Arta contemporană

Johannis TSOUMAS

Examining the influence of Japanese culture on the form and decoration of the early objects doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3938557 Summary Examining the influence of Japanese culture on the form and decoration of the early Meissen porcelain objects

The aim of this research is to examine how Japanese porcelain interacted with the European porcelain in- vented in the early eighteenth century Germany, creating a novel type of utility wares and decorative objects which conquered not only the markets but also the courts of Europe. Exploring how Japanese porcelain forms and motifs created narratives after being introduced by the Portuguese missionaries and the Dutch merchants in the sixteenth and the seventeenth century, the researcher will try to point out the importance of Japanese culture in a worldwide context, and its contribution to the growing interest of the European porcelain makers, artists and trad- ers. He will also focus on the profound interest in Japanese culture, restricted to the area of Japanese ceramics and particularly porcelain wares, exploring, at the same time, when and how Japanese objects surpassed the Chinese products which had been very popular on European markets a long time before. Other questions to be answered are about the remaking of small Japanese-like figures which contributed to the Europe’s fashion frenzy for some other types of hard-paste porcelain objects such as the large-scale statues and , initially made in the 1720’s and 1730’s, but also the Imari and style wares made for the pleasure of Augustus II the Strong, the Elec- tor of . Keywords: Japan, hard-paste porcelain, Meissen, figurines, Kakiemon style wares.

Rezumat Influenţa culturii japoneze asupra formei şi decorației produselor din porțelan japonez timpuriu

Scopul acestei cercetări este de a examina modul în care porțelanul japonez a interacționat cu porțelanul european inventat la începutul secolului al XVIII-lea în Germania, creând un nou tip de obiecte de uz casnic și obiecte decorative care au cucerit nu doar piețele, ci și curțile Europei. Cercetând modul în care formele și motivele porțelanului japonez au creat narațiuni după ce au fost introduse de misionarii portughezi și de comercianții olan- dezi în secolele XVI – XVII, autorul va încerca să evidenţieze importanța culturii japoneze într-un context univer- sal, dar și contribuția sa la interesul crescând al producătorilor, artiștilor și comercianților de porțelan europeni. De asemenea, se va concentra asupra interesului profund pentru cultura japoneză, restrânsă la zona ceramicii ja- poneze și în special a produselor din porțelan, explorând, în același timp, când și cum obiectele japoneze au depășit produsele chineze care erau foarte populare pe piețele europene de mult timp. Alte întrebări ţin de reproducerea unor mici figuri de tip japonez, care au contribuit la frenezia modei europene pentru unele tipuri de obiecte din porțelan de pastă dură, cum ar fi statuile și figurinele la scară largă, realizate inițial în anii 1720 și 1730, dar și obiectele în stil Imari și Kakiemon, făcute pentru plăcerea lui Augustus al II-lea cel Puternic, Elector de Saxonia. Cuvinte-cheie: Japonia, porţelan dur, Meissen, , produse în stilul Kakiemon.

Introduction Japan [8. p. 210]. So it was no coincidence that Dutch sailors and merchants were among the these were the first traders who, along with other first fixed partners of the Japanese during the -at products, made the Japanese porcelain known in tempt of the Portuguese colonists to Christianize Europe, through the famous -born mer- the Japanese nation in the 16th century. After 1615, chant Zacharias Wagner (1614-1668)1 whose busi- when the Portuguese were expelled, the Dutch re- ness with the Dutch East Indies Company, in 1659 mained the only commercial link of the West in resulted in the first major shipment of Japanese

100 ARTA  2020 ISSN 2345–1181 Arta contemporană porcelain wares to Europe. After the introduction Bottger (1682-1719), a German alchemist who al- of the first Japanese porcelain wares to the royal though had been into the Augustus the Strong ser- courts of central and northern Europe, people vice since 1701, only in 1705 began to concentrate became seriously interested in their unique form on the invention of ‘white gold’, as hard-paste por- finesse, harmonious decoration and functional celain used to be called. However, given Bottger’s values. Strangely enough, in spite of the fact that rather obscure background, it is not completely hard-paste porcelain had been known to the Chi- sure that his experiments would have been success- nese for centuries and thus became widely avail- ful if he had not met the influential mathematician able through trade, it was in the beginning of the and physicist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus seventeenth century that it began to be produced (1651-1708) who assisted his efforts to the most in Japan. More precisely, the Japanese started pro- [11, p. 6]. The first type of porcelain produced by ducing porcelain in the area of Arita, southwest Ja- Böttger had nothing to do with what we know now pan, in the late 1610s. The earliest wares produced as hard-paste porcelain for it was an extremely were decorated in a plain blue and were hard, red type of material, quite difficult known as Shoko-Imari. It did not take long for Jap- to handle, widely known as Böttgersteinzeug. The anese potters to master a fine white body, having first experimental type of porcelain was smooth discovered naturally mixed deposits of porcelain and clean in touch as it could be easily polished, clay, with decorations in both blue cobalt glaze or- even before firing, giving to the final object a shiny, namented with a small but striking range of over- jewel-like surface. In terms of design, the first pro- glaze enamel colors. In fact, it took only fifty years duction samples were copies of Chinese ceramic to form a new aesthetic, functional and ritual cul- pots, mainly the Yixing wares, and German Ba- ture in the country in order to conquer the taste of roque silver vessels. It took only five years to devel- the nobles of Europe. Private collections of Imari, op this raw material into the hard-paste porcelain Kakiemon and Arita type porcelain items2 seemed which could then enable artists to create fine, high to grow more and more and by the end of the sev- quality works that were first marketed in 1713. The enteenth century the need for the import of more color enameling technique took time to develop as wares of various types and functions had become it was applied to the objects by Johann Gregorius even more pronounced. Especially the highly dec- Höroldt as late as 1723. Augustus the Strong took orated wares of Imari and Kakiemon types were advantage of that phenomenal production in many avidly collected by the European bourgeoisie not ways. One of them was to follow the 18th century simply because they were tastefully designed and classic rules of the European politics which were excellently enameled, but also because they were highly associated with the gift exchange among the strongly associated with the exotic, ceremonial nobility [12, p. 35]. Thus, he commissioned a large character of Japanese society and culture. One of number of expensive, flamboyant artifacts from the the most renown collectors of the time was August factory, such as snuff boxes, tea sets and vases mak- II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, who by ing porcelain quickly a symbol of his omnipotence. the beginning of the eighteenth century, had in his In general, the Meissen factory, besides bringing a personal collection more than twenty thousand vast amount of money to the country, contributed pieces of Chinese, but also of, the more expensive to the production of new porcelain goods many of and rare, Japanese porcelain to be used for the dec- which were made and decorated in the traditional oration of the Japanese Palace3, a building of exqui- Japanese and Chinese styles. A quite big part of site charm and beauty built on the Neustadt bank these items were purely decorative and included an of the Elbe river. However, in spite of the fact that extensive series of full size native and foreign birds hard-paste porcelain was extremely popular in the and animals, but also sculptured figures of white country, the recipe for its production remained a porcelain, made in their natural colors and forms, sealed secret until 1708, when it was finally discov- many of which had direct references to the society, ered in Germany. This led to the official founda- religion and customs of the country. Others were tion of the royal porcelain factory in 1710 within purely functional, heavily influenced by both the the walls of the castle in the town Chinese and the Japanese culture including forms of Meissen, fifteen miles upriver from the Saxon ranging from small, individual rice bowls, cups capital city of Dresden [5, p. 98]. Nonetheless, it and saucers to large vases and many varieties of tea should also be stated that it was Johann Friedrich sets [4, p. 34]. Most of them were either directly or

ISSN 2345–1181 ARTA  2020 101 Arta contemporană partly copied from the originals both in terms of halves of the material would be brought together technique and form, but mainly of decoration. and after a complete juncture of their surfaces, the The new trend of hard-porcelain sculptures slabs would be removed from the mould and the The human figure and animal porcelain sculpture would attain its proper shape [2, p. 132]. sculptures (figurines) constituted a major part of After the figures were completed and given their the German tradition of creating porcelain hard finishing touches, they were left out in the air to paste objects. Augustus II the Strong’s wishes for dry out completely and then they were low fired the creation of the Japanese Palace to house his and glazed. However, sometimes some problems enormous porcelain collection were completed could happen, especially during the firing proce- with the creation of large-scale porcelain figures dure: there were many cases when glazes would of animals and birds. Johann Gottlieb Kirch- crack, ‘run’ and even get discolored. Large sculp- ner (1706-1768) and Johann Christoph Lücke tures, such as animals had to be light and hollow, (1703-1780) were the first sculptors permanently as is always the case in big items in the ceramics engaged by the Meissen factory; however Kirch- industry, otherwise they could blow up in the kiln. ner prevailed, mainly for his talent in interpret- The stability of the sculptures was also an impor- ing natural animal forms in porcelain through tant issue which had to be solved through many an astonishingly meticulous work. From the mid efforts to find the right base or support construct 1720s, that is after a decade or so of the manu- for each one [1]. factory’s successful production predominantly of These figurative sculptures can be found in [6, p. 5], Kirchner began researching in two different types of decoration and sizes. The depth the technical procedures of the new mate- first is a small series of Japanese-style figures to- rial, its difficulties in modeling, in glazing, even in tally plain in terms of decoration. This idea cannot firing, trying this way to understand its magical be attributed to Kaendler as it seemed to belong behavior. In the beginning of 1731 Kirchner was initially to Bottger himself, who by the mid 1710s joined by an equally talented, but not adequately had produced a series of plain white Buddha style known yet assistant, Johann Joachim Kaendler figures inspired by both the Chinese and Japanese (1706-1775). Nevertheless, it has not been known nature and religion. However, it was Kaendler if Kirchner or Kaendler had the design command who perfected these sculptural forms, making for the massive plaster moulds, but it’s likely they them smaller and handier in size, with direct ref- both worked on the large scale animal moulds. erences to Japanese culture. However, the human figurative statues of that In terms of technique, they seem to have been period that referred to the Chinese originally and inspired by the monochrome Bizen4 ceramic figu- later to the Japanese culture were much smaller. rative sculptures of the early Edo Period many of In spite of their less impressive size they were ad- which were made of plain wood or stone, in pre- equate enough to show Augustus’s love for the vious centuries. Bizen pottery and sculptures had Japanese culture, which also constituted the main specific characteristics as regards their mate- source of influence for the Japanese Palace con- rial qualities and workmanship which made them struction. In 1733, when Kirchner was finally re- stand out from all. Their typical hardness due to placed by Kaendler, who had already dealt with high temperature firing, as well as their characteris- the creation of Japanese traditional or religious tic earthen-like, reddish-brown color, their undec- figurative statuettes, the Japanese Palace statuette orated, almost plain, warm surfaces and the several production changed, acquiring an oriental flavor. dark marks arising from the intense wood-burn The technique he used was similar to the one ap- firing, made them particularly recognizable and at- plied to the life-size animal figures making them, tractive. However, Kaendler treated in this case the however in a far smaller scale. It included a plas- marvelous porcelain material in combination with ter mold which was created from a model, usually shiny, glossy or, in some cases, satin glazes which made of clay. The model had to be made bigger completed the perfection of the construction of than the size intended for the finished figure as, the final work, in a more advanced way than his once fired, the porcelain would shrink by up to a predecessor. Religious figures, but mainly animals sixth of its original size. Once the plaster mould and birds, are closely connected with the Japanese was created, special hard porcelain slabs would nature and tradition and constitute the basic the- be set into each of two separate halves. The two matography of this particular part of his work.

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The second series includes individual figures, groups or even intricate compositions of people, performing ritualistic activities of the everyday Japanese life, strongly decorated with ceramic col- ors, glazes and enamels. In this case we believe that the influence of Japanese culture is even stronger both in terms of form and decoration. The sculp- tural qualities he used in this type of figures were directly borrowed from the lacquered wood sculp- tures of the early and mid Edo period. The major- ity of them was of a limited color range and, in 5 some cases, had a gilt finish. He also was much at- Fig. 1. Johann Friedrich Bottger, Buddha like large tracted to the portable altars and shrines sculpted figures, Meissen, 1713. © 1stdibs Gallery, New York. wood compositions which depicted deities stand- ing at the center of an elegantly decorated base. These sculptures were more colorful and inten- sively gilded, especially in the inside part of their doors where, in many cases, painted figures from the Buddhist pantheon were also depicted. On the other hand bright colors, perfection in making, de- tailed rendering of the figure features, obvious fir- ing cracks and a wealth of firing and glaze textures found in the earthenware sculptures of Momoya- ma and the porcelain sculptures of Edo (lion-dogs6 and Imari figurative sculpture which included dei- ties, geishas or ordinary people in daily scenes), are characteristics easily detected in his figurative sculptures from the mid 1730s onwards. Though, he was not involved to a great extend in this sort of thematography, his works were excellently made, as most of the 2000 individual pieces of work he produced throughout his career reflect the tre- mendous influence of Japanese culture not only on Fig. 2. Joachim Kaendler, Japanese children, hard-paste the taste, but also on the way of living of many Eu- porcelain with enamels, 1750s. ©Auktionshaus Mehlis ropeans, especially those of the haute-bourgeoisie. GmbHArt and Antiques, Plauen. One of the finest examples of this series is a rather small in size Japanese composition, depict- The Imari and Kakiemon style ware ing a Japanese woman, the mother of two small During the renovation of some Japanese Pal- children who is trying to keep them around her ace halls in the spring of 1729, much of Augustus’s and at the same time to teach them customs and oriental wares collection was sent to the Meissen habits of Japanese culture (umbrella handling, factory to be studied and reproduced. What is per- fruit collection etc). haps most paradoxical in this idea is that although The tender scene seems to be unfold in the the Chinese wares represented most of the 10000 open, projecting the deep connection of Japanese pieces of the king’s porcelain collection, the im- people with Nature, and this is evidenced by the pressive Imari and Kakiemon Japanese wares were small references to flowers and plants which sur- the mostly copied [11, p. 16]. Thus, the sophisti- round the figures in action. This unique piece of cated and very important for the time products vividly colored porcelain is one of the most rep- of the factory, based on the complete copying of resentative artifacts of its kind as it reflects the these famous Japanese traditional porcelain wares, fanciful view of the Europeans of Asiatic exotic constitute the most important proof of all for the cultures and especially Japanese during the eigh- ideological supremacy of Japanese culture over all teenth century. other Asian influences on the European taste.

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The famous Imari ware7, or else Kinradnde in Nagasaki. This success gave him the name Sakaida Japanese, constituted a highly decorated type of Kakiemon I – a name derived from kaki or the Jap- porcelain wares intended to be exported in large anese word for persimmon after the red-orangey quantities in the West for about one century (from color of the most prevalent overglaze enamels he the 1650s until the late 1740s) . Their underglaze used [3]. The enamel decoration on white porce- strong blue colors smoothly combined with a wide lain was then known as ‘Akae’, a term later used in range of reds, gold, black for outlines, and some- order to describe all Kakiemon style wares. times other color glazes, made them particularly A vast tonal scale of blue and emerald green, attractive. The most characteristic feature of this impressive soft-coral red, bright tones of yellow type of wares was their overdecoration which, in and black enamels were applied to the glazed sur- some cases, made the ware look fussy and heavily face of these finely made wares, which were fired burdened. In spite of this, this style became soon again at lower temperatures. Soon Arita porcelain so popular in Japan and abroad that initially Chi- wares started being exported to Europe where nese producers, who had never met before their they became extremely popular for their form in- color combinations, and later European porcelain dividuality and decoration uniqueness. Since the makers began to copy it [10, p. 89]. Imari wares mid 17th century, their demand in Europe and es- used to undergo three different firing stages in or- pecially in Paris had been extremely high, and this der to acquire their distinctive color characteris- made many Dutch enamellers copy Kakiemon tics. After the molded or thrown object dried out, designs into less expensive white porcelain in or- it was decorated in a cobalt oxide mixture and der to sell them as original. then was covered with a transparent glaze. This In the late 1720s and during the1730s Meis- would give it its blue underglaze qualities after sen artists managed to produce an extraordinary the first firing phase. After the initial firing, the series of these milky white smooth surfaced wares, pot would be painted over with red enamels8 and the colorful designs of which were rather sparse would be fired for a second time, at a lower tem- and random, so as to leave a lot of white space as perature though, in a muffle kiln. The third firing part of the design itself. Specifically speaking, one in the same type of kilns had to do with the use of of the most renowned porcelain artists and deco- gold on pots, but the gilding process required a rators of the factory was Johann Gregorius Hör- much lower temperature, though [16, p. 10]. oldt (1696-1775) who, having arrived in Germany The Kakiemon specially designed porcelain from in the early 1720s where he worked ware style of mainly utilitarian value, a rather as a miniature painter and porcelain enameller for more sophisticated type of Imari, was firstly made the Du Paquier factory, undertook the responsibil- in the Nangawara Valley near the town of Arita, ity of ware painting in a profoundly oriental style Saga Prefecture, in the northwest of the island of [13, p. 10]. His series included aston- Kyushu in Japan, became particularly popular dur- ishing depictions of Chinese and Japanese daily ing the Edo period in the country, in China, where scenes on porcelain ware, but as early as 1729 his it was proved to have much in common with the interests shifted to the reproduction of Kakiemon local ‘Famille Verte’ style9, and in Korea. Its main style objects. Most of the patterns he used were feature was, in addition to the finely made light based on several types of local flora such as chry- and especially strong pots, a characteristic style santhemums, the national flowers of Japan, peo- of highly praised enamel painting that used a pal- nies, flowering fruit trees, broken or asymmetri- ette of translucent, vibrant colors of refined asym- cal tree branches. However, insects, birds such as metrical designs attributed to a family of painters swans, ducks, cranes and herons, wild animals such with the name Kakiemon. More precisely, in 1647 as tigers and flying squirrels, mythical beasts such Sakaida Kizaemon (1596-1666), an important as dragons and figural subjects were also popular family member and excellent potter was consid- [7, p. 11]. All these, though, were sparsely applied ered the first to introduce the overglaze enamel- as the main decoration idea of the objects was to ing technique to the Arita porcelain wares, making emphasize that fine white porcelain background advanced porcelain production possible and thus body which was known in Japan as Nigoshide or starting the potting dynasty. He was believed to else milky white and was usually used for the finest have stolen the secrets to overglaze enameling on pieces. In terms of form, there were many differ- porcelain from a Chinese specialist in the port of ent types of wares which ranged from the classic

104 ARTA  2020 ISSN 2345–1181 Arta contemporană tea sets forms, to cylindrical bowls, hexagonal jars and octagonal vases that deeply impressed Euro- peans when they were first imported. However only few Meissen porcelain wares copied accu- rately the expressive forms of the originals, thus when we talk about the Meissen Kakiemon wares form and decoration things get rather confused. First of all, we should mention that in 1730s in Germany there was not a big difference between the Chinese and Japanese porcelain forms, shapes and decoration. Decorative motifs and patterns, as well as basic structural forms were reproduced, modified or combined according to the Meissen artists’ taste so as to become easily identifiable as generally Oriental porcelain wares, no matter if they were Japanese, Chinese or a mixture of both. The arrangement of their decorative patterns without a particular background or horizon line seemed to be more stylized than literal, as was Fig. 3. Covered hexagonal jar with flower and the case with the Japanese objects. Nevertheless, bird design, Japan. Edo period, 1670s to 1690s AD, the painting decoration technique applied both enameled ware in Kakiemon style. © https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakiemon. by Höroldt and other German artists was rath- er huffed and stressed, in sharp contrast with the traditional Japanese painting which was loose and and originated in Asia.10 Meissen artists and deco- flexible, almost floating. In terms of coloring tech- rators, along with the figurative sculptures that re- nique we should state that the German artists and ferred directly to Japan, formed a new core of cul- decorators did not have but only two methods to ture that changed the creative course of Meissen, use in terms of applying colors on the porcelain preparing, in a sense, Europe to accept the gifts surface. According to the first, the only color ap- of Japanese culture in many more forms of art in plied straight on the biscuit surface of the wares the middle of the 19th century. However, focusing was cobalt blue as they could not find any other in particular on the techniques in terms of form, color which would bear the extremely high tem- construction but also decoration, despite the sev- peratures developed on the wares during the sec- eral imitation attempts especially in the Kakiemon ond firing. style wares, we find out that the authentic Japanese As regards coloring over the glaze, the dec- products also opened new paths to the concept of orators used several types of enamels before sub- aesthetics of in general. jecting the wares into a third firing which would Except Germany, Kakiemon style was there- fix both the glaze and the enameling decoration after adopted in Austria by the famous Du Paquier [7, p. 12]. Even in this case though, the enamels and ‘Vienna factories’ and in France by the Chan- on the original Kakiemon wares seemed to lie vi- tilly, Mennecy and Saint-Cloud firms. Kakiemon brant, proud and bold in contrast to the enam- constituted also a strong influence on Dutch Delft els of the Meissen ones which seemed to have pottery and [15]. ‘shrunk in’ on the porcelain surface [14, p. 33]. Japanese culture has added, through the fash- Notes 1Born in Germany and a professional painter, ion of porcelain, a lot more new evidence to Eu- Wagner from an early age was found working in Am- ropean culture, already rich in Asian influences. sterdam from where he left in 1634 as a soldier with the Overtaking in imagination, quality, and techniques country’s military forces in order to glorify the ‘New the ‘traditional’, for the Europeans, Japanese and Holland’ colonies in South America. Nevertheless, Chinese porcelain, became along with them widely many years later, after having taken a position with the known with the generic name Indianische blumen , back in the Netherlands, he travelled as a merchant on a mission to China in [9, p. 23] or Indian flowers, implying any form of order to open up again trade relations, which however porcelain decorated primarily with floral motifs proved unsuccessful due to the difficult political situa-

ISSN 2345–1181 ARTA  2020 105 Arta contemporană tion of the country. In 1657, after becoming senior of- German regions. This type of work was adopted, as a ficial for the same Dutch company, he arrived in Japan new and effective line of production, by the Thuringian and lived in the capital Edo. In 1659, having appreci- manufactories and was mainly addressed to the mid- ated the rich tradition of Japanese porcelain wares, he dle-class market as it enhanced the idea of locality and ordered a dinner service, consisting of 200 pieces. It German national consciousness. was after this order that Japanese porcelain design was introduced to the European taste and culture. Bibliography 2In the West the multi-colored or enameled por- 1. Available in: https://www.nms.ac.uk/ex- celain objects were widely known as ‘’, a plore-our-collections/stories/art-and-design/meis- different group, mainly in terms of decoration, was sen-lion/ (visited 18.10.2018). known as Kakiemon, while blue and white wares were 2. Brewster, David. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, called ‘’. Vol. XVI. Philadelphia: Joseph and Edward Parker 3An impressive Royal building, reminiscent of Publications, 1832. the Japanese style, especially in its interiors. In 1717 3. British Museum Press Release. The Asahi Shim- Augustus the Strong bought that old build- bun Displays, Made in Japan: Kakiemon and 400 years ing which belonged to the Count Jakob Heinrich von of porcelain, 2016. Flemming, from whom he had bought his first collec- 4. Bruni, Laura, Brambila. Ceramiche della Col- tion of oriental from. Enchanted by the rich lezione Gianetti: Porcellane di Meissen, vol. I. Saronno: qualities of his porcelain collection, he demanded the Museo Giuseppe Gianetti Pubblicazioni, 1994. walls as well as the roof of the Palace to be made of that 5. Cassidy-Geiger, Maureen, Kuhn, Sebastian and dear material. However the main task of the architects, Biedermann, Heike. The Arnhold Collection of Meis- who had undertaken that project, was to restructure sen Porcelain, 1710–50 Catalogue. London: D. Giles the interiors in order to make a suitable repository for Ltd., 2008. his collection. Though the dream of the Elector of Sax- 6. Czernis-Ryl, Eva. The golden years of Meis- ony was not completely realized, some of his ideas, like sen porcelain and Saxon jesters: the Schmiedel bust the Japanese curved roof and even the relief on the ga- in Australia. Mitteilungsblatt / Keramik-Freunde der ble above the gate, were realized. Schweiz = Revue des Amis suisses de la céramique = 4Bizen province and more precisely Imbe village Rivista degli Amici svizzeri della ceramica, No 184, was the birthplace of Bizen wares and statuettes as this 1989. is where they were first produced. The peak time for 7. Dauterman, Carl, Christian. The Wrightman’s their production was the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Collection Volume IV, Porcelain Boxes, Silver. New but they had been being produced for hundreds of years York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Publications, before. This type of ceramics, in spite of becoming less 1970. popular by the time, continued being produced during 8. Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. the Edo period as they were protected by the state. 9. Hanemann, Regina. ‘Goldchinesen und indian- 5Netsuke, a form of miniature sculpture originat- ische Blumen: die Sammlung Ludwig in Bamberg; Fay- ing in 17th-century Japan, is also one of the most char- ence und Porzellan’, Schriften der Museen der Stadt acteristic forms of art during the Edo period. These Bamberg, no 50, 2010. mainly functional, finely carved art forms worn as 10. Impey, Oliver. Sotheby’s Concise Encyclope- parts of traditional Japanese men’s garments were ei- dia of Porcelain. London: Conran Octopus Ltd, 1994. ther plain lacquered or colored and drew their themes 11. Le Corbeiller, Clare. German Porcelain of the from daily life, religion, nature, images from fairy tales Eighteenth Century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and mythological characters. Bulletin, v. 47, no. 4, Spring 1990. 6Lion-dogs were symbolic, mythical figures which 12. Loesch, Anette, Pietsch, Ulrich & Reichel, were the guardians of many Japanese shrines and thus, Friedrich. Porzellansammlung Dresden - Führer durch they could be seen outside their gates. They were depict- die Ständige Ausstellung. Dresden, 1998. ed in sculptural forms of any size and were usually made 13. Mc Nab, Dennis, Jessie. G. Herold and Com- of stone, wood and earthenware. However, they can be pany: The Art of Meissen Chinoiserie. The Metro- found almost everywhere in Asia in many variations. politan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 22, no. 1, Summer, 7In the English use of the term. 1963. 8These enamels did not remain red for ever as by the 14. Miller, Judith. Miller’s Field Guide: Porcelain. time they became pink, green, purple, black or yellow. London: Octopus Publishing Group, 2014. 9Famille Verte style was quite distinctive and re- 15. Nilsson, Jan-Erik. Japanese Porcelain Marks. fers back to Chinese prints and paintings of the Kangxi http://gotheborg.com/marks/kakiemon.shtml, (visited era (1654-1722), that is the time of Kangxi Emperor’s 1.11.2018). reign. The enamels used in style are multicolor and clear 16. Rotondo-Maccord, Lisa and Bufton, Peter, (translucent) and technically difficult to be applied. James. Imari Japanese Porcelain for European Palaces: 10At the same time it produced another line of From Freda and Ralph Lupin Collection. New Orleans: porcelain wares in floral motifs called Deutsche blu- New Orleans Museum of Art, 1997. men or German flowers representing the flora of the

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