a inorganic substances (including metals, metalloids major source of food seasoning and third because its and other trace elements). This is achieved through preservative character has imposed its wide, impe- skilful handling of concentrating brines and step-by- rative and influential use to humanity. Making salt, step controlled water evaporation, which requires though, demands a series of prerequisites limiting its knowledge and long experience. This process ensu- production to a few areas only, and excluding vast re- res the fractional precipitation of the mixture of salts gions from this resource. As a result, since the begin- according to their solubility, and therefore the distin- ning of civilisations, salt production and trade have ct crystallisation of NaCl that thereafter precipitates attained a strategic character, comparable to valuable free from the other substances dissolved in the bri- products like gold, silk, ore, spices. Not surprisingly, ne. Improvements over the millennia have allowed obtaining salt by any means (extraction, manufactu- to refine several diversified techniques depending ring, and trading) has been a priority for all people on the climatic vicissitudes of different geographical (Petanidou, 1997). areas. For instance, according to the frequency of The different people of the Mediterranean basin have salt harvesting, saltworkers may adopt continuous used various techniques in order to produce salt: the or periodical (intermittent) crystallisation. With the most important was solar evaporation of brine obtai- first method, the harvest can be carried out once per ned from the sea or inland salt-springs, while salt has season or less, while the second consists in several also been produced through direct mining of rock salt harvests (even every day, but most frequently seve- or ebullition of brine (from the sea and salt-springs). ral times per season). Despite the changes occurred Thanks to the ideal climatic conditions prevailing in in the salt production over the last century, such as the area, with long, warm, and dry summers and fa- the mechanisation of the Mediterranean saltworks, vourable winds, the Mediterranean basin is a region the basic operating principles remained. where salt exploitation through solar evaporation in In order to control the procedure and ensure a con- coastal areas have been extensively practised since tinuous circulation of brine until common salt cry- the beginning of Antiquity. However, the production stallises, large expanses of flat areas are needed, seasonality varies from one side of the Mediterranean to the other. In the north, it is restricted to spring and summer, whereas in the south it can occur for a longer period. Among the hundreds of saltworks operating in the Me- diterranean and the Black Sea region since ancient times, only about 170 are recognisable today (Crisman et al., 2009). Ninety of them are still working, while the rest are inactive or have been converted. Of the 90 active saltworks, 77% are located on the northern and central Mediterranean countries (Spain, Greece, Italy, France and Portugal). Their surface may vary from 1 to 12,000 ha, with an annual yield of approximately 7 million tons of salt.

1.1.2 The functioning of saltworks Producing common salt from seawater is a simple and complicated process at the same time. The sim- plest aspect consists of letting the brine evaporate either under the sun’s heat (solar saltworks) or through Fig. 2 The succession of the basins in the Cervia saltwork, shown ebullition until the salt crystallises. The first method, in a model within the visitor center. Out of the light blue, to purple, using a ‘soft’, inexpensive and renewable form of to yellow the different stages of evaporation and concentration of salt, until the salting basins (orange), in which the harvest takes energy, has been widely used in the Mediterranean. place (ph. M. Costa)

9 where the fractional precipitation of salts occurs are characterized by intense human presence in in successive evaporation ponds before the brine all stages of salt-making. In the last half century, concentrates and enters the saltpans. As the flow a few of the largest of these saltworks have been of brine throughout the entire saltwork system may modernised by introducing pumps, machines or a take about a week, saltwork’s ground must be imper- small-gauge railway network. meable, in order to avoid any loss of brine and salt Modern and industrial saltworks, which include both yield. This explains why all the large Mediterranean semi-industrial and fully mechanized saltworks. saltworks were (and still are) located on flat alluvial The former consists of relatively large pans and coasts with natural lagoons, which have been silted crystallizers and are still involving manpower for up by rivers, such as the Ebro (Salinas of Tortosa, the manual salt harvesting; whereas the latter, with Spain), Rhône (Salin-de-Giraud and Aigues-Mortes, almost no manual operation, are extremely large France), Tiber (Ostia, Rome, Italy), Po (Comacchio and most profitable economically. and Cervia, Italy), Acheloos (Messolonghi, Greece) or the Nile (Damietta, Egypt), not forgetting those in the Primitive and traditional saltworks represent essential Black Sea. elements of the Mediterranean cultural landscape and Further, introducing seawater into a saltwork and heritage. making it circulate from pond to pond are energy-intensive processes. In fact, the salt crystallisation in- 1.1.3 The abandoned saltworks volves the evaporation of large quantities of water, Although their salt yield potential increased over time, since for the production of one ton of salt at least 30 the number of active saltworks in the Mediterranean to 50 m3 of water is needed. The problem is how to has suffered a dramatic decline, especially in the se- obtain such quantity of water and how to make it cir- cond half of the 20th century. This abandonment is a culate within a complex system of ponds and chan- result of continuous and profound social and technolo- nels. Gravity is obviously the main source of force gical changes at different levels, particularly in relation used, with the various reception tanks being located to systems and means of production, an accelerating successively lower, sometimes with a difference of process commonly known as “globalization” that mo- only a few centimetres between two subsequent le- dern societies have undergone during the second half vels. Sometimes, as in Camargue, also wind can play of the 20th century. Moreover, industrialization can be an important role. However, gravity and wind cannot identified as a main driver of the abandonment of sal- always meet the supply requirements, especially in tworks, with many saltworks being abandoned becau- most of the Mediterranean basin where the tides are se their surface was lower than the critical size required modest. Thus, up until the advent of the industrial for implementing industrial process in a profitable way. age and the introduction of pumps driven by petrol In the 1980s large changes affected the world salt or electricity, the water supply in saltwork was pro- market. Following mechanization processes, salt provided wholly or partly through scoops or other wa- duction started to be managed internationally and ter-lifting devices driven by wind energy or by drau- trans-nationally (Perraud, 2002; Neves et al., 2005). ght animals. As a result, within the Mediterranean All this, combined with the global changes in long-di- area people have combined natural processes, such stance trade, and the desuetude to conserve food by as modest local tides, with common sense or basic using salt (due to refrigeration and other alternative mechanical knowledge, implementing ingenious methods), excluded salt from the rank of primary go- ways to solve energy problems and find a number ods after WW II. Nowadays, most of the production of of hydraulic solutions. In all cases, including the salt salt is sold for new uses, such as roadside snow remo- transportation out of the saltworks, a series of im- val and chemical industry (e.g. soda producing compa- provements achieved through the centuries resulted nies), whereas the proportion sold for human consu- in working in saltworks becoming easier, while at the mption has decreased. same time creating a rich cultural heritage. Since the 1930’s, small saltworks were the first to stop Many of the saltworks operating in the Mediterrane- salt production, as an effect of the higher productivity an at present, have been improved and transformed of the bigger ones. A large number of saltworks ceased into large-scale saltworks. According to the size, the during the period 1950-1990 in Europe, especially in in- variety of methods employed for production, as well dustrialized countries, whereas in the southern and ea- as other features, several categories of Mediterrane- stern Mediterranean traditional production continued. an saltworks can be distinguished: Mainly in Portugal, Sicily and Greece saltworks were Primitive saltworks, in which salt is produced with little transformed in fish farms, whereas a few abandoned or no human intervention, mainly collected from saltworks acquired nature reserve status due to their nature (e.g. rocky coasts). They are made up of a biological richness. mosaic of bowls cut out by hand in the rock, about Often, abandonment of saltworks, when not followed 50-75 cm deep. by management for nature conservation, resulted in a Traditional saltworks, including small pans and cry- dramatic change in land use. Several abandoned sal- stallizers, linked by canals and dykes that can be tworks have been transformed into rice fields, fish far- efficiently operated by one or two persons. They ms (Italy, Greece, and others) or even oyster farms. Such

10 national, European or international level. The legal aspects concerning saltworks and Products (e.g.edible,ornamental contruction) more generally wetlands will be discussed in

Recreation chapter 5. Direct use values The spatial organization of the ponds in the Waste assimilation saltworks and their different depths, necessary Research for the salt production process, favour a high Use values Education degree of spatial heterogeneity and very productive micro-environments that are attractive Physical protection Indirect use (e.g. coastal defence function) to many primary and secondary consumers values (Evagelopoulos et al., 2008). Animal and plant Global life support communities in saltworks vary geographically. The value individuals place on expected future The diversification of the habitats in saltworks, Option value use and indirect use of the components of ecological system and richness of their plants and animals, are strongly correlated to some ecological factors: Non-use Quasi-option The value arising from expected new values value information wich will arise from the size, isolation, water regime and salinity gra- conservation of biodiversity for future use dient of the saltwork. A range of values, encompassing aesthetic and cultural The living conditions imposed by the presence Existence value aspects, arising from human motivations (bequest motives, stewardship motives or altruism) of salt in water and soil makes it a hard environment for flora and fauna, in which only ha- Non-anthropocentric Intrinsic Organism have a worth of their own lophilous (i.e. salt-tolerant) plants and animals value regardless of human perception values survive. Many of the species capable of thri- ving in these environments are microscopic, Fig. 3 Categories of environmental benefits (Do E., 1996) such as hypersaline bacteria and algae, some of which form microbial mats whose diversi- saltworks rarely maintained their initial characteristics ty is still being discovered (Guerrero and de and lost most of their ecological importance, because Wit, 1992). Each group of ponds, with different dep- not properly managed for conservation purposes (Cri- th and salinity, has a highly characteristic biological sman et al. 2009). Some completely disappeared due system. Halophilous biota and communities are very to drastic change in land use such as industrialization site-specific and include many endemisms (e.g. Li- or urbanization (e.g. the saltwork of Volos in Greece, monium avei for Italy or Limonium santapolense for Petanidou 2000). Spain), especially in inland saltscapes which are iso- On the contrary, former saltworks turned into mana- lated from each other. ged saltworks for nature conservation, are newly pro- Among the animal and plant communities which can viding a vast number of benefits to humans via goods tolerate the gradients of salinity and humidity typical (products) and services (functions). Since few of these of saltworks, two groups stand out by their producti- are traded in the market-place, they rarely have a rea- vity: unicellular organisms and aquatic invertebrates. dily observable monetary or financial value. However, They are fundamental elements of the food chain they can have a considerable socio-economic value, which provide food for high densities of a wide range particularly when utilised on a sustainable basis inclu- of birds. In saltworks, plankton and benthic unicel- ding eco-tourism (Crisman et al., 2009). lular organisms are the most abundant and aquatic invertebrates occur in all saltworks. The species are 1.1.4 Saltworks as ecosystems and conservation similar to those found in salt water of marine or of areas continental origin (salt-lake). The distributions of all these species vary, however, Saltworks, as said, are not only sites of economic pro- according to the physical and chemical characteri- duction, but they represent special ecosystems with stics of water and the substrate (especially salinity). rare and fragile biota. Many Mediterranean saltworks Sadoul et al. (1998) pointed out that, in contrast to la- are included within larger wetland systems protected goons, the main salinity gradient in saltworks occurs by the international Ramsar Convention (Ramsar, in space, not in time. The species-richness of each Iran, 1971) and host species and habitats protected salt pan is a function of its position in the water circu- by European and international agreements on nature it, and therefore, its specific salinity. In salinity, up to conservation, such as the Directives of the European 70‰, the ecosystem structure can be very similar to Council on bird protection and on the conservation those of natural lagoons, with presence of large beds of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora (09/147/ of macrophytes (e.g. Ruppia sp.), fishes, molluscs and UE and 92/43/CEE). In addition, several saltworks annelids. Beds of submerged macrophytes are an have been also included in the list of Special Areas important food resource for invertebrates and herbi- of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Are- vorous birds and they can provide refuges for fishes. as (SPAs) of the Natura 2000 network established by However, above 70‰ of salinity such ecosystems the European Commission. Many saltworks also host hardly survive. For example, studies on South Euro- threatened species that are included in red lists at the pean Toothcarp (Aphanius fasciatus) (e.g. Leonardos

11 of green unicellular algae (e.g. Dunaliela salina) and autotrophic bacteria (e.g. Halobacterium) is high. They create the red colour of the water in the most concentrated salt pans. Only few species resist to very higher salinity (> 280‰), such as brine shrimps (Artemia salina), but with very high densities. Spe- cies richness generally decreases with the increase of salinity levels, but the correlation is not linear: a large decline in species diversity is accompanied by an increase in biomass, as a result of a lack of aquatic predators and/or competitors. As a consequence of this simplification of the communities of unicellular organism and invertebrates, the water bird communities, the main consumers and the components most vulnerable to changes in water conditions, might undergo to significant alterations (Bennun 2000; Halse et al. 2002). Only few specialized species (such as flamingos) remain. In their entirety, saltworks can be important sites for bird conservation. Mediterranean saltworks are essential breeding sites for colonial birds (such as gulls, terns, avocet, black-winged-stilt and greater flamingo). The geographic location of Mediterra- Fig. 4 The square evaporation ponds in the saltwork of Cervia (ph. nean saltworks also makes them a stepping stone Parco Delta del Po Archive) for thousands of birds during migration from their nesting places in Siberia and Central and Northern et al., 1996) demonstrated that individuals resident in Europe to wintering places in sub-Saharan Africa. saltworks had shorter life-span, a slower growth and Some bird species, such as waders, stop their migra- a higher mortality than those living in natural lagoon tion to use them as feeding areas (stop-over sites) as (salinity below 30‰). In addition, when the salinity mudflats emerge through the action of the wind on approaches 70‰ some species of molluscs and de- shallow basins and lagoons. This is an uncommon capods disappear, due to the inability to efficiently situation in the Mediterranean because of the small produce skeleton and shells. Between 70-150‰, the tides; other species find the tranquillity essential for number of species remains relatively stable (in sali- much needed rest, and reproduction. The ecological nity of up to 130‰ diatoms and blue-green bacteria function of saltworks transcends their boundaries dominate). and affects an important global network of wetland From 150‰, the precipitation of gypsum heavily systems, which should be understood and managed modifies the communities. In fact, gypsum forms a jointly. Thus, these manmade wetlands are also of crust on the sediment (of up to 10 cm deep in some great interest due to the functional role they play in years) which represents a barrier between the sub- ecological connectivity (Masero et al. 1999). Nowa- strate and the water, altering the development of a days, while the coastline has been severely altered number of organisms. For example, the cyanophyce- by urbanisation and industrialisation, saltworks re- ae disappear and as a result, their predators simul- present an important capital for the conservation of taneously disappear. Above 180‰, the production biodiversity in the Mediterranean.

12 1.1.5 Pressures and threats ral infrastructure. The most important threats to the cultural values of saltworks are land use changes in The immense saltmaking heritage and saltscapes of favour of intensive agri/aquacultural developments the Mediterranean are threatened today and have and urbanisation, the latter being perhaps the most been disappearing quickly under the pressure of se- damaging factor in the case of coastal saltworks. Ci- veral factors, which imposes strong land use changes ties development and tourism are fast becoming the

Fig. 5 Traditional hydraulic devices in Trinitat Saltwork (ph. M. Costa) throughout the Basin (Petanidou & Dalaka, 2009). dominant economy for coastal regions of the Medi- Globalization and increased competition within the terranean basin. Urbanization is escalating for both salt market is clearly the main driver leading to aban- single-family seasonal residences and major hotel/ don many small and medium-sized saltworks in Me- resorts and the associated roads and service industry diterranean region during the 1950’s-80’s. (shops, restaurants) to support them. The competi- Mediterranean saltworks are facing both site-specific tion to find suitable affordable sites for facilities near and general threats. The first include changes in the the shore has pushed developers also closer or into biophysical features of the wetlands and their natu- saltworks. Land change is also driven by industry and

Fig. 6 The saltwork of Margherita di Savoia, in Southern Italy (ph. F. Borghesi)

13 shipping activities (i.e. responsible for abandonment mote cultural and ecotourism in saltworks has been of saltwork in Fos-sur-Mer, southern France. Other increasing in recent years, probably as a result of ack- important threats are destruction, decay or loss of nowledgement of the values of saltworks. Thus, many buildings, tools and hydraulic devices due to weathe- forms of tourism can be developed in saltworks, as ring, vandalism or theft (Casado and Montes, 1991; nature tourism and ecotourism, historical tourism Williams, 2002). and cultural, educational and gastronomic tourism. The abandonment of traditional salt-making has had its strongest impact on the human dimensions Nature tourism and ecotourism: various activi- of the activity, because most of the knowledge about ties take place outdoors in and around saltwor- traditional salt-making used to be transmitted orally. ks. Amongst the most popular are birdwatching When the activity is abandoned, traditions, legends cycling and trekking. Saltworks are particularly and beliefs related to the salt are slowly disappe- good sites for watching waterbirds. aring, along with tools, devices and infrastructure. Moreover, both active and abandoned saltworks in Cultural-historical tourism: the art of salt-making the Mediterranean are affected by a variety of point carried out for hundreds of years in saltworks, the and non-point environmental impacts (not including tools, buildings, boats, wind-pumps, traditions those related to salt production, but possibly causing and legends, as well as the salt as a chemical detrimental effects to salt production itself), arising product, form a vast cultural potential. All these mainly from agriculture, industry and tourism. This aspects are promoted in salt museums that have topic, together with problems concerning climate opened in several Mediterranean saltworks. changes (i.e. sea level increase and erosion), will be discussed in detail in chapter 2. Educational: the saltworks can offer many oppor- All these impacts affect the saltworks’ role as a cul- tunities for learning about various topics, such as tural heritage and the coexistence of sustainable salt nature, ecology, history, culture, anthropology, production and biodiversity. Perhaps most damaging natural resources, and salt-making. Learning can of all is the widespread ignorance of the values of sal- take place through excursions, volunteer work, tworks, and this may be a fundamental reason why permanent and temporary active exhibitions, re- pressures on saltworks and threats to their existence search in saltworks, or operation of a creative la- continue to grow and multiply. boratory for biological and cultural approaches, especially working with local schools.

1.1.6 Alternative uses of saltworks Gastronomic: located near the sea, saltworks are very often connected with salty culinary speciali- Very often the saltworks are located in sites of out- ties found nowhere else. standing natural and landscaping interests and therefore are particularly sensitive areas that need pro- Recreational–Health: saltworks and salt landsca- tection. This means that any other economic activity, pes constitute a pleasant and relaxing environ- in addition to the salt production, which could take ment encompassing a variety of natural and built place in a saline or in its vicinity must be subjected elements, creating a fascinating landscape, uni- to a thorough assessment of possible impacts on the que for photography, painting or even a simple ecosystem. walk. Tourism is a major and most widespread economic activity that often uses natural resources intensively, Saltworks are also rich in biological by-products whi- with possible adverse effects, especially in fragile ch have numerous applications. Plants growing in environments, as salinas are. In fact, salt production hypersaline soils can be eaten (such as Salicornia eu- is among the few environmentally friendly human ropaea) or transformed into cosmetics (Salsola soda, activities spread all over the Mediterranean, in which Suaeda maritima). The ever-present crustacean Ar- protection and exploitation of natural resources can temia species are popular food for aquarium fish, be harmoniously combined. Global trend today sug- although large quantities are required to make this gests a preference for special and alternative forms of a profitable business. Unfortunately, this business tourism, told "green" or “slow” and considered less has promoted the colonization of Artemia francisca- harmful to the environment, such as nature tourism na, an exotic species, throughout the Mediterranean, and ecotourism. Ecotourism can be consistent with which is a threat to the native A. salina populations the nature preservation, even in nature reserves and (Scalone & Rabet 2013). In addition, a few Mediter- protected areas, and it is considered an important ranean active saltworks are integrating oyster pro- economic alternative resource that contributes to the duction (e.g. Salin de Gruissan in southern France). revitalization and development of saltworks. Aesthe- The industrial and biotechnological applications of tic and natural values of saltscapes and saltworks are microalgae and hypersaline bacteria (e.g. Halobacte- keys to their value as a tourist destination. Saltscapes rium sp.) are currently being experimentally develo- have also begun to attract a new type of visitor with ped, although the impacts of their production on an interest in cultural heritage. The tendency to pro- both the salt production and the saline ecosystems

14 Fig. 7 The packaging of the traditional Salt of Cervia_Max Costa) have yet to be carefully assessed. These microscopic 1.2 1.2 Importance of habitats and species asso- organisms can be added to food supplements, co- ciated with the management and the aban- smetics, electrical conductors and biofuels. donment of salt production. An overall advantage of the multi-purpose production of salt and its by-products is the creation Coastal, marine and riverine habitats are among the and maintenance of employment. A combination most biologically rich areas on Earth. In particular, of traditional salt-making and high technology can salt marshes and saltworks are habitats for commu- guarantee the preservation of the intangible cultu- nities of salt-tolerant vegetation (aquatic and terre- ral heritage, while offering higher level jobs and pro- strial plants), a wide range of aquatic invertebrates, viding a higher quality of life for employees and for and low-tide and high-tide visitors such as fishes those more indirectly associated with the process. and birds. They provide a range of benefits by supporting the biodiversity on which coastal ecosystem depends; providing shelter, feeding, spawning, and nursery grounds for both aquatic and terrestrial organisms, some of which are endangered and protected; aiding water quality by filtering pollution and sediment from runoff and helping recharge aquifers; protecting the coastlines against natural hazards such as erosion, coastal flooding, and sea level rise. All of these benefits and services are provided by an ecosystem resulting from a correct management of the landscape in terms of natural elements. In particular, habitat composition and variety are amongst the factors most affecting quantity and quality of services, and of course their functional integrity. Diversity is not the only indicator of a high degree of wilderness: there are environments which are intrinsically richer in habitats, and consequently of plant and animal species, but, conversely, other environments are stressed by abiotic features and harbour mainly handful of specialized organisms, rare or ab-

15 sent elsewhere. Of course, considering comparable Mediterranean saltworks tend to host similar habi- environmental contexts, a greater heterogeneity tats, because of their extreme ecological conditions. corresponds into a greater biodiversity. However, The relative proportion of natural habitats can vary also, size of natural habitats is a crucial factor. A lar- considerably between active or abandoned sal- ger section of a marsh will probably have more spe- tworks. Regarding the latter, there is an additional cies than a smaller section of a similar marsh (Craig, variability due to the stage of re-naturalization to a 2008). This fact, known as the species-area relation- coastal salt marsh, and the degree of management ship, is fundamental in both ecology and conserva- carried out on the site. tion biology. The management plans provided by the partners and examined for the elaboration of this manage- 1.2.1 Key habitats of saltworks ment model have reported a total of 30 habitats, listed in Annex I of the Habitat Directive (seven of The concept of habitat is very difficult to define uni- these are priority habitats). Among these, there are vocally. The Habitat Directive (92/43/ECC) defines habitats very important and representative of coa- natural habitats as “terrestrial or aquatic areas di- stal ecosystem, such as dunes and beaches, some- stinguished by geographic, abiotic and biotic featu- times connected with the close saltworks. However, res, whether entirely natural or semi-natural” and na- only five habitats considered most representative of tural habitat types of Community interest as those the environment of saltworks will be described in habitats “(i) in danger of disappearance in their natu- this section, referred to the description proposed by ral range; or (ii) have a small natural range following the CORINE Biotopes Project in 1991. Table 1 repor- their regression or by reason of their intrinsically re- ts habitat code and names, the corresponding area stricted area; or (iii) present outstanding examples covered in the European Mediterranean and Black of typical characteristics of one or more of the five Sea region (see Fig. 1; EIONET, 2014), the sum of the following biogeographical regions: Alpine, Atlantic, areas covered in the eight saltworks of the project, Continental, Macaronesian and Mediterranean. Such and the relative proportion between the two areas. habitat types are listed or may be listed in Annex I. Although the eight saltworks represent only a small […] Priority natural habitat types are indicated by an percentage of the total saltworks in the Mediterra- asterisk (*)”. nean and Black Sea region (about 5% in number), The saltworks are very peculiar environments be- this analysis can be useful to understand the impor- cause they host habitats that are rarely found in tance and the role of saltworks in the preservation other types of environments. At the same time, the of these habitats of Community interest.

Legend

Alpine Marine Atlantic Atlantic Marine Baltic Black Sea Marine Black Sea Boreal Marine Macaronesia Continental Marine Mediterranean Macaronesia Mediterranean Pannonian Steppic

Fig. 8 The biogeographical and marine regions for reporting under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive (EIONET, 2014)

16 Table 1 - The most representative habitats in the environment of saltworks. Area covered in Mediterranean and Black Sea region of Europe (km2) and area covered in saltworks of the project (km2) are reported.

Area covered Area covered in in MED and BS saltworks of the CODE HABITAT % regions of Europe project (km2)** (km2) 1150* Coastal lagoons 1822 163 8,9 Salicornia and other 1310 annuals colonizing mud 515 1,32 0,3 and sand Mediterranean salt meadows 1410 357 4,56 1,3 (Juncetalia maritimi) Mediterranean and thermo- 1420 Atlantic halophilous scrubs 692 20,76 3,0 (Sarcocornetea fruticosi) Mediterranean Pseudo-steppe 1510* 694 1,84 0,3 with grasses (Limonietalia)

* Priority natural habitats ** Estimate from Article 17 Reporting - Assessments of conservation status at the EU biogeographical level. European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity, 2014.

1150* Coastal Lagoons natural habitat, the role played by saltworks in its conservation is very significant. Both in active saltworks and in those abandoned, However, information about conservation status the dominant habitat is invariably represented by in Europe is not complete, particularly for the the Coastal Lagoons (* priority natural habitat types). Mediterranean, due to the fact that various levels of natural state are identified by the term “coastal “Lagoons are expanses of shallow coastal salt water, lagoon”. of varying salinity and water volume, wholly or According to Basset et al. (2006), a first physical partially separated from the sea by sand banks or classification of coastal lagoons can be made shingle, or, less frequently, by rocks. Salinity may vary according to the influence of tide (microtidal lagoons, from brackish water to hypersalinity depending on tidal range > 50 cm; non-tidal lagoons tidal range < rainfall, evaporation and through the addition of fresh 50 cm) and to their size, which categorizes lagoons seawater from storms, temporary flooding of the sea with a surface area, greater or smaller than 3 km2. in winter or tidal exchange. With or without vegetation Applying these criteria to coastal lagoons included in from Ruppietea maritimae, Potametea, Zosteretea or saltworks of the project, they normally are non-tidal Charetea” (CORINE, 1991). and large (in some cases very large as Aigues Mortes This habitat is found in all coastal regions of Europe. and Camargue). The conservation status in the Mediterranean area More important, a characterization of coastal is “unfavourable-bad” for the period 2007-2012 lagoons could be based on biological factors, (EIONET, 2014). Changes in water bodies conditions depending on abiotic conditions. In fact, intrinsic and surface water pollution are noted as the most variability of environmental conditions of this important threats for this habitat in several European inherently organically enriched transitional habitat, countries (EIONET, 2014). Other threats include land affected by severe ﬂuctuations of hydrologic and reclamation. trophic conditions (marine inﬂuence and inputs of Based on the management plans provided by the continental origin) does not fit to a generic “coastal partners, the extension occupied by this habitat lagoon” category, even more complicated when in each saltwork of the project exceeds 50%, with considering habitats classified as coastal lagoon a maximum of 73% in Aigues-Mortes (France). included in saltworks. Indeed, annual ecological Obviously, saltwork does not represent the only cycle leads coastal lagoons to range from an environmental context hosting this habitat. But, as ecological friendly state with diverse fauna and flora shown in table 1, the area covered by this habitat to anoxic conditions. The latter extreme case can lead type in the saltworks of the project is about 9% of the to almost azoic habitats as a result of severe hypoxic/ total area in the European Mediterranean region. So, anoxic (known also as dystrophic) crises causing considering also that “coastal lagoons” is a priority massive mortality events especially in benthic

17 communities. Therefore, the characteristics of Ionic composition Thalassogenic vs. Limnogenic coastal lagoons included Oligohaline in an active saltwork or in Mesohaline Mixoeuhaline an evolving environment Metahaline after the abandonment Hyperhaline of salt production, will be very different. For this reason, it may be helpful in this document to recall the theory so far accepted modelling the ecological functioning of coastal lagoons, and the most common types of coastal lagoons that could be encountered Salinity in saltworks (including Confinement abandoned saltworks). Main theory modelling coastal lagoons in terms α - hypersaline of species communities is known as “confinement” β - hypesaline theory, introduced by Guelorget and Perthuisot Fig. 9 Conceptual model for the different typologies of water bodies and aquatic assemblages in coastal lagoons (black block) and estuaries (blue arrow) according to three main structuring factors, (1983) referring to ionic composition (from limnogenic to thalassogenic), salinity and confinement (expressed as the microtidal environments. inverse of potential colonization rates from the marine environment) (Pérez-Ruzafa et al., 2011). According to this theory, conﬁnement (referring to the time of renewal of the components of marine to preserve such habitat should not simply tend origin) is the factor controlling the organization of to maintain “coastal lagoon” habitat extension fol- the communities in lagoons and, consequently, it lowing Habitat Directive stricto sensu, but characte- reflects on biodiversity (Guelorget and Perthuisot rize it according to its peculiarities (possibly based 1992). In this scenario, water circulation is the main on confinement theory and subsequent develop- environmental driver affecting lagoons. ments) and coherently manage the environmental As a result of different confinement degrees, within variables influencing the type of coastal lagoon to the Mediterranean coastal lagoons, these authors be preserved. In application to the Water Directive, distinguished six “paralic” or “confinement” zones there are a number of existing tools for assessing along the confinement gradient from zone I which the ecological status of transitional waters including is the most marine-influenced, to zone VI which is coastal lagoons. These include indicators based on the most confined and where biological populations submerged macrophytes and benthic invertebrates, are different depending on the water balance of which are relevant for many lagoons (but not all, the basin (Guelorget and Perthuisot 1983). The they do not work for oligohaline lagoons, neither for relative extent of the zones should then define the temporary lagoons). Coastal lagoons which fall in the “ecological quality” of the lagoon (see Ponti et al., categories I to III (eventually IV) of confinement are 2009). The confinement model has been debated the most valuable for submerged macrophytes, fish- (Barnes, 1994; Perthuisot and Guelorget, 1995), es and benthic invertebrates, and they also are the but also invoked and confirmed in several studies ones that meets the best ecological status according of benthos in coastal lagoons worldwide (Dye and to criteria used for the monitoring implemented in Barros, 2005). Recently, the confinement theory has the frame of the Water Frame Directive. been recovered and improved in order to revise the Categories III and IV can be found in the first part of definition of ‘transitional waters’ and ‘coastal waters’ the process of water circulation of active saltworks. (2000/60/EC Directive, see chapter 5) for a better Presence of Ruppia cirrhosa is amongst the indica- classification of coastal lagoons, the latter ranging tors (esp. for category IV). It is important to maintain from one to the other category. In such study, the / favour categories III and IV in active saltworks as confinement model has been integrated with ionic these are the most interesting and species-rich for composition and salt concentration (Pérez-Ruzafa et fish (including the threatened European Eel), inver- al., 2011; Fig. 5). tebrates and submerged macrophytes (including al- However, since the models have not resulted in a gae), as opposed to hyperaline lagoons (categories sub-classification of the Natura 2000 habitat “co- V and VI), with category VI only hosting a handful of astal lagoon” 1150*, conservation actions aimed specialized invertebrate species.

18 Fig. 10 Beds of Wigeon grass (Ruppia cirrhosa) in a lagoon in Camargue, former saltworks (ph. M. Thibault, Tour du Valat)

1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud Salicornia is a genus of succulent plants typical of co- and sand astal muds and sands covered at high tide, the group includes plants such as marsh samphire (Salicornia eu- “Formations composed mostly or predominantly of ropaea). The habitat can often form part of saltmarshes annuals, in particular Chenopodiaceae of the genus and is widespread along all European coasts. When Salicornia or grasses, colonising periodically inunda- submerged in winter, this habitat can become impor- ted muds and sands of marine or interior salt marshes. tant for shorebirds and wildfowls (including Common Thero-Salicornietea, Frankenietea pulverulentae, Teal Anas crecca which feed on seeds of annual Saginetea maritimae” (CORINE,1991). Salicornia). The habitat can also occur inland on saline

Fig. 11 Habitat 1310 (Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand) restored in Camargue former saltworks (ph. M. Thibault, Tour du Valat)

19 soils as in Poland, Spain and Romania. Salicornia and ranean basin dominated by Juncus (rushes) other annuals colonizing mud and sand are polyhali- especially Juncus maritimus tolerant of saline soils. It ne habitats that are exposed to important salinity va- occurs widely along the coasts of the Mediterranean riations and develop on muddy and sand-loam sub- and more rarely the Atlantic and also inland as in strates, halo-eutrophic, sometimes mixed with shell Spain. debris and organic deposits. In the Camargue, annual This habitat type is present in all saltworks of the Salicornia have been observed on substrate with sali- project, although it covers percentages rather nity ranging 10-75g/kg (sometimes up to 100g/kg), in variable in each saltwork. In fact, in Camargue areas submerged at least over 6 months per year whe- (France) this habitat covers 2.74 km2 (about 4.2% of re groundwater lower down up to -40 to -60 cm deep the total extension of the former saltwork), whereas in summer (Corre 1975, Corre et al. 1982, Devaux 1978, in Aigues-Mortes (France) it covers only 0.01%. Molinier 1964). This habitat is present in 6 of the 8 sal- In the Mediterranean region, the habitat tworks of the project, but the coverage never exceeds “Mediterranean salt meadows (Juncetalia maritimi)” 2%. In the Mediterranean region, the habitat cover is covers 355 km2. The area covered in the saltworks estimated at 213 km2. The area covered in the saltwor- of the project represents only 1.3% of the total ks of the project represents only 0.3% of the total area area in the European Mediterranean basin (Table in the European Mediterranean basin (Table 1). 1). The conservation status in the Mediterranean The conservation status in the Mediterranean region is area is “unfavourable-bad” for the period 2007-2012 “unfavourable-bad” for the period 2007-2012 (EIONET, (EIONET, 2014). Changes in water bodies conditions 2014). Changes in water bodies conditions is noted as are noted as the most important threat for this the most important threat for this habitat in several Eu- habitat in several European countries (EIONET, 2014). ropean countries (EIONET, 2014). Reduced water level fluctuations of coastal lagoons are identified as a threat 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous for this habitat in the Camargue. However, better data scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi) is required, particularly for the Mediterranean region. “Perennial vegetation of marine saline muds 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (Juncetalia maritimi) (schorre) mainly composed of scrub, essentially with

Fig. 12 Habitat 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (Juncetalia maritime) in the Ortazzo salt marsh in the Po Delta Park (ph. M. Costa)

“Various Mediterranean and western Pontic (Black a Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution (Salicornia, Sea) communities of the Juncetalia maritime” Limonium vulgare, Suaeda and Atriplex communities) (CORINE, 1991). and belonging to the Sarcocornetea fruticosi class” This habitat includes saltmarshes in the Mediter- (CORINE, 1991).

20 This habitat is composed of salt tolerant scrub growing Molinier 1964). on saline muds in the Mediterranean region and the Sarcocornia perennis usually occurs on substrates Adriatic part of the Continental region, together with with moderate salt concentration (10-65g/kg) and particularly warm sites (e.g. south facing) in other water submersion not exceeding 6 months, with regions. Mostly coastal but also occurs inland in areas ground water lowering down to -70 to -90cm during of saline soils, such as in Spain. This habitat represents summer and ranging -10 to +10cm in winter (Corre typical breeding environment for many bird species. 1975, Corre et al. 1982, Devaux 1978 et Molinier 1964). In the Camargue, this habitat most frequently The conservation status in the Mediterranean area is includes perennial scrubs such as Arthrocnemum “unfavourable-bad” for the period 2007-2012 (EIONET,

Fig. 13 Habitat 1420 Mediterranean and thermos-Atlantic halophilous scrubs restored in Camargue former saltworks (ph. M. Thibault, Tour du Valat) macrostachyum, Sarcocornia furticosa, Sarcocornia 2014), due to the condition of the habitat in Greece perennis or Suaeda vera. Arthrocnemum and France. Changes in water bodies conditions and macrostachyum is the most hygrophilous and urbanisation and human settlements are noted as halophytic scrub. In the Camargue, it usually the most important threats for this habitat in several develops on substrate with salt concentration ranging European countries (EIONET, 2014). 35-75g/kg (sometimes up to 120g/kg). Erected form This habitat type is present in 6 of the 8 saltworks of of A. macrostachyum occurs in areas with water the project. However, if present, it reaches a rather submersion exceeding 6 months, water level ranging high percentage of coverage, comprised between 4% 0-20 cm from autumn to early spring and ground (Aigues-Mortes, France) and 25% (Molentargius, Italy). water lowering down to -60 to -80 cm during summer In the Mediterranean region, the habitat covers 692 (Corre 1975, Corre et al. 1982, Devaux 1978, Molinier km2. The area covered in the saltworks of the project 1964). Prostrate form occurs on substrate temporarily represents 3% of the total area in the European Medi- submerged between autumn and spring, with ground terranean basin (Table 1). water lowering down to -80 to -100cm during summer and reaching ground level in winter. 1510* Mediterranean pseudo-steppe with grasses Sarcocornia fruticosa mostly occurs in Camargue on (Limonietalia) substrates with salt concentration ranging 30-65g/kg, occasionally reaching up to 110g/kg during summer, “Associations rich in perennial, rosette-forming with submersion ranging 4-6 months per year and (Limonium spp.) or esparto grass (Lygeum spartum), ground water lowering down from -80 to -100cm in occupying, along Mediterranean coasts and on summer (Corre 1975, Corre et al. 1982, Devaux 1978, the fringes of Iberian salt basins, soils temporarily

21 Fig. 14 Habitat 1510* Mediterranean pseudo-steppe with grasses (Limonietalia) (ph. M. Costa)) permeated (though not inundated) by saline water by this habitat type in the saltworks of the project and subject to extreme summer drying, with formation represents only 0.3% of the total area in the European of salt efflorescence. Characteristic syntaxa are Mediterranean region. Limonietalia, Arthrocnemetalia, Thero-Salicornietalia The conservation status in the Mediterranean area is and Saginetalia maritimae” (CORINE,1991). “unfavourable-bad” for the period 2007-2012 (EIONET, These grass-steppes are formed by species of sea 2014). The most important threat is represented lavender (Limonium spp.) and/or esparto grass by roads, railroads and paths in several European (Lygeum spartum) growing on saline soils which countries (EIONET, 2014). become very dry in summer. This habitat most frequently occurs in coastal areas with restricted 1.2.2 Key species of saltworks influence of flooding by saltwater, on sandy-mud or gravelly substrates more or less compacted and 1.2.2.1 Plant species (Annex II 92/43/EEC) periodically waterlogged, which are frequently eroded sands from dunes located in contact with lagoon Salicornia procumbens sediments. It is a particularly dynamic halophytic The plant Salicornia procumbens is an endemic spe- habitat, eroded by wind and occasionally by water cies to the Lagoon of Venice and adjacent coasts in submersion and supplied by sand. In southern France, it occurs on substrates with salt concentration ranging 0-30g/kg and submerged less than 4 weeks per year (Baumberger 2012, Devaux 1978). They occur in the Mediterranean coasts, but also inland, especially in Spain. This habitat is widespread in Spain and Italy, but relatively scattered and rare elsewhere. This habitat is representative of the Mediterranean biogeographic region and it holds several Limonium species endemic to the Mediterranean region. It is a priority natural habitat type. Based on the management plans provided by the partners, the habitat is present in 6 of the 8 saltworks, but with percentage of coverage very low (< 1%) in each site. Similarly, the area covered Fig. 15 Salicornia procumbens (ph. Parco Delta del Po Archive)

22 north-east Italy and west Slovenia (Continental re- Riella helicophylla gion). This species grows in the grass-covered muddy tidal shores in salt or brackish water – so called The plant Riella helicophylla is a liverwort only “barene”, a periodically submerged wavy land for- known in seasonal ponds and shallow lakes in the med of islets and pools of saline water. The IUCN Red western Mediterranean region within the European List classifies the species as Vulnerable (VU). Union but distribution is poorly known. It is known The percentage of coverage by Natura 2000 sites in from southern France, Spain, Malta and Portugal. Mediterranean region is unknown (EIONET, 2014). The IUCN Red List classifies the species as Endange- The conservation status is "Favourable" and Italy red (EN) for Spain and Critically Endangered (CR) for reports stable trends for the species (EIONET, 2014). Portugal. The species is threatened mostly by water pollution, The percentage of coverage by Natura 2000 sites is building and industrial construction, and pounding. 100% in Spain and Malta, whereas data for France and Portugal are scarce (EIONET, 2014). The overall conservation status is “Unfavourable Bad" with ne- Limonium insulare gative trend (EIONET, 2014). Main threats are trampling, drying out, fertilization, intensified agriculture, The plant Limonium insulare is an endemic species pollution and urbanisation. to Sardinia. It grows in the halophilous scrubs (Sar- cocornetea) of the coastal wetlands, including the saltworks. The IUCN Red List classifies the species as 1.2.2.2 Bird species Near Threatened (NT). The percentage of coverage by Natura 2000 sites in Important birds (Annex I 09/147/EU) Mediterranean region is unknown (EIONET, 2014). The conservation status is "Unfavourable Inadequa- Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) te", the future prospect is "Unfavourable Inadequa- te" and the trend is decreasing (EIONET, 2014). The The species inhabits shallow eutrophic waterbodies species is threatened mostly by anthropogenic pres- such as saline lagoons, saltpans and large saline or sure posed by leisure and tourism activities alkaline lakes (Brown et al., 1982; del Hoyo et al., 1992; Snow and Perrins, 1998; Hockey et al. 2005). It nests in large dense colonies on sandbanks mudflats, islands Limonium pseudolaetum or marshland, open shores (Brown et al., 1982; Flint et al., 1984; del Hoyo et al., 1992). It breeds usually from The plant Limonium pseudolaetum is an endemic March to June in large dense single-species colonies species to Sardinia. It grows in the halophilous of up to 20,000 pairs. Its diet consists of crustaceans, scrubs (Sarcocornetea) of the coastal wetlands, in- especially brine shrimp Artemia spp, molluscs, annelid cluding the saltworks. The IUCN Red List classifies worms, larval aquatic insects, small fish, adult terrestrial the species as Near Threatened (NT). insects, the seeds or stolons of marsh grasses, algae, The percentage of coverage by Natura 2000 sites in diatoms and decaying leaves (Brown et al., 1982; del Mediterranean region is unknown (EIONET, 2014). Hoyo et al., 1992). It may also ingest mud in order to The conservation status is "Unfavourable Inadequa- extract organic matter (e.g. bacteria) (del Hoyo et al., te" and deteriorating, due to such status of several 1992). A comprehensive monography on this species parameters in Italy (EIONET, 2014). The species is has been published by Johnson and Cézilly (2007). threatened mostly by anthropogenic pressure posed by leisure and tourism activities.

Armeria velutina

The plant Armeria velutina is a perennial, subni- trophilous plant that lives in dry sands. The species occurs only in the Mediterranean biogeographical region, where it is endemic to the south-western Ibe- rian Peninsula (Spain). The percentage of coverage by Natura 2000 sites in Mediterranean region is 92% (EIONET, 2014). The conservation status is 'Favourable'. The future prospect is 'Favourable' because the trend seems to be stable (EIONET, 2014). The species is threatened mostly by trampling and agricultural intensification. Fig. 16 Greater Flamingos (ph. L. Casini)

23 The European population is estimated at 45,000- singly or in loose colonies (del Hoyo et al., 1996), 62,400 pairs, which equates to 89,900-125,000 ma- showing a preference for open areas close to fora- ture individuals, and the population size is estima- ging sites with good all-round visibility (Johnsgard, ted to be increasing (Birdlife International, 2015). 1981). Its diet is strongly seasonal but generally in- The Greater Flamingo is a species that, more than cludes adult and larval aquatic invertebrates (del others, depends on the salinas. In fact, the latter Hoyo et al., 1996; Urban et al., 1986). The European represent both an important feeding site (due to the population is estimated at 53,900-75,700 pairs, abundance of brine shrimp and other crustaceans), which equates to 108,000-151,000 mature indivi- and a breeding site, if there are the ecological duals, and the population size is estimated to be conditions necessary for breeding success of stable (Birdlife International, 2015). flamingos. According to Birdlife International Hence, Black-winged Stilt is not necessarily related (2015), saltworks and salinas represent the to the saltworks, being characterized by a more major habitats (breeding and non-breeding) for varied diet and a large number of suitable habitat the Greater Flamingo in Mediterranean Europe types (breeding and feeding). (Birdlife International, 2015). However, the species Saltworks are appreciated by this species, but espe- suffers from low reproductive success if exposed cially abandoned salinas (where natural salt marsh to disturbance at breeding colonies, for example vegetation cover is developed) may offer highly from tourists and low-flying aircraft (Ogilvie and profitable breeding sites, if islets and moderately Ogilvie, 1986) and especially all-terrain vehicles deep channels are wisely maintained. In saltworks, (Yosef, 2000), or if water level surrounding nest this species, more than most others, tends to bre- sites lowers (resulting in increased access to and ed in proximity of salt grasslands allowing chicks therefore, predation from ground predators such to hide when threatened by a predator. However, as foxes and feral dogs) (Miltiadou, 2005). like the next species, the Avocet, its reproductive European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN success is also limited by the predation of Yellow- version 3.1) legged Gull on eggs and chicks. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus)

The species inhabits the shores of large inland wa- Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta) terbodies and estuarine or coastal habitats such as river deltas, coastal lagoons and shallow fre- The species inhabits coastal and inland saline la- shwater or brackish pools with extensive areas of kes and mudflats, lagoons, pools, saltpans, estua- mudflats, salt meadows, saltpans, coastal marshes ries, sandy beaches, river deltas and flood-plains and swamps (Johnsgard, 1981; del Hoyo et al., (Hayman et al., 1986; Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). It typically breeds et al., 1996). It rarely occurs on inland freshwater in shallow freshwater and brackish wetlands with lakes and rivers but may forage on agricultural sand, mud or clay substrates and open margins, lands (Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996). The islets or spits near water level (Snow and Perrins Avocet breeds in flat open areas on shallow saline 1998). The species may also breed in more saline or brackish wetlands with islands, ridges, spits or environments such as river deltas, estuaries, and margins of bare sand, clay or mud and sparse short coastal lagoons (Johnsgard, 1981; del Hoyo et al., vegetation (Johnsgard et al., 1981; Hayman et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The species nests 1986; Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The most important characteristics of breeding habitats appear to be water levels which gradually decline over the summer to expo- se additional feeding areas, and high salt concentrations that prevent the development of excessive emergent and shoreline vegetation (Johnsgard et al., 1981). The species nests in colonies, neighbouring nest usually 1 m apart (Hayman et al., 1986) or occasionally as close as 20-30 cm (Urban et al., 1986). Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates (Johnsgard et al., 1981; Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996). The European population is estimated at 58,400- 74,300 pairs, which equates to 117,000-149,000 mature individuals, and the population trend appears to be fluctuating (Birdlife International, 2015). Saltworks and salinas represent a very suitable Fig. 17 Black-winged Stilt (L. Casini) breeding and non-breeding habitat for the Avocet

24 salinas in small numbers. In fact, the species breeds on flat open areas with very sparse or no vegetation, like former productive saltpans may become after abandon. However, former saltwork not subject to management actions (e.g. regulation of water levels and vegetation), might not be a favourite breeding habitat for this species in a relatively short time (i.e. some years), because of the habitat changing to e.g. reedbeds. Nevertheless, saltworks (exploited or abandoned) may sustain a stable breeding population if a variety of foraging habitats are available nearby (including temporary brackish and freshwater wetlands, agricultural lands, reedbeds, etc.). Therefore, a comprehensive landscape management is necessary for the conservation of this species. Birdlife International (2015) defines Fig. 18 Avocet on the nest (ph. L. Casini) the salt flats as a suitable habitat for the breeding of this species. in the Mediterranean basin (Birdlife International, European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN 2015). Artificially constructed nesting sites in coa- version 3.1) stal locations covered with sparse vegetation can be successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species (Burgess and Hirons, 1992). The species Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) responds positively (e.g. breeding numbers increase) to the introduction of cattle grazing on coastal During all seasons this species is predominantly co- grasslands, possibly as a result of reduced vegeta- astal and is usually found on sand, silt or dry mud tion cover allowing improved predator detection surfaces, generally avoiding very exposed oceanic (Olsen and Schmidt, 2004). However, Yellow- coastlines and rocky or broken ground (Johnsgard, legged gull may reduce the breeding success of this 1981; Hayman et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996; species, through competition on breeding sites or Snow and Perrins, 1998). It is uncommon on fre- predation of eggs and chicks. Even though avocets’ shwater, even when migrating, but frequently oc- colony often settles down in association with gul- curs on inland habitats, not far from the coast, such ls and terns, avocets show less capacity to protect as seasonal watercourses, open flats near brackish their chicks from Yellow-legged gull attacks, becau- or saline lakes, saltpans, salty steppes with scatte- se they guide their chicks soon after hatching to fe- red grasses, sandy deserts, and pebbly or muddy eding sites (Cramp and Simmons, 1983). Here they plains (Johnsgard, 1981; Hayman et al., 1986; del grow, foraging for themselves under the protection of both parents, but often quite far from the colony (De Bie, 1979). European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)

Collared Pratincole (Glareola pratincola)

The species breeds on flat open areas with sparse or no vegetation, often originated from the drying up of small ponds at the edge of lagoons, salinas or shallow wetlands (Hayman et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al. 1996). The loss of natural habitats has recently led the Collared Pratincole to colonize also abandoned crops with sparse vegetation or crops of late development (e.g. melons, tomatoes). Its diet consists of large insects (e.g. Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Fig. 19 Kentish Plover (ph. L. Casini) Diptera and Isoptera), spiders and molluscs (del Hoyo et al., 1996). Hoyo et al., 1996; Grimmett et al., 1998). It breeds on The European population is estimated at 7,800- sparsely vegetated and sandy areas, including san- 14,900 pairs, which equates to 15,700-29,900 matu- dy, pebbly or muddy shores dunes, coastal lagoons, re individuals, and the population trend appears to coastal marshes, tropical shores of coral limestone, be fluctuating (Birdlife International, 2015). estuaries and tidal mudflats (Africa) (Johnsgard, The Collared Pratincole could attend abandoned 1981; Hayman et al., 1986; Urban et al., 1986; del

25 Hoyo et al., 1996; Grimmett et al., 1998). The spe- the breeding season its diet consists of terrestrial cies nests in loose pairs or in semi-colonial groups and aquatic insects, gastropods, small numbers of (Snow and Perrins, 1998). Its diet consists mainly of fish and rodents (del Hoyo et al., 1996). aquatic invertebrates and their larvae (Johnsgard, When not breeding, the species takes marine fish, 1981; Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996). molluscs, insects, earthworms, berries, seeds, offal The European population is estimated at 21,500- and occasionally sewage and refuse (Urban et al., 34,800 pairs, which equates to 43,100-69,600 ma- 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996; Milchev et al., 2004). ture individuals, and the population size is estima- The European population is estimated at 118,000- ted to be decreasing by less than 25% in 15 years 328,000 pairs, which equates to 236,000-656,000 (Birdlife International, 2015). mature individuals, and the population is estima- The saltworks can be suitable habitats for the bre- ted to be decreasing by less than 25% in 30.3 years eding of the Kentish Plover (Birdlife International, (Birdlife International, 2015). 2015). However, the species is strongly declining Mediterranean Gull often prefers artificial banks throughout Europe and the Mediterranean basin, of saltworks as a substrate for establishing bree- due probably to many causes. In fact, the species ding colonies. For this reason, this species settles is threatened by the disturbance of coastal habi- down in “linear”, often monospecific, colonies of tats (e.g. tourists trampling nests and disturbing hundreds to thousands of pairs, even though pre- roosts on beaches) (Lafferty et al., 2006). It is also dation risk by terrestrial mammals is high in this threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland kind of morphology. Predation apart, if the bank is habitat through environmental pollution, land re- important for saltwork operations (for example it clamation, declining river flows, and a reduction in is crossed by a road for salters) a conflict with man the amount of sediment being carried into coastal may rises. The ecological value of this gull species areas by rivers (Barter, 2006). If Kentish plovers are is high for its rarity and therefore may represent a in small number in a salt marsh, they tend to place their nests among Little, Common and Sandwich tern nests. In saltworks, scattered pairs often breed singly or in semi-colonial groups along dykes (Thibault, pers. comm.). As for other ground-nesting species, terrestrial predators more efficiently can predate nests where dykes are connected to land (as it often occurs in saltworks). According to this, a study from Lessels (1984) assessing predation rates on Kentish Plover broods in Camargue saltworks suggested that detection of nests by terrestrial predators may be considerably more efficient in saltwork dykes than in more natural, non-linear habitats. Taking into consideration this aspect, some saltwork dykes might play as an ecological trap for Kentish Plover. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) Fig. 20 Mediterranean Gull (ph. L. Casini) source of pride consequent to a sustainable mana- Mediterranean Gull gement effort, especially when integrated with the (Ichthyaetus melanocephalus) management of the wide area (including freshwater marshes, grasslands, fields), used by this spe- Outside the breeding season the species is entirely cies when foraging. coastal, favouring estuaries, harbours, saline lago- European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN ons and other sheltered waters (Urban et al., 1986; version 3.1) del Hoyo et al., 1996). The species breeds on the Mediterranean coast at lagoons, estuaries, and sometimes coastal salt- Slender-billed Gull (Chroicocephalus genei) marshes, often also breeding inland on large steppe lakes and marshes in open lowland areas (del The species is almost entirely coastal outside of the Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). It nests breeding season, frequenting shallow inshore wa- near water on flood-lands, fields and grasslands ters and salt-pans, although it generally avoids har- and on wet or dry areas of islands, favouring sparse bours (del Hoyo et al., 1996). The species breeds vegetation but generally avoiding barren sand (del on the coasts of land-locked seas, on sand-spits, Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The spe- beaches and islands with mudflats and marshes in cies breeds in dense colonies, with neighbouring shallow tidal waters, and on saline inland seas and pairs c.60 cm apart (del Hoyo et al., 1996). During steppe lakes (Richards, 1990; del Hoyo et al., 1996;

26 eding season, the species prefers sheltered bays, either flat with shingle or sand or with cliff margins (Cramp and Simmons, 1983). It breeds in large monospecific colonies ranging from 10 up to 10,000 pairs. The diet consists mostly of epipelagic fish, especially Clupeiformes (Mañosa et al., 2004), and some aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (Cramp and Simmons, 1983). It’s world breeding range is almost entirely restricted to the Mediterranean basin. The European population is estimated at 21,600-22,000 pairs, which equates to 43,100-44,000 mature individuals, and the population trend appears to be fluctuating (Birdlife International, 2015). In Spain, which holds nearly 90% of the European population, the population size was estimated to be increasing during 1981-2007 and fluctuating during 2000-2010 Fig. 21 Slender-billed Gull (ph. F. Borghesi) (Birdlife International, 2015). Occasionally, the species can breed also in sal- Snow and Perrins, 1998; Olsen and Larsson, 2003). tworks, but the largest part of Audouin’s breeding It may also frequent meadows and moist grassland population is distributed along rocky coasts and by tidal inlets, and brackish or freshwater lagoons small and medium islands. Where a colony settles or marshes near river deltas during this season down in salinas (e.g. Molentargius, Sardinia, Italy, (Richards, 1990; del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Nissardi et al., 2013a) it tends to occupy banks even Perrins, 1998). The species breeds colonially with in presence, not far, of human activities with low pairs nesting as close as 20-50 cm; large groups impact, such as regular walking. However, the spe- often splitting into sub-colonies with groups cen- cies, even when breeding inland (e.g. in the aban- tres 10-50 m apart (Urban et al., 1986). The nest doned fishery ponds near Nora, Sardinia, Italy, is preferably positioned on open mud, although Nissardi et al., 2013b) tends to avoid any disturban- some pairs may nest in Salsola or Salicornia (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Olsen and Larsson, 2003). The diet of the species consists mainly of fish (c.50 % of the diet), as well as insects and marine invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans) (Urban et al., 1986; del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The European population is estimated at 35,900- 57,300 pairs, which equates to 71,700-115,000 mature individuals, and the population size is estimated to be decreasing by less than 25% in 31.5 years (Birdlife International, 2015). Slender-billed Gull is more strictly associated to salt marshes for breeding and feeding than Mediterranean Gull, and similarly or even more rare in the Mediterranean region. Therefore, the same conservative approach suggested for the latter species is desirable (i.e. to consider the presence of Fig. 22 Audouin’s Gull (ph. M. Costa) this species in the bird community of a saltwork or abandoned saltwork as a positive effect of a sustai- ce. Preserving this amazing species is an impor- nable management). tant goal, though recently Audouin’s gull has been European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN down listed in the European Red List from Near version 3.1) Threatened to Least Concern. Hosting this species in a managed or abandoned saltwork which can be visited by people, is a fortune and can attract many Audouin’s Gull (Ichthyaetus audouinii) birdwatchers. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN This coastal species rarely occurs inland. Colonies version 3.1) are located on exposed rocky cliffs and on offshore islands or islets, normally not more than 50 m Little Tern (Sternula albifrons) above sea level. Characteristics of habitats used differ from region to region and even within the The species breeds on barren or sparsely vegeta- same areas in different years. During the non-bre- ted beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle,

27 shell fragments, pebbles, rocks or coral fragments islets can favour it in the short term. on seashores or in estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN offshore coral reefs, rivers, and lakes (Flint et al., version 3.1) 1984; del Hoyo et al., 1996). It shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for exten- Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) sive foraging flights (Snow and Perrins, 1998). The species nests in small loose colonies, with neigh- On passage the species typically forages over saltpans, coastal lagoons, mudflats, marshes and wet fields (del Hoyo et al., 1996), overwintering on estuaries, saltpans, lagoons and saltmarshes or in more inland sites such as large rivers, lakes, rice-fields, sewage ponds, reservoirs, saltpans and irrigation canals. It breeds in a variety of locations with bare or sparsely vegetated islands, banks, flats, or spits of dry mud and sand including barrier beaches, dunes, saltmarshes, saltpans, freshwater lagoons, estuaries, deltas, inland lakes, rivers, marshes, and swamps (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Higgins and Davies, 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). It is an opportunistic feeder and is largely insectivorous taking adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects as well as spiders, earthworms, small reptiles, frogs, small fish, aquatic invertebrates (Richards, Fig. 23 Little Terns on the nest (ph. L. Casini) 1990; del Hoyo et al., 1996). During the breeding season it may also feed on emerging insects over bouring nests usually placed more than 2 m apart lakes, agricultural fields, grasslands and even over (del Hoyo et al., 1996). The nest is positioned on semi-desert regions (del Hoyo et al., 1996). the ground in less than 15 % vegetation (Flint et al., The European population is estimated at 16,600- 1984; del Hoyo et al., 1996) above the high tide-line 21,200 pairs, which equates to 33,200-42,400 matu- and often only a few metres away from shallow cle- re individuals, and the population size is estimated ar water (Snow and Perrins, 1998). Outside the bre- to be increasing (Birdlife International, 2015). eding season the species frequents tidal creeks, co- In saltworks, Gull-billed terns, typically nest in as- astal lagoons and saltpans (Urban et al., 1986; del sociation with other terns such as Common and Hoyo et al., 1996). Its diet consists predominantly Little terns or gulls (Mediterranean and Slender- of small fish and crustaceans 3-6 cm long as well billed gulls). as insects, annelid worms and molluscs (del Hoyo European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN et al., 1996). Little Tern prefers areas with abundant version 3.1) resources for foraging (e.g. channels and lagoons), rather than deeper marine habitats, salt marshes and areas subjected to strong human pressure Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) (Bertolero et al., 2005; Paiva et al., 2008). The European population is estimated at 36,000- The Common Tern breeds in a wide variety of ha- 53,000 pairs, which equates to 71,900-106,000 ma- bitats in coastal and inland areas (del Hoyo et al., ture individuals, but the population size trend is 1996). Along the coast, it shows a preference for ne- unknown (Birdlife International, 2015). sting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands, open In common with Kentish Plover, this species has shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits, vege- the problem to find its favourite breeding site (bea- tated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn ches) occupied by tourists in the breeding season. or well-vegetated islands in estuaries and coastal Even worse, and more common, is the arrival of lagoons, saltmarshes, mainland peninsulas and tourists on a beach when birds are already settled grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs (Richards, 1990; down. Little Tern can find in salt marshes and sali- del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The nas a profitable alternative breeding site. However, species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predo- promiscuity with Yellow-legged Gull in these con- minantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic texts is greater and often some actions are needed crustaceans and insects (del Hoyo et al., 1996). to ensure Little Tern has good breeding success. Several studies have confirmed that most fee- Also due to its small size, Little Tern can be affected ding trips are to sites within 10 km of the colony by competition with other terns and gull species on (Hopkins and Wiley, 1972; Duffy, 1986; Burness et breeding sites. It is a pioneer species, capable to al., 1994; BirdLife International, 2000). rapidly colonize newly created nesting sites befo- The European population is estimated at 316,000- re other species, thus the construction of breeding 605,000 pairs, which equates to 631,000-1,210,000

28 ms and shorebird nestlings (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). The European population is estimated at 79,900- 148,000 pairs, which equates to 160,000-295,000 mature individuals, and the population size is estimated to be fluctuating (Birdlife International, 2015). The movements of this species have been investigated through a ringing and telemetry study supported by MC-SALT Life Project in Pomorie, Bulgaria (Popov et al., 2012). A connection between Black sea colonies and Adriatic wetlands has been demonstrated. This species has been crowned as the Seabird of the year 2015 in Germany by the NGO Verein Jordsand zum Schutz der Seevögel (Society for the Protection of Seabirds) and an overall study has been carried out to summarize the know- Fig. 24 Common Tern by the nest (ph. L. Casini) ledge about breeding population and movements (Müller, 2015). Like other colonial species breeding mature individuals, and the population size is in salt marshes, Sandwich Tern show a moderate estimated to be increasing (Birdlife International, fidelity to the breeding site, depending on the na- 2015). tural or anthropogenic disturbance. Common Tern is normally the first tern establi- European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN shing breeding colonies in saltworks in which are version 3.1) suitable, because very adaptable and having a long breeding season. If suitable condition continues over time, other colonial species arrive, and the richness of the site improves. Common Tern is the most aggressive among terns and its presence can indirectly protect other species from gull predation, provided that the colony is large enough. As a consequence, the presence of this species in saltworks is highly desirable, not only for its intrinsic ecological value, but also where other species, such as Little Tern, Slender-billed Gull, Kentish Plover, are in small numbers and subjected to Yellow-legged Gull attacks. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)

Fig. 25 Sandwich Tern (ph. F. Borghesi) Sandwich Tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis)

Outside of the breeding season the species fre- Other breeding species quents sandy or rocky beaches, estuaries, harbours and bays, often feeding over inlets and at sea (del Hoyo et al., 1996). During the breeding season the Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) species forms colonies on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes, shingle The species shows a preference for saline habitats beaches and extensive deltas with immediate ac- and frequents mudflats and muddy or sandy estua- cess to clear waters with shallow sandy substrates ries in coastal regions, and occurs inland on saline rich in surface-level fish (Snow and Perrins, 1998). It and brackish lakes in steppe or semi-desert (Madge shows a preference for raised, open, not vegetated and Burn, 1988; del Hoyo et al., 1992). The nest is sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates for ne- commonly positioned in a tree-hollow up to 8 m sting (del Hoyo et al., 1996). The species forms very above the ground or in a mammal burrow (e.g. of dense colonies during the breeding season in whi- European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus) (del Hoyo ch the eggs of neighbouring pairs may only be 20 et al., 1992; Kear, 2005). Rarely nests may also be cm apart (del Hoyo et al., 1996) associated to other placed in the open or in dense vegetation up to 1 colonial species with similar breeding behaviour. km from water (Madge and Burn, 1988; Kear, 2005). Its diet consists predominantly of surface-dwelling Its diet consists predominantly of salt-water mol- marine fish as well as small shrimps, marine wor- luscs (e.g. Hydrobia spp.) as well as other aquatic

29 thlands and swampy moors (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Johnsgard, 1981). The species usually nests solita- rily inland (less than 10 pairs/km2), but in loosely colonial groups (up to 100-300 pairs/km2) on the coast (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During migration period the species may frequent inland flooded grasslands and the silty shores of rivers and lakes, but during the winter it is largely coastal, occupying rocky, muddy and sandy beaches, saltmarshes, tidal mudflats, saline and freshwater coastal lagoons, tidal estuaries, saltworks and sewage farms (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Flint et al., 1984; Johnsgard, 1981). When breeding its diet consists of insects, spiders and annelid worms, whereas in non-breeding period the diet becomes more varied (del Hoyo et al., 1996). The European population is estimated at 340,000- Fig. 26 Shellduck (ph. Parco Delta del Po Archive) 484,000 pairs, which equates to 680,000-968,000 mature individuals, and the population size is esti- invertebrates and plant material (e.g. algae, seeds mated to be decreasing by less than 25% in 18.6 ye- and agricultural grain) (del Hoyo et al., 1992; Kear, ars (three generations) (Birdlife International, 2015). 2005). European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN The European population is estimated at 50,800- version 3.1) 68,900 pairs, which equates to 102,000-138,000 mature individuals, and the population size is estimated to be increasing (Birdlife International, 2015). Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) Shelduck represents a species closely linked with saline environments and salinas. In fact, according The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, sand to Birdlife International (2015), salt flats and estua- and shingle beaches, dunes, cliff-tops with short ries represent the major habitats for the breeding grass and occasionally rocky shores, as well as in- of this species in Mediterranean Europe (Birdlife land along the shores of lakes, reservoirs and ri- International, 2015). However, the species is often vers or on agricultural grass and cereal fields, often subjected to mammal predations. Saltworks are some distance from water (Hayman et al. 1986, del priority habitats also as wintering sites of large Hoyo et al. 1996). It breeds in solitary pairs or small groups of shelducks. groups (Flint et al. 1984), during the winter foraging European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN singly or in small groups of up to 10 individuals version 3.1) (Snow and Perrins 1998) and with larger flocks often forming in major bays and estuaries Redshank (Tringa totanus) and at roosting sites (Hayman et al. 1986, The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, inland del Hoyo et al. 1996, wet grasslands with short swards (including cul- Snow and Perrins tivated meadows), grassy marshes, swampy hea- 1998). When foraging on soft interti- dal substrates bivalves and gastropods are the most important food items for this species (del Hoyo et al. 1996). When inland, prey such as earthworms and insect larvae (e.g. caterpillars and cranefly larvae) are also taken (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The European population is estimated at 284,000- Fig. 28 Oystercatcher Fig. 27 Redshank (ph. L. Casini) 354,000 pairs, which (ph. Parco Delta del Po Archive)

30 equates to 568,000-708,000 mature individuals, Little Stint (Calidris minuta) and the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 41.1 years (three generations) The species breeds in northern Europe and Si- both in the breeding season and in winter (Birdlife beria and frequents Mediterranean region during International, 2015). migration and winter season. During the breeding European Red List Status: VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN season this species inhabits low altitude tundra version 3.1) in the high Arctic (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998). On migration, this species is found along the muddy edges of small inland lakes, reser- Other non-breeding species voirs, sewage farms, riverbanks and seasonal pools, as well as on coastal mudflats and seashores (del Dunlin (Calidris alpina) Hoyo et al., 1996; Johnsgard, 1981; Snow and Per- rins, 1998). In its winter range the species mainly The species breeds in northern Europe and Siberia inhabits coastal areas such as estuarine mudflats and frequents Mediterranean region during migra- and sandflats, enclosed lagoons, tidal creeks and saltpans (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Hockey et al., 2005; Urban et al., 1986), but it also occurs at inland freshwater wetlands such as open pools in marshes and rice fields, (and other small bodies of water covered with vegetation), small dams, floodwater margins and sandbanks along rivers (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Urban et al., 1986). The diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates (del Hoyo et al., 1996; Snow and Perrins, 1998), becoming more varied in the non-breeding season. The European population is estimated at 48,200- 76,000 pairs, which equates to 96,400-152,000 mature individuals, and the population size is estimated to be stable (Birdlife International, 2015). Often associated to Dunlin, Little Stint is amongst shorebirds one of the most closely associated to saltworks using Mediterranean salt wetlands as migration stop-over and wintering ground. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)) Fig. 29 Flock of Dunlins (ph. L. Casini) tion and winter season. In the non-breeding sea- 1.2.2.3 Fish species (Annex II 92/43/CEE) son this species mainly prefers estuarine mudflats, but also frequents a wide variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands, both coastal and inland, inclu- Mediterranean Killifish (Aphanius fasciatus) ding lagoons, muddy freshwater shores, tidal rivers, flooded fields, sewage farms, salt-works, sandy co- The Mediterranean Killifish lives mainly in bracki- asts, lakes and dams (Cramp and Simmons, 1977; sh and salty waters, namely in coastal lagoons of del Hoyo et al., 1996; Hockey et al., 2005). During the the Mediterranean basin (Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, non-breeding season, the species is omnivorous, Albania, Montenegro, Malta, Cyprus and Greece, consuming mostly aquatic invertebrates, plant and from Egypt to eastern Algeria). This species is matter and occasionally small fishes (Cramp and resistant to significant changes in salinity. In fact, it Simmons, 1977; del Hoyo et al., 1996). can survive in waters with higher salinity than se- The European population is estimated at 426,000- awater (such as the ponds of first evaporation of 562,000 pairs, which equates to 853,000-1,120,000 saltworks, with salt concentrations which can reach mature individuals, but the population size trend is up to 65‰). Moreover, it adapts to high tempera- unknown (Birdlife International, 2015). ture or to low oxygen concentrations. The species Many Mediterranean saltworks play an important is gregarious and prefers shallow water, still or very role as staging sites for this species during migration slow stream, localizing in the riparian edges of the and Dunlin is the most abundant wintering shore- lagoons. bird especially in Adriatic saltworks, Italy (Zenatello The species has an ‘unfavourable-inadequate’ et al., 2014) and also in the Camargue saltworks, conservation status in the Mediterranean and the France (Isenmann, 1993). Continental regions, mostly due to the poor habitat European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN and future prospects in Italy; however, its status in version 3.1) Greece and Slovenia is ‘favourable’ (EIONET, 2014).

31 Main pressures are changes in water salinity, ma- Canestrini’s Goby (Pomatoschistus canestrinii) rine pollution, conversion of salt pans and natural drying out of lagoons. The Canestrini’s Goby is a species of goby native to European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN fresh and brackish waters along the Adriatic coasts version 3.1) where it is known to occur from the Po delta, Italy to Neretva, Croatia. This species prefers brackish Spanish Toothcarp (Aphanius iberus) waters with salinity comprised between 2‰ and 20‰ (it can hardly tolerate salt concentrations The Spanish Toothcarp is a small and endemic fish above 30‰) in lagoons, lakes and medium-sized to of the Spanish Mediterranean coast and it is now large-sized rivers. It is less frequent in fresh waters. restricted to 10 localities. It lives in different plac- Usually it occurs in shallow water, up to 2 meters es with little current and depth, as swamps, coastal deep, on sandy bottoms and muddy, without vege- lagoons, saltflats and lowland water bodies, due to tation or covered by seagrass beds of Ulva sp. The its capacity to resist a wide range of salinity (euryha- presence of this fish in fresh water is highest in the line) and temperature (eurythermal). summer months, while during the winter the spe- The conservation status is ‘Unfavourable- cimens move in lagoons and estuaries, areas more inadequate’, but improving (EIONET, 2014). Spanish influenced by marine waters authorities reported a positive trend for its range The overall status of the species in Europe is esti- and population, namely due to re-introduction mated as “Favourable”, although size of Italian po- projects, but the long-term trend remains negative. pulation is unknown (EIONET, 2014). The species has been displaced by invasive exotic The species is wholly dependent on the presence of species as Eastern Mosquitofish (Gambusia hol- oligohaline marshes within the lagoon or estuarine brooki), and relegated to saline or hypersaline areas environments. Therefore, the degradation of these where mosquitofish cannot live. Other pressures habitats (due to chemical pollution, land uses, etc.), and threats are pollution of surface waters and ur- which has been considerable in the Mediterranean banisation. The percentage of coverage by Natura basin, mainly during the 20th century (Ibañez et 2000 sites in the Mediterranean region (Spain) is al., 2000), together with the restricted geographi- 100% (EIONET, 2014). cal range of occurrence of the species, constitute a European Red List Status: EN -- Endangered, (IUCN threat for it. version 3.1) European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)

Adriatic Dwarf Goby (Knipowitschia panizzae) Other important fish species The Adriatic Dwarf Goby is a short-lived euryhaline fish species. It occurs in the northern coastal zone of Tortonese’s Goby (Pomatoschistus tortonesei) the Adriatic Sea, from Italy to Herzegovina. It lives in fresh and brackish waters, in coastal lagoons, estua- Tortonese’s Goby is a demersal species that is restri- ries and lower parts of rivers. It prefers habitats cha- cted to lagoons, brackish to slightly hypersaline (26- racterized by a good stability of the environmen- 43‰), in shallows on sand near seagrass meadows. tal parameters, but it can tolerate a salinity range This species is often restricted to Zostera seagrass between 5‰ and 20‰. In brackish environments, beds. The species is endemic to the south-central this species frequents shallow waters with soft floor Mediterranean Sea: it is only known from lagoon sites (silty and clayey), covered by vegetation and shel- in Italy (Stagnone di Marsala, Sicily), western Libya ls of bivalve molluscs. The conservation status of (Farwah lagoon) and in six coastal lagoons of Tunisia. the Italian population in both the Continental and It feeds on small crustaceans and gastropods. Mediterranean biogeographical regions is estima- The species is threatened by loss of seagrass habitat tes as “Favourable”, although data on population from removal, sedimentation and pollution throu- size are very scarce (EIONET, 2014). ghout its fragmented and restricted range. Coastal Because of the high degree of human settlement development is an additional potential threat to affecting the watershed of the natural range of the the species’ habitat. species, the most remarkable threat is represented European Red List Status: EN -- Endangered, (IUCN by water pollution, which can particularly affect the version 3.1) young stages, in addition to the presence of migration barriers. European Red List Status: LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) version 3.1) The European Eel migrates to East Atlantic and colonizes large areas distributed from North Cape in Northern Norway, southwards along the coast of Europe, all coasts of the Mediterranean and on the

32 North African Coast (Dekker, 2003). It is found in a farm production. Historically, this had implications range of habitats from small streams to large rivers for economies at every level. In addition, several and lakes, and in estuaries, lagoons and coastal wa- saltworks have been the site of significant histo- ters. Under natural conditions, it only occurs in water rical events, making them living museums within bodies that are connected to the sea. The species is the landscape. More recently, saltworks have been optionally catadromous, living in fresh, brackish and closely linked to industrial development (i.e. for the coastal waters but migrating to pelagic marine wa- production of soda for soap industry – the famous ters to breed. It prefers cold and mildly flowing wa- Marseille soap - in southern France in the 19th cen- ters, with abundant vegetation and sandy or muddy tury, and for the production of soda and chlorine substrates. The European Eel is a carnivorous fish for chemical industries during the 20th century). that can tolerate low concentrations of oxygen and Saltworks can also have ethnological value associa- short periods of emersion. This highly polyhaline ted with architectural aspects of the sites, traditio- species frequently colonizes saltworks ponds with nal ways of production and equipment used, wor- salt concentration no greater than 45‰, although king and social conditions of the people employed it can temporarily tolerate salinity reaching 80‰ (Petanidou, 1997; 2000). The buildings used to store (Brusle & Quignard 2001). and process salt and to house the salters represent The last thirty years have seen a dramatic decline in important visible landmarks in these saltscapes. the number of eels reaching European waters. One Most of these buildings have been built according of the most important causes of the depletion of the to local standards, and they are often very large and eel stock is due to the fishing of juveniles for fish farming. Moreover, the damming of rivers restricts the free movement of this species. In addition, the presence of a widespread industrial pollution of waters is very detrimental in particular for juvenile stages (Dekker, 2003). Other threats include oceanic changes and introduction of the parasite Anguillicola crassus. The European Eel is currently targeted by a European management plan aimed at reducing both mortality causes (including fishing) and problems caused by obstacles along rivers and in wetlands, such as dams and hydraulic infrastructures. To favour European Eel in active saltworks it is very important to manage water movements so that adult eels can escape the saltwork and go back to the sea. European Red List Status: CR – Critically Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1)

1.3 Culture, folklore and traditions of the salt in the Mediterranean

As man-made landscapes, saltworks offer a rich material heritage in the form of earthworks, buildings and tools. Yet, they are also the cradle of a vast intangible heritage composed of traditions, beliefs, language and art (Petanidou, 1997). Salt- making has shaped history in many ways at the local, but also at the global level. The production, storage and trade of salt in the Mediterranean has defined shipping routes and given rise to important ports, or, in the case of inland salt, created drovers’ roads (considered in some cases the precursors of today’s highways) and market towns in arid areas, where salt was exchanged for agricultural and other Fig. 30 Sentry-box in the Saltwork of Cervia (ph. Parco Delta del Po Archive)

33 sturdy. From the architectural point of view, the- centuries. Saltscapes are also a powerful source of se salt warehouses were the precursors of certain inspiration for material and intellectual creativity. types of industrial buildings. Salters’ houses, on Artists and craftsmen have used references to salt the other hand, were modest in many ways, being in their work, such as modest ceramic salt cellars simply designed for temporary living and basical- or renowned paintings. Salt has inspired musical ly equipped for the summer using local materials. compositions and music-making: to be ‘salty’ is an Other structures usually to be found near saltwor- essential condition for good Flamenco musicians. ks (such as guard houses or fortresses) reflect the It has inspired also writers and poets (e.g. the poe- power struggles which arose from the salt trade. ms ‘Salinero’ by Rafael Alberti and ‘Oda a la Sal’ by Salt production techniques left a humbler visi- Pablo Neruda). These landscapes are usually wild, ble heritage, composed by mills, pumps, harve- open, and free; remote and yet accessible; quiet but sting and repair tools, hydraulic devices and other full of life: a place so basic, pristine and primitive in pre-industrial engineering solutions. Some of them some ways that it cannot fail to excite an emotional are still in use in several types of industrial proces- and contemplative response. ses, with many of them dating from, or based on, The symbolic values of salt are very deeply rooted those used in ancient times. Some of the technical in Mediterranean societies, and references to salt solutions for salt-making are universal and can be are frequent in the holy texts of major religions. Salt found anywhere in the Mediterranean, others were is present in most Mediterranean languages in strai- adapted to local conditions. Also, important from ghtforward vocabulary (such as salad, salary, sala- this point of view were intangible aspects such as mi, sauce) as well as in idioms (to take something the organisation of labour (related to the size and with a pinch of salt, to eat someone’s salt, to share ownership of the saltwork and/or the period of hi- the salt and the beans) and in several local place na- story in which it was exploited), salt-making craft- mes. The particular combination of the cultural and smanship and the transmission of this knowledge natural, tangible and intangible values of saltworks to the salters. Even more, the cultural value of sal- make them a perfect educational setting in which tworks is also related to the gastronomic traditions. one can teach (and learn) about history, geography, Many recipes, such as the classic fish baked in a economy, architecture, religion, ethnology, botany, crust of salt, use salt or brine as a basic ingredient. zoology, ecology and geology. Thanks to recent As a food preservative, salt allowed the storage of trends like the rehabilitation of our cultural and in- and trade in perishable foodstuffs such as meat, dustrial heritage, the diversification and specialisa- fish and vegetables which would otherwise be ine- tion of tourism products and destinations and the dible within a few days of production, permitting proliferation of museums on craftsmanship, ‘salt a highly enriching gastronomic cultural exchange tourism’ is starting to take shape. Salt museums are within and beyond the Mediterranean down the springing up everywhere: it is estimated that there are now over forty in the Mediterranean region alone (Neves et al., 2005). Also, in line with the general trend, ‘salt events’ are appearing everywhere in the Basin, ranging from plain fresh produce markets in which salt is present to art festivals, conferen- ces, guided tours around saltworks, etc. or combina- tions of these.

Fig. 31 Salt deposit in the Saltwork of Cervia (ph. M. Costa)

34 2) Main forcing changes of former and active saltworks

Before going into details of this important topic, it is as a clear positive result, also for former saltworks. appropriate to define what the term ‘forcing chan- Regarding this, species related to the habitats to be ges’ means in this context. In this chapter, a set of preserved, especially those listed in the Natura2000 anthropogenic and natural factors influencing in standard data form of the site, should be taken in various ways the landscape, biodiversity, ecosystem higher consideration. On the other hand, a mere services, productive activity (just to name the main maximization of the number of species and habita- aspects) of saltworks will be examined. ts, irrespective to maintaining the original typicality Some factors only concern active saltworks, being of saltwork environments, may imply a biodiversity forcing changes mostly of anthropogenic origin, improvement but also the partial or complete loss aimed to support or develop economic purposes. of hypersaline characteristics of the site. The latter Other factors only concern former saltworks and result, might be acceptable or not acceptable, de- may be either anthropogenic, aimed to recover and pending on the conservation objectives. preserve habitats (managed former saltworks), or, conversely, transform the saltworks for other productive activities (e.g. aquaculture), or natural, as a 2.1 Dynamics of active saltworks consequence of the spontaneous evolution of the landscape, previously controlled by humans (unma- As pointed out in the introductive chapter of this naged former saltworks). document (see chapter 1), salt production is depen- These main issues will be separately developed in ding on particular conditions, normally quite diffe- distinct paragraphs, because implying different con- rent from those determined by natural fluctuations sequences, in some cases, well divergent, especially of the environmental conditions. As a consequence, when specific constraints aimed to find equilibrium managers make all efforts to mitigate or even over- between the needs of salt producers and nature turn natural processes, by controlling water levels conservation are lacking. and salinity, at least. This is an essential constraint, Land use changes, on the other hand, may involve as it implies the maintenance of artificial conditions both disused and productive saltworks, because with steep and straight dykes, pumps, and driveway they are more generally related to coastal wetlands paths. Most evident effect of human strength ap- and will be treated in a separate paragraph. plied to natural dynamics are the morphologies: In addition, there are further factors, which are diffi- rectangular pans free from sandbanks appearing cult to be controlled even in managed environmen- and disappearing as normal in deltaic zones or islets ts, exacerbating natural processes affecting coastal surrounded by water affected by some tidal action wetlands in general, and someway affecting both as common in coastal lagoons. Artificial dykes are contexts described above. Among them, there are narrow (but sometimes large enough to allow the climate changes, discussed in a dedicated para- transit of cars and machinery) and often kept clear graph as well. from colonization by plants. In short words the land- As a further introductory point, it is also important scape is fixed, and ‘forcing changes’ are aimed to to clarify the positive or negative sense of changes in ‘change nothing’. terms of biodiversity. An increase of the number of Not less evident is the water management ‘against species over time is in general a desirable effect, but nature’. The inverted water level regime needed by it should be ascertained if the effect of changes is salt production causes high levels in spring and compatible with the objective to preserve the biolo- summer, and low levels in winter. Predictability of gical community typical of hypersaline environmen- water levels may favour the colonization (or the in- ts, which are inevitably low in species diversity due crease, when already present) of Yellow-legged Gull, to obvious ecological limiting factors. In these cases, species acting as a further limiting factor towards congruence of community structure may be more other Charadriiformes (especially terns and avocets, important than taxon richness for evaluating con- but also some gull species, such as Slender-billed servation strategy efficacy (Guareschi et al., 2014), as gull). In addition, submerging potential hypersaline demonstrated for fresh water wetlands (Bilton et al., habitats in summer is unsuitable to many coastal 2006) and other particular and selective habitats (Su habitats protected by the Habitats Directive, that re- et al., 2004). Indicators based on the monitoring of a quire prolonged summer drought. few targeted species may be even more important in Some other constraints are less visible and more the case of active saltworks. Therefore, a modest in- depending on local conditions, such as obstruction crease of biodiversity, combined with an increase of to fish migration, coastal erosion (the rigidity of the available space for expanding priority habitats alre- landscape prevents retreating of beach and dunes ady existing in the site, as well as for increasing local and wetland migration as a result of effective sea population of strategic species, may be welcomed level rise), general biodiversity depletion (focusing

35 here only on hypersaline habitats and species: acti- tions required for these habitats. ve saltworks management not attentive to nature Abandonment often leads to important changes of conservation are often not capable to assure deve- the abiotic conditions of the aquatic environment lopment of even the few typical conditions suppor- that can ultimately result in the progressive loss ting them). of species and communities associated to hyperaline environments. Lack of water circulation, re- connection to freshwater sources and to the water 2.2 Dynamics of disused saltworks basin, can lead to the freshening of the lagoon, to eutrophication and to the expansion of reedbeds In saltworks, most dynamics and processes are ma- on the margins of the lagoon. Human pressure can naged by humans, so, in the abandoned saltworks accelerate the landscape change. In extreme cases, environmental conditions spontaneously tend to the wetland will completely disappear, as a result of change over time. In general, abandonment of sal- reclamation for other purposes (urbanization, indu- tworks results in important changes in habitat co- strialization, or even agriculture) (several examples ver and waters, when remaining, may change to the reported for Greece where almost all abandoned point of losing the hyperhalinity characterizing acti- saltworks have been unmanaged and have defini- ve saltworks and of decreasing the water circulation. tely lost their ecological value - Petanidou, 2000). In This is forced by natural pressure on artificial set- some cases, the wetland remains, changed in favour tings. Indeed, morphologies, the distance from the of intensive aquacultural developments, such as fish coast, coastal succession, relationship between the farms, oyster farms and others (Crisman et al., 2009; sea and artificial ponds often do not correspond to Hueso and Petanidou, 2009) or completely unmana- the natural situation of coastal wetlands (Crisman et ged. There is at least a case of extreme degradation al. 2009) and once humans cease the management to a waste dump (Kopanas saltworks, Greece). of natural forces, processes changing the system In many situations, the cultural value of saltworks take place. After abandonment of salt production and social life related to salt will tend to be redu- and without any type of management, spreading or ced or lost as a result of abandonment of saltwork, reappearance of coastal habitats formerly limited maybe together with birds strongly associated to or lost because of management for salt production, hypersaline wetland (such as flamingos, undoubte- can occur on areas located on higher topographic dly one of the most attractive bird for non-specialist level, where interruption of water circulation leads people), and rare halophytic habitats (Petanidou to the restoration of natural water level fluctuations and Dalaka, 2009). including prolonged drying during summer season. Abandonment of saltworks in the Mediterranean has These changes can notably occur in the short term not been a rare event especially in the second half of for habitat 1310 that can spread on large surfaces drying out during summer, and it can also occur at a slower pace for habitats 1420, 1410 and 1510. These changes were observed in several sites, in France, for example, St. Lucie salinas (since 2007 owned and managed by Conservatoire du Litto- ral), Vieux salins d’Hyères as well as salins du Ca- ban in Fos-sur-mer (M. Thibault, pers. comm.). These changes were also observed in abandoned saltworks in Colostrai, Si- cily, now largely covered with habitat 1420. On the other hands however, as it is the case at Etangs et marais des salins de Ca- margue (southern Fran- ce), hydraulic works are often necessary to restore the hydrological condi- Fig. 32 The abandoned settlements in the Saltwork of Molentargius (ph. F. Borghesi)

36 the 20th century (see Petanidou and Dalaka, 2009), all the above values together, when implementation as a consequence of the loss of salt value and the in- of management schemes is undertaken. When salt troduction of new industrial technologies for produ- production ceases, the former saltworks not reco- cing low-cost salt. However, fate of former saltworks vered for salt production (managed or unmanaged) may be driven towards non-negative processes by tend to come back in closer contact with the sur- implementing new forms of management, even roundings waters, circulating through the landscape changing purpose: from salt production to ‘nature and previously diverted to allow salt production. Ac- production’. In turn, ‘nature production’ may be dri- commodating this process, continuing to preserve ven either by pure conservation purposes or a mix of only a small surface as extreme hypersaline habitat, conservation and sustainable development, combi- can be a good compromise where any type of wet- ning environmental managements. Tourism, histo- lands is rare in a large area, because former saltwor- rical and traditional heritage or other forms of use ks can start again, as brackish marshes, to provide can be combined to nature protection. As a result important ecological services too often ignored: wa- of a change of use preserving most of the saltwork ter reservoir and remediation, climate mitigation, landscape and species, for example, since 2008 the and biodiversity hotspot. On the other hand, when municipality of Cagliari (Sardinia) is experiencing an former saltworks are a small part of a landscape urban park established on the former Molentargius with considerable presence of wetlands, and adding saltworks (Lai, 2013). further similar habitats would be not very relevant In light of that, the management of former saltwor- for the conservation, it is desirable to preserve sal- ks after their abandonment is crucial, especially twork environment through a proper management. where natural processes are predicted to dramati- This way will deal with the wider goal of assuring the cally replace habitats or other impending threats survival of different wetland types in the whole area, are detected (including anthropogenic pressures). from hypersaline to freshwater wetlands, assuring Furthermore, biodiversity of abandoned saltworks appropriate surface and management to each one. often become impoverished because natural pro- The biodiversity of former saltworks probably will cesses are impeded by the infrastructures (dykes not increase significantly as a result of this kind of etc.) inherited from past salt production. In the lat- choice, due to the limiting factors to life intrinsic of ter case, hydrological restoration, that might inclu- hypersaline habitats, but the biodiversity of the vast de hydraulic works, must be considered in order to area will be maximized. Main goal will be to expand, turn the former saltwork back to a natural and fun- as much as possible, endangered habitats already ctional wetland. existing in the area, or promote the establishing of The reconversion of the abandoned saltworks into a new ones, if recently extinct but listed in the Natura new productive saltworks sustained by profits from 2000 data form. A wide design vision and a wise ma- the sale of salt might seem an attempt difficult or, nagement, will allow to turn in positive any saltwork in many situations, even unrealistic. However, if hy- abandonment, whether or not the salt production draulic infrastructures (including dykes) are not se- is restored. verely degraded, salt production can potentially be restored at a reasonable cost. This is especially true 2.3 Territorial changes affecting the salt marshes for abandoned, small artisanal saltworks located on low-lying sandy shores where periodic connection In the Mediterranean, except a few cases, saltwor- with the sea maintains some of their ecological cha- ks have been obtained as a modified part of coa- racteristics (Crisman et al., 2009). Indeed, combining stal lakes, lagoons, or estuaries subtracted to tidal salt production and sustainable tourism represents influence through a system of channels, pumps, a new frontier to be developed in order to transfer and dykes. Though natural Mediterranean coastal the heritage related to saltworks to the new genera- wetlands are less energetic environments than tions (Petanidou and Dalaka, 2009). Such restoration Atlantic ones, organisms living there are exposed may include landscape engineering, salt museums, to hydrodynamic forces, variously mitigated by gastronomic and cultural pathways, and biodiversi- salt marsh vegetation, ecosystem engineers ca- ty conservation. The latter subject is also related to pable to strongly attenuate hydrodynamic energy environmental education. of sea (Bouma et al., 2005, 2007), temporary ge- Implementation of some actions aimed to restore omorphologies, or by human intervention aimed salt production in abandoned saltworks have been to shape the territory, for example, for productive experienced in recent years in several countries of purposes. the Mediterranean. Mostly small artisanal saltwor- Some saltworks were established in ancient ti- ks have been involved in rehabilitation projects in mes, when coast had a different shape than today Canary Islands, Iberian Peninsula, Italy and Slovenia and coastline was in a progression phase (resul- (Petanidou and Dalaka, 2009). Restoration of indu- ting in progradation, i.e. when sedimentation ra- strial saltworks is also successfully implemented tes outpace the rates of base-level rise at the sho- on La Palme, southern France (M. Thibault, pers. reline and new lands are built out seawards), and comm.). will prograde for a very long period. This progres- However, it seems challenging to equally consider sion phase was in some cases such as the Rhône

37 delta, intensified by increased sediment deposits proceeds. Moreover, human activities may also induced by erosion of watersheds as a result of take away the space for natural marsh recovery in large-scale deforestation for agriculture and live- another place when the marsh needs to migrate, stock. As a consequence, there are now still acti- for example, inland. This would result in the per- ve saltworks which are relatively far from sea, at manent loss of a marsh. Loss of salt marsh habitat present surrounded by agricultural lands, urban due to lateral erosion is a major problem across centres or other settlements rather than wetlands the world, especially in those locations where the (e.g. Cervia, Italy). However, modern times coast- marsh does not seem to recover. Generally, it is lines near everywhere in the Mediterranean are believed that human activities are responsible for characterized by an opposite process: the marine increasing erosion (Allen, 2000; Adam, 2002; Wol- transgression, that is a geologic event during whi- ters et al., 2005). ch sea level rises relative to the land and landward Salt marshes were even used as a dumping migration of the shoreline occurs. Such geological ground for sewage, trash and debris, because forces (irrespective from the direction) are relati- open spaces, but this practice in the Mediterrane- vely slow, but so strong to determine important an is fortunately abandoned. However, pollution territorial changes and affect the coastal marshes of salt marshes near cities, agricultural lands and fate. Indeed, marshes originally surrounding sal- industrial areas is common and often dramatic tworks would be characterized by a cyclic nature, (pesticides, PCBs, hydrocarbons, organochlori- where marsh formation (during a period of late- ne, fertilizers, herbicides, drugs) (Jenkins, 1980; ral extension) is followed by evolution and final- Degetto et al., 1997; Fabbri et al., 2000; Albanis ly conversion into another type of environment. et al., 2009; Migani et al., 2015). When a territorial Before completing its evolution, salt marshes, change includes urbanization in the surroundings normally confined by means, for example, natural of a salt marsh, more pollution is a typical conse- or artificial banks, dunes, or dry lands, can be de- quence, since salt marsh sediments are geoche- stroyed as a consequence of lateral erosion when mical barriers, rich in organic matter capable to the marsh edge becomes disturbed (Allen, 2000; adsorb many contaminants and natural final filter Adam 2002). For example, a disturbance from a of runoff (Gedan et al., 2009; Migani et al., 2015; storm surge can initialize this erosion process. At Borghesi et al., 2016a). Apparently, a nearly iso- the disturbed edge, sediment is more vulnerable lated system such as an active saltwork directly to weathering. Then, once the geomorphology connected to the sea may appear unaffected by starts to change as a consequence of erosion, this inland pollution. Actually, pollution in producti- process will not easily be stopped. The initiation of ve saltworks sediment is not much studied. A erosion is intrinsic to natural temporal salt marsh recent study assessing heavy metals in flamingo dynamics (Allen, 2000; van de Koppel et al., 2005). nests and feathers in different colonies (Borghesi Therefore, main forces causing territorial changes et al., 2016b) found higher concentrations of lead affecting salt marshes are extrinsic and natural, and mercury in Macchiareddu saltpans nests, as but rarely, in the Mediterranean, free to destroy expected since this kind of pollution in the sur- and restore habitats respecting a natural balance rounding environments was already known for capable of maintaining landscape and species di- years (Contu et al., 1985). versity. Also, coastal erosion induced by sediment Agriculture may determine the loss of wetlands, deficit has aggravated in the last decades as a re- including salt marshes, and even saltworks, when sult of river damming (i.e. along the Rhône and reclaimed for cultivation. This occurs after aban- Ebro rivers) and changes of land use on the water- donment of previous exploitation activities (such shed (i.e. reduced hill and mountain erosion cau- as salt production, fishing, hunting, grazing) and sed by reforestation following livestock and agri- landscape protection is not undertaken. In some cultural decline in parts of the Rhône watershed). case, unfrequent in the Mediterranean, they are Minor intrinsic biological processes may impact reclaimed or converted for cultivation, as it hap- on salty environments (Allen, 2000; Wolters et pened at Anavyssos saltworks, or even urbanized al., 2005). For example, sediment destabilization such as Volos saltworks, Greece (Petanidou, 2000). by bioturbation and plant consumed by worms In the past, bays, lagoons and m arshes have been (Hughes and Paramor, 2004; van der Wal and Pye, transformed into a touristic or industrial port, in- 2004) and waterbirds (Dionne, 1985) can also re- dustrial complexes (including fish and shellfish sult in erosion of salt marshes. culture), resulting in the permanent loss of the na- Not less significant for salt marshes loss is the tural systems and relate ecosystem services (Ge- proximity of human populations. Human activi- dan et al., 2009). ties can contribute significantly to the severity of Furthermore, climate change and sea level rise are the change. For example, dredging activities can receiving much attention as a cause of salt marsh increase exposure to currents and waves, the- disappearance. These pressures are treated in de- reby increasing the rate at which lateral erosion tail in the next paragraph.

38 Fig. 33 Sea erosion in dunes protecting a natural salt marsh in the Parco del Delta del Po (ph. M. Costa)

2.4 Climate change affecting the salt mar- fects of climate change (Wigley, 1989). Even more shes significant is the higher frequency of extreme me- teorological events and anomalous seasons occur- Global warming caused by the improved concen- ring at regional scale, such as hot, dry summers; tration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is mild winters with cold spells; sporadic heavy rains a main driver of some changes in the Earth dyna- with exceptional river floods; and high storm and mics, involving the entire ecosystem. The higher tidal surges (Warrick and Farmer, 1990). mean temperature of the Earth surface determines two main effects which can force salt marshes to Sea-level rise. Coastal salt marshes and wetlands change their features: sea-level rise and changes are maintained by an intricate system of negative in the climate. As a consequence of ocean thermal feedbacks among rates of sea-level rise, upward expansion (Albritton et al., 2001), land ice melting accretion, wave erosion, and sediment deposi- (IPCC, 2007), and reduction of liquid water storage tion (Nuttle et al., 1997). In other words, survival of on land (IPCC, 2013), sea level rises at a mean rate marshes subjected to tidal influence depends on a that was estimated 3.2 mm/year after 1992 (1993- balance between the forces leading to their crea- 2010), that is more than two times faster than in the tion (mineral and organic sediment accumulation) past century, when sea level rise was estimated to and the forces leading to their deterioration. As se- average 1.5 mm/year during 1901-1990 according dimentation is a natural process leading wetlands to 5th IPCC report) (IPCC, 2013). However, it is de- to become dry lands, a salt marsh requires some monstrated that sea level rise has accelerated in sea-level rise to maintain itself: salt marsh accre- recent years (Watson et al., 2015) and is still accele- tion rates, at a minimum, normally approximate rating. As a consequence, it is very likely (according sea-level rise (Allen and Pye, 1992). Indeed, tran- to the IPCC confidence scale) that the 21st-century sition zones between land and sea are particularly mean rate of sea level rise will exceed that of 1971- vulnerable to sea-level rise, because, as the sea ri- 2010 under all projections. In the best case, it is ses, salt marshes become progressively inundated expected to rise of 28-61 cm by 2100, or 52-98 cm by the higher sea level and ultimately are lost to the by 2100 in the worst scenario (different estimates sea by erosive processes. According to Reed (1990), based on two scenarios depending on greenhouse the response of coastal marshes to relative sea-le- gases emission rates in the future) (Church et al., vel rise depends upon their ability to maintain their 2013). In any cases, it is virtually certain that global relative elevation through sedimentation. Areas mean sea level rise will continue for many centu- where the sedimentation rate exceeds the sea-level ries beyond 2100, with the amount of rise depen- rise rate are considered areas of positive balance. dent on future emissions. An increase of winter As a consequence of the present climate condition, precipitation over Alps and Balkan Peninsula and Mediterranean coast is in general subjected to ne- a decrease of precipitation in the southern part of gative balance. In addition, the Mediterranean is the Mediterranean basin, linked to the increase of characterized by low amplitude of tidal variations the evaporation rate, could be other significant ef- (except a few zones, such as some North Adriatic

39 and Tunisian lagoons) (Ibañez, 2010). However, the impeded or contrasted by the presence of human response of Mediterranean salt marshes to climatic activities and settlements, since a large part of the changes could differ significantly from place to pla- Mediterranean coast is anthropized (cities, roads, ce. Coastal morphology and human interventions touristic localities, industries, ports). Active sal- are important factors of variability affecting the tworks and even abandoned saltworks can be in consequences of sea level rise on coastal ecosy- general included among those salt marshes which stems. In deltas sea level rise is even more critical are not free to shift back inland, if they are normal- because decreased accretion of fluvial sediment ly surrounded by human settlements. As a conse- resulting from upstream siltation of artificial im- quence, integrated land planning is the modern poundments and embankments, and consumptive solution to allow coexistence of all the elements, losses of runoff from irrigation prevent sediment natural or productive, of the territory and pursue si- input (Ericson et al., 2006). Furthermore, subsiden- multaneously natural conservation objectives and ce, a main factor modelling coastal morphology in social and economic development. many places around the Mediterranean, exacerba- tes the loss of land elevation. Especially in deltas, Warming. Some plant and animal communities evol- the land surface is known to be sinking (or subsi- ved biological and ecological requirements which ding). As the land surface subsides, there is an ap- can be satisfied only by transitional environments parent rise in the elevation of sea level. There are such as coastal salt marshes. As an example, the zo- several mechanisms known that can cause subsi- nation of salt marsh plants is supposed to be influen- dence. One of these processes is the compaction ced by nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) and by of water-rich buried sediment. Compaction occurs climate (Bertness and Pennings, 2000). The rise in air when water in buried sediment layers is squeezed and water temperature in the Mediterranean during out of the pore space within the sediment by the the last decades is significant (Giorgi and Lionello, weight of the overlying sediment. This is especially 2008; Vargas-Yáñez et al., 2008) and is higher than a challenge in organic-rich sediments that accu- other seas and oceans (Ibañez, 2010). The ten-ye- mulate in marsh and swamp environments. This ar Mediterranean Sea surface warming measured loss of water means that the thickness of the bu- by very-high-resolution radiometer is estimated to ried sedimentary layer is reduced, which causes be on average 0.35 °C, ranging from 0.24 °C decade a reduction in the elevation of the land surface. -1 west of the Strait of Gibraltar to 0.51 °C over the There is evidence that direct anthropogenic effects Black Sea (Shaltout and Omstedt, 2014). Also, coa- determine effective sea level rise in the majority of stal waters temperatures have raised but data are deltas worldwide (Ericson et al., 2006). This phe- scarce and in lagoons and coastal wetlands infor- nomenon is particularly important in the Po delta: mation about temperature raise is not more than from the 1950’s until the 1970’s, industrial dredging punctual, despite the impact of the warming in the- removed as much as 600 million tons of sand from se contexts is thought to be greater, since they are the riverbed. The mining of sediment, and accele- confined systems, swallow basins and therefore li- rated subsidence associated with groundwater wi- mited in volume of water. However, the implications thdrawal have resulted in localized coastal retreat of this change in temperature are not well known of hundreds of meters (Cencini et al., 1998). In fact, (Ibañez, 2010). In salt marshes, an increase of the ground subsidence can be triggered and/or accele- mean temperature can affect the rates of biological rated by extraction of water, methane, and petro- and chemical processes, including photosynthesis, leum everywhere, and therefore subsidence affects transpiration, decomposition, nutrient cycling and not only delta areas as a natural process. Evidently, the accumulation or organic matter, all of which, subsidence and sea-level rise are synergistic and together with the direct effect of temperature, may the relative sea level rise will be higher (Ibañez, affect plant and animal distribution. The biomass 2010). composed by photosynthetic and heterotrophic organisms is controlled by temperature in some way, Main modifications in coastal wetlands caused by and temperature raise reduces primary production sea level rise are increasing of depth, alteration of as an effect of a change in the metabolism of the water fluxes and salinity, unbalancing of sediment whole system (Ibañez, 2010). Bertness and Pennings transport and erosion, different frequency of floo- (2000) also suggested that climate plays a major ding events (Eisenreich, 2005). Also, an important role in salt marsh community structure by changing consequence of coastal retreat is sanding and fil- soil salinity. Climate change, in particular increased ling of lagoons situated immediately behind the temperatures, will also increase evaporation rate coastline (i.e. beach ecosystem moves inland and and salt concentration, thus, favouring someway fills the lagoon, as it can be observed locally in salt production or, on the contrary, climate change, Etangs et marais des salins de Camargue (Thibault, may reduce the salinity of the soil by increasing the pers. comm.). rate of precipitation in certain periods of the year. An alteration of the salinity gradient necessarily en- In theory, coastal salt marshes could migrate in- tails important consequences on plant and benthic land, but, as said, this process is in many cases communities that colonize the salt marsh. Salt mar-

40 shes and especially salt pans are normally colonized of food webs and biogeochemical cycles, in hydro- by invertebrates associated with the mudflats and logy of salt marshes and lagoons, are likely and may provide sheltered feeding areas for birds. Increased be worsen by changes in rainfall, and in ultraviolet temperatures could also change the activity of in- radiation. Unfortunately, the effects of such chan- vertebrates and, consequently, their abundances ges are not well understood for most environments, and distributions could change, affecting the rate of including saltworks. Conceptually, effects will invol- herbivory and bioturbation (Hughes, 2004), contri- ve water balance, transport of dissolved nutrients buting further to improve the number and intensity and sediments, population dynamic of species, and of pressures on some salt marshes. Depending on their geographical distribution. the fluctuation of the activity of invertebrates, their consumers, such as many waders and waterbirds, Global warming is only one of the effects of human may be affected at population level (Hughes, 2004). activities. It must be taken in consideration that cli- Furthermore, the increasing frequency of hypoxia mate change is combining with other human acti- or anoxia episodes (i.e. reduced oxygen content of vities at watershed level or even at local scale. Alte- water) caused by high temperature of the water de- ration of water and sediment fluxes, eutrophication termines detrimental effects to aerobic organisms, and introduction of invasive species are only three such as higher mortality in fish and bivalves (Ibañez, of the many consequences of anthropization that 2010). More generally, changes in the distribution of are not related to climate change, but affecting the the ecological niche of organisms, in the structure same processes.

3.1 Issues of salt production in relation to the con- much as possible, with lower costs, thanks to the servation of important species of birds and fish reduced need of manpower, but often not considering the needs for environmental protection. The view expressed in this section start from the In the artisanal saltworks, the higher production objective of preserving the peculiar elements of sa- costs than industrial production, caused by a high line, biodiversity connected at hypersaline habitat, need of manpower, force to reduce this difference not from general purpose to manage a wetland in- through strategies including the lack of maintenan- creasing generically its biodiversity. ce of saltworks and the use of operation and management methods and instruments that could com- Salt production is an essential condition for the promise the landscape and environmental quality preservation of the cultural heritage, most of all if associated with artisanal saltworks. it is artisanal (traditional) and in some cases id also important to preserve the natural function and the In both cases, there are often conflicts between na- hypersaline habitats, typical of saltworks. ture conservation and salt production. Are this con- In saltworks far from the sea and completely di- flicts, sometimes insurmountable, higher or lower sconnected from the coastal ecosystems (as e.g. in than the benefits? many cases in Italy), without management of water and infrastructures the area would be gradually From Walmsley, 2000: overgrown (in general by reedbeds, when salinity is decreasing) and dried or flooded (depending on “Industrial salinas cover large areas of land that host the surrounding conditions), which would affect its populations of rare, endangered and protected wil- cultural landscape and change the natural habitats. dlife species. The owners and managers of salinas In this case, without the characteristic salt gradient automatically become the custodians of this wildli- and the high salinity connected to salt production, fe, which at times may lead to conflicting situations the habitat changes and it is lesser and lesser su- between the needs for salt production and conserva- itable for the birds, typical of salt marshes, which tion. It is important therefore to build and maintain have in the saltworks their ideal site. good relations between industrialists and biologists On the other hands, when saltworks are close to through dialogue, so that solutions to conflicts can the sea and strictly connected with coastal ecosy- be found, that will allow both salt production and stem (as e.g. in southern France), the abandon of conservation to be harmonized at reasonable costs. production can lead to the natural evolution of the A typical case study in France, revealed that the de- saltwork in precious coastal salt lakes. struction of breeding islands for coastal seabirds and shorebirds has forced many species to breed on The hypersaline habitat maintenance costs, when less favourable sites on dykes bordering the lagoons, only need to be supported for the preservation of from which the crystalized salt is extracted. A conflict nature, where production has ceased, are difficult arose during the chick-hatching period, when many to deal with and the public authorities have difficul- hundreds of chicks fell into the hypersaline water. ty accessing the necessary funds. There are some The chicks were unable to return to the dykes, the brilliant example of a wise and positive manage- down and feathers became clogged with salt and ment of not productive saltwork preserved as natu- they died. ral sites, for example in southern France, but there The birds were accused of "polluting and reducing are also many completely abandoned and deterio- the quality of the salt". A further conflict arose later in rate saltworks in the Mediterranean. the breeding season as the adult terns and gulls be- Therefore, the production of salt can help to pre- gan to moult their body feathers, which were blown serve the hypersaline habitats, but it must be care- into the salt water. During the next two years I was fully and strictly regulated, not to impact with the able to considerably reduce chick mortality by im- conservation of nature and to be a truly sustainable plementing practical management methods, in this activity. case by erecting a 20-30 cm high netting along the Indeed, salt production is an economic activity. side of the dykes, which stopped the chicks from fal- Both in the industrial or in the artisanal saltwork, ling into the brine. For some species it was possible following economic logic (like any other productive to attract them to breed in less sensitive sites away activity), salt production constantly faces the pro- from the crystalizing lagoons, by using artificial tern blem of profit. and gull decoys made from one of the polystyrene In the industrial saltworks the aim is to produce as composites (Walmsley 1994).

43 For the Messolonghi Salina I recommended that ar- of water and saline gradients, again for obvious pro- tificial islands be constructed and certain dykes re- ductive reasons. stored, without interfering with salt production and Sadoul also shows as, in the long term, the producti- management. The profiles of the islands were also ve saltworks in the Camargue have been abandoned designed so that they did not inhibit the water flow. by the species of small Charadriiformes, that initially I was later informed that several islands were con- had shown considerable expansion. This, becau- structed and that waterbirds did breed on them, but se the small islands created by the construction of unfortunately there was no follow-up to this project”. pans have gradually been eroded and remained only the larger structures and dikes, occupied by According to this analysis, we can say that water the Yellow-legged Gull, which had since increased management, changes in salinity, simplification of in number because of the inexhaustible guaranteed ponds and shores and human disturbance are the food source from waste dumps. The Yellow-legged main threats for birds and biodiversity in active sal- Gulls occupies the large islands and it starts to nest tworks. before the other species, it is very aggressive and it is also a predator of eggs and chicks. The saltworks are very important for many species So, the small species of Charadriiformes (Avocet, of waterbirds, because they offer different feeding Black-winged Stilt, Terns, Mediterranean Gull, and breeding habitats and because they represent Black-headed Gull, Slender-billed Gull) abandoned the artificial copy of a natural habitat, typical of wild the saltworks and started to use marginal and less coastal areas, that is now very rare in Europe, be- suitable habitats, decreasing, thus, their productivi- cause of human impact. ty and, consequently, their population. However, there can often be conflicts between pro- Regular water levels allow birds to nest every year, duction and presence of birds and there are many but they encourage the presence of Yellow-legged limiting factors of birds in the active saltworks. Gull (who prefers stable habitats, unlike the small Obviously, the ecological needs of waterbirds have Charadriiformes, more related to unstable condi- evolved under the conditions that naturally occur in tions); moreover, the constant flooding of basins wetlands in Europe and around the Mediterranean accelerates the process of erosion of the islands. basin. Sadoul concludes that the management of water At different times of the year the birds have adap- levels and habitat is, therefore, essential even in ted their behaviour and their needs in what aquatic productive saltworks, together with the even more habitats naturally offered, both in breeding season, important construction of islands and the activi- and during migration and wintering. ties to keep away the Yellow-legged Gull and to So, most of the waterbird species that frequents the maintain these islands suitable habitats for small coastal wetlands expect to find shallow waters with Charadriiformes, which sometimes require con- many islands and mud or sand surfaces during the stantly managing soil and vegetation. breeding season, corresponding to less rainy sea- Sometimes also the Brown Rat takes advantage of son and when the sea intrusion is less intense. the stable conditions of the saltworks and creates As Sadoul (1996) highlights, the active saltwor- colonies on the small islands always emerging from ks present to birds a different situation, different water, which are a serious threat for bird colonies. landscapes, with water always at the same level and with smaller presence of islands and mudflats or sandflats. This causes a reduced availability of breeding sites, but their greater safety, due to control, over changes in water level (operated for salt production, but however useful for birds). Moreover, throughout the year, habitats are generally more streamlined, with less differen- tiation in the levels Fig. 34 Yellow-legged Gull (ph. M. Costa)

44 As widely known, the two main threats for birds nesting in productive saltworks are the lack of islands and the water level management (Doody, 2001; Rufino et al., 2002; Virdis et al., 2005). On the other hand, it is difficult to maintain water levels lower where the priority is the production of salt, because the system inevitably requires adequate water flow. In extreme cases, the management of the water levels is such as to directly cause the destruction of the colonies, when, in order to follow the production cycles, Fig. 35 Predated Avocet chick regurgitated by Yellow-legged Gull (ph. F. Borghesi) water is fed in almost dry docks, submerging the nests and eggs; this was recorded, for example, in the nies are likely, as well, to become “feeders” for the saltwork of Cervia (Costa et al., 2009-2) gulls. In order to avoid this, it is very important to act The only possibilities, several times suggested, for to avert the Yellow-legged Gull in general from the example, for the saltwork of Cervia, are to identify site (indispensable for the smaller species, unable marginal areas, to be isolated from the production to defend eggs) and it is also necessary to provide cycle and wherein implement a decrease in water suitable shelters for chicks (e.g. bricks and tiles), in levels during the spring and summer or to build order to avoid predation of the young chicks of all new islet at the relevant altitude so that nests will species, during the absence of the parents. not be flooded. The intensive management in saltworks is conside- This will be all the more possible because the sal- red a threat for birds nesting there (Tucker & Evans, twork will become a site for birdwatching and gains 1997), because the pans are levelled and the islands related to this use will become attractive for salt removed to increase the surface of water and conse- producers. quently the salt production. Birds are so moving to A good way to keep soil and vegetation suitable for marginal and less suitable areas, such as dikes, whe- small Charadriiformes and not suitable for Yellow- re they are vulnerable for the presence of ground legged Gull, experienced in saline Comacchio, it is predators and for the higher human disturbance. to submerge the islets until the beginning of the breeding season, quite late, of small Charadriiformes and make them available only as of the mid-spring. This protects the islands from winter erosion sheltering them from the waves, prevents the establishment of vegetation, keeps the soil and prevents the installation of early nesting Yellow- legged Gull and of colonies of Brown Rat. This experiment also highlighted the problem of providing at small Charadriiformes suitable breeding sites in areas with heavy presence of Yellow- legged Gull. The colo- Fig. 36 Predated egg of Common Tern (ph. F. Borghesi)

45 In Cervia, for example, the lack of islands, often cau- ding of incumbent nests, or even the total absence ses the colonies to settle on the dikes, which are, of water during migration; however, sometimes easily accessible by foxes and - the insufficient presence of islands and employ- stray dogs, who make destruction of eggs and chi- ment of the levees, where, however, the colonies cks (Costa et al., 2009-1). are disturbed by predators and maintenance ope- In productive saltworks the human disturbance rations in the summer; caused by workers can be locally a threatening fac- - hunting activities around the perimeter of the site; tor, able to prevent the settlement or to remove a - human disturbance due to tourist activities. colony already established. Additionally, human The saltworks, in particular the water reservoir ba- disturbance causes the fledging of adults, often sins, can be very useful for fish reproduction, being engaged in mobbing on human figures, that leads important feeding and growing sites for juveniles of to increased predation of eggs and chicks by the some species (e.g. mullets, Sea Bass, Smelt). Yellow-legged Gull. However, the flow of water along the channels con- In severe cases, human disturbance may even cau- necting the saltworks to the sea, often inverted with se the physical destruction of the colonies, with cru- respect to the natural cycles and the presence of ar- shing of nests, eggs and chicks, caused by routine tificial barriers, can be threatening factors to these maintenance (e.g. mowing) or extraordinary main- species. tenance (e.g. reshaping) of the saltworks dikes, if The toothcarps are characteristic of saltwork habi- performed in spring or summer, as happened, for tats and benefit from the hypersaline environments example, in the salt of Cervia to the Mediterranean including in productive saltworks, but the sudden Gull colony (Costa et al., 2009). dry, the maintenance of the salt ponds and the in- This last example illustrates the need for a careful version of the water cycle represent for them threa- regulation of the salt production activities, constant tening factors. supervision and a management authority present and attentive. Just in Cervia have been identified and studied 3.2 Coastal retreat and management of coastal some threats to the species nesting in saline (Virdis habitats et al., 2005), consist of: - lack of planning in water management, which cau- Coastal retreat is a threat to the saltworks, both to the ses the unavailability of sites for nesting or the floo- habitats and species, both for the production of salt.

Fig. 37 Artificial breeding islet in Camargue (ph. M. Thibault, Tour du Valat)

46 In productive saltworks, the protection from the - the saltworks represent the artificial copy of a sea is sometimes made by the producers, without natural ecosystem; taking into account the need to protect natural ha- - the water is almost always present during the bitats (e.g. with a ballast that erase the relict dunes breeding season, also in periods of drought or and the natural ecological continuity with the below sea level (even if in many active saltworks, ach and the coast). This on the one hand protects some ponds are badly drained during the winter the saltwork itself and its habitat, but it causes the season); loss of coastal habitats. - they are often the only natural-like environment The Natura 2000 has to agree with the producers or on a coast otherwise deeply populated and ur- to impose through the impact assessment to use banized; non-invasive methods of shoreline protection (sub- - hunting is often not allowed because saltworks merged barriers off, bioengineering to rebuild and are working places. strengthen the structure of the dunes). hunting is often not allowed because saltworks are The saltworks managed only for nature conser- working places vation can still have the need to be protected by coastal erosion; in this case, the interventions will be determined by the site manager and, of course, 3.4 Implementation of measures related to biodi- take into account the needs of even safeguard the versity in production sites - Analysis of best practi- coastal habitats. However, costs for coastal defence ces carried out in southern France are usually very high and thus possibly irrelevant in the context of non-productive saltworks. These When the site “Etangs et marais des salins de Ca- experiences can be used as good practice for the margue” was exploited for salt production, a par- productive saltworks. tnership was developed between Compagnie des Salins du Midi and Station biologique de la Tour du Valat in order to improve the conservation status 3.3 Synergies of colonial waterbirds. At the end of the 1960’s, the conservation status of the Greater Flamingo was Despite the serious threats listed above, the pro- unfavourable in the Camargue, with failed breeding ductive saltworks represent, however, a refuge en- or no breeding occurring during several consecuti- vironment for many species, for many reasons: ve years. The two organizations worked together to

47 find an area suitable to the construction of a bre- of saltworks, fish farming, hunting and touristic ser- eding islet. The islet was built in 1970 and Greater vices, in order to grant cohabitation of production Flamingos started to breed again from 1974. Since activities and environmental conservation in agre- then, they have bred most years and the colony ement with Natura 2000 objectives and all the has played an important role in the recovery of the projects concerning the territory. Mediterranean population. Various actions have b) The pathways of the saltworkers were modified been carried out to protect the flamingos bree- in 2014 when flamingos bred in Aigues Mortes. ding colony, such as the periodic restoration of the breeding islet. Similarly, a breeding islet targeting c) From 2006 many islets for colonial water birds terns and gulls was constructed by Compagnie des have been created and old ones restored. Annual Salins du Midi in 1999, following the recommenda- maintenance practices are applied in order to pre- tions provided by Tour du Valat. This islet proved serve the suitability of the nesting sites. Attractive to be very successful in the short-term, with the actions and measures against predation are ap- breeding of multiple-species occurring during two plied. A study carried out in 2009 demonstrated the consecutive years. This is, of course, a best practi- efficacy of the structures with respect to the occu- ce, desirable for all productive saltworks. pation and breeding success.

The full Management Plan of “Salin d’Aigues-Mor- d) Measures have been experienced in order to tes” gives many information about positive interfe- avoid occupation of islets by Yellow-legged Gul- rences (synergies): ls. The actions consist in: i) physical connection between islets and embankments to favour preda- a) Salins Group has in force an environmental tion by foxes; ii) disturbing of gulls during settling in expert. Within the CSME, he orients the managers January-March, and poisoning in April.

48 4) Management of the environmental conditions favouring the main habitats (period of submersion, seasonal fluctuations of water levels and the onset of salt to help the species protection, including colonial nesting birds).

There are a lot of productive saltworks in Europe, Limonium insulare, Limonium pseudolaetum) or cer- spread over vast areas of coastal territories (see tain habitats linked to hypersaline environments, chapter 2) hosting rare and threatened wild bird protected by the 92/43/EEC Directive. The mainte- species. In these cases, salt producers and saltwork nance of saline gradients required by the extraction managers unintentionally become the caretakers of salt, in fact, can favour of some species such as of this wild endangered fauna, whose conservation glasswort and sea lavender and some habitats such has to take into account the needs linked to salt as 1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing production (Walmsley 2000). mud and sand; 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-At- lantic halophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi); These places represent environments of anthropic 1510* Mediterranean salt steppes (Limonietalia). origin, mainly derived from coastal lagoons, salt lakes or part of them, artificially reproducing the natural salt marshes beyond sand dunes, typical 4.1 General planning of management and strate- of Mediterranean coasts, nowadays very rare to be gies for conservation found. Numerous wild species, more or less specialized ones, find favourable habitat or at the least a Every saltwork included in Natura 2000 network suitable replacement of the lost natural ones. must have its own Conservation Measures, as provi- Therefore, saltworks constitute an artificial habitat ded by the article 6 of the Directive 92/43/EEC. If ne- with semi-natural characteristics, which chemical, eded, the same article provides the drafting of ap- physical, biological and pedological parameters propriate management plans specifically designed depend on movement of water based on salt pro- for the sites or integrated into other development duction cycle and on intensive human activities plans (e.g. the spatial plans or the management over centuries. A stop in waters circulation determi- plans of protected areas). nes a rapid change in the previously mentioned pa- The importance of planning is linked to both the co- rameters unavoidably leading to a transformation gency that spatial plans have due to current regula- of the ecological and landscape features. Without tions, and to the ability to program the utilization continuous waters circulation, cleaning of canals of resources in time and space for nature conser- and beds of basins saltworks develop into areas that vation. are ecologically similar to coastal lagoons towards Any single saltwork might have specific conserva- a definite coverage of the wetland. Environmental tion issues that might require specific diagnostic, factors and anthropic activity represent the two strategies and actions. Therefore, it is very impor- main components, inextricably linked to the delica- tant that each site has its own management plan, te balance appropriate for the saltwork ecosystem. even if this is not stated as compulsory by the In a further discussion, the chapter is dealing with Directive 92/43/EEC, in order to give priorities, to other important factors contributing to conserva- program the conservation activities and to outline tion or even to the increasing of biodiversity of bird all the activities to be carried on to preserve habita- populations and of the more general biocoenosis. ts and species. The analysis of the management plans of saltwor- In general, the management plans must be linked ks of project partners, still in activity or abandoned, to the general planning of a region, as they are a allows to take quite a complete view of the status, section of the planning at wider scale and at wider with particular regard to threats concerning habita- topics. The procedures to give to the plan a norma- ts and species. And at the same time provides a very tive value are often linked to the regulations of the comprehensive overview of designing and imple- general planning, in order to give legal strength to menting good management practices and of acts the site's management plan. carried out or to be made in order to develop and The management plan frame of structure is essen- improve biodiversity. tial for planning conservation actions at any given Actions have been taken at each site to develop site. This frame of structure includes: environmental conditions that favour habitats and species. 1) site description and analysis (based on factual Productive saltworks may also be an important site information including data on fauna, flora and for some plant species (e.g. Salicornia procumbens, habitats);

49 2) identification and prioritization of conservation 4.2 Water level management issues; 3) definition of objectives (including conservation Ordinary activities regarding water levels and filling targets and priorities); of basins for production purpose, have an immedia- 4) strategies; te impact on either the food supplies of water birds 5) action plan. and on the availability of reproductive habitat. If we consider an environmental system where land Conservation strategies of a saltwork environment, habitats generally survive along embankments and its habitat and its species, varies due to the inten- shores, the complete or partial emptying of some ded use of the saltwork itself. It is, in fact, very dif- basins in the fall-winter time and in the reproducti- ferent in case of a productive or a non-productive ve period, sets great surfaces free from vegetation, saltwork that is dedicated to the conservation of making it immediately available to be colonized by nature. water birds. In the first case, the priority is to pay close attention On the contrary, a water excess in the basins, mainly to the regulation of production, in order to avoid or due to heavy rainfall or technical draining difficul- mitigate negative impacts and, where possible, fa- ties, could reduce these habitats or submerge po- vouring certain habitats or species. tential nesting areas (see floating islets realized in In the second case, it is particularly important to set the past for this purpose). priorities, in order to plan and carry out the inter- Flooding of basins during the spawning (breeding) ventions according to the most urgent needs. season, was often the main cause of the destruction In both cases, the approach must be preferably mul- and abandoning of nest of whole colonies, espe- tidisciplinary, since the management of wetlands cially for species nesting on small heaps or mud- requires a different training technical cooperation, dy break on water surface (Avocets, Black-winged including production workers in still active sites. Stilts, Common Terns, Little Terns, Kentish Plovers, Prioritization has to start from the list of habita- Black-headed gull). In a few cases, it was possible ts and species characteristic of the Mediterranean to implement specific measures in order to avoid salt marshes and in the Annexes to Directives 92/43 nests flooding. / EEC and 09/179 / EU, as described in paragraph Water input in the spring time, in the recent years, 7.2. The methodology to be followed necessarily is was done always too late; this often implies sub- the IUCN (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-docu- mersion of Avocet nests (these birds lay eggs in the ments/categories-and-criteria). In the case of habitats second half of April), but also affects Black-winged evaluation, also the structure of the habitat should Stilts, Common Terns, Little Terns and Kentish be evaluated, in order to compare the composition Plovers. with the description of the Directive 92/43/EEC, and In some years, it happened that water supply of ba- the presence of priority species or, in general, spe- sins was done in late May resulting in catastrophic cies of conservation concern. consequences for the already laid eggs. Even early

Fig. 38 Mediterranean Gull colony on a bank in the Saltwork of Cervia (ph. F. Borghesi)

50 emptying of saltwork basins (between September and October), generally made after hand harvesting of sea salt, is considered harmful. When water is diverted too early from salt pans, a consistent part of the habitat is ripped away from migrating birds. Lastly early emptying of basins at the end of January determines the improper removal of habitat to induce wintering birds to stop for nesting. Therefore, in order to fa- cilitate migrating and wintering of species of Fig. 39 Common Terns on a small artificial islet in the Saltwork of Comacchio (ph. F. Borghesi) Community importance and conservation con- - the vast majority of colonies on the islets suf- cern, it is necessary to avoid an excessively high wa- fers heavy predation of the Yellow-legged Gull, ter level during autumn-winter time. whilst is protected from land predators; The wintering population of Dunlin, for example, - islets did not guarantee during observational needs laminar waters. period an increase of reproduction success for A careful management of the waters and the water all the target species (only Common Tern has levels, with specific attention to the phenological been breeding success until fledged of young), aspects and integrated by the monitoring and by but certainly, improved life conditions for an the location of the reproductive colonies, is crucial increasing number of growing and surviving for the protection of the avifauna. young; - islets are attractive for birds during the breeding season especially right after their creation and 4.3 Land habitat availability far less in the following one. This finding sugge- sts that vegetation regrowth and bare soil loss, In many saltworks the low availability of suitable reduce attractive value of the islets and impair land surfaces (localized on islet, low muddy heaps colony forming. or embankment predation and disturbances, results in limiting the reproductive performances of the Actions identified to pursue the objectives regar- birdlife. In Cervia saltwork during the last decades, ding the management plan for achieving species such availability has run into a gradual diminution, conservation and increasing biodiversity, are the above all for the reduction of mowing, interven- following: tions on the banks, which allowed the growth of a grassy vegetation and in many places bushy, which - exceptional maintenance work of existing hy- reduced the bare areas. draulic system Islets set in the past in some basins are partial- - maintenance of embankments aimed at species ly eroded by wave energy, flooded or covered by conservation vegetation. Creation of new artificial islets through Action C1 of Life MC-Salt plan gave the opportunity - maintenance of islets aimed at species conserva- to increase land habitats surfaces, specially consti- tion tuted by bare soil. The expected outcome was to - avoiding disturbances to nesting bird colonies achieve a strong incentive for the development of increasing new bird colonies on these islets. - limiting predation on nesting bird colonies Results of the ex post monitoring of the creation of - restrictive actions on Yellow-legged Gull the islets, suggest the following issues (conclusion): - creating of islets revealed useful for the deve- - securing threatening power lines lopment of new breeding colonies, by attracting - control of invasive alien plant species couples of populations already settled down and for some species, also couples not settled - haymaking of habitat 6210 in the saltwork which increased local popula- - haymaking of reeds tion in the past;

51 Fig. 40 Artificial breeding islet with colonial waterbirds in Camargue former saltworks (ph. M. Thibault, Tour du Valat)

- control of the presence of exotic species (exotic 4.4.1 Maintenance of salt water circulation in the Emydidae and Coypu) basins - establishment of a working group (formed by 1 Water circulation in saltwork basins is essential for biologist and 1 technician) for monitoring birdli- the maintenance of proper chemical-physical cha- fe, main threats and critical issues and sizing up racteristics of hyper-saline environments, either for status of colonies. active saltworks or for abandoned ones; it is also - monitoring waters quality essential to maintain non hyperaline environments, such as the first lagoons directly receiving seawater, - monitoring habitat and plant species (with an which are the most important part of the saltworks update of the vegetation and habitat assessment) for submerged macrophytes and fish. - monitoring Fish life The stop of water circulation determines a rapid change of the aforementioned parameters which - monitoring Emys orbicularis population leads to an unavoidable processing of ecological - monitoring target nesting bird species and landscape features. In the absence of continuous circulation of waters, periodical cleaning - monitoring nesting bird species of conservatio- of drain canals and reservoirs bottoms, saltworks nal and management concern evolve in areas ecologically similar to coastal lago- - monitoring migrating bird species and those of ons (ponds), towards a complete coverage of the local particular interest wetland. - monitoring the population of Pipistrellus kuhlii - fruition Plan. 4.4.2 Regulation and monitoring of water levels for bird colonies protection

4.4 Good practices for management aimed at con- A careful management of water levels with respect servation and habitat - species improvement in of the phenological features of populations together the treated saltworks with monitoring and the location of breeding colonies turns out to be of fundamental importance for On completion of the analysis from the available breeding protection. data regarding the management aspects for the Water levels management represents an element of conservation and improvement of habitat and spe- crucial importance for the conservation and imple- cies, it is possible to list and analyze the following mentation of bird biodiversity. key points to achieve for all considered saltworks. It is essential for the conservation of colonial Cha- radriiformes colonies prior to the start of breeding season (reference date 15th of April, with fluctuations of 1-2 weeks in relation to latitude) to complete all basins filling for breeding purposes in order to avoid setting activities on the base of the basins by the time target species arriving from wintering are-

52 as. Therefore, timetabling of basins maintenance The overall extent of different habitats, with parti- procedures, pumping plant and floodgates should cular reference to priority ones, and conservation be planned more consistently with the application status of typical and/or characteristic species and of this statement. of characteristics or intrinsic factors (e.g. Vertical Cooperation and information exchange among salt structure, density, etc.) should be monitored on an producers and observers monitoring bird colonies ongoing basis. is fundamental in order to avoid the destruction of the nests before the basins filling. Habitat monitoring and management should allow In this respect, might be useful limited to the dry acquiring the following information: basins not yet flooded to prevent birds’ settlement through dissuasive (deterrent) mechanism. - surface occupied by habitat and habitat polygons The detailed knowledge of the rising water levels and changes in these parameters; speed is an indispensable element for a production plan compatible with the conservation of bird co- - habitat structures necessary for long term main- lonies. tenance and predictability of its future presence; The great incidence of flooding events of the colonies over target waterbird species populations is so - habitat operation and specific tasks (plant health relevant in a lot of Mediterranean areas, in the Black and physical status, regeneration processes and Sea, but also in the Atlantic European saltworks, viability measurements of typical species, presen- that a monitoring unit is planned to be made up of ce of rare species); one biologist and one technician responsible for monitoring trends of biological components, thre- - presence of typical species (species quantity and ats present in the area and bird settlements in se- coverage). rious danger. It could be repeated here that a complete flooding Monitoring and management of plant varieties of of the islets during winter can prevent its early conservational concern must allow at least the pro- spring use by Yellow-legged Gull. vision of the following information:

- population estimates; 4.4.3 Monitoring water quality - distribution area. Sampling of the principal chemical, physical and biological parameters of the waters during production cycle allows to obtain information regar- 4.4.5 Monitoring of animal populations of species ding water bodies conditions, eutrophication and of Community interest and conservational concern to plan appropriate measures for improving water circulation. Monitoring animal species of conservational con- Sampling should be assigned to qualified person- cern and their management must provide at least nel in order to draw up a plan to gather and analyze the following information: samples and to implement data interpretation, including qualitative and quantitative information on - basic information processes; benthic and fishery communities inside basins and drain canals. - zoocoenosis status; What is/are the objective(s) here? In active saltworks water circulation is driven by salt production and - settlement of characteristic zoocoenosis; not eutrophication. The water quality issue can be important considering the WFD but eutrophication - presence of non-native animal species. has limited (if any) impact on bird colonies. Toxic pollution can be an issue through food chain. In particular, birds monitoring must provide following information:

4.4.4 Monitoring of habitats and plants - ecological distribution within the site and status of nesting waterbirds’ species of community in- Monitoring land habitats with a four or five year interest and conservational concern (census of the tervals, with particular attention to priority habitats, number of colonies during breeding time, addres- provides some indication of expected developmen- sed to standardized protocols); ts and enables emerging of possible change or de- - gradation processes. Even for the monitoring type a - Ecological distribution within the site and know- standard methodology should be drawn up on the ledge of quota used by saltworks in the different basis of air photogrammetric findings updated and periods of the year, with regard to the Ciconiifor- detailed through field measurements. mes, the Phoenicopteriformes, the Anseriformes

53 and Charadriiformes (Census at least monthly, ac- 4.4.8 Maintenance of embankments and islets with cording to standardized protocols). conservation purposes

Herbaceous vegetation on embankments plays 4.4.6 Limiting predation on breeding colonies a key role in anti-erosion measures against atmospheric agents and wave energy and allows some Generally, the spread of predators (foxes, dogs and species (Yellow-legged Gull, Mallard, Shelduck, Avo- cats) in saltwork areas cannot be stopped because cets and the Black-winged Stilt, Redshank) to start the majority of saltwork systems are crossed by ro- nesting and to shelter youngs. The maintenance of ads, either paved or not, that are in connection with a grassy coverage through a low-frequency cut of external areas, and the barriers (barrages) situated the grass and implemented in the most opportu- between them and embankment (dikes) pathways ne moments it is therefore an appropriate annual merely restraint car entrance. For deterrence purpo- practice, up to the extent of preventing the growing ses it is however possible to adopt relatively small of woody plants. Cut of the grass is useful also to fenced areas in strategic locations upon colonies make embankments available, mainly for those pla- distribution over dikes uncrossed by roads and in ced interiorly or run down by paved roads (in the presence of target species colonies, better if nume- later the cut of the grass should be carried out ma- rous should be made whenever feasible. nually therefore, with a higher cost). Grass mowing This can be achieved by the establishment/mainte- at unpaved basins, should be made out of the bree- nance of islets within ponds and can provide suffi- ding season, then by the end of March and after the cient water depth around colony sites. end of July. On paved basins grass-mowing should be repeated on a regular basis even during breeding season in order to keep always low vegetation 4.4.7 Actions against Yellow-legged Gull and prevent setting up of breeding couples along passageways. In saltworks where Yellow-legged Gull is nesting, In areas, highly populated by Yellow-legged Gull, predation of shore birds and gulls species and their grass mowing would represent a deterring impact eggs may be partly counteracted by specific mea- directly (through disturbance) and indirectly (chicks sures which fall outside the scope of the day-to-day would be more exposed to predation and to atmo- saltwork management. These measures are aimed spheric agents). at lowering the amount of breeding couples of Yel- Mowing of vegetation should not be done on habi- low-legged Gull settling down in the site, resulting tats of the Habitat Directive unless a detailed im- in gradual decreasing of local population over time. pact analysis has been performed. Further information regarding management techni- On levees not colonized by vegetation characteri- ques involving Yellow-legged Gull is provided in the stically belonging to priority habitats, measures are guidelines drafted in the context of the LIFE Project aimed to increase bare soil and increase suitable (Serra et al., 2016). nesting areas for some target species. As regards to the proposed feasible and successful- For this purpose, we can alternatively expect: ly applied measures, note should be taken of distur- - cut of the grass/grubbing-up the turf, sod (whe- bances threaten to be conducted during the settle reas sediment is inconsistent) and following by down of couples (from January until March) in all levelling of the site; dikes of the saltworks. We deal with a measure that - laying of sediment, ideally with high drainage can result in the decrease of the number of gull ne- (sand, gravel, shellfish) or loamy (coming from sts, mainly in proximity of colonies of target species, excavations and drainage from the bottom of but even a partial disturbance of wintering starlings the basin). or of other species present in the basins, as well as These measures may be combined with laying salt relocating colonies of gull that are present nearby in large amount, in order to make the soil hypersa- the saltworks. line, hindering ruderal and common plants and fa- The deterrent mechanism can be simply obtained vouring the most halophytic species, typical of the by repeatedly walking the dikes, or with sudden and priority habitats of saltwork. random signals in time and space in order to avoid Herbicide use, even with short term effect, does not either visual (e.g. balloons “helikite” type) or sound appear compatible with conservation purposes, (explosions, alarm calls). Whenever gull population nor with salt production for human use. density is considered to be unacceptable, deterrent In addition to maintaining the ecological characte- measures should consist of destruction of eggs of ristics, it is essential to preserve and protect levees nests both in building phase or of finished ones, and islets which are subject to erosion by water and with the permission of the relevant competent au- atmospheric events. thority.

54 4.4.9 Avoiding disturbances to colonies 4.5.2 Habitat 1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud and sand The disturbance coming from ordinary or extraordinary human working activities inside the saltwor- This habitat needs mudflats, flooded in winter by ks could be extremely harmful when activities are really shallow brackish water and at least occasio- mainly focused on levees or on basins occupied by nally emerged in summer. breeding colonies. Recently this kind of disturbance concern salty basins when some interventions are made in parallel with breeding season (rolling of 4.5.3 Habitat 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows basins bottom, restore of embankment, floodgates (Juncetalia maritimi) check, etc.). Knowing that breeding is concentrated in four mon- This habitat needs substrates with medium-high ths (since April to July), scheduling of interventions sand percentages, flooded with brackish water for would be appropriate in order to avoid breeding medium-long periods. season. In case machinery nuisance or workers’ presence could not be avoided, in work areas adopting measures is preferable to prevent setting of co- 4.5.4 Habitat 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-At- lonies, especially in places previously reported at lantic halophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi) high nesting probability. As regards to the trouble provokes coming from sin- This habitat is very important for many nesting gle visitors or groups, considering the high amount birds. It requires soils flooded in winter with bracki- of wild waterbirds nesting inside the salty basins, sh or salt water (both surface water and water from only pathways along external saltworks perimeter the aquifer outcrop), clayey, from hypersaline to should be allowed and a sustainable touristic im- medium salty, also subject to long periods of desic- pact should be carefully evaluated. cation.

4.5 Sheets of habitat requirements 4.5.5 Habitat 1510* Mediterranean salt steppes (Limonietalia)

4.5.1 Habitat 1150* Coastal lagoons This priority habitat requires salty soils with clay, clay-loam or sandy texture at the edge of the bracki- This priority habitat always requires connections sh wetlands. The soils must be temporarily damp, with the sea, critical to migrating fish and aquatic not normally submerged (except occasionally), but invertebrates and for water quality, and for some strongly affected by the water table of salty waters habitats and species related to the ebb and the flow and affected by a strong drying on summer, with of the tide. salt efflorescence formation. In relation to a series of ecological factors such as salinity and depth of the water, seasonal variations of salinity and depth, kind of the substrates, temperature, coastal lagoons are affected by a diverse vegetation characterized by various phytocoenosis.

5) Legal aspects

5.1 Legislation at national level in the Mediterra- as “site for wildlife protection”. nean countries of Europe In France, the protection of wetlands is incorpora- As shown in the annex I, all the saltworks in the ted into its water legislation. Since 1992, the Water European Union countries are protected as Sites Act aims to protect the water ecosystems and it of Community Importance (future Special Areas provides the establishment of master and detailed of Conservation) under Directive 92/43/EEC and plans about wetlands conservation. This law was as Special Protection Areas under the Directive updated in 2006 by a new law on water and aquatic 09/147/EU. habitats. Objectives of this law includes implemen- Also, the Directive 2000/60/EC “Good-quality water ting new tools against pollution, restore the eco- in Europe” (EU Water Framework Directive) is im- logical quality of watercourses, reinforce local and portant for the protection of saltworks (and of wet- concerted water management, simplify and rein- lands in general), because it aims at protecting “all force water police, take into account adaptation to standing or flowing water on the land's surface” and climate change in water management. So, in France at “restoring the ecosystems in and around these it has been in place the “Third National Action Plan bodies of water”. This Directive has led to the enact- for Wetlands”. The objective of this action plan is to ment of implementing rules at the level of each understand the status of wetlands in France and to country, which positively affect water management develop a strategy for their preservation and resto- and conservation of wetlands, including saltworks. ration. Finally, also other European Directives may positi- The plan encourages actors from different sectors, vely affect the conservation of wetlands, including including water, biodiversity, agriculture, urban saltworks, in particular when it comes to the preven- planning and natural hazards, to work together tion of pollution, such as the Urban Waste Water Di- from the protection and wise, or sustainable, use rective (91/271/EEC), the Nitrates Directive (91/676/ of wetlands. The plan includes actions aimed at EEC), the Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC). strengthening the implementation of the Ramsar Convention. All the Mediterranean countries of Europe subscri- The coastal wetlands have also a specific legisla- bed to the Ramsar Convention for the protection tion, such as the Coastal Planning and Protection of wetlands and almost all the saltworks in these Act (1986) and the Coastal and Lakeside Conser- countries are protected by the rules implementing vancy, affecting especially the activities of the Mu- this Convention at the local level. nicipalities in relation to the conservation of coastal wetlands and areas of relevance to them. Law rela- Also, the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement ted to nature protection was updated in 2016 (Bio- (AEWA), an international framework for the conser- diversity Law). vation of migratory birds and of the wetlands supporting them during their migration, has some posi- In Bulgaria, there is no specific legislation for wet- tive impact on the conservation of saltworks, being land protection and conservation, though wetlands these very important sites for migratory waterbirds. of local, national and international importance are designated as Protected Areas, Nature Reserves Furthermore, the majority of the coastal wetlands, and Ramsar sites. including the saltworks, are legally protected either Principal protection measures in Bulgaria are: as Natural Reserves or Natural Regional Parks. 1. Environmental Protection Act: (No.86/18.10.1991, In Italy, there is a specific legislation for the conser- amended in 1998.) The act regulates collection and vation of landscape of wetlands, established by the provision of information concerning the state of the king law 1497/39, later replaced by the law 42/2004 environment, exertion of control over the state of (Code of Cultural Heritage and Landscape). the environment, terms and procedures of environ- The saltworks are subjected to these environmen- ment impact assessment, planning and implemen- tally protective restrictions. Besides, the saltworks tation of environmental protection activities, and are defined as a “sensitive area”, according to arti- the rights and obligations of central and local au- cle 18 of the law 152/99 (Provisions on water pro- thorities, body's, corporate and physical persons as tection from pollution and implementation of Di- regards to environmental protection. It’s in accord rective 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste water to European legislation. treatment and Directive 91/676/EEC concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by ni- 2. Protected Areas Act: (Ministry of Environment trates from agricultural sources) and it is protected and Water. 1998.) The Act regulates the establish-

57 ment and maintenance of a national network of nian Ramsar Site and Important Bird Area (IBA). protected areas, determines the institutions re- The Spatial Planning Act of Slovenia is of large im- sponsible for the general management, monitoring portance for the conservation of biodiversity. The and security coverage of the protected areas, and principles of sustainable use are covered in funda- lists the rights and obligations of the physical and mental programme documents such as the Natio- juridical persons in this regard. Section 6: Protected nal Environmental Action Programme, the Strate- Sites- Article 33 (Rufino et al., 2002). gy of Economic Development of Slovenia, and the Development of Strategy of Slovene Agriculture In Bulgaria land use is also ruled by various levels etc. Both saltworks in Slovenia are protected under of jurisdiction and instruments, which do affect the separate decree which has to be taken under con- status of the saltworks. saltworks in Pomorie are sideration when planning any land-use activities. under the jurisdiction of general land use laws and However, the discrepancy between the principles also through a variety of Public Administration De- and actual situation in the provision of support to partments and Environmental Authorities (Rufino conserve cultural landscape and biodiversity can- et al., 2002). Existing saltworks are within Pomorie not be ignored. Lake protected site and these are protected even Both saltworks in Slovenia are under jurisdiction of though private lands. In the past there used to exist the central government. The Government of Slove- so called urban saltworks that were outside of the nia has issued a concession for production of salt existing protected site and within urban boundaries and management of the saltwork to the salt-ma- of Pomorie town. These were totally destroyed by king company. The management of both saltworks private owners and municipality after restoring pri- has to be in line with the regulations written in the vate ownership in 1990s. Now these are turned in decree of designation of the Landscape Park (Rufi- residential tourist area – blocks of flats and hotels. no et al., 2002).

In Spain, the Water Act (1985), the Coastal Zone Act In Croatia, there are two main nature protection le- (1988) and the Natural Areas and Wild Flora and gislation: the Nature Protection Act (80/2013) and Fauna Conservation Act (1989) are important for the Strategy and Action Plan for the Protection of the wetlands conservation. The first provides for Biological and Landscape diversity of the Republic the evaluation of all activities that may affect the of Croatia (143/08). The first provides that wetlands conservation of wetlands and also the protection represent natural assets that should therefore be of a buffer area around them. The second incorpo- conserved in a natural state or in a near-nature rate all the coastal wetlands into the State public state; it deals also with the quality of water and maritime domain. The third requires the basin au- the biological minimum of water in the wetlands. thorities to plan the conservation of wetlands and The second gives many aims for the conservation provides that the State shall draw up an inventory and wise management of wetlands and provide to of wetlands. undertake measures aimed at conserving wetland habitats, such as strengthen the institutional fra- In case of Greece, it has started to identify natural mework of the water management sector and na- areas of ecological importance (forests, wetlands, ture protection sector with regard to protection of etc.) more than 60 years ago, to and placed them aquatic habitats and in particular wetland habitats under special protection measures as Natura 2000 or develop water management plans and concept sites. The Ministry of Environment, Physical plan- solutions for the maintenance of drainage basins, ning and Public works is responsible for the areas and incorporate nature protection requirements under legal protection. and measures therein or adopt management plans All working saltworks are notified as Important Bird for the protected areas and ecological network sites Areas (IBA). In all saltworks hunting is prohibited including aquatic ecosystems. (Wildlife refuge) although it is not always respected due to lack of surveillance.

In Slovenia, the Environmental Protection Act (pas- sed in 1993) represents the regulatory system for both, environmental protection and nature conservation. A Nature Conservation Act has been adopted in 1999 which, among other provisions, established a legal basis for integration of nature conservation principles into other sectors. National Biodiversity Strategy of Slovenia (2002) sets out conservation objectives and directions for different ecosystems, including wetlands. There are two saltworks in Slo- venia and both are protected as Landscape Park and Secoveljske Soline is listed as the first Slove-

58 5.2 Is salt production an agricultural or indu- saltwork activities as agricultural activities and salt strial activity? plans and agri-environmental sites.

According to the Italian geographer Alberto Mori (1950), salt production is like agriculture: it follows 5.3 The need of a European Directive for wet- the rhythm of seasons and it is labour-intensive. lands protection and the regulation of production (salt, fish, etc.) in wetland The more than 170 saltworks of the Mediterrane- an are situated in 18 countries. Of the 90 still active Each country has specific laws on the management saltworks, 75% are located in northern and central and conservation of forests. This is because the fo- Mediterranean countries, Spain, Greece, Italy, Fran- rests have always been recognized as a value, eco- ce and Portugal constitute 77%, while the remai- nomic and environmental. ning countries have fewer than 10 active saltworks Undoubtedly the forests are more resilient than each. (Crisman, 1999) wetlands, but it is undeniable that decades of ma- In Europe regarding the classification of saltwor- nagement, guided by precise rules, has led the wo- ks there’s not a unified judgement/opinion. For ods to a state of generally better preservation than example, in Bulgaria and Italy salt production is to the wetlands. Forest management is everywhere considered industrial activity, while in France salt entrusted to national, regional, local offices, with production is an agricultural activity (according specific responsibilities and guaranteed funding. to the interpretation of article L 311-1 of the rural Instead, the regulatory framework for wetlands is law). In Bulgaria salt production is considered as quite varied and uneven. Wetlands are seldom re- a part of chemical industry, including the sea salt cognized as a value, economic or environmental production by evaporation. Study for proposing causes in the legacy of centuries of fear towards inclusion of sea salt production in the Agro-envi- malaria and misery which those who lived near ronment Program was made by Salt of LIFE project these areas were subject. at Atanasovsko Lake but these are in consultation The national laws implementing the Ramsar with Agriculture Ministry and it is not likely to be Convention, do not provide in many cases a suffi- approved since salt mining is not declared agricul- ciently strong legal framework, they often only take tural activity. up the general contents of the Convention and do In order to be able to develop common European not outline specific procedures, obligations, man- guidelines and management models for the main- datory management models. tenance and preservation of salworks and salt pro- Many habitats and species of wetland areas are in- duction, it is important to have a unified classifica- cluded in Directive 92/43/EEC and Directive 09/147/ tion of the salt production areas. EC, but this is still not enough. Mediterranean saltworks are both highly modified About the conservation of wetlands, the Directive natural and created coastal ecosystems. saltworks 2000/60/EC aims to establish a framework to pre- are integrated ecosystems that can effectively pro- vent “further deterioration and protects and enhan- duce an economically viable product while serving ces the status of aquatic ecosystems and, with re- a critical role in nature conservation and biodiver- gard to their water needs, terrestrial ecosystems and sity (Korovessis and Lekkas, 1999). In addition, sal- wetlands directly depending on the aquatic ecosy- tworks are part of the cultural heritage of the Medi- stems” (art. 1) and it invites the Member States to terranean and when properly managed, play an im- adopt the “recreation and restoration of wetlands portant and sustainable socioeconomic role at the areas” (annex II, part B, point vii); it also provides a family and village scale. With proper management strong monitoring system (art. 8), but it is not dea- of the hydrology, water is available to these ecosy- ling directly and specifically with the management stems throughout the dries portions of the year, the of water and of wetlands for nature conservation, unpredictable and usually dry spring and summer. providing obligations and regulatory instruments. The food web that tolerates the elevated salinity of Even if it introduces a further planning system (art. saltworks and saltworks can be highly productive 13), at river basin level, it does not provide metho- and provide a key food source for a wide variety of dologies and strategies for the active conservation resident and migratory birds (Britton and Johnson, of wetlands and does not establish a precise veri- 1987; Sadoul et al., 1998, Crisman et al, 2008). fication system through indicators, which is only The related salt production activities should be aimed (art. 4, par. 6, lett. b). restricted in order to assure the maintenance of The abandonment of the management, in the spe- the habitats. In order to enable the availability of cific context of environments completely artificial funds for the maintenance of the production and in their dynamics, where wetlands cannot renew this way also the sites, the agricultural funds could itself, can be devastating. The quality of water is provide a solution for the owners of the Salt pans often steadily, unstoppable deterioration. The re- to develop and maintain the saltworks in a sustai- clamation of marginal areas, often not even suffi- nable way. The possibility for the eligibility of agri- ciently recognized as wetlands (such as temporary cultural development funds is the consideration of ponds) is relentlessly, also in protected areas and

59 Natura 2000 sites. fish farming or fishing and salt, always with the A European directive would absolutely be needed objective of ensuring the conservation of the na- for the management and conservation of wetlands, tural heritage. both from a naturalistic point of view (only in part In this framework, therefore, many of the claims of coincident with Natura 2000 legal framework), these guidelines and management model could both from a production point of view, from the find the necessary legal force, sometimes not gua- major productions which wetlands are suited, i.e. ranteed by Natura 2000.

Fig. 41 Temporary salt pond in the Ebro Delta (ph. M. Costa)

60 6) Costs for biodiversity conservation

6.1 The cost analysis in all possible cases of indu- 6.1.2 Artisanal production strial production / artisanal production / environmental management / abandonment The artisanal extraction of the salt has higher production costs, due to the amount of hand works. The product, therefore, have to be sold at a higher 6.1.1 Industrial production price. However, as evident for example in Cervia, the appeal of the salt produced by hand and its The industrial production has lower production co- best organoleptic qualities, combined with appro- sts compared to artisanal production, so the propriate marketing campaigns, further higher the pri- duct has a lower price on the market. ce, up to substantially exceed the net revenue pos- However, industrial production has higher environ- sible with industrial production. mental costs, because the industrial saltworks are The production per square meter, however, is less attractive for water birds and, in general, are lower, but the artisanal saltworks have a much hi- home to less biodiversity, because of the higher di- gher natural value, they are good sites for resting, sturbance and of the more simplified environment. nesting and wintering water birds and they are fi- This last aspect, associated to aesthetics and land- nally, optimal sites in which to develop forms of scape less attractive, is making the industrial sal- tourism related to the observation of nature and to tworks distinctly less popular tourist sites, where the rediscovery of traditional crafts related to the it is, therefore, more difficult to start the develop- processing of salt. ment of alternative activities to the simple pro- Fishing and fish farming are as good as previously duction of salt. expressed for the industrial saltworks. Fishing can be carried out in the storage basins, so Artisanal production can be supported by smart extensive fish farming. The intensive (and semi-in- strategies for marketing: “authenticity and sustai- tensive or semi-extensive) fish farming does not nability”, as an added value to salt production seem, however, compatible, as the quality of the (Hueso, 2014). waters in which it is conducted is often likely to put The experience of SMES company in Spain is very at risk the production of salt for food. interesting, as following shown in this abstract of the article of Hueso (2014):

Fig. 42 Impact on landscape and on birds of intensive fish ponds in the Comacchio lagoon (ph. M. Costa)

61 Fig. 43 The salt shop of the Saltwork of Cervia (ph. M. Costa)

“Economic sustainability Authenticity Salt, being a cheap commodity, does not offer much margin for profit and salt making companies often Salt making sites in Spain face an additional challen- need to search for additional activities that may con- ge that may be foreign to salt making sites in other tribute to raise their profits. This is especially true in countries. How to stand out amidst the almost 1,000 the case of artisanal salinas, which are labour inten- saltscapes that the country hosts? Of course, many sive and therefore have high costs. Artisanal salinas of these sites are virtually invisible and a working are usually open for visitors and many of them offer site, whether actively producing salt or not, will only specific services and products for them, whether they need to “compete” with a few dozens of sites. A lar- are actively producing salt or not. Furthermore: ga- ge enough number, anyway, to be a legitimate issue stronomy, added value of produced salt, spa and of concern. It is clear that, in order to stand out, one wellness. has to build up an identity, to create a sense of belonging to the community, the area, it is attached to. Social sustainability This is where the concept of strategy becomes truly Artisanal-like salinas are labour intensive production relevant. The key to a solid identity and a firm sense sites with a high degree of specialisation and need to of belonging lies in authenticity and has to be taken rely on well trained and strongly motivated human into account at strategic level. resources. Identity that is rooted on authenticity may be achie- Art with salt: by soaking a wooden frame in brine and ved by simply acknowledging the specific features letting it dry. of the salt produced on the site. If the salt is not refined, the presence of specific micronutrients or Environmental sustainability certain physic-chemical properties may contribute - Salinas are extraordinary examples of cultural to highlight the uniqueness of the salt. Other salts landscapes with a valuable natural heritage. The claim to be especially appropriate for blending with presence of water gives them the consideration of specific food items (meat, fish, vegetables…) due to semi-natural or artificial wetlands, which provide their composition or structure. Labelling the salt in important ecosystem services: a trustworthy manner will contribute to strengthen - biodiversity; the sense of authenticity. The use of quality seals, - environmental education; especially when approved by independent panels - volunteering. or relevant institutions also contributes to build trust among customers and the general public.

62 Measures that can be taken on site are linking the 6.1.3 Environmental management salt to the local natural and cultural heritage, such as the above mentioned “salt from natural protected The only environmental management, if proper- areas”, although it would have been better if it this ly conducted, is of course the one that guarantees label would have specified the names of the areas. the presence of the optimal conditions for the diffe- Another example is the salt produced in historical rent species of water birds, as well as for the other site (e.g. built by the Romans). forms of plant and animal life. The cost to society The most powerful tool to create a sense of belon- is high, but these saltworks (or, better, hyperali- ging is letting visitors and customers to produce their ne ponds) represent ideal destinations for tourists own salt. Being able to experience the rough task who seek contact with nature (in this case, howe- of salt making and the satisfaction of bringing your ver, are less important the links with the activities own harvested salt home creates a bond with the site of the past). In other words, these saltworks produ- that cannot be matched by any other form of passive ce hyperaline habitats, characteristic of the natural communication. sea coasts of the Mediterranean, but today almost Other events, such as cultural shows on site of the re- everywhere disappeared due to the development enactment of historical forms of salt making such as of tourism along the sea shores. The management “Salt Fairs” are other options to create identity”. can decide which habitats favour, according to the conservation priorities for vegetation, flora, fauna. It could be a great idea to organize an International The fishing can be conducted in the accumulation Salt Fair, as a following of the LIFE Mc-Salt, for basins, which in a normal environmental manage- example in Cervia, which has good organizational ment are transformed to all the effects in lagoons. and logistical potential for events like these. Even the extensive fish farming can be conducted, while the intensive (and semi-intensive or semi-ex- The same possibilities of give added value for a tensive) fish farming involves a degradation of wa- more economically sustainable production of salt ter that will not be compatible with a naturalistic has been shown for Greece (Korovessis et al., 2014): management purposes.

“The wetland function of solar saltworks, in con- Also, the environmental management can give an nection with the historical value of salt, give rise to economic value, as in the case of Aigues-Mortes many additional to salt production ways of solar sal- (Séjourné, 2014): “The company Salins du Midi sin- tworks exploitation. ce 2006 has implemented many actions to conserve that biodiversity especially on the Aigues-Mortes salt 1. salt museums are created to exhibit to the general production site: public the salt production methods and techniques along with the cultural values of the salt making sites. - the creation of 45 nesting islets; - the restoration of 20 reproduction sites; 2. birdwatcher organizations visit solar saltworks at - the creation and maintenance of 200 artificial nests specific seasons for avifauna observation and recor- to attract Greater Flamingos; ding. That develops strong waves of eco-tourism in - the installation of replicas to attract birds; solar saltworks that furthermore affects the nearby local economy and development.

3. the brine of solar saltworks’ evaporating ponds is widely used for therapeutic baths and also the mud from their bottom is used for therapeutic and cosmetic purposes (cellulite treatment).

4. Products of high commercial value can be produced in solar saltworks such as ß-carotene, Ar- temia and cosmetics.

5. Solar saltworks are used for environmental education by environmental education centres (EEC) established by solar saltworks companies or by local authorities”. Fig. 44 Construction of false nest to attract breeding flamingos in Camargue (ph. J. Jalbert, Tour du Valat)

63 - actions to limit the disturbance by the Yellow-leg- lagoon (described in many analytical and program- ged Yellow-legged Gull (temporarily installing a matic documents of the LIFE project partners), when footbridge, connecting the islet to a dyke, in order the contact with the sea or with inland water courses to allow the passage of predators; to scare the co- remain open. If the disused saltwork (or parts there- lonies of Gulls at the time of their installation from of), however, has no direct contact with the sea, there January to March with periodic ‘frights’ carried out will be a gradual evolution towards mudflats or sandy by the installation of an inflatable automatic devi- moist in winter and dry in summer, often with crusts ce called the Scarey-Man®); of salt, meadows of Limonium (Limonietalia). If the salt - the elimination of invasive plants; is very close to the sea and can receive irregular water - burying electrical cables; from groundwater or sea salt water from the surface - hydraulic restoration works; during storms or high tides, the development will be to - prevention initiatives in the work schedules so as a natural brackish water marsh, with interesting vege- not to disturb the birds and destroy the plants; tation (Salicornietea fruticosae) and especially suitable - protection barriers for protected flora; habitats for the nesting of some species of water birds. - collection of waste; Fishing can be conducted in the saltworks (or parts) - limiting visits. that develop into lagoon environments. The fish farming requires constant management of the basin and, This type of ecological management allows for the deve- therefore, is not attributable to a real "abandonment". lopment of several economic activities: - t increases the positive image of the company and 6.1.5 Some examples of environmental manage- its products; ment costs - it is also a selling point in the framework of calls for tenders; Etangs et marais des salins de Camargue was in- - the commitment to the Natura 2000 charter allows cluded in the Salin de Giraud saltworks until 2008, an exemption from the land tax; when the company Groupe Salins decided to sale - since 2009 the company has developed an ecotou- parts of its property to Conservatoire du littoral na- rism activity on the Aigues-Mortes site with a new tional agency. Land transfer, including 5400 ha of 3-hour 4-wheel drive guided tour to discover the saltworks, was made from 2008 to 2012. While salt specific landscapes and the nature of the salt-mar- production is currently maintained on the 7000 ha shes; that are still property of the company, it is abando- - the ecological management allows for a fishing ned in the perimeter purchased by Conservatoire activity to fish and Artemia salina shellfish; du littoral (one clause included by the salt company - salt-marshes can also support new technology, like in the land sale contract, do not allow to continue a new High Frequency Surface Wave Radar able to salt production). Management objectives set by new monitor maritime zones up to 200 nautical miles off the coast; - studies are still being carried out in order to develop new economic activities such as the production and use of the algae Dunaliella salina full of carotenoids”.

6.1.4 Total abandonment

Finally, the abandonment. This has not, of course, costs immediate, because there is no management, but may result in the medium to long-term, especially if the abandonment had not been pre- ceded by a reconstruction of the natural dynamics, much higher costs for society, because of the possible environmental degradation. The latter is not granted. Ine- vitably, however, is the loss of the characteristics of saltworks, with a gradual, progressive reduction of the salinity of the water and a tendency to the affirmation of the Fig. 45 Sluice construction in Camargue (ph. P. Rigaud, Parc naturel regional de Camargue)

64 owner and site managers of these former saltworks include adaptation to coastal retreat, hydrological and ecological restoration of coastal lagoons, restoration of coastal habitats and improvement of breeding conditions of colonial waterbirds. One of the main consequences of the land transfer was the considerable change in the water management. With the removal of most of the pumping stations by the Groupe Salins company, water circulation is now almost strictly gravitational. Some dykes and sluice gates inherited from the salt production period are Fig. 47 Flamingo breeding islet construction in Camargue no longer adapted to the new situation, thus im- (ph. A. Arnaud, Tour du Valat) portant hydraulic infrastructures investments have been made, most of which in the frame of the LIFE On the other hand, the renaturation process implies MC-SALT project, to address the conservation and to abandon coastal defence infrastructures. This restoration objectives defined for the site. From 2011 adaptive strategy now leads to the natural restora- to 2015, construction of new hydraulic infrastructu- tion of beaches in areas where this ecosystem had res and adaptation of existing ones were made at a previously completely disappeared because coastal total cost of over 385,000 euros. defence infrastructures were impeding the natu- These costs include hydraulic infrastructures aimed ral retreat of the coastline. This innovative strategy at reconnecting the former saltworks to surrounding avoids the continuation of very costly investment wetlands and infrastructures and channel dredging and maintenance works, that were estimated at aimed at improving sea water circulation within the 546,000 € per year between 1986 and 1999 for Salin former saltworks, hence restoring ecological corri- de Giraud only (Sabatier & Suanez 1999). More re- dors and fish migrations. They also include works cently, it was estimated that coastal defence works made locally to repair and enhance dykes in order to for both Salin de Giraud and Aigues-Mortes cost a to- avoid summer flooding, thus restoring suitable con- tal of 824,000 € / year (Chassain 2010). Furthermore, ditions for the restoration of temporary saltmarshes. this strategy means that there is no longer ecological impacts related to rock quarry operations and rock transport from the mining area to the saltwork coast. Other costs reductions resulting from the new water management include those related to pumping operations and pumping station maintenance, that are nowadays non-existent but were estimated at 60,000-90,000€/year if minimal pumping and pump maintenance were to be maintained on site (Groupe Salins comm. pers.). Effective personal and operating costs related to the management of the former saltworks, including water and biodiversity management, ecological monitoring, communication and administrative reporting, but not including costs related to specific projects and scientific research, were estimated at 238,400 € (44 €/ha) in 2014 and 282,000 € (52 €/ha) in 2015. For the saltwork of Comacchio it was drafted an assessment of costs of maintaining the functionality Fig. 46 Channel dredging in Camargue former saltworks of a part of the overall salting system, aimed at the (ph. P. Rigaud, Parc naturel regional de Camargue) production of brines to maintain the hyperaline habitats, so important for the conservation of certain Other investments were focused on the conserva- species of algae, plants, invertebrates, birds (inclu- tion of colonial waterbirds. One breeding islet co- ding the Greater Flamingo). vering 552m2 at its base and 157 m2 at its top was To this end, it was also made a LIFE project that in- constructed for avocets, terns and gulls at a cost of volved the construction of a small artisanal saltwork 22,000 euros. Other works included the construction for sustainable exploitation of the salt anyhow pro- of a new islet covering 5060 m2 for Greater Flamingo, duced by the naturalistic management and partial accompanied with dykes erasure (1810 m2), sedi- reduction of the management costs. However, it nement digging (17000 m2) and related infrastructure ver managed to start the extraction of salt and the works, for a total cost of 180,000 euros. saltwork is managed, with great difficulty, not least These are important investments that are aimed to the economic sustainability of operations, given so- Fig. 45 Sluice construction in Camargue (ph. P. Rigaud, Parc naturel regional de Camargue) be relevant in the long term restoration of the site. lely naturalistic.

65 For the saltwork of Cervia has been determined the see section 6.1.5 about the costs for the maintenance energy required for the management of the flows of of the Marais et Camargue saltwork), but the revenue water aimed at the industrial production of salt, for guaranteed by the production of salt not only offset the preparation of a LIFE project (not financed), ai- the expense, but it allows an income that can be rein- med at reducing the production costs through the vested in environmental management of the saltwork. use of energy from renewable sources, such as sun and wind. The budget 2013 of the Molentargius saltwork Natu- In the saltwork of Cervia the production it is still acti- ral Park is: ve, both industrial production as well as artisanal A) Incoming production. The cost of industrial salt (though first- class salt) is 1.40 EUR per kilogram for the type inte- Revenue from contributions 2.231.414,00 € gral coarse-grained, whose price rose to 4.20 € per and transfer of current expenditures kilogram if packaged in the traditional jute bag. The by the State, the Region and salt in medium-fine grain has a price of 1.85 € per other public authorities kilogram, which rose to 4.50 € in the manufacture of Other 12.000,00 € jute. These two types are produced with industrial methods, albeit of high quality. However, the artisa- Total Incoming 2.243.414,00 € nal salt is by far the most expensive, with a price of 4.67 € per kilogram in the plastic bag and even of B) Costs of management 2.792.506,25 € 7.34 € per kilogram in jute bag. Sea salt from the kitchen “normal” costs from 0.19 to Comparing the operating expenses of these two 0.50 € per kilogram. Italian saltworks per unit area, it is clear that the productive management of Cervia salt is 1.987,00 Therefore, the artisanal production, together with a €/ha (but it guarantees an inflow of 2.159,00 €/ha), very good product and a good marketing allow to while the environmental management of saline of increase the price of 3.800%. Molentargius is 1.745,00 €/ha (fully covered by pu- Finally, the visitor centre of the saltwork of Cervia blic bodies). has more than 50,000 visitors each year and the proceeds generated from this flow of tourists, if proper- 6.2 Ecosystem services of saltworks ly exploited, could result in additional revenue for the management of the same saltwork. An average Ecosystem functions refer to potential services, or to expenditure of 5.00 € per person, determines an esti- the ecosystems capacity to provide services, while mate revenue of 250,000.00 €. the concept of ecosystem services entails that these The number of visitors could further increase and have current value for society (Gómez-Baggethun & de is closely linked to a better environmental manage- Groot, 2010) and saltworks are giving provisioning ser- ment of the saltwork. vices (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2011). Analysing the list of categories of environmental bene- The budget 2013 of the saltwork of Cervia shows fits (DoE, 1996), it is easy to note how many (all) of them these entries: are provided by saltworks: Use values A) Incoming (Production Value) 1) Revenues from 1.752.213,00 € Direct use values ± goods and services directly consu- sales and services med by users, for example: 2) Other revenues and income 33.893,00 € - products (e.g. edible, ornamental, construction, me- Total Incoming 1.786.106,00 € dicinal) (Production Value) - recreation - waste assimilation B) Costs of Production - research 1) Raw materials, consumables 383.356,00 € - education 2) Services 485.380,00 € 3) Use of third party assets 8.876,00 € Indirect use values ± indirect benefits arising from wet- 4) Staff 637.119,00 € land functions, for example: 5) Depreciation and Amortization 123.163,00 € - biological support ± links to other species and habitats 6) Inventories of raw -16.844,00 € - physical protection (e.g. coastal defence function) materials and products - global life support ± functions which help to support 7) Other operating expenses 22.423,00 € life on earth Total Production Costs 1.643.473,00 € Non-use values This budget shows a surplus of 142.633,00 €. Of Option value ± the value individuals place on expected course, the production costs are much higher than future use and indirect use of the components of eco- hypothetical environmental management cost (e.g. logical systems

66 Quasi-option value ± the value arising from expected gh their salt museums, as areas for environmental new information which will arise from the conservation education sensible (Neves et al., 2005; Crisman et al. of bio-diversity for future use. 2009; Petanidou, 2009; Petanidou & Dalaka, 2009). Petanidu and Dalaka (2009) underline “the brilliant Existence value ± a range of values, encompassing paradigm” of Guérande (Brittany, W. France), to pro- aesthetic and cultural aspects, arising from some or ve in practice these possibilities, as described by all of the following human motivations: Perraud (2002). - bequest motives ± preservation for future generations - stewardship motives ± preservation for its own sake For the site of Ribeira de Aljezur the following ecosy- - altruism ± preservation so that it is available for others stem services have been identified (Dolores Coelho - Q-Altruism ± the belief that organisms have intrin- et al., 2014-2): landscape beauty, recreation, biodi- sic rights versity, riverline flood regulation, subsistence for fish and for birds, research, carbon sequestration, envi- Non-anthropocentric values ronmental education and water quality. Intrinsic value ± organisms have a worth of their own The same Authors, show about environmental edu- regardless of human perceptions. cation a particular aspect of saltworks, as a perfect The identification of ecosystem services in the sal- place to show a “sustainable activity”: “Do we want tworks that can be monetized is important both to to teach our children about the world and nature wi- make economically sustainable production of salt in thout having that pristine nature to show them? That the salt production, or to raise funds to continue to is precisely why the maintenance of sites like solar sal- manage the abandoned saltworks. tworks need to be preserved and developed, to serve as examples of man-made activities that still respect The appreciable characteristics of saltworks land- and keep nature intact. Where birds nest while just be- scapes and the rich biodiversity (birds, in particular) side them, men work and plants still grow strong with are perfect for sustainable tourism. The historical the input of that work” (Dolores Coelho et al., 2014-2). saltworks, with rich traditions, well preserved as saltworks are one of the best examples of sustai- wetland habitats, are sites of special cultural value, nable activities. of natural interest, perfect for birdwatching, but also as landscapes for recreation, as evocative sites for a This table of Zeno (2014) resumes the main ecosy- special gastronomy, as places of knowledge throu- stem services provided by the saltworks:

The territorial value of sea salt production

Extractive use value Salt

encompasses direct use of biological Salty water used for thermals resources, for either production or consumption Algae for medical use

Brine shrimps

Biotech

Employment Non-extractive value Recreation/Tourism

use entails use value without extracting Education and Research the resource (‘indirect’ use), either for production or consumption Employment opportunities Ecosystem services Non-use value Spiritual, historical or cultural value

encompass value that is not derived from Existence value use Option value

Bequest value

67 The same Author expresses clear concepts on su- The role of saltworks must be highlighted, empha- stainability of salt production: “Salt production, en- sized, through a public awareness campaign, fol- suring the durability of the economic value of biodi- lowing the tips of Zeno (2014): versity in the solar saltworks, allows the maintenance - more attention to the multi-functionality of sea salt; of a constant balance between resources and the economic value obtained. - greater attention to the importance of salt pro- Sea salt is a non-toxic product and necessary to life, duction for employment and sustainable land The production of sea salt establishes a very specific use (eco-tourism, museum tours and thermal ba- ecosystem, the same for each marine saltworks, who- ths, etc.); se biodiversity is a source of new features, services - more attention to the interaction between salt and products for the benefit of the territory, and ecosystems; The life cycles associated with salt production, its ecosystem services and the goods provided by biodi- - greater attention to the importance of salt manage- versity remain the same over time and space, ment in ensuring maintenance of the ecosystem; The production of salt is an activity with low environ- - greater attention to the role of producer of “public mental impact. good”; Therefore, the saltworks: - more attention at the quality of the product; - guarantee, protect and renew natural resources and biodiversity, while enhancing the environment - more attention to the history of sea salt; as “distinctive” of the territory (environmental su- - more attention to the needs of sea salt pro- stainability), duction. - produce and maintain maximum added value wi- In Gruissan, the sea and the sun are still the main ele- thin the territory, combining resources effectively in ments which currently attract most of summer tou- order to enhance the specificity of the products and rists, even if the beach tourism shows a progressive local services. And itself a source of new economic crisis. In fact, at the same time, the public’s interest resources from the local services provided by biodi- is growing for the holidays in a natural environment, versity (economic sustainability), where benefit of relative calm, a protected natural - guarantee conditions of human welfare (security, environment, to complete the kind of holiday offe- health, education) equally distributed among clas- red by most resorts, ideal for the typical tourist who ses and gender (social sustainability)”. goes to Narbonne.

Fig. 48 The visitor centre of the Saltwork of Cervia (ph. Parco Delta del Po Archive)

68 The quality and the conservation of coastal zones to allow for the development of natural ecosystems behind the dunes (ponds, wetlands) are guaranteed and the settlement of water birds). by the institution of the Regional Park and the reco- The landscape and the natural values are all the gnition as Ramsar area. The national and internatio- more important when the saltworks are located near nal recognitions of the environment are, therefore, major tourist destinations, usually linked to seaside a done deal, but it is now up to the authorities and tourism, as an important additional or alternative tour operators to work to develop a valid offer, pro- tourist resource, helping to improve the perception ceeding with an approach to sustainable tourism, of the tourist area and, as evidenced hereinafter, which will help to face the difficulties of the classic also improving the quality of coastal marine waters. beach tourism. This involves the participation of all stakeholders in tourism, but also for all managers In fact, the saltworks are important for the develop- and users of natural spaces. ment of algae and plankton and benthos, components critical to the balance of the lagoon and sur- In Pomorie the areas surrounding the lake and the rounding marine ecosystems and even more as a saltwork are used for beach tourism and also for the strategic site for the natural treatment of nutrients wine tourism. The lake in itself is also used for green and other contaminants, through natural biological tourism. processes of ecosystem able to reduce the load of pollutants to coastal areas. In Cervia the saltwork is very close to the important About this issue, Crisman, Takavakoglou, seaside town and it is important as a destination for Alexandridis, Antonopoulos and Zalidis (2009), write: nature tourism, connected to the beach tourism. As “Numerous saltworks have been abandoned throu- described previously, the visitor centre of the sal- ghout the Greek islands and mainland as operations twork houses about 50,000 visitors each year. have decreased in number and increased in size. Such The seaside town has, moreover, undertaken for se- areas have great potential for serving the broader so- veral decades a conversion of traditional beach tou- ciety if rehabilitated correctly. Changes in landscape rism towards a tourism more and more “green”, con- uses recently, especially agricultural practices and centrating not only on the saltwork, but also on the rapid expansion of vacation homes and resorts in the wide coastal pine forests and on the conservation of islands, have increased nutrient and sediment loa- the few remaining dune edges. ding to coastal bays. Previously, streams were diverted around saltworks on the coast to avoid contami- The salt itself is the first ecosystem service made nation of the salt produced. Rehabilitation of saltwor- from the active saltworks, whether industrial and ks to accept stream input has great potential to treat artisanal. nutrient and other contamination from the landscape Sea salt, unlike the mineral salt, is undoubtedly a su- via natural biological processes of the ecosystem, stainable product and its extraction is not, in fact, a thus reduce loading to coastal areas and potential real mining or, at least, is clearly different from most contamination of resort beaches. Successfully reha- other mining activities, since the product it is com- bilitated saltworks will also provide enhanced nature pletely renewable. conservation areas that can become part of regional The secondary products, such as mud or salts used networks of ecotourism opportunities. in industry, are other kind of ecosystem services. However, rehabilitation and use of saltworks in this regard requires careful planning. This must include a The saltworks also play an important role as an area continuous loop of biomonitoring and management, of growth for some fish species of economic value, with a preparedness to modify management practi- which come in the saltworks during youth to grow, ces in the light of the biological results”. such as eel, sand smelt and mullets. They are also an important site for breeding, resting Modern tourism is increasingly turning to areas that and wintering water birds, which can be the subject can offer not only a tourism product, but a real life of leisure activities, such as the absolutely sustai- experience. Thus, tourists are looking for complex nable birdwatching or the less sustainable hunting. territories, rich in history, culture, nature, gastronomy. The green tourism depends directly from birdwa- saltworks give all these offers. tching and it is linked also to the presence of interesting and evocative landscape, the possibility of So, the saltworks can be tourist destinations them- making excursions in the natural environment and selves, or act as a complement to traditional tourist of enjoying the observation of the natural heritage offer, in view of the continued upward trend of gre- in general. en tourism (UNWTO, 2006; Khoo-Lattimore, 2011, This is, from the economic point of view, probably Ballantyne et al., 2011) and the tourism can be an the second largest service rendered by saltworks, in important added value for the salt production, as particular by the artisanal ones and, more impor- in many cases, such as the Peixe Rei saltworks in tantly, by those managed just for naturalistic purpo- Portugal (Dolores Coelho, 2014-3) or the Sečovlje ses or those abandoned (if the natural evolution is saltworks in Slovenia (Glavaš & Kovač, 2014).

69 6.3 The analysis of possible revenue from tradi- making the basins used for breeding or the poten- tional activities (salt) and alternative / innovati- tial introduction of exotic species for the purpose ve activities (fishing, fish farming, Artemia, ha- livestock (e.g Japanese tiger prawn). lophilic bacteria and archaea, mud, brine, other Creating the right conditions for introduced species types of salts, etc.) is one thing, but confining them to a given number of lagoons is more difficult, especially in an intricate Many aspects of the potential activities listed and di- saline ecosystem (Walmsley, 2000). scussed in the following paragraphs require further In addition, aquaculture conducted in a manner experiments and a detailed assessment of their im- fully sustainable from the environmental point of pact both on the salt production and on the biodiver- view, it is almost always poorly sustainable from the sity conservation. economic point of view. This usually takes the need Only for fishing and fish farming there are more in- to transform extensive aquaculture in intensive formation, the second activity showing, anyway, an aquaculture. The intensive aquaculture in addition almost total incompatibility. to those already highlighted has some more serious elements of environmental degradation, such as the need of technological and logistical greatest impact 6.3.1 Fishing and fish farming plants, the use of artificial feed, the high density of animals raised and the consequent increase of nu- In the Salines de Gruissan eel fishing is considered a trients in waters of the saltworks and the inevitable possible alternative activity. use of medicines, to prevent epidemics in small sy- Fish farming has been tested in the 80s of the twen- stems with high animal density. tieth century in Pomorie. The fishing company Bur- Emblematic is the case of the Ribeira de Aljezur, gas carried out experiments on a large scale, with which is a rich ecological area located in Parque herds of red mullet, flounder and turbot. This expe- Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicenti- riment did not find practical application, for lack of na and belongs to the Natura 2000 network. Used economic sustainability. first as saltworks and rice fields, then transformed in semi-intensive aquaculture, whose activity stop- In the former saltworks of Etangs et marais des sa- ped in 2010, leaving a less interesting area, where lins de Camargue, commercial fishing existed before the disappearance of these activities (salt and rice the acquisition by the Conservatoire du Littoral, as production) had an impact on the landscape, bio- part of an agreement between the fisherman and diversity, water regime and local economy. Actually the services of the Salins du Midi. there is a transformed landscape without natural As traditional fishing was assessed as a sustainable biological settlement and human use (Dolores Co- resource exploitation activity compatible with the elho et al., 2014-1). conservation of the site, Conservatoire du littoral and Walmsley (2000) writes that fish-farming and salt the site managers decide to maintain this activity, A production are not compatible. Well established 3 years agreement (2012-2014) was signed between fish farms inhibit the natural functioning of biologi- the Conservatoire du Littoral, the managers of the cal productivity and consequently there is a major former saltworks and the fisherman and this agree- loss of biodiversity. Water birds, especially fish-e- ment was renewed for the period 2015-2017. It uses ating species are considered as pests and illegal some regulations existing for sea fishing and pro- methods (shooting, barbed wire, nylon lines) are vides for the establishment of a tracking system of used to dissuade protected species from frequen- the activity and of the fishing effort, to evaluate the ting these sites. evolution of this activity and its value for the mana- The same author concludes: “Before any more sali- gement of the site. nas disappear, inventories should be made of all sa- Fishing and aquaculture in saline both active or lina types, combined with environmental impact stu- abandoned are, however, controversial activities. dies (EIAs) that will show which are the ecologically Commercial fishing involves the use of tools that important salinas. Further analyses can be made to can be factors of threat to some species of water select sites as future nature reserves and those that birds, especially for diving species, which can inci- can be transformed into fish-farms”. dentally remain within the nets and die drowned. Sharing this conclusion, it is obvious that all the The disturbance is another limiting factor for the Natura 2000 saltworks cannot be transformed in species most demanding in terms of tranquillity fish-farm. They must be managed as natural reser- and the absence of human disturbance. Finally, the ves and saltworks, for sustainable salt production, almost inevitable contrast with eating-fish birds is halophytic habitats and species conservation, tou- a further element of potential conflict between this rism, spa and wellness, water quality improvement, activity and the nature conservation. environmental education, cultural values conserva- Aquaculture presents some of the same issues of tion, study and researches and. after careful expe- professional fishing (disturbance, conflict with fi- rimentation and a thorough evaluation of impacts, sh-eating species) and introducing additional thre- possibly used for sustainable secondary production at factors, such as morphological changes aimed at (Artemia, Dunaliella, halobacteria, etc.).

70 6.3.2 Mud, brines and thermal waters into account the nature conservation regulations and respecting the nature park the Lepa Vida Thalasso In Pomorie there is information on the use of me- Spa in Sečovlje Salina is a good example where an dicinal mud for a long period (1905-2009). The lo- economic activity and environmental protection col- cations of the sites of production of mud, the exter- lide”. nal threats to the quality of the medicinal mud of Pomorie and the efficacy of mud therapy are well known, but there is a clear conflict of interest betwe- 6.3.3 Biological products en resource users of the lake: the production of salt, collecting mud for mud therapy and, with less inten- The ponds of Aigues-Mortes are mainly used for the sity, fishing. The medicinal mud is used in Pomorie production of salt, but the collection of Artemia spp by Special Hospital for Rehabilitation, Sanatorium is another economic activity in the area. of the Armed Forces and the Grand Hotel Pomorie. The conservation and protection of ecosystems and The breeding of Artemia sp.pl. has been tried in biodiversity of Lake Pomorie, which are the basis for many saltworks all over the World, using A. salina in the formation of medicinal mud, are crucial. tropical ponds (Jen, 1979; Anh et al., 2011) or also In Cervia the mud of the saltworks is also used for other species, such as Artemia franciscana (Van Hoa medical purposes or for the well-being, at the local & Sorgeloos, 2014), the latter exotic species prolifer- spa. ates nowadays in many salinas, most probably in- Moreover, both the cooking salt, that other rarer sal- troduced through Artemia farming. ts, are used, always in Cervia, for the production of cosmetic products by the company that manages About Artemia, is interesting the experience of the the production of salt. Mekong Delta in Vietnam, where the combined pro- Even the use of the mother liquors may have thera- duction of salt and Artemia is a very lucrative busi- peutic implications, such as for example the so-cal- ness with major socio-economic ramifications, in led thalassotherapy. the coastal area of Vinh Chau – Bac Lieu. Here more About this, it is very interesting the experience of the than 500 families of salt farmers have improved their saltwork of Sečovlje, where the use of saline mud income with more than 5,000 US $ per household (peloid) for healing purposes dates back to the 13th and per dry season with the production and sales of century. Artemia cysts and also adults. Although cyst harve- Glavaš and Kovač (2014) write: “Although the thera- sts amount to about 50 tons in a dry season of 3 to peutic effects of the saline peloid have been exploi- 4 months, these meet less than 10 % of the present ted for centuries, its current use is still based mainly demand for Artemia cysts by the Vietnamese aqua- on experience and long tradition of spa tourism. In culture industry (Van Hoa & Sorgeloos, 2014). 2013 the company Soline Pridelava soli d.o.o. (Salt The breeding of Artemia has, moreover, the added Production Co. Ltd.) which is producing the salt in the value that thanks to its filter-feeding activity, this traditional manner and thus protecting and preser- small brine shrimp allows the production of a higher ving the natural and cultural heritage within Sečovlje NaCl quality (Van Hoa & Sorgeloos, 2014). Salina Nature Park, decided to bring thalassotherapy Another species that could be used for commercial and therapeutic medical treatments directly to the purposes is Chironomus salinarius, used for feeding healing source by creating the Lepa Vida Thalasso of aquarium fish. Spa Center inside the saltpans. The complex is inser- Together with the production of these animals, it ted in the natural reserve and designed as a minimal is possible also the production of some plants, for intervention in a protected cultural and natural land- human food, such as some species of Salicornia scape. The open space facilities for a variety of thera- and Sarcocornia (Ventura et al., 2011). The species peutic purposes cover an area of around 4000 m2 and Salicornia herbacea, for example, is a food plant, include: sunbathing, swimming, massages, medical with also interesting possible pharmacological uses gymnastics in the seawater, brine baths, salt scrubs (Rhee, 2009). and therapies with saline peloid. Visitors can continue the treatments at home with a line of several beauty The use of Dunaliella salina, algae rich in carote- products which include brine, bath salts and salt pe- noids, for the extraction of the latter pigments, is elings. In parallel with the development of spa centre still under study (Séjourné, 2014), but the antioxi- an experimental ‘maturation basin’ was established, dant capacity of the algal carotenoid extract is well where a pilot study of peloid composition and tran- known and the algae is already cultivated in some sformations during maturation (with brine) is still saltworks (Hua et al., 2008; Emtyazjoo et al., 2012; ongoing. The results confirm that the quality of the Alishahi et al., 2015). However, this production re- therapeutic saline peloid depends on the composi- quires a strong modification of the basins, introduction of the saline mud and brine characteristics in the tion of nutrients and intensive management, that process of maturation. The findings of the pilot study is believed to be incompatible with salt production will be used in the establishment of controlled pro- and that should require an Environmental Impact duction of saline peloid in Sečovlje Salina. By taking Assessment.

71 Most of extremely halophilic microorganisms inha- pounds such as polyalkanoate, ectoine, extracellu- biting the hypersaline ponds belong to the Archaea lar polysaccharides and carotenoid pigments (Oren, domain. Extremely halophilic archaea offer a multi- 2002). tude of actual or potential biotechnological applica- Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a lipid-soluble com- tions, containing in their cells interesting metaboli- pound reserved in cells of prokaryotes. It has unique tes, such as osmotically active substances (so-called characteristics of being biodegradable, biocompati- compatible solutes), exopolysaccharides, special ble and thermoplastic microbial polyester thus has membrane lipids, proteins and enzymes (Corcelli, a great potential of commercial application in the 2014). field of environmental protection, medicine (Lauzier

Fig. 49 The water coloured in red by Dunaliella in the Trinitat Saltwork (ph. M. Costa)

E.g. among extremely halophilic Archaea, et al., 1994) and aquaculture (Defoirdt et al., 2011). Halobacterium salinarum has been intensively stu- The red coloration of brine is mostly due to the abun- died in the course of the last four decades because dant presence of C50 bacterioruberin and its deriva- it expresses the photo-activated membrane protein tives in cell membranes of archaea (Oren, 2002). A bacteriorhodopsin [11], which is an analogue of the number of biological functions, such as improving rhodopsin of animal eye. Bacteriorhodopsin is a rigidity and fluidity of the cell membrane, protecting photo-activated proton pump, generating a proton the cells against oxidation, strong light injury, and gradient which is used by the organism to synthe- DNA damage have been reported (Litchfield, 2011).” size adenosine triphosphate; in brief, bacteriorho- Others are given by Santulli (2014), about food indu- dopsin is used by the bacterium to directly convert stry, pharmaceutical application, cosmetics. sunlight into chemical energy. Due to its high thermal and photochemical stability, bacteriorhodopsin So, the complex ecosystem of saltworks, along the is considered a promising biological material for salinity gradient, hosts a rich biodiversity of great in- photonic device applications, such as holography, terest, not only scientific and naturalistic, but also spatial light modulators, artificial retina, volumetric application, chemical, pharmaceutical, medical, en- and associative optical memories (Corcelli, 2014). gineering, although in at least most cases it requires Many similar examples are given also by Liying considerable intensification (and the technic is not (2014): “Halophilic bacteria and archaea are use- always stabilized) and may not be relevant in Natura ful biological sources to produce bio-active com- 2000 sites.

72 Fig. 50 Bacteria in the Saltwork of Comacchio (ph. F. Borghesi)

73 6.3.4 Energy production the pharmaceutical, food and metal industries. Concentrated brines from any of the final stages of Production of electricity from renewable sources such processing cycle can be adopted within a Sali- (e.g. sunlight, algae dried and burned, wind) for the nity Gradient Power generation process for the pro- management of saltworks has often been conside- duction of energy through the Reverse Electrodialy- red in order to bring down production costs. sis technology, as demonstrated within the EU-FP7 The buildings of the saltworks, especially the wa- REAPower project (www.reapower.eu). A Reverse rehouses, where present, have large covers, which Electrodialysis unit is constituted by a number of can be integrated with photovoltaic panels. It has anionic and cationic exchange membranes alterna- categorically ruled out the placement of photovol- tively positioned into a stack, forming rectangular taic panels on the surface of the saltwork, because channels, in which saline solutions at different con- that would remove habitats. centrations can flow. The concentration gradient The wind farm is potentially a serious threat factor between them forces the ions to move through for the birds. However, small installations of limited the membranes. This ionic flux is regulated by ions height, localized in specific sites (e.g. the forecourts mobility and membrane permselectivity, i.e. the of manufacturing and of height around 5-10 meters) selectivity towards cation/anion transport throu- can be evaluated from time to time to assess its pos- gh Cation Exchange Membranes/Anion Exchange sible sustainability. Membranes, respectively, which generate a net ionic A stimulating cue for energy production in saltworks current through the stack. Finally, this ionic current is given by Cipollina, D’Alì Staiti e Micale (2014). The is converted into electric current by means of redox use of fractionated crystallisation process, typically reactions at the electrodes, positioned at the two adopted in conventional salt ponds, allows for the ends of the stack, and can be collected by an exter- easy separation of salts like Calcium Carbonates nal load. and Sulphates, Sodium Chloride and a final satura- Working range of the main operating parameters of ted brine which is extremely rich in Magnesium as a the prototype system equipped with the small pro- sole bivalent cation. Thus, the possibility of a further totype stack (44cmx44cm with 125 cell pairs): exploitation of such saturated brine has been experimentally analysed by laboratory tests in order to pro- Conductivity [mS/cm] 180-230 - Flow rate [l/min] 6-12 duce high purity Magnesium to be commercialised in - Temperature [°C] 25-30 - Power output [W] 40-60

74 7) Guidelines and model of sustainable management

The following guidelines are deliberately conci- lophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi) se and pragmatic and are intended to provide a - habitat 1510* Mediterranean salt steppes (Limonietalia) practical and quick operational tool to address ma- - Salicornia procumbens* nagement decisions taken by the managers of the saltworks included in the Natura 2000 network; for - Limonium insulare* every kind of depth you can see the thematic chap- - Limonium pseudolaetum* ters of this document. - Armeria velutina The motivations of the same statements herein are - Egretta garzetta (W) not repeated in the summary text, but descended - Ardea alba (W) from contents highlighted and dealt with in previous chapters. - Phoenicopterus roseus (B, W) - Marmaronetta angustirostris (B, W, M) 7.1 Role and importance of saltworks - Oxyura leucocephala (B, W) - Himantopus himantopus (B, M) The saltworks artificially reproduce a natural en- - Recurvirostra Avosetta (B, W, M) vironment once widespread along the sea coasts, especially in the Mediterranean Sea. - Glareola pratincola (B, M) They are linked to many elements that combine to - Charadrius alexandrinus (B, W, M) classify salt as sites of the Natura 2000 network, in - Pluvialis apricaria (M) particular habitats, plants, fish and especially birds. - Philomachus pugnax (W, M) The maintenance of the peculiar habitat is closely - Limosa lapponica (W, M) linked to the management, but the conservation problems that may be encountered change accor- - Tringa glareola (M) ding to the type of management to which they are - Ichthyaetus melanocephalus (B, W, M) subject. - Chroicocephalus genei (B, W, M) Saltworks, being man-made environments and ha- - Ichthyaetus audouinii (B, W, M) ving a controllable system for water management, can be a very powerful tool for the conservation of - Hydrocoloeus minutus (M) biodiversity: in non-productive saltworks this featu- - Gelochelidon nilotica (B, M) re can be used immediately; in productive saltwor- - Hydroprogne caspia (M) ks all means here indicated must be taken as much - Thalasseus sandvicensis (B, W, M) as possible, to take advantage of these benefits and - Sterna hirundo (B, M) mitigate the threatening factors. - Sternula albifrons (B, M) The salt marshes can be found in the following con- - Chlidonias hybrida (M) ditions: - Chlidonias niger (M) 1) Industrial productive saltworks; - Alcedo atthis (W) 2) Artisanal productive saltworks; - Aphanius fasciatus 3) Former saltworks managed for nature conservation; - Aphanius iberus 4) Abandoned saltworks (not managed at all). - Knipowitschia panizzae - Pomatoschistus canestrinii

7.2 Targets According to the IUCN Red List of threatened species, According with the Directives 92/43/EEC and 09/147/ the targets are, also: EC, the targets of the conservation activities in the saltworks are: - Anguilla anguilla - Aphanius baeticus - habitat 1150* Coastal lagoons - Pomatoschistus tortonesei - habitat 1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud and sand - Aythya ferina (W, M) - habitat 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (Junceta- - Haematopus ostralegus (B, W, M) lia maritimi) - Numenius arquata (W, M) - habitat 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic ha- - Calidris ferruginea (M)

75 7.3 Activities 7.3.2.8 Define and implement adaptation strategies to coastal erosion and sea level rise 1, 2, 3, 4 Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 are referred to the classification of point 7.1.

Priority activities are underlined. They are selected The former salworks located in Etangs et because strategic or because useful for priority ha- marais des salins de Camargue include bitats and species. coastal lagoons and low-lying areas near or below sea-level, most of which are exposed to sea level rise induced by climate change, 7.3.1 General tips the latter phenomenon being compounded by long-term erosion affecting 45% of the 7.3.1.1. Produce management for saltworks 1, 2, 3, 4 coastline. Coastal retreat locally reaches an average of over 6 meters / year. Some 16 km 7.3.1.2. Organize a functional integration of biodi- of dykes are located along the coastline of versity issues in salt production activities 1, 2 the former saltworks, most of which would be increasingly difficult to maintain even in 7.3.1.3 Identify a manager for Natura 2000 saltwor- the short term, as sea level rises and coastal ks conservation with a staff that includes all the erosion intensifies. Instead of implementing necessary professionals (ecologist, hydrobiologist, expensive works to maintain the sea-front botanist, ornithologist), also in cooperation among dyke, managers adopted an adaptation strat- different organization 1, 2, 3, 4 egy. Coastal dykes are abandoned, whereas flood protection infrastructures located fur- 7.3.1.4 Create a permanent working group compo- ther inland are planned to be reinforced, the sed of representatives of the Authority responsible latter being easier and cheaper to maintain in for nature conservation and representatives of the the long term. The site will work as a buffer salt mining company, for coordinating the imple- zone for protecting surrounding inland areas, mentation of the management plan and other acti- where issues related to people and proper- vities 1, 2 ty protection are concentrated, against sea flooding. Environmental benefits include the 7.3.1.5 Lobbying activity to obtain the classification restoration of hydrological and biological of salt exploitation as agricultural activity, so to use connections between the former saltworks the Rural Development Founds to manage the sal- and the sea, thus restoring fish migration at a tworks 1, 2 local level. Another benefit of sea-front dyke abandonment is the restoration of sediment 7.3.1.6 Lobbying activity to obtain a European di- transfers, resulting in the natural reconstruc- rective for wetlands management, use and conser- tion of beach ecosystem in several areas vation and, consequently, national and local laws where it had previously disappeared. This and direct financing 1, 2, 3, 4 strategy is consistent with the ambition of re- naturing most of the site.

7.3.2 Environmental management

7.3.2.1 Study the possibilities to maintain hyperali- 7.3.3 Water management ne habitats informer and abandoned saltworks 3, 4 7.3.3.1 Maintaining stable water levels suitable to breeding waterbirds in the sea water storage basins 7.3.2.2 Control of invasive plants; 1, 2, 3, 4 throughout the April-July period 1, 2, 3 7.3.2.3 Burying electrical cables 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.3.2 Selections of marginal or unused portions to be withdrawn from the production cycle of the eva- 7.3.2.4 Implement regular maintenance of the hy- poration basin system and maintenance, in them, draulic system 1, 2, 3 of stable water levels throughout the April-July period, tending Summer drying since second half of 7.3.2.5 Protection barriers for protected flora 1, 2, 3, 4 May, leaving mudflats, but never completed, possibly by excavating a guard perimeter channel and 7.3.2.6 Collection of waste 1, 2, 3, 4 tending winter raising (not more than 15-20 cm), to expand safe habitats for nesting birds and sites for 7.3.2.7 Maintenance or restoration of existing natu- some pioneer priority plants 1, 2 ral environments and ecological connections (water and land), between the saltworks and the sea 7.3.3.3 Selections of marginal or unused portions to 1, 2, 3, 4

76 Fig. 51 Naturally managed sea water storage pond in the Trinitat Saltwork in the Parc Natural del Delta de l’Ebre (ph. M. Costa) be withdrawn from the production cycle of the evaporation basin system and maintenance, in them, of shallow water, also in Autumn-Winter (from Octo- ber to March), tending winter raising (not more than 15-20 cm) for migrating and wintering birds 1, 2

7.3.3.4 Maintaining stable water levels everywhere throughout the April-July period, possibly leaving some areas slowly and partially drying out, but never raising the water level (and avoiding natural raising caused by rain, opening the basins water exit in case of need) 3

7.3.3.5 Submerge the islets at least for one mon- th in winter, to avoid the presence of colonies of Brown Rat 3

7.3.3.6 Water level copying the natural Mediter- ranean water regime, with progressive lowering of shallow waters in Spring-Summer and higher water levels in Autumn-Winter in the former salt pans and former sea water storage basins, evolving towards lagoon habitats 3, 4

Fig. 52 The importance of shallow, muddy ponds for migrating or wintering waders (ph. F. Borghesi)

77 storage basins) it is possible to use rocks to protect This management option is implemented in the shores 1, 2, 3 large parts of Etangs et marais des salins de Camargue’s former saltworks, where hy- 7.3.4.2 Creation of new islets to restore the too sim- drological units are exposed to diversified plified basins, to replace the one eroded or to re- water level variations, depending on their place the one covered with vegetation and no more elevation and their distance to connections suitable for nesting birds. The islets must be made with the sea and the surrounding wetlands. according to the needs of the different species 1, This benefits the restoration of halophilous 2, 3 vegetation (habitats 1310 and 1420) and creates in winter and during spring migration su- Creating new breeding islets for colonial waterbirds itable foraging habitats to shorebirds. requires sound analysis beforehand in order to maximize chances of successful breeding. Choosing a convenient location for the construction of a bre- 7.3.3.7 Maintenance of diverse saline gradients in eding islet is essential. Security against predation diverse basins, to host the highest biodiversity 3, 4 and disturbance is a main factor determining colonization of islets by waterbirds and successful bree- 7.3.3.8 Change the water management towards a ding. Security against terrestrial predators (including natural flow of water masses, instead of the forced foxes, stray dogs, wild boars, rats) is essential. It can movement 3 be ensured by constructing the islet far from the surrounding dykes and / or by maintaining high water 7.3.3.9 Maintenance the sea water flow 1, 2, 3 level around the islet. Water level exceeding 35cm around the islet are recommended during the bre- 7.3.3.10 Completion of the filling of all the tanks for eding season as it usually prevents access by most productive purposes within the first half of April, so terrestrial predators (excepted human and wild bo- as to prevent attempts to settle on their bottom 1, 2 ars). High salinity can also help prevent access by terrestrial predators. The risk of colonization of a newly 7.3.3.11 Make a detailed protocol of the water levels constructed islet by Yellow-legged Gull should also in system of each basin, to prevent bird colonies be assessed and if this risk does exist, possibilities to settling on the dry bottom of basins that have to be prevent it should be carefully explored beforehand. after filled 1, 2 Constructing a new islet is often costly, thus carefully assessing erosion risk beforehand is advisable. The 7.3.3.12 Maintenance of the hydraulic system and of risk of islet erosion is closely linked to fetch, which the functionality of pumping plants, channels, wa- is the distance over which wind is blowing on a water locks and floodgates 1, 2, 3 ter surface without encountering obstacles. Building breeding islets in locations exposed to waves created 7.3.3.11 Make a detailed protocol of the water levels by prevailing winds should be avoided if possible. in system of each basin, to prevent bird colonies Access by the large engines required for construction settling on the dry bottom of basins that have to be works should also be examined. Small bridges not after filled 1, 2 suitable to large engines are often to be found in saltworks. Ponds that only seldom dry out often present a poor ground bearing capacity, which induces 7.3.4 Maintenance and creation of islets and of a high risk of heavy engines getting stuck. If possi- the safety conditions for the nesting birds ble, islet construction should therefore be preferred after complete dry out of the pond in late summer / 7.3.4.1 Annual management of existing islets (both early autumn, although salt production constraints of vegetation and soil, both of the shore from ero- in active saltworks usually mean that construction sion), generally rare in industrial saltworks, exten- works have to be made in autumn or winter. In active sively simplified. The management of vegetation salt works, controlling suitable water level for bree- must be carried on only by mechanic systems or ding waterbirds can interfere with other constraints with flame throwers, out of the breeding season, related to the management of water levels for salt using an agricultural bur, eradicating grass turf, sod- production. In non-productive saltworks managed ding, levelling and then covering with shells, sand for nature conservation, maintaining suitable water or gravels and, in presence of not enough salted levels for breeding waterbirds can also interfere with soils, of crude salt. The maintenance of the shores other biodiversity issues, such as the conservation must be done by hand in small islets or with small of halophilous scrubs (habitat 1420) or migrating dredges in larger islets, out of the breeding season. fish movements. The compatibility between hosting The work for preventing erosion must not create a successful breeding bird colony and other issues vertical slopes (e.g. boards to protect the shore), such as habitat conservation and water level mana- but as much gently sloping as possible. In the most gement for salt production, should therefore be ca- severe erosion conditions (e.g. the islets within the refully assessed.

78 To decide on the location of a new breeding islet to be constructed for gulls, avocets and terns in Etan- gs et marais des salins de Camargue, an assessment grid (see table hereafter) was developed by Tour du Valat and Amis des Marais du Vigueirat and applied on 9 potential locations. Although none of these locations were ideal for the construction of a breeding islet, one was significantly more suitable than the others and showed no crippling constraint. Strengths of this location included fairly large distance (>90m) to surrounding dykes (to avoid access by terrestrial predators), possibility to dry out the pond in order to implement construction works and prevent, if needed, colonization by Yellow-legged Gulls, controlled access preventing human disturbance, on-site clay substrate providing suitable construction material and easy access by large engines and no interference with other biodiversity issues. Solutions were found in the designing process to mitigate its potential weaknesses: as it was not possible to maintain high water level and high salinity to avoid predation by terrestrial animals, a 1,5 m. high fenced grid was set up at a distance of 15 meters all around the islet. With a fetch exceeding 600 meters, the location of the islet was potentially strongly exposed to erosion by waves induced by prevailing winds. To control erosion phenomenon, a 10% islet slope was designed and wooden sheet piles were set up at a distance of 10 meters around the bases of the islet that were exposed to fetch.

After construction, empty shells of shellfish were laid on the surface of the islet to maximize its attractiveness. This shellfish cover, as well as wooden sheet piles, have to be checked every year and light maintenance works must be occasionally done to guarantee the long-term keeping and attractiveness of the islet.

Fig. 53 Breeding islet constructed for terns, gulls and avocets at Etang et marais des salins de Camargue former saltworks, southern France (ph. A. Arnaud, Tour du Valat)

79 Points calculation 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 Protection against terrestrial predators and human disturbance Water level >35 c >35 cm or >35 cm can water level water level around the can be sometimes be maintained <35 cm during always islets during maintained less can be in April-June most of the <35 cm the breeding in April-July maintained in only breeding season season April-July

Minimal distance > 150 m > 100 m 50-100 m 25-50 m < 25 m to surrounding dykes Salinity > 150 g/l 100-150 g/l 50-100 g/l 20-50 g/l < 20 g/l Presence/ab- no Wild Wild Boar sence of Wild Boar footprint Boar in the footprint observed immediate surrounding observed Possibility to drying the drying the drying the prevent pond or pond or flooding pond or colonization by flooding the the islet are flooding the Yellow-legged islet are possible in early islet is not Gull by possible in spring but for possible in managing water early spring a short period early spring levels Control of site is faraway site is close to site is close to site is within human from human areas with limited a busy area a busy area disturbance frequentation frequentation

Protection of the islets against erosion and submersion risks Exposure of the fetch from fetch is fetch is fetch is fetch is islets to prevailing 100-200 m 200-300 m 300-400 m >400 m predominant wind winds <100 m

Possibility to low water water level water avoid high level can be controlled level not water levels maintained but variable controlled in winter and potentially high

Type of clay or sandy clay silt predomi- salt substrate for the silty clay nantly predominantly construction od the islets Conditions of implementation of the construction works Ground very good average poor bearing (clay or capacity sandy substrate) Possibility to dry possibilities possibilities are possibility are out the basin in are good good, but for a poor or will order to work and will not short period induce salt crust with dry induce salt material crust

Accessibility easy acces access by large access by large access by by large by large engines is engines is large engines engines possible, but engine possible, but is impossible constraining very diicult Compatibility with other issues Cpmatibility good compatibility poor with other hydraulic requires objectives adaptations Cpmatibility good poor with other biodiversity objectives Table 2: Assessment grid for locating and designing breeding islets. Comments in red in this table refer to crititical, potentially unsurmountable constraints.

80 Points calculation 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 7.3.4.3 Excavation of perimeter guard channels to 7.3.5.6 Repeated constantly throughout the year Protection against terrestrial predators and human disturbance avoid the entrance of predators in basins subject to mowing on embankments that must be maintained Water level >35 c >35 cm or >35 cm can water level water level drying, possibly also specially in order to create emer- driveways during the reproduction period, to prevent around the can be sometimes be maintained <35 cm during always ging mudflats (artificially draining some basins), sui- the establishment of breeding pairs along the passa- islets during maintained less can be in April-June most of the <35 cm table for the nesting of some species 1, 2, 3 ges 1, 2 the breeding in April-July maintained in only breeding season season April-July 7.3.4.4 Erecting a 20-30 cm high netting along the side 7.3.5.7 Improve the management of landfills within 50 of the dykes where waterbirds nesting close to the Km from the saltworks, to reduce food availability for Minimal distance > 150 m > 100 m 50-100 m 25-50 m < 25 m basins from which the crystalized salt is extracted, to Yellow-legged Gull 1, 2, 3, 4 to surrounding dykes stop the chicks from falling into the brine 1, 2 Salinity > 150 g/l 100-150 g/l 50-100 g/l 20-50 g/l < 20 g/l 7.3.4.5 Do not fill with water empty basins from April 7.3.6 Conservation of conditions for habitats and Presence/ab- no Wild Wild Boar to July recommendable everywhere have the same sence of Wild Boar footprint plants Boar in the footprint observed salinity, even in unproductive saline 1, 2, 3 immediate 7.3.6.1 Maintaining marginal areas suitable to the an- surrounding observed 7.3.4.6 Build fences to protect the bird colonies sett- nual halophilous species (1310 Salicornia and other Possibility to drying the drying the drying the led on dikes 1, 2, 3 annuals colonizing mud and sand), by performing prevent pond or pond or flooding pond or ordinary management work for the maintenance of colonization by flooding the the islet are flooding the Yellow-legged islet are possible in early islet is not embankments and ponds in alternate years, without Gull by possible in spring but for possible in 7.3.5 Management of the presence of Yellow- changing ever more than 30% of colonized marginal managing water early spring a short period early spring legged Gull areas total present 1, 2 levels Control of site is faraway site is close to site is close to site is within These guidelines are not going to define if the Yellow- 7.3.6.2 Conservation of perennial halophilous habi- human from human areas with limited a busy area a busy area legged Gull is a species that needs or not of a control tats (1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic ha- disturbance frequentation frequentation plan, in order to reduce their general number. The aim lophilous scrubs Sarcocornetea fruticosi) on bank top Protection of the islets against erosion and submersion risks of this document is about how to maintain the condi- without managing ever more than 10% of colonized tions for successful nesting of waterbirds. marginal areas total present 1, 2 Exposure of the fetch from fetch is fetch is fetch is fetch is islets to prevailing 100-200 m 200-300 m 300-400 m >400 m For further and more detailed information about the predominant wind Yellow-legged Gull see the specific guidelines provi- 7.3.6.3 Maintaining water exchange with the sea in the winds <100 m ded by the Mc-Salt LIFE project. storage basins, to preserve the lagoon habitats 1, 2, 3

Possibility to low water water level water 7.3.5.1 Creating islets in basins where it is possible to 7.3.6.4 Maintaining temporarily emerging areas, avoid high level can be controlled level not water levels maintained but variable controlled precisely control the water levels; bring out the islets drying from late June, to favour the presence of tem- in winter and potential- since the middle of April, after the settlement of the porary habitats 3, 4 ly high Yellow-legged Gull and submerge them again from October, so as to also control the development of the 7.3.6.5 Maintaining or restoring temporarily submer- Type of clay or sandy clay silt predomi- salt substrate for the silty clay nantly predominantly vegetation 1, 2, 3 ged areas, completely arid in Summer, with salt con- construction od cretions, to favour the presence of steppe habitats the islets 7.3.5.2 Creating shelters for chicks (small piles of rocks (1510 * Mediterranean salt steppes Limonietalia), pe- Conditions of implementation of the construction works or roof tiles or anchored branches) or let develop rennial halophilous habitats (1420 Mediterranean and Ground very good average poor some shrubs of perennial saltworks in higher areas thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs Sarcocornetea bearing (clay or capacity sandy (possibly specially made) 1, 2, 3 fruticosi) or non-perennial halophilous habitat (1310 substrate) Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud and Possibility to dry possibilities possibilities are possibility are 7.3.5.3 Ward off any Yellow-legged Gull colonies sett- sand). 3, 4 out the basin in are good good, but for a poor or will led on the banks surrounding basins with islets sui- order to work and will not short period induce salt crust table for nesting, from January to March, through with dry induce salt material crust collaboration with those involved in the production These temporarily submerged habitats all have or through the involvement of volunteers, under stri- specific requirements including substrate com- Accessibility easy acces access by large access by large access by ct coordination of ornithologists or scaring Yellow- position, ground salt concentration and length of by large by large engines is engines is large engines engines possible, but legged Gulls with periodic ‘frights’ carried out by the submersion period (see chapter 1.2.1). Where they engine possible, but is impossible constraining very diicult installation of an inflatable automatic device called already occur it is essential to maintain suitable va- the Scarey-Man® 1, 2, 3 riations of water levels and salt concentrations. If Compatibility with other issues restoration of these habitats is considered, a stan- Cpmatibility good compatibility poor with other 7.3.5.4 Create physical connection between islets with dard restoration process will be required. The first hydraulic requires objectives adaptations Yellow-legged Gull colonies and embankments to fa- step is to implement an initial evaluation of the Cpmatibility good poor vour predation by foxes 3 area targeted for habitat restoration, including stu- with other dies of vegetation, soil, hydrology and topography. biodiversity 7.3.5.5 Installation of protective nets of cables for the Once sites are selected for restoration, design cri- objectives colonies of small species of terns, gulls and waders in teria should be defined, including soil, hydrology Table 2: Assessment grid for locating and designing breeding islets. the presence of Yellow-legged Gull 1, 2, 3 and vegetation. If any of soil, hydrology or vegeta- Comments in red in this table refer to crititical, potentially unsurmountable constraints. tion requirements cannot be met, then the resto-

81 ration process should be considered unfeasible. then become a lethal trap (Brusle & Cambrony If soil and topography are adequate, hydrology 1992). potentially adequate and targeted species already In active saltworks, management of hydraulic occur in the restoration area, restoration process structures often make it difficult or impossible might focus on water level and salt concentration to fish to migrate back to the sea. Site managers management only. In this case, hydraulic works should study how to create possibilities for fish might be necessary to restore suitable hydrologi- to escape to the sea when anoxic conditions oc- cal conditions. When topography is not adequa- cur in summer as well as in autumn when signi- te, it will be necessary to implement topographic ficant water temperature decrease occurs. While works, in order to create flooding and drying pe- maintaining regular water connections between riods that meet the requirements of the habitats the saltwork and the sea that enable fish to go targeted for restoration. If the indicator species de- back to sea might be difficult to ensure in sum- termining the habitats targeted for restoration are mer as it might compete with salt production extirpated from the area, seeding technics should objectives, this can be considered more easily be considered. in autumn and early winter. Improving escaping possibilities for adult european eels to enable them to return to their breeding grounds loca- 7.3.7 Conservation of suitable conditions for fish ted in the Sargasso Sea is one of the major focus and other aquatic animals of the European management plan for eels.

7.3.7.1 Maintenance of water connections between 7.3.7.2 Maintenance of water exchange with the sea the storage basins and the sea allowing migrant fish in the storage basins, to preserve the ecological to go back to sea in autumn 1, 2 connection between the sea and the saltwork, by periodically dredging the channels, without ever operating on a length exceeding a third of that Storage basins located at the start of the water overall 1, 2, 3 circuit in saltworks are usually characterized by frequent water connections with the sea and 7.3.7.3 Maintenance of basins with high salt lower salinity. In many active saltworks, these concentrations (greater than 70 ‰) to favour the are the lagoons that most closely approach a presence of extreme halophilic invertebrate 3 good ecological status and they potentially have an important nursery function for migrant juve- 7.3.7.4 Maintenance of marginal areas and nile fish that enter the saltworks. This nursery channels with polyhaline, occasionally moderately function is considered as one of the most impor- hyperhaline water and rich submerged vegetation, tant ecological functions played by coastal lago- suitable for spawning of euryhaline fish (Aphanius on ecosystems, which can be explained by the iberus; Aphanius fasciatus) 3 facts that warm, shallow and biologically highly productive water of the lagoons offer to juvenile fish conditions where they encounter compara- 7.3.8 Give an added value to solar salt tively lower predation risk and important food resources. 8.3.8.1 Turn the saltwork a site for birdwatching, so While juveniles of the endangered European Eel that gains related to this use will become attractive entering the saltworks will possibly stay several for salt producers and they will increase their atten- years in the lagoon ecosystem before migrating tion to bird needs 1, 2 back to the see at the adult stage, most individuals of migrant species including mullets (Liza 7.3.8.2 Letting birdwatcher organizations visit the sp., Mugil sp.), European Seabass (Dicentrarchus sites for avifauna observation and recording deve- labrax) and seabreams (Sparus aurata, Diplodus lops strong waves of eco-tourism that furthermore ssp.) only make seasonal occurrence into coa- affects the nearby local economy and development stal lagoons. Migration is usually most intense in 1, 2, 3 spring when many juveniles enter the saltworks and during autumn and early winter when they 7.3.8.3 Using saltworks for environmental educa- need for their survival to migrate back to the sea tion by environmental education centres 1, 2, 3, 4 as they might not survive to low water temperatures encountered in the lagoons in winter. 7.3.8.4 Give to solar salt added value, by associa- In addition, when salinity and temperature are ting the different kind to specific food items (meat, high in summer, dissolved oxygen can reduce to fish, vegetables by their composition or structure; the point that fish encounter severe breathing labelling the salt in a trustworthy manner to stren- difficulties and will try to escape (Davis 1975). If gthen the sense of authenticity; using quality seals, anoxic conditions are coupled with no possibili- especially when approved by independent panels ty for the fish to escape, lagoon ecosystems can or relevant institutions to build trust among custo-

82 mers and the general public; associating the salt to 7.3.10.6 Make saltworks a tourist destination them- natural protected areas, to the values of nature or to selves, rich in history, culture, nature, gastronomy, the history of the saltwork 1, 2 landscapes 1, 2, 3, 4

7.3.8.5 Letting visitors and customers to produce 7.3.10.7 Make saltworks a place for educational their own salt, to create a sense of belonging and to activities, offering many opportunities for learning increase the value of salt 1, 2 about various topics 1, 2, 3, 4

7.3.8.6 Underline the ecosystem services of saltwor- 7.3.10.8 Not realize paths which completely sur- ks 1, 2, 3, 4 rounds the saltwork or which enter in the saltwork close to the bird colonies 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.8.7 Underline saltworks as one of the best examples of sustainable activities 1, 2 7.3.10.9 Strictly control human presence in important areas for nesting species most sensitive to human disturbance (e.g. Greater Flamingo) 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.9 Conservation of traditions and culture, also as an added value 7.3.10.10 Calculate carefully the requirements of the wild species to evaluate the carrying capacity of visi- 7.3.9.1 Conservation (maintained through cultural tor flows 1, 2, 3, 4 associations, educational research, guided tours, etc.) of traditions, culture, gastronomy, landscapes, toponyms, Create vegetation and straw screens along walking buildings, every topic connected to the “memory” of path and construct observation hides, to reduce hu- ancient salt production, for its own relevance and as an man disturbance 1, 2, 3, 4 added value for the products 1, 2, 3

7.3.9.2 Artisanal production supported by smart 7.3.11 Other activities strategies for marketing, providing an added value to salt production, that allows to raise up the prize 2 7.3.11.1 Fish farming is never a sustainable activity in the active saltworks, it generates many conflicts (both 7.3.9.3 Selling of not refined salt, with presence with production and with conservation) and distorts of specific micronutrients or physic-chemical the typical environmental conditions 1, 2 properties, to highlight the uniqueness of the salt and raise up the price 1, 2 7.3.11.2 Commercial fishing can be sustainable in storage basins, but the kind of nets used to catch the 7.3.9.4 Create events, such as cultural shows on site fish must be evaluated to avoid the possibility of birds of salt making such as “Salt Fairs”, salt museums or killing 1, 2 other options to create identity 1, 2 7.3.11.3 Extensive (no semi-extensive) fish farming 7.3.9.5 Characterize the saltworks as evocative sites and commercial fishing can be sustainable in former for a special gastronomy 1, 2 storage basins, but the kind of nets (or other tools) used to catch the fish must be evaluated to avoid the 7.3.10 Tourism possibility of birds killing 3, 4

7.3.10.1 Limiting anthropic pressure creating speci- 7.3.11.4 Art with salt: by soaking a wooden frame in fic fruition areas for scientific, educational or recrea- brine and letting it dry 1, 2 tional purposes 1, 2, 3 7.3.11.5 Using the brine, the mother liquor and the mud 7.3.10.2 Keep a low human presence throughout the (peloid) for spas, thalassotherapy and for cosmetic breeding season (April to July) 1, 2, 3, 4 purposes (cellulite treatment), also for producing cosmetics 1, 2 7.3.10.3 Keep a low human presence throughout the migrating and wintering season (September- 7.3.11.6 Carefully assessing and prudently January) in saltworks surrounded by hunting areas experiencing the sustainable exploitation of products 1, 2, 3, 4 of high commercial value, such as Dunaliella salina β-carotene, Artemia salina and Chironomus salinarius 7.3.10.4 Ensure the presence of quiet areas for fee- for aquarium use, Algae for medical use, Salicornia ding, nesting and resting during the whole year, of at and Sarcocornia for feed or pharmacological uses, least 70% of the surface 1, 2, 3, 4 extremely halophilic archaea (e.g. Halobacterium salinarum) for biotechnological applications 1, 2 7.3.10.5 Develop ecotourism activities (guided tours, birdwatching tours, etc.) 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.11.7 Replace the covers of the production of service

83 buildings with photovoltaic panels, so as to reduce 7.3.13.9 Monitor densities and species-composition production costs 1, 2 of benthic invertebrates 1, 2, 3, 4

7.3.11.8 Carefully assessing and prudently 7.3.13.10 Monitor the populations of the species experiencing the production of energy through the representative of hypersaline environments (e.g. Reverse Electrodialysis technology 1, 2 Aphanius sp. pl., Artemia salina, etc.)

7.3.11.9 Production of gypsum gadgets exploited from 7.3.13.11 Monitor the environmental evolution of the basins of the pre-evaporation 1, 2 the former saltwork and, if possible, consider the business of management in case of drift towards 7.3.11.10 Reduce energy consumption in the saltworks, less valuable habitats 4 using or improving the natural difference in water levels (gravitational water management), for water 7.3.13.12 Research on communities of invertebrates run-in and runoff, instead of the water pumping. and their changes during the year and according to the environmental management of saltworks 1, 2, 3

7.3.12 Rules 7.3.13.13 Research on communities of algae and their changes during the year and according to the 7.3.12.1 Ban on insecticides for the control of environmental management of saltworks 1, 2, 3 mosquitoes 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.13.14 Research on the turnover rate and the body 7.3.12.2 Ban on aircraft, ultralight aircraft and drone condition of waterbirds using saltworks as stop over flights over saltworks 1, 2, 3, 4 sites during the migration 1, 2, 3, 4

7.3.12.3 Ban on the use of lead for hunting cartridges, 7.3.13.15 Research on the environmental factors which impacts proved by accumulation in food determining the breeding parameters of the chains 1, 2, 3, 4 prominent species of birds (priority species of the Directive 09/147/EC) nesting in saltworks with 7.3.12.4 Ban performing the maintenance tasks of different management 1, 2, 3 levees and basins between April and mid-August in breeding birds sensitive areas 1, 2, 3 7.3.13.16 Research on the environmental factors determining the habitats evolution and the protected plant status (species of the Directive 7.3.13 Monitoring and research 02/43/EEC) with different management 1, 2, 3

7.3.13.1 Monitor the quality of water 1, 2, 3, 4 7.3.14 General management 7.3.13.2 Monitor climatic condition (temperature, rain, wind, sun) 1, 2, 3 7.3.14.1 Bring together professional salt producers, biologists, civil and water engineers, making it pos- 7.3.13.3 Monitor day-per-day the evaporation rate sible to optimise environmental management wi- during the productive/summer season 1, 2, 3 thin saltworks 1, 2

7.3.13.4 Monitor the sedimentation 1, 2, 3 7.3.14.2 Employ personnel focused on the environmental challenges in the salt productive companies, 7.3.13.5 Monitor the number of nesting pairs of the able to face promptly critical situations endangering prominent species of birds (priority species of the nesting birds or other issues about nature conserva- Directive 09/147/EC) 1, 2, 3, 4 tion 1, 2

7.3.13.6 Monitor the number of specimens of the 7.3.14.3 Constantly train people working in saltwor- species of the most important wintering birds ks, in order to know how to recognize the problems (primarily species of Directive 09/147/EC) 1, 2, 3, 4 and take the right solutions 1, 2, 3

7.3.13.7 Monitor the extent and structure of the most 7.3.14.4 Lobbying activity to change salt production important habitats (primarily the types of Directive from industrial to agriculture (where salt making is 92/43/EEC) 1, 2, 3, 4 still considered industry), in order to use European Agricultural Rural Development Funds 1, 2 7.3.13.8 Monitor the mean cover and species composition of submerged macrophytes 7.3.14.5 Lobbying activities to obtain an exemption (phanerogam and algae) 1, 2, 3, 4 from the land tax when respecting the commitments to the Natura 2000 charter allows 1, 2, 3

84 7.3.14.6 Approval of agreements for the joint pre- activities, the edges and the small islands of storage sentation of European cooperation projects or basins, on clayey soils. The presence of the habitat LIFE projects (e.g. a network of the saltworks in the is possible with different species according to the Natura 2000 network) 1, 2, 3, 4 edaphic conditions

7.3.14.7 Training and periodically raising the opera- - Maintenance of flooded clayey soils, with different tors of saltworks on conservation issues 1, 2 water salinity, from mesosaline to hypersaline, subject to different periods of desiccation (with 7.3.14.8 Involvement of stakeholders 1, 2, 3 exposure in the fall, spring or summer only - Make a rotation maintenance of the banks of the active salt basins, not affecting never more than 7.4 Conservation activities for habitats 20% of the surface of the saltwork

The following activities are all priority in the sites whe- 1510 * Mediterranean salt steppes (Limonietalia) re the habitats or species are present. This habitat is on the edge of the saltpans and out of 1150* Coastal lagoons the shore of water reservoirs, in temporary flooded areas, very dry and salty in the summer Habitat to encourage in reservoirs - Maintenance of soils sometimes temporarily damp, - Ensure connection with the sea but not normally submerged except occasionally - Ensure constant water exchange, with more flushed with salt waters, in areas strongly affected by the areas and other more stagnant water table of salty waters, drying in the summer, - Maintenance of a salinity comprised between 10‰ with aridity, high salinity and salt efflorescence and 35‰ - Maintenance of natural edges surrounding sal- - Maintenance of the diversity of morphologies in the tpans lagoon beds and shores - Maintenance of different depths 7.5 Conservation activities for species 1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud Salicornia procumbens* and sand - Legal protection. - Creation and maintenance of salt wet muds basins Habitat that could be set in marginal areas of the sto- in spring and summer, in not used saltworks. rage basins or on the islets and in unused portions of - Maintenance of salt muddy borders in basins used the active salt or can be favoured in a part of the salt for salt production. basins of the abandoned salt pans - Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for - Maintenance of mudflats with about less than 3 new ones; evaluation of the size of populations; centimetres of brackish water above during the study of the dynamics of populations; study of the growing season and wet even in summer, possi- biology and ecology of the species. bly slightly submerged in winter with about ten-15 centimetres of brackish water Limonium insulare* - Make a rotation maintenance of the marginal areas of the active salt basins, not affecting never more Limonium pseudolaetus* than 30% of the surface of the saltwork - Legal protection. - Creation and maintenance of conditions for 1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (Juncetalia Sarcocornietea (flooded clayey soils, from hyper- maritimi) saline to missals, also subject to long periods of desiccation in summer), typical in saltworks small Habitat that could be set in marginal areas of the banks between basins. storage basins and in the low lands between the sal- - Forbidden new urbanization in coastal areas. twork and the sea, on sandy soils - Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for - Maintenance of a prolonged period of flood on new ones; evaluation of the size of populations; predominantly sandy soils, at least from autumn study of the dynamics of populations; study of the to spring, with salinity of waters around the 15‰- biology and ecology of the species. 20‰ (to avoid Phragmites australis), winter water levels around 20-30 centimetres and never com- Armeria velutina pletely dry even in summer - Legal protection. - Maintenance of dry salt sands. 1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosae) Phoenicopterus roseus (B, W) - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the Habitat often abundant on the banks of the saline, in saltworks in the breeding season.

85 - Complete ban on aircraft, ultralight aircraft and phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or drones flights over the saltworks and close watch synthetic chemicals. on compliance with the ban. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. - Creation and maintenance of islets. avian botulism). - Maintenance of adequate water levels (minimum - Avoid the presence of Larus michahellis, adopting 30-40 cm) surrounding nest sites. disruptive and deterrence strategies. - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee - Control of the population of Rattus norvegicus food resources. and R. rattus (mainly by flooding in winter time - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the the islets). basins to dry) in autumn and winter. - Ban wind-farms around the breeding colonies. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Ban hunting to the species. synthetic chemicals. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. Himantopus himantopus (B, M) avian botulism). - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the - Ban on the use of lead ammunition. saltworks in the breeding season. - Burial of powerlines and other wires. - Ban the maintenance of dikes during the breeding - Ban wind-farms around the breeding colonies. season. - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. - Creation and maintenance of islets. - Maintenance of adequate water levels (minimum Marmaronetta angustirostris (B, W, M) 30-40 cm) surrounding nest sites. - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee basins to dry) in autumn and winter. food resources. - Ban hunting in the areas where the species still - Avoid water level increasing during the breeding lives. season. - Conduct regular surveys and monitoring; research - Control the quality of released water, to prevent its ecology. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or synthetic chemicals (organochlorine pesticides). Oxyura leucocephala (B, W) - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the avian botulism). basins to dry) in autumn and winter. - Avoid the presence of Larus michahellis, adopting - Control the quality of released water, to prevent disruptive and deterrence strategies. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. synthetic chemicals. - Ban hunting in the areas where the species still Recurvirostra avosetta (B, W, M) lives. - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the - Conduct regular surveys and monitoring saltworks in the breeding season. (including tracking studies to improve knowledge - Ban the maintenance of dikes during the breeding of migration routes and phenology); research its season. ecology. - Creation and maintenance of islets. - Eradicate Oxyura jamaicensis. - Maintenance of adequate water levels (minimum - Reintroduce the species in suitable habitats. 30-40 cm) surrounding nest sites. - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee - Prevent drowning in fishing nets by regulating fish food resources. activities. - Avoid water level increasing during the breeding season. Haematopus ostralegus (B, W, M) - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the basins to dry) in autumn and winter. saltworks in the breeding season. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Ban the maintenance of dikes during the breeding phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or season. synthetic chemicals (polychlorinated biphenyls, - Creation and maintenance of islets. insecticides). - Maintenance of adequate water levels (minimum - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. 30-40 cm) surrounding nest sites. avian botulism). - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee - Avoid the presence of Larus michahellis, adopting food resources. disruptive and deterrence strategies. - Avoid water level increasing during the breeding - Control of the population of Rattus norvegicus season. and R. rattus (mainly by flooding in winter time - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the the islets). basins to dry) in autumn and winter. - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent

86 Glareola pratincola (B, M) Thalassinus sandvicensis (B, W, M) - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the saltworks in the breeding season. Sterna hirundo (B, M) - Maintenance of dry basins during the breeding season. Sterna albifrons (B, M) - Ban the use of herbicides around the breeding areas. - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the - Strict regulation of the use of insecticides around saltworks in the breeding season. the breeding areas. - Ban the maintenance of dikes during the breeding season. Charadrius alexandrinus (B, W, M) - Creation and maintenance of islets. - Strict regulation of access (tourist, workers) to the - Maintenance of adequate water levels (minimum saltworks in the breeding season. 30-40 cm) surrounding nest sites. - Ban the maintenance of dikes during the breeding - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee season. food resource (for Slender-billed Gull, Audouin’s - Creation and maintenance of islets. Gull, Sandwich Tern, Common Tern, Little Tern). - Maintenance of adequate salinity to guarantee - Avoid water level increasing during the breeding food resources. season. - Avoid water level increasing during the breeding - Control the quality of released water, to prevent season. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the synthetic chemicals. basins to dry) in autumn and winter. - Avoid the presence of Larus michahellis, adopting - Control the quality of released water, to prevent disruptive and deterrence strategies or (for Little phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or Tern) protecting the colonies with wires. synthetic chemicals. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. avian botulism). avian botulism). - Control of the population of Rattus norvegicus - Avoid the presence of Larus michahellis, adopting and R. rattus (mainly by flooding in winter time disruptive and deterrence strategies. the islets). - Control of the population of Rattus norvegicus - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. and R. rattus (mainly by flooding in winter time - Implement measures to reduce mortality in the islets). fishing gears (for Audouin’s Gull, Sandwich Tern, - Avoid fish farming in saltworks. Common Tern, Little Tern). - Regulation of fishing pressure in the sea around Numenius arquata (W, M) the breeding areas (for Audouin’s Gull, Sandwich Tern, Common Tern, Little Tern). Calidris ferruginea (M) - Ban marine wind-farms around the breeding colonies (for Audouin’s Gull, Sandwich Tern). Philomachus pugnax (W, M) - Ban the use of herbicides around the breeding areas. Limosa lapponica (W, M) - Strict regulation of the use of insecticides around the breeding areas. Tringa glareola (M) - Monitor the breeding colonies.

- Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the Hydrocoloeus minutus (M) basins to dry) in spring (Wood Sandpiper), - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the autumn and winter. basins to dry) in autumn and spring. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Control the quality of released water, to prevent phenomena of pollution by heavy metals, phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or petroleum or synthetic chemicals. synthetic chemicals. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. avian - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. botulism). avian botulism).

Ichthyaetus melanocephalus (B, W, M) Hydroprogne caspia (M) - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the Chroicocephalus genei (B, W, M) basins to dry) in autumn and spring. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent Ichthyaetus audouinii (B, W, M) phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or synthetic chemicals. Gelochelidon nilotica (B, M) - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. avian botulism).

87 Chlidonias hybrida (M) Aphanius fasciatus Aphanius iberus Chlidonias niger (M) - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the Aphanius baeticus basins to dry) in autumn and spring. - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the basins - Control the quality of released water, to prevent to dry) in autumn, winter and spring. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Maintenance of submerged vegetation in the synthetic chemicals. adductor channels. - Change of the water to prevent diseases (e.g. - Maintenance of marginal areas and channels with avian botulism). polyhaline / hyperhaline water and rich submerged vegetation. Alcedo atthis (W) - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the basins phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or to dry) in autumn, winter and spring. synthetic chemicals and of eutrophication. - Maintenance of submerged vegetation in the - Ban the use of insecticides against mosquitoes in adductor channels. and around the saltworks. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Contain the population of Gambusia holbrooki. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or synthetic chemicals. Knipowitschia panizzae Pomatoschistus canestrinii Anguilla anguilla - Maintain ecological connections between the Pomatoschistus tortonesei saltworks and the sea. - Maintenance of submerged vegetation in the - Maintenance of shallow water (do not let the basins adductor channels. to dry) in autumn, winter and spring. - Control the quality of released water, to prevent - Strict regulation of fishing activities. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Control the quality of released water, to prevent synthetic chemicals and of eutrophication. phenomena of pollution by heavy metals or - Maintenance of connections between the saltwork synthetic chemicals (lipophilic chemical pollutants). and the sea. - Ban the fishing of glass eels and elvers. - Monitor P. tortonesei in the only European site - Strict control against poaching. (Stagnone di Marsala).

88 8) Bibliography

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Radev R. (ed.), 2009. Integrated Management Ballantyne R., Packer J., Sutherland L.A., 2011. Plan of “Pomoriysko Ezero” SPA - BG0000152 and Visitors memories of wildlife tourism: Implications “Pomorie” SCI - BG0000620 for the design of powerful interpretative experiences. Tourism Management, 32: 770-779 Turin P. (Coordinator), 2015. Piano di Gestione Barbieri C. & Corazza S., 2006. Piano di gestione del SCI/SPA IT4070007 “Salina di Cervia” Ente di della salina di Comacchio, porzione del SIC “Valli Gestione per i Parchi e la Biodiversità Delta del Po. di Comacchio” - IT4060002. Progetto LIFE00NAT/ IT/7215 – Ripristino ecologico e conservazione degli habitat nella Salina del SIC Valli di Comacchio. Parco del Delta del Po

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96 Annex I. List of saltworks included in Natura 2000 network

Fauna Selvatica

I.1 Methods

The census of European saltworks and coastal lagoons included in Natura 2000 network in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea is based on data and information gathered either from preexisting papers or from thematic publications available on line and from expolartion of specific websites. The data obtained involve solely “solar” saltworks, namely those in which salt production takes place by evaporating marine waters. Salt production in Europe is made in many different ways: in countries bordering the North Sea, marine water is withdrawn and brought to boiling in suitable metallic vats or moreover in Northern part of France salt extraction takes place from coastal sandbanks. There is also plenty of salt mines, generally called inappropriately “saltworks”, where salt is obtained in the form of rock salt, from underground deposits. The above mentioned methods of salt production are not included in the present study and its database and neither the saltworks out of the Mediterranean and Black Sea countries, because these guidelines are about these two areas. The different European countries are studied separately; information and data regarding the compilation of the list reported below were made for each country and were gathered with the following steps in chronolo- gical sequence: 1. Studying available publications and thematic papers available on line regarding information of saltworks present in a specific country; 2. Search on the web aiming to collect data on saltworks of a specific country either already detected in point 1 or of new discovery; 3. Search by cartographic viewers available on line. Borders at sea of the most important European countries for the salt production (Bulgaria, Greece, Croatia, Slovenia, Italy, Malta, France, Spain) were explored by using common viewers available on line such as Google maps and Google Earth, aiming to trace additional saltworks, possibly undiscovered by research carried out as mentioned at point 1 and 2; Data on solar saltworks of European countries concerning the research are listed in tables, with the following fields: - Sequence number. - Name of saltworks. - Country. - Region. - Province. - Island. - Municipality. - Geographical coordinates (obtained by Google maps) - Code and name of the site of interest (SCI -Site of Community Importance and SPA -Special Protection areas, only SCI or only SPA). - Management information regarding the saltworks, in particular if still active or not. - Date of termination of activity (if available) in the case of former saltworks, abandoned or disused ones. The tables contain either the list of saltworks and Natura 2000 sites for each investigated country, or the total list of Natura 2000 sites including working “solar” saltworks or disused ones. Moreover, the complete list also includes the very ancient and primitive saltworks, so called “historical saltworks”. Publications consulted and used for phase 1 of the present research, are listed in the section called “General Bibliography”. Internet sites studied for collecting data and information and for completing the list were recorded. Links of the websites were divided into a general part and in a specific section for each country and were reported in Annex 1, so-called “Sitography”. For obvious reasons, mainly due to the aims of this study, it was not possible to list and describe all sites historically relevant for the point of presence of saltworks. Instead, modern saltworks, characterized by engineered facilities and industrial equipment used in the last few centuries and in some cases recently abandoned were highlighted. It is important to emphasize that if considering the actual number of saltworks in Europe, that are at present mainly abandoned or hardly traceable, this research work and the related list developed of saltworks included in the Natura 2000 network of European countries is far from being considered exhaustive and complete.

97 I.2 Mediterranean and Black Sea marine saltworks included in the Natura 2000 network: remarks The number of saltworks present in the Natura 2000 network varied considerably in the different European countries involved in this research; countries of the Mediterranean Basin with an extensive coastline (Italy, Spain, France, Croatia, Greece). In many countries the presence of saltworks dates back to ancient times: in particular, in the Mediterranean Basin they were represented by areas of shallow waters with the possibility of gathering salt deposits and scales in some period of the year. Those primitive saltworks are recorded for the first time by history text bo- oks and appear in local names of places (“salina” in Italian, “aliki” in Greek, “salinas” in Spanish) referred to beaches, towns or even to whole islands (e.g. Salina island in the Eolian islands): they reflect the presence of areas dedicated to salt production. All data related to the present investigation for each country are listed below.

2.2.1 Romania

The shores of Romania are surrounded by the Black Sea. In Romania saltworks for salt production by evaporating of sea waters are missing whilst numerous salt mines exist where salt production is obtained from underground deposits.

2.2.2 Bulgaria

Along the coast surrounding the Black Sea appear the great saltworks of Burgas, divided into two areas not far from each other, and the smaller saltworks of Pomorie. Both saltworks are still active in salt production (working) and are included in the Natura 2000 network. In particular, saltworks of Burgas belong to a SCI and to a SPA BG0000270 Atanasovsko ezero, while that of Pomorie is protected as an SCI and as an SPA, respectively BG0000620 Pomorie and BG0000152 Pomoriysko ezero.

Name Region District Municipality In activity Bulgarian Coast 1 Saltworks of Burgas Burgas Burgas YES of the Black Sea Bulgarian Coast 2 Saltworks of Pomorie Burgas Pomorie YES of the Black Sea

Name SCI/ZPS SCI SPA BG0000270 - 1 Saltworks of Burgas Atanasovsko ezero 2 Saltworks of Pomorie BG0000620 - Pomorie

I.2.3 Greece

The 16 saltworks recorded in Greece are all included in Natura 2000 network: these are modern saltworks and 8 of them are still active in salt production by evaporating of sea water, while the rest of them were abandoned mainly during the last century.

Name Region Regional unit Municipality In activity

1 Saltworks of Adamas South Egeo Sea Milo Milo NO

Andravida- 2 Saltworks of Lechaina West Greece Elide NO Kyllini

3 Saltworks of Lefkas Ionie Islands Leucade Lefkada NO

98 Saltworks of Lefkas 4 Ionie Islands Leucade Lefkada NO Alexandros

5 Saltworks of Lefkimmi Ionie Islands Corfù Kerkyra NO

Saltworks of Etolia- 6 West Greece Mesolongi YES Messolonghi-Aspri Acarnania Saltworks of Etolia- 7 West Greece Mesolongi YES Messolonghi-Tourlis Acarnania

8 Saltworks of Kalloni North Egeo Sea Lesbo Lesbo YES

Pydna- 9 Saltworks of Kitros Central Macedonia Pieria YES Kolindros Saltworks of Etolia- 10 West Greece Amfilochia NO Kopraina Acarnania Saltworks of Megalo 11 Central Macedonia Salonicco Thermaikos YES Emvolo Saltworks of 12 North Egeo Sea Lesbo Lesbo YES Polichnitos

13 Saltworks of Samos North Egeo Sea Samo Samo NO

East Macedonia and 14 Saltworks of Mesi Rodopi Komotini YES Tracia Saltworks of East Macedonia and 15 Xanthi Avdira SÌ YES N. Kessani Tracia

16 Saltworks of Tigaki South Egeo Sea Coo Coo NO

Regarding Natura 2000 network, Greek saltworks belong to 20 different sites: 3 to both SCI and SPA sites, 8 to SCI and 9 to SPA sites. Four saltworks are included in a site considered as both SCI and SPA, 11 saltworks are included in the same SCI but in a different SPA; only Lechaina saltworks, located in Western Greece is included in one SCI site.

Name SCI/SPA SCI SPA GR4220020 –Nisos GR4220030 – Dytiki 1 Saltworks of Adamas Milos: Profitis Ilias- Milos, Antimilos, Evryteri Periochi Polyaigos Kai Nisides GR2330009 – 2 Saltworks of Lechaina Limnothalassa Kotyki – Alyki Lechainon GR2240001 – Limnothalasses 3 Saltworks of Lefkas Stenon Lefkadas (Palionis – Avlimon) Kai Alikes Lefkadas GR2240001 - Limnothalasses GR2330009 – Saltworks of Lefkas- 4 Stenon Lefkadas Limnothalassa Kotyki Alexandros (Palionis – Avlimon) – Alyki Lechainon Kai Alikes Saltworks of GR2230003 – Aliki 5 Lefkimmi Leffkimmis (Kerkyra)

99 GR2310001 – Delta GR2310015 Delta Acheloou, Acheloou, Limnothalassa Limnothalassa Mesolongiou – Mesolongiou – Saltworks of Aitolikou, Ekvoles Aitolikou, Ekvoles 6 Messolonghi- Evinou, Nisoi Evinou, Nisoi Aspri Echinades, Nisos Echinades, Nisos Petalas - Aitolikou, Petalas – Dyticos Ekvoles Evinou, Nisoi Arakynthos Kay Stena Echinades, Nisos Kleisouras Petalas GR2310015 - DELTA GR2310001 – Delta Acheloou, Acheloou, Limnothalassa Limnothalassa Mesolongiou - Saltworks of Mesolongiou - Aitolikou, Ekvoles 7 Messolonghi- Tourlis Aitolikou, Ekvoles Evinou, Nisoi Evinou, Nisoi Echinades, Nisos Echinades, Nisos Petalas - Dyticos Petalas Arakynthos Kay Stena Kleisouras GR4110004 –Lesvos: GR4110007 – Levsos: Saltworks of 8 Kolpos Kallonis Kai Paraktioi Ygrotopoi Kalloni Chersaia Paraktia zoni Kolpou Kallonis GR1220010 – Delta GR1250004 - Alychi Axiou - Loudia – 9 Saltworks of Kitros Kitrous - Ecryteri Aliakmona – Alyki Periochi Kitrous GR2110001 – GR2110004 - Amvrakikos Kolpos, Amvrakikos Kolpos, Delta Lourou Kai 10 Saltworks of Kopraina Limnothalassa Arachthou (Petra, Katafourko Kai Mytikas, Evryteri Karokonisia Periochi) Saltworks of GR1220005 – 11 Echinades, Nisos Megalo Emvolo Limnothalassa Angelochoriou GR4110004 – Lesvos: GR4110007 – Lesvos: Saltworks of 12 Kolpos Kallonis Kai Paraktioi Ygrotopoi Polichnitos Chersaia Paraktia zoni Kolpou Kallonis Saltworks of GR4120001 – Samos: GR4120007 – Samos: 13 Samos Paralia Alyki Aloke Psilis Ammou GR1130009 –Limnes GR1130010 – Limnes Kai Limnothalasses Vistonis, Ismaris – 14 Saltworks of Mesi Tis Tharakis – Limnothalasses Porto Evryteri periochi kai Lagos, Alyki Ptelea, paraktia zoni Xirolimni, Karatza GR1130009 - Limnes GR1130010 - Limnes Kai Limnothalasses Vistonis, Ismaris – Saltworks of N. 15 Tis Tharakis – Limnothalasses Porto Kessani Evryteri periochi kai Lagos, Alyki Ptelea, paraktia zoni Xirolimni, Karatza GR4210008 –Kos: Akrotirio Louros – Saltworks of Limni Psalidi – Oris 16 Tigaki Dikaios – Alyki Paraktia Thalassia Zoni

100 I.2.4 Croatia 7 marine saltworks were recorded in the Natura 2000 Network, most of them located on the principal Croatian and Dalmatian islands: only 3 of them are still active, whilst the rest is not in use anymore. This applies in particular to the saltworks of the Bay of Soline and to those of Supetarska Draga, which can be considered of historical value.

Name Region Island/Municipality In activity

1 Saltworks of Valdaura Istrian Region Islands Brioni, Pola NO Saline della Baia di 2 Coastal mountain Region Island Veglia, Dobrigno NO Soline Saltworks of 3 Coastal mountain Region Island Arbe, Arbe NO Supetarska Draga 4 Saltworks of Pag Zara Region Island of Pago, Pago YES

5 Saltworks of Dinjiska Zara Region Island of Pago, Pago NO

6 Saltworks of Nin Zara Region Nona YES

7 Saltworks of Ston Ragusan-Naretan Region Stagno YES

Regarding Natura 2000 network, Croatian saltworks are included in ten different sites: in 7 SCI and 3 SPA sites. Six of the 7 recorded saltworks are included in different SCI and SPA sites; Ston saltworks is only included in a SCI site designated under the Habitat Directive.

Name SCI SPA HR1000032 - Akvatorij zapadne 1 Saltworks of Valdaura HR2000604 - Nacionalni park Brijuni Istre Saltworks of the Bay of 2 HR4000029 - Zaljev Soline - otok Krk HR1000033 - Kvarnerski otoci Soline Saltworks of Supetarska 3 HR2001359 - Otok Rab HR1000033 - Kvarnerski otoci Draga 4 Saltworks of Pag HR3000450 - Solana Pag HR1000023 - SZ Dalmacija i Pag

5 Saltworks of Dinjiska HR2001384 - Solana Dinjiška HR1000023 - SZ Dalmacija i Pag

6 Saltworks of Nin HR3000421 - Solana Nin HR1000023 - SZ Dalmacija i Pag

7 Saltworks of Ston HR3000167 - Solana Ston

I.2.5 Slovenia

4 marine saltworks are included in Natura 2000 network. The saltworks of Sermino and Semedella in the vicinity of Capodistria are almost completely disappeared due to urban development and to the growth of the local industrial port: only a wetland of brackish waters is actually left of the ancient saltworks, concerning the same SCI and SPA site. On the other hand the 2 saltworks present in the territory of Pirano are active and represent an important tourist attraction.

Name Region Municipality In activity

1 Saltworks of Semedella Karsts Coast Capodistria NO

2 Saltworks of Sermino Karsts Coast Capodistria NO 3 Saltworks of Strugnano Karsts Coast Pirano YES 4 Saltworks of Sicciole Karsts Coast Pirano YES

101 Slovenian saltworks are included in 6 different sites of Natura 2000 network, 3 SCI sites and 3 SPA areas. All the 4 Slovenian saltworks are included in a SCI site and in a SPA, which differ from each other.

Name SCI SPA Saltworks of 1 SI3000252 - kocjanski zatok SI5000008 - kocjanski zatok Semedella

2 Saltworks of Sermino SI3000252 - kocjanski zatok SI5000008 - kocjanski zatok

SI3000238 - Strunjanske soline s 3 Saltworks of Strugnano SI5000031 - Strunjan Stjužo Saltworks of SI3000240 - Sečoveljske soline in 4 SI5000018 - Sečoveljske soline Sicciole estuarij Dragonje

I.2.6 Italy

During the present survey 20 saltworks in the Natura 2000 network were recorded. The vast majority of them are located in Sicily (8), followed by Sardinia (6) and Apulia (3) and at last Emilia-Romagna (2) and Lazio (1). The amount of saltworks in Italy was higher in the past centuries: in Trieste, Ostia, Venice and Chioggia saltworks were described but nowadays no trace of them can be found. Six of these 20 Italian saltworks (Salina di Cervia, saltworks of Margherita di Savoia, saltworks of Trapani, saltworks of Marsala, saltworks of Macchiareddu and saltworks of Sant’Antioco) are currently in use for salt production by evaporating sea waters. It should also be highlighted that 3 of the listed saltworks (Saline dell’Isola di Salina, saltworks of Colostrei and saltworks of Stintino) can be defined as historical ones; in fact, they have a primitive character and were in use in ancient times and have been abandoned for hundreds of years.

Name Region Provincia In activity 1 Saltworks of Cervia Emilia-Romagna Ravenna YES 2 Saltworks of Comacchio Emilia-Romagna Ferrara NO 3 Saltworks of Tarquinia Lazio Viterbo NO 4 Saltworks dei Monaci Apulia Taranto NO Saltworks Regie di Punta 5 Apulia Brindisi NO Contessa 6 Saltworks of Margherita di Savoia Apulia Barletta-Andria-Trani YES 7 Salina (Island) Sicily Messina NO 8 Saltworks of Trapani Sicily Trapani YES 9 Saltworks of Marsala Sicily Trapani YES 10 Saltworks of Siracusa Sicily Siracusa NO 11 Saltworks of Priolo Sicily Siracusa NO 12 Saltworks of Augusta Sicily Siracusa NO 13 Saltworks of Morghella Sicily Siracusa NO 14 Saltworks of Marzamemi Sicily Siracusa NO 15 Saltworks of Colostrei Sardinia Cagliari NO 16 Saltworks of Macchiareddu Sardinia Cagliari YES 17 Saltworks of Molentargius Sardinia Cagliari NO 18 Saltworks of Stintino Sardinia Sassari NO 19 Saltworks of Sant’Antioco Sardinia Carbonia-Iglesias YES 20 Saltworks of Carloforte Sardinia Carbonia-Iglesias NO

102 The saltworks recorded in Italy are included in 27 different sites of Natura 2000 network, divided as follows: 7 that are both SCI and SPA sites, 13 are SCI and 7 are SPA. 7 of the 20 Italian saltworks are included in the same SCI and SPA sites, 8 are present in a SCI and SPA which differs from each other, 4 are located in one SCI site, Margherita di Savoia saltworks is located in a SPA site.

Name SCI/SPA SCI SPA IT4070007 - Salina 1 Saltworks of Cervia di Cervia IT4060002 - Valli 2 Saltworks of Comacchio di Comacchio IT6010026 – Saline 3 Saltworks of Tarquinia di Tarquinia IT9130001 - Torre 4 Saltworks deiMonaci Colimena IT9140003 - Stagni e Saltworks Regie 5 Saline di Punta della di Punta Contessa Contessa Saltworks of IT9110006 – Saline 6 Margherita di di Margherita di Savoia Savoia ITA030029 - Isola di 7 Salina (Island) Salina (Stagno di Lingua) ITA010028 - Stagnone di Marsala ITA010007 – Saline 8 Saltworks of Trapani e Saltworks of Trapani - di Trapani area marina e terrestre ITA010028 - ITA010021 – Sal- Stagnone di Marsala 9 Saltworks of Marsala tworks of e Saltworks of Trapani - Marsala area marina e terrestre ITA090006 – Saline 10 Saltworks of Siracusa di Siracusa e Fiume Ciane ITA090013 – Saline 11 Saltworks of Priolo di Priolo Saltworks of ITA090014 – Saline 12 Augusta di Augusta ITA090029 - Pantani della ITA090004 - Pantano Sicily sud-orientale, Morghella, 13 Saltworks of Morghella Morghella di Marzamemi, di Punta Pilieri e Vendicari ITA090029 - Pantani ITA090005 - Pantano della Sicily sud-orientale, Mor- 14 Saltworks of Marzamemi di Marzamemi ghella, di Marzamemi, di Punta Pilieri e Vendicari ITB040019 - Stagni ITB043025 - Stagni 15 Saltworks of Colostrei di Colostrai e delle di Colostrai Saline ITB040023 - Stagno di Cagliari, Saltwor- ITB044003 - Stagno Saltworks of ks of di Cagliari (solo parte 16 Macchiareddu Macchiareddu, delle saline sono Laguna incluse) di Santa Gilla

103 ITB040022 - Stagno ITB044002 – Saline Saltworks of 17 di Molentargius e di Molentargius Molentargius territori limitrofi ITB010002 - ITB013012 - Stagno 18 Saltworks of Stintino Stagno di Pilo di Pilo, Casaraccio e e di Casaraccio Saltworks of Stintino ITB042223 - Stagno di Santa Caterina (solo parte delle saline Saltworks of 19 sono incluse); Sant'Antioco ITB042226 - Stagno di Porto (solo parte delle saline sono incluse) ITB040027 - Isola di 20 Saltworks of Carloforte San Pietro

I.2.7 Malta

In the state of Malta, near the residential area of Salini a modern industrial saltworks was identified. The mentioned saltworks is not in activity since 1998, but recently (since 2011) has been involved in environmental regeneration projects and restoration of productive activity. This saltwork is included in a Natura 2000 network, specifically in the SPAMT0000007 Is-Salini.

On Gozo Island a rudimental and primitive saltworks is also present, which consist of basins hollowed out of the rock bluffs all the way down to the edge of the water: they are denominated Saline of Xwejni Bay, but are not included in the Natura 2000 network.

Name Region Municipality In activity ZPS Malta MT0000007 1 Saltworks of Salini Nasciaro NO (in restoration) Majjistral - Is-Salini

I.2.8 France

In France 14 marine saltworks or groups of them included in Natura 2000 sites were recorded on the Mediterranean coast. Of the 14 French saltworks on the Mediterranean coast, only 5 of them are still working, whilst the remaining 9 were abandoned mostly in the last decades of the previous century. The Mediterranean saltworks are mainly of a modern type and mechanised: salt production took place on an industrial scale.

Name Region Department Municipality In activity Bouches-du- 1 Saltworks of Giraud Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Arles YES Rhône Bouches-du- 2 Saltworks of Berre Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Berre-l'Étang YES Rhône Saline d'Aigues- 3 Languedoc Roussillon Gard Aigues-Mortes YES Mortes 4 Saline d'Hyères Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Var Hyères NO

104 Saltworks of l'Île 5 Languedoc Roussillon Aude Gruissan YES Saint Martin Villeneuve-lès- Saltworks of Maguelone, 6 Languedoc-Roussillon Hérault NO Villeneuve Mireval, Vic-la- Gardiole 7 Saltworks of La Palme Languedoc-Roussillon Aude La Palme YES

8 Saltworks of Sainte-Lucie Languedoc-Roussillon Aude Port-la-Nouvelle NO

9 Saltworks of Quinzième Languedoc-Roussillon Hérault Marseillan NO

10 Saltworks of Villeroy Languedoc-Roussillon Hérault Sète NO

11 Saltworks of Frontignan Languedoc-Roussillon Hérault Frontignan NO Saltworks of Bouches- 12 Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Fos-sur-Mer NO Fos-sur-Mer du-Rhône Bouches- 13 Saltworks of Rassuen Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Istres NO du-Rhône 14 Saltworks of Bagnas Languedoc-Roussillon Hérault Agde NO

French Mediterranean saltworks, separately or in groups, are included in 22 different sites of Natura 2000 network: 11 SCI and 11 SPA sites, 10 of the 14 single saltworks or groups of them are included in a SCI and a SPA site which differs from each other or in some cases in more than one different SCI or SPA; 4 (2 and 2) saltworks are in an area which belongs only to one SPA site and 2 saltworks are included only in one SCI site designated under the Habitat Directive.

Name SCI SPA

1 Saltwork de Giraud FR9301592 - Camargue FR9310019 - Camargue FR9301597- Marais et zone umides lièes FR 9312005. Salines de l’Etang de 2 Saltwork de Berre à l’étang de Berre Berre FR9112013 - Petite Camargue laguno- 3 Saltwork d’Aigues-Mortes FR9101406 - Petite Camargue marine FR9312008 - Salins d’Hyères et des 4 Saltworks-d’Hyères FR9301613 - Rade d’Hyères Pesquiers Saltworks de l’Île Saint FR9101440 - Complexe lagunaire de 5 FR9112007 - Étangs du Narbonnais Martin Bages-Sigean FR9110042 - Étangs palavasiens et 6 Saltworks de Villeneuve FR9101410 - Étangs palavasiens étang de l’Estagnol FR9101441 - Complexe lagunaire de 7 Saltwork de La Palme FR9112006 - Étang de Lapalme Lapalme Saltworks de Sainte- FR9101440 - Complexe lagunaire de 8 FR9112007 - Étangs du Narbonnais Lucie Bages-Sigean FR9112018 - Étang de Thau et lido de 9 Saltworks du Quinzième FR9101411 - Herbiers de l’étang de Thau Sète à Agde FR9112018 - Étang de Thau et lido de 10 Saltworks de Villeroy FR9101411 - Herbiers de l’étang de Thau Sète à Agde 11 Saltworks de Frontignan FR9101410 - Étangs palavasiens

12 Saltworks de Fos-sur-Mer FR9312015 - Étangs entre Istres et Fos

13 Saltwork de Rassuen FR9312015 - Étangs entre Istres et Fos

14 Saltworks de Bagnas FR9101412 - Étang du Bagnas FR9110034 - Étang du Bagnas

105 I.2.9 Spain

16 saltworks were listed.

Region/ Name Autonomous Province Municipality In activity Community 1 Saltwork de la Trinidad Catalogna Tarragona Sant Carlos de la Ràpita YES Islas Baleares, 2 Saltwork d’Es Trenc Islas Baleares Ses Salines/Campos YES Mallorca Islas Baleares, 3 Saltwork de S’Avall Islas Baleares Ses Salines YES Mallorca Islas Baleares, 4 Saltworks d’en Marroig Islas Baleares Formentera YES Formentera 5 Saltworks d’Eivissa Islas Baleares Islas Baleares, Ibiza Sant Josep de sa Talaia YES Islas Baleares, 6 Saltworks d’en Ferrer Islas Baleares Formentera YES? Formentera Islas Baleares, 7 Saltworks de Fornells Islas Baleares Fornells YES Menorca Islas Baleares, 8 Saltworks d’Addaia Islas Baleares Es Mercadal NO Menorca Saltworks de Santa 9 Valencia Alicante Santa Pola YES Pola Saltworks de Torrévieja 10 Valencia Alicante Torrevieja, Los Montesinos YES et la Mata Saltwork de San Pedro San Pedro del Pinatar, San 11 Murcia Murcia YES del Pinatar Javier 12 Saltwork de lo Poyo Murcia Murcia Cartagena NO Saltwork de 13 Murcia Murcia Cartagena NO Marchamalo Saltwork de Rasall o 14 Murcia Murcia Cartagena YES Calblanque Saltwork de Cabo de 15 Andalusia Almeria Almeria YES Gata Saltwork de Cerrillos y 16 Andalusia Almeria Roquetas de Mar, El Ejido NO Viejas

Regarding their presence in Natura 2000 network, the recorded Spanish saltworks are included in 26 different sites: 8 SCI and SPA, 4 SCI and 3 SPA. 5 saltworks or groups of them are included in the same SCI and SPA site, 6 saltworks correspond to a SCI and a SPA site which differs from each other.

Name SCI/SPA SCI SPA ES0000020 - 1 Saltwork de la Trinidad Delta de l'Ebre ES0000083 - 2 Saltwork d’Es Trenc Arxipèlag de Cabrera ES0000083 - 3 Saltwork de S’Avall Arxipèlag de Cabrera ES0000084 - Ses 4 Saltworks d’en Marroig Salines d'Eivissa i Formentera

106 ES0000084 - Ses 5 Saltworks d’Eivissa Salines d'Eivissa i Formentera ES0000084 - Ses 6 Saltworks d’en Ferrer Salines d'Eivissa i Formentera ES0000232 - La Mola 7 Saltworks de Fornells i s'Albufera de Fornells ES0000233 - 8 Saltworks d’Addaia D'Addaia a s'Albufera ES0000120 - Salinas ES0000486 - Salines 9 Saltworks de Santa Pola de Santa Pola de Santa Pola ITA090006 – Saline ES0000059 - Saltworks de Torrévieja et ES0000485 - Lagunas de la 10 di Siracusa e Fiume Lacunes de la Mata la Mata Mata y Torrevieja Ciane i Torrevieja ES0000175 - Salinas Saltwork de San Pedro 11 y Arenales de San del Pinatar Pedro del Pinatar ES6200006 - Espacios Abiertos ES0000260 - 12 Saltwork de lo Poyo e Islas del Mar Mar Menor Menor ES6200006 - ES0000260 - 13 Saltwork de Marchamalo Espacios Abiertos Mar Menor Islas del Mar Menor ES6200001 - Saltwork de Rasall o Calblanque,Monte ES0000260 - 14 Calblanque de las Cenizas y Mar Menor Peña del Águila Saltwork de Cabo de ES0000046 - Cabo de 15 Gata Gata-Nijar Saltwork de Cerrillos y ES0000048 - 16 Viejas Punta Entinas-Sabinar

I.3 List of Natura 2000 sites referred to the presence of active solar saltworks (salt production by natural evaporating) or abandoned ones.

The following table represents the complete list of Natura 2000 sites by nationality including solar saltworks. 155 Sites of the Natura 2000 network are reported, 24 both SCI and SPA, 70 only SCI under the Habitats Directive (92/43/ EEC) and 61 SPA under the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC).

Country Site Code and denomination of Natura 2000 Site

1 Bulgaria SCI/SPA BG0000270 - Atanasovsko ezero

2 Bulgaria SCI BG0000620 - Pomorie

3 Bulgaria SPA BG0000152 - Pomoriysko ezero GR2240001 - Limnothalasses Stenon Lefkadas (Palionis - Avlimon) 4 Greece SCI/SPA Kai Alykes Lefkadas 5 Greece SCI/SPA GR2230003 - Alyki Lefkimmis (Kerkyra)

6 Greece SCI/SPA GR1220005 - Limnothalassa Angelochoriou

7 Greece SCI GR4220020 - Nisos Milos: Profitis Ilias - Evryteri Periochi GR2310001 - Delta Acheloou, Limnothalassa Mesolongiou - 8 Greece SCI Aitolikou, Ekvoles Evinou, Nisoi Echinades, Nisos Petalas

107 Country Site Code and denomination of Natura 2000 Site

9 Greece SCI GR4110004 - Lesvos: Kolpos Kallonis Kai Chersaia Paraktia Zoni

10 Greece SCI GR1250004 - Alyki Kitrous - Evryteri Periochi GR2110001 - Amvrakikos Kolpos, Delta Lourou Kai Arachthou 11 Greece SCI (Petra, Mytikas, Evryteri Periochi) 12 Greece SCI GR4120001 - Samos: Paralia Alyki GR1130009 - Limnes Kai Limnothalasses Tis Thrakis - Evryteri 13 Greece SCI Periochi Kai Paraktia Zoni GR4210008 - Kos: Akrotirio Louros - Limni Psalidi - Oros 14 Greece SCI Dikaios - Alyki - Paraktia Thalassia Zoni 15 Greece SPA GR4220030 - Dytiki Milos, Antimilos, Polyaigos Kai Nisides

16 Greece SPA GR2330009 - Limnothalassa Kotychi - Alyki Lechainon GR2310015 - Delta Acheloou, Limnothalassa Mesolongiou - 17 Greece SPA Aitolikou Kai Ekvoles Evinou, Nisoi Echinades, Nisos Petalas, Dytikos Arakynthos Kai Stena Kleisouras 18 Greece SPA GR4110007 - Lesvos: Paraktioi Ygrotopoi Kolpou Kallonis

19 Greece SPA GR1220010 - Delta Axiou - Loudia - Aliakmona - Alyki Kitrous GR2110004 - Amvrakikos Kolpos, Limnothalassa Katafourko 20 Greece SPA Kai Korakonisia 21 Greece SPA GR4120007 - Samos: Alõké Psilis Ammou GR1130010 - Limnes Vistonis, Ismaris - Limnothalasses Porto 22 Greece SPA Lagos, Alyki Ptelea, Xirolimni, Karatza 23 Greece SPA GR4210027 - Kos: Limni Psalidi - Alyki

24 Croatia SCI HR2000604 - Nacionalni park Brijuni

25 Croatia SCI HR4000029 - Zaljev Soline - otok Krk

26 Croatia SCI HR2001359 - Otok Rab

27 Croatia SCI HR3000450 - Solana Pag

28 Croatia SCI HR2001384 - Solana Dinjiška

29 Croatia SCI HR3000421 - Solana Nin

30 Croatia SCI HR3000167 - Solana Ston

31 Croatia SPA HR1000032 - Akvatorij zapadne Istre

32 Croatia SPA HR1000033 - Kvarnerski otoci

33 Croatia SPA HR1000023 - SZ Dalmacija i Pag

34 Slovenia SCI SI3000252 - kocjanski zatok

35 Slovenia SCI SI5000031 - Strunjan

36 Slovenia SCI SI3000240 - Sečoveljske soline in estuarij Dragonje

37 Slovenia SPA SI5000008 - kocjanski zatok

38 Slovenia SPA SI3000238 - Strunjanske soline s Stjužo

108 Country Site Code and denomination of Natura 2000 Site

39 Slovenia SPA SI5000018 - Sečoveljske soline

40 Italy SCI/SPA IT4070007 - Salina di Cervia

41 Italy SCI/SPA IT4060002 - Valli di Comacchio

42 Italy SCI/SPA IT6010026 - saltworks of Tarquinia

43 Italy SCI/SPA IT9140003 - Stagni e Saltworks of Punta della Contessa

44 Italy SCI/SPA ITA090006 – Saltworks of Siracusa e Fiume Ciane

45 Italy SCI/SPA ITA090013 – Saltworks of Priolo

46 Italy SCI/SPA ITA090014 – Saltworks of Augusta

47 Italy SCI IT9130001 - Torre Colimena

48 Italy SCI ITA030029 - Isola di Salina (Stagno di Lingua)

49 Italy SCI ITA010007 – Saltworks of Trapani

50 Italy SCI ITA010021 – Saltworks of Marsala

51 Italy SCI ITA090004 - Pantano Morghella

52 Italy SCI ITA090005 - Pantano di Marzamemi

53 Italy SCI ITB040019 - Stagni di Colostrai e delle Saline ITB040023 - Stagno di Cagliari, Saltworks of Macchiareddu, 54 Italy SCI Laguna di Santa Gilla 55 Italy SCI ITB040022 - Stagno di Molentargius e territori limitrofi

56 Italy SCI ITB010002 - Stagno di Pilo e di Casaraccio

57 Italy SCI ITB042223 - Stagno di Santa Caterina

58 Italy SCI ITB042226 - Stagno di Porto

59 Italy SCI ITB040027 - Isola di San Pietro

60 Italy SPA IT9110006 – Saltworks of Margherita di Savoia ITA010028 - Stagnone di Marsala e Saltworks of Trapani - area 61 Italy SPA marina e terrestre ITA090029 - Pantani della SCIily sud-orientale, Morghella, di 62 Italy SPA Marzamemi, di Punta Pilieri e Vendicari 63 Italy SPA ITB043025 - Stagni di Colostrai

64 Italy SPA ITB044003 - Stagno di Cagliari (solo parte delle saline sono incluse)

65 Italy SPA ITB044002 – Saltworks of Molentargius

66 Italy SPA ITB013012 - Stagno di Pilo, Casaraccio e Saltworks of Stintino

67 Malta SPA MT0000007 - Is-Salini

68 France SCI FR9301592 - Camargue

69 France SCI FR9301597 - Marais et zone umides lièes à l’étang de Berre

109 Country Site Code and denomination of Natura 2000 Site

70 France SCI FR9101406 - Petite Camargue

71 France SCI FR9301613 - Rade d’Hyères

72 France SCI FR9101440 - Complexe lagunaire de Bages-Sigean

73 France SCI FR9101410 - Étangs palavasiens

74 France SCI FR9101441 - Complexe lagunaire de Lapalme

75 France SCI FR9101411 - Herbiers de l’étang de Thau

76 France SCI FR9101412 - Étang du Bagnas

77 France SPA FR9310019 - Camargue

78 France SPA FR 9312005 - Salines de l’Etang de Berre

79 France SPA FR9112013 - Petite Camargue laguno-marine

80 France SPA FR9312008 - Salins d’Hyères et des Pesquiers

81 France SPA FR9112007 - Étangs du Narbonnais

82 France SPA FR9110042 - Étangs palavasiens et étang de l’Estagnol

83 France SPA FR9112006 - Étang de Lapalme

84 France SPA FR9112018 - Étang de Thau et lido de Sète à Agde

85 France SPA FR9312015 - Étangs entre Istres et Fos

86 France SPA FR9110034 - Étang du Bagnas

87 France SPA FR7212018 - Bassin d’Arcachon et banc d’Arguin

88 France SPA FR7210065 - Marais du Nord Médoc

89 France SPA FR5412020 - Marais et estuaire de la Seudre, île d’Oléron

90 France SPA FR5410028 - Marais de Brouage, Ile d’Oléron

91 France SPA FR5412025 - Estuaire et basse vallée de la Charente

1 France SPA FR5410013 - Anse de Fouras, baie d’Yves, marais de Rochefort

92 France SPA FR5410012 - Anse du Fier d’Ars en Ré

93 France SPA FR5410100 - Marais poitevin FR5200657 - Marais de Talmont et zones littorales entre les 94 France SPA Sables-d’Olonne et Jard-sur-Mer 95 France SPA FR5212010 - Dunes, forêt et marais d’Olonne FR5212009 - Marais Breton, baie de Bourgneuf, 96 France SPA île de Noirmoutier et forêt de Monts FR5210090 - Marais salants de Guérande, traicts du CroiSCI, 97 France SPA dunes de Pen Bron FR5212007 - Marais du Mès, baie et dunes de Pont-Mahé, étang 98 France SPA du Pont de Fer, île Dumet

110 Country Site Code and denomination of Natura 2000 Site

99 France SPA FR5310092 - Rivière de Pénerf

100 France SPA FR5310086 - Golfe du Morbihan

101 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000020 - Delta de l’Ebre

102 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000083 - Arxipèlag de Cabrera

103 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000084 - Ses Salines d’Eivissa i Formentera

104 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000232 - La Mola i s’Albufera de Fornells

105 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000233 - D’Addaia a s’Albufera

106 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000175 - Salinas y Arenales de San Pedro del Pinatar

107 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000046 - Cabo de Gata-Nijar

108 Spain SCI/SPA ES0000048 - Punta Entinas-Sabinar

109 Spain SCI ES0000120 - Salinas de Santa Pola

110 Spain SCI ES0000059 - Lacunes de la Mata i Torrevieja

111 Spain SCI ES6200006 - Espacios Abiertos e Islas del Mar Menor

112 Spain SCI ES6200001 - Calblanque, Monte de las Cenizas y Peña del Águila

113 Spain SPA ES0000486 - Salines de Santa Pola

114 Spain SPA ES0000485 - Lagunas de la Mata y Torrevieja

115 Spain SPA ES0000260 - Mar Menor

The following Table shows the distribution of Natura 2000 sites including solar saltworks in the countries of the European Union, along the Mediterranean and the Black Sea coasts.

Country SCI/SPA SCI SPA Total

Bulgaria 1 1 1 3

Greece 3 8 8 19

Croatia 7 3 10

Slovenia 3 3 6

Italy 7 13 7 27

Malta 1 1

France 11 11 22

Spain 8 4 3 15

Total 19 53 44 115

111 Allegato II. Nomenclatural notes

The scientific names of the species of plants and animals are taken from http://www.catalogueoflife.org/

The following names used by official documents, such as the directive 92/43/EEC or the directive 09/147/EC, but outdated, are so converted:

European Directives The Catalogue of Life

Salicornia veneta Salicornia procumbens Sm.

Knipowitschia (Padogobius) panizzae Knipowitschia panizzae Verga, 1841

Pomatoschistus canestrini Pomatoschistus canestrinii Ninni, 1883

Egretta alba (Ardea alba) Ardea alba Linnaeus, 1758

Phoenicopterus ruber Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas, 1811

Larus genei Chroicocephalus genei Breme, 1839

Larus melanocephalus Ichthyaetus melanocephalus Temminck, 1820

Larus audouinii Ichthyaetus audouinii Payraudeau, 1826

Larus minutus Hydrocoloeus minutus Pallas, 1776

Sterna caspia Hydroprogne caspia Pallas, 1770

Sterna sandvicensis Thalasseus sandvicensis Latham, 1787

Sterna albifrons Sternula albifrons Pallas, 1764

Chlidonias hybridus Chlidonias hybrid Pallas, 1811

112