Exploring the Impact of Eco-Migration Project, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China

Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 164 Project, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China

Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project, Ordos, Jinzhu Zhen Inner Mongolia, China

Jinzhu Zhen

Uppsala University, Department of Earth Sciences Master Thesis E, in Sustainable Development, 30 credits Printed at Department of Earth Sciences, Master’s Thesis Geotryckeriet, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 2013. E, 30 credits Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 164

Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China

Jinzhu Zhen

Supervisor: Roger Herbert Supervisor: Xianben Zhu Evaluator: Jie Li

Content

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 1

1.1 Background…………………………………………...…………….……… 1

1.2 Objective ...………………………………………………………..……….. 2

1.3 Study Area …….…………………………………….…..….……………… 2

1.4 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………..….…. 7

2. Methods ...……………………………………………………………………….. 8

3. Literature Review …………………………………………………..…………... 9

3.1 Theories of Migration………………………………….……….…………... 9

3.1.1 Theories of Human Migration………………………….……….. 9

3.1.2 Theories of Eco-Migration…………………….……………….. 10

3.1.3 Classification of Eco-Migration……………….……………….. 10

3.1.4 Number of Eco-Migration……………………………………… 11

3.2 Migration and Sustainable Development ……………………………….. 11

3.2.1 Definition of Sustainable Development ………..…….…...……… 11

3.2.2 The Economic Pillar ………………………………….…..….…… 12

3.2.3 The Environmental Pillar ……………………………..…..……… 13

3.2.4 The Social Pillar ……………………………………….…..……… 14

3.2.5 Challenges for Sustainable Development ……………….……….. 15

3.3 Summary ………………………………………………………….….……. 16

4. Result ……………………………………………………………………………. 16

4.1 Economic Impact …………………………………………………….…… 17

4.2 Environmental Impact ………………………………………………..….. 19

4.3 Social Impact ……………………………………………………………... 21

4.4 Results of Interviews ………………………………………………….…... 23

4.5 Sustainable livelihood ……………………………………………….…...23

5. Discussion ……………………………………………………………………... 25

6. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….…. 26

Reference ………………..………………………………………………….……… 28

Appendix ⅰ ...... 37

Appendix ⅱ ...... 38

Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China

Jinzhu Zhen

Jinzhu Z., 2013: Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China. Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 164, 38 pp, 30 ECTS/hp.

Abstract

To reverse the emergency environmental degradation of Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China, the local government enforced a new developing project – Eco-migration, which aims at both environmental restoration and poverty alleviation. Within ten years’ time, more than 400,000 rural residents were relocated. Through professional training and labor transportation, the financial condition was largely improved. The annual income of these eco-migrants was highly raised from

0.2 USD a day in 2000 to 3.51 USD a day in 2010. From the environmental perspective, more than 70 percent of the sandy wasteland was restored. The vegetable coverage jumped up to 75 percent, comparing to 30 percent in 2000. Through field study, the feedbacks from these eco-migrants were collected. Eco-migrants were highly satisfied with the economic and environmental improvement. However, there are lots of improvements can be done. In one word, that’s the way the government trying to achieve the goal of sustainable development, which providing valuable experience for future.

Keywords Sustainable Development, Eco-migration, Poverty alleviation, Social resilience, Environmental restoration

Jinzhu Zhen, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China

Jinzhu Zhen

Jinzhu Z., 2013: Exploring the Impact of Eco-migration Project, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China. Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 164, 38 pp, 30 ECTS/hp.

Summary

China as a developing country has experienced rapid economic development in recent years. With the awaking of environmental awareness and urgent environmental calling, the government of China has focus on the environmental construction, especially in some ecological fragility areas. Ordos, located in the Northwest of China, has been experiencing the rapid development since 2001. With strong financial support, the local government of Ordos has implemented a huge migration project, called

“Eco-migration”. The aim of this project is to against poverty and by the same time, restore the environment. Through literature review, the theories of human migration and the principle of eco-migration were checked. Within ten years’ time, this project achieved lots of achievements. In this research, we’ll explore the impacts of this huge project from different perspectives and identify the implication within the view of sustainable development. From economic field, the annual income of these rural residents was largely improved. In the year 2000, five counties of Ordos were National poverty-stricken counties. But, in 2012, all of them were erased from the list. From the environmental perspective, through soil and water conservation, the sandy wasteland was restored by weed. The vegetable coverage was raised from 30 percent in 2000 to 75 percent in 2009. In addition, from the social aspect, the local government provided strong financial support to these eco-migrants to improve their living approach. Lots of perspective, such as education, sanitation, medical service, and housing, were largely improved. Field study is another important approach that helps us find out the real feeling of these eco-migrants. Through they were satisfied with current livelihood, they pointed out that the government can improve the effective of this developing strategy by various approach, such as pay more attention to the minority culture conservation and et al. Through ten years’ time, the living

approach of these eco-migrants was much more sustainable than their former living method.

With the fast economic development of China, the central government has ambition to convert current environmental challenge. Lots of environmental projects were implemented. This Eco-migration project was a typical one of them. But, a lot of challenges, which were not being considered in the designing process, limited the effectiveness of such projects. Through, the exploring of this eco-migration project, the effectiveness of this project was qualified. And, the importance of considering the continuity of financial support, diverse the regional industry construction, and transaction process design, was emphasized.

Keywords Sustainable Development, Eco-migration, Poverty alleviation, Social resilience, Environmental restoration

Jinzhu Zhen, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

Acknowledgement

I am grateful for all the officers in the administration of Ordos who kindly helped me to collect the data. I would like to thank Dr. Xianben Zhu for suggestions and comments on improving this thesis and Ms. Jie Li for evaluating my final report.

Besides, thanks to Prof. Roger Herbert for his detailed constructive advices,

comments, and suggestions.

Abbreviation

UN United Nations

UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNCED UN Conference on Environment and Development

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNDESA United nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNSDKP United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform

UNU United Nations University

MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IOM International Organization for Migration

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Over the last five decades, the rising of population and the relevant increased demands of food, water, timber, fiber, and fuels, have changed ecosystems dramatically. More than 66 percent of ecosystem services have been damaged, inducing adverse impacts on humans, especially for those who live in ecologically vulnerable areas (House of Commons, 2006). Low level regional socio-economic development always brings an adverse impact on the environment, especially in ecologically fragile regions (Zhao et al., 1999; Zhang, 2006; Pagiola et al., 2008). In recent years, the ecosystem in ecologically-fragile areas in China with a poor population has degraded rapidly (Liu et al., 2005).

In the year 1987, Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, pointed out that population pressure is already forcing traditional farmers to work harder just to maintain household income (UN, 1987). A result of this is that the poverty level of the population is often associated with ecological degradation in the form of a vicious circle known as the " poverty-environment trap" in which rural poverty leads to ecological degradation, and ecological degradation further perpetuate the poverty (Finco, 2009). On one hand the rural population relies, to survive, on environment utilization. On the other hand, these natural resources are considered public goods, have common access and non-defined property rights. Some people tend to overuse them and thereby accelerate their degradation and exhaustion (Finco, 2002).

By the year of 2025, the rural population of the developing world will increase to almost 3.2 billion, placing increasing pressure on a declining resource base (Population Division of the United Nation Secretariat, 2008). Echeverria (1998) warns that a significant part of rural poor live in areas with low potential, including degraded zones. This population has a large dependency on the natural resources, which are the foundation of their sustenance. Yet, since the quality and quantity of these kinds of natural resources are limited, such population lacks other economic alternative and therefore destroys this base (Echeverria, 1998). Rapid land-use change has meant that many natural environments and habitats are disappearing quickly, with the result that critical ecological services are being disrupted or lost (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The destroyed ecological service reduces yield which further impoverishes farmers (Dasgupta and Mäler, 1994; Pearce and Warford, 1993; Mink, 1993).

Apart from poor resource endowments and residing in a fragile ecosystem, many rural households are also lacking in other forms of capital such as human, financial, and social capital. Consequently, the combination of poor environment and economy accelerates the poverty-environment trap (Reardon and Vosti, 1995). Hence, breaking this cycle and, at the same time, alleviating the poverty with environmental restoration has been an important issue in the field of sustainable development.

Admittedly, the relationship between environmental conservation and poverty reduction has been argued by academics and practitioners for a long time, but consensus on how to reconcile these two disparate goals is far from being reached (Kepe et al, 2004). Researchers and practitioners still strive to achieve ecological restoration and poverty reduction by the same time (Salafsky and Wollenberg,

2000). It is hoped that ecological restoration and poverty alleviation can be achieved simultaneously by some top-down projects sponsored by governments at all levels or by diverse non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Marcus, 2001). In addition, it is believed that once local households join such projects and have alternative livelihoods (such as ecotourism, environmental services, rural industry, and new crops), local sustainable development can be achieved, and conservation and poverty reduction can be solved together by the same project (Kramer et al, 1997; Wild and Mutebi, 1997; Brandon et al, 1998).

China, as a developing country, has to face the conflict between natural resource limitation and poverty alleviation. To mitigate the environmental degradation and eliminate environment-induced poverty, Chinese government has implemented a number of national conservation programs, such as Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP), Grain to Green Program (GTGP), Forest Eco-Compensation Program, as well as numerous local projects (Loucks et al, 2001; Xu et al, 2006; Liu et al, 2008). Although, the study on ecological restoration and rural poverty reduction in China is extensive, a majority of the studies overemphasize the ecological function of these projects, neglecting the impact of financial improvement and livelihood amelioration (Liu et al, 2001; Liang et al, 2006; Zhang, 2006).

From the year of 2000, China has implemented a new project called Eco-Migration. Until now, 7 million people have been relocated (Baidu, 2013). In this study, we focus on the Eco-Migration Project (EMP) in Ordos of Inner Mongolia starting in 2001. This is a large scale internal migration program and the main goal of this project is to protect the fragile ecosystem, and at the same time, alleviate rural poverty.

1.2 Objective

The objective of this study is to explore the regional developing strategy in Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China. Through literature reviews, the relationship between eco-migration and sustainable development is studied. Through data analysis, the impact of this Eco-migration Project on eco-migrants from environmental, economic and social aspects is determined, and the extent to which the Eco-migration Project in Ordos improves the sustainable livelihood of local community is evaluated. In addition, through the comparing the theory of effective-migration management, the implications of this Eco-migration Project toward an effective environmental policy is explored.

1.3 Study Area

Ordos is located in the southwest of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, in the middle west of China (Fig.1). The geographic coordinate of this city is 37 ° 35'24 "-40 ° 51'40" N and 106 ° 42'40 "-111 ° 27'20" E. This city had been administered by Yikezhao Meng since the 17th century, and was re-designated to a prefecture-level city named Ordos by the state council on 26 February 2001 (Ordos on Line, 2012) . The second biggest river-Yellow River passes through the north of this city.

Fig.1. Ordos City (red) in Inner Mongolia (orange), China Source: Bellona.org

Desertification was defined by the UNCCD as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities" (UNCCD, 1994). Asia is the most severely affected continent by desertification. 65 percent of West Asia’s dry lands are vulnerable to land degradation. In China, 35 percent of its territory has been affected by desertification (UN, 2008).

In the last forty years, the rapid population increase of Inner Mongolia increased the demand on environmental services. Overexploiting land, ineffective development policy, and unlimited grazing made the grassland gradually degrade to desert (Zhang et al, 2005). According to the map of severity of soil degradation in South and Southeast Asia published by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and International Soil Reference and Information Center (ISRIC) in 1997, Inner Mongolia was identified as the very high level of soil degradation (Fig. 2).

Fig.2. Severity of soil degradation in South and Southeast Asia

Source: UNEP/ISRIC/FAO 1997

The administrative office of Ordos is located in Dongsheng city, and within the Meng, there is one city, seven Counties, sixty urban towns and forty-one rural towns, and thirteen Sumus including Dongsheng District, Dalate County, Zhungeer County, Yijinhuoluo County, Wushen County, Hangmian County, Ertuoke County, and Ertuokeqian County (Fig.3).

Fig.3. Administrative Division of Ordos City

Source: ordos.gov.cn. (2013)

The total area of Ordos is 86,752 square kilometers (Ordos on Line, 2012). The geographic feathers of this area can roughly be divided into a hilly area in the east, high plateaus in the west, an alluvial land constructed by the Yellow River in the north, and two deserts, Maowusu and Kubuqi in the middle. The area covered by desert or sandlot accounts for 48% of this region (Fig.4). The total area of sandstone accounted for 20 thousand square kilometer. Every year, the sand rock area contributes 160 million ton sediment to the Yellow River, almost 25 percent of the coarse sediment of this river (Guangming daily, 2001).

Fig.4. Geographic features of Ordos Source: Ordos.gov.cn. (2013).

Ordos features a cold semi-arid climate (Peel et al., 2007), marked by long, dry and very cold winters, very warm, somewhat humid summers, and strong winds, especially in spring. Local residents always say “nine years’ drought out of a ten-year period” to illustrate the climatic character of the city. The annual precipitation is 300 to 400 mm (11.8 to 15.7 in) in the eastern part of the prefecture, and 190 to 350 mm (7.5 to 13.8 in) in the western part. Most of the rain falls between July and September, with very little snow in winter. In light of the annual evaporation of about 2000 to 3000 mm, the water conservation has been a big challenge to sustain local livelihood.

By the end of last century, several environmental problems challenged the sustainable development of this city. Longtime overgrazing damaged the geological construction, making soil and water eroded heavily. Desertification made lots of grassland degraded to sandy wasteland. Such wasteland produced large-scale sand-storm in the windy season. Such sand-storm can even fly hundreds of miles and even affect the Capital of China – Beijing. With the rapid environmental degradation, the bio-diversity lost quickly. Take Honhaizi Wetland, Yijinhuoluo County, Ordos, for example. Because of long-term soil and water degradation, this area gradually dried out. Then, the birds and other animal lost their habitats. Hence, this wetland became saline-alkali sandlot.

In addition, these environmental issues challenged the sustainable livelihood of rural residents and exacerbated the poverty. To improve their living conditions, the rural residents raised more sheep. The reduction of the pasture production provided less food for sheep. The shepherd had to expand their grazing range, undermining more soil. Besides, less pasture means less sheep can be fed. Hence, the

6 income of local residents was reduced. In a word, such unsustainable grazing mode and environmental crisis dimed the future of this area.

Considering the urgent needs for environmental restoration, the central government of China approved the Master Plan of National Ecological Construction in 1999. According to this plan, the Inner Mongolia area has been identified as the most challenging area with serious desertification, soil erosion, and climate uncertainty. To effectively increase the resilience of this area is not only associated with improving the local environmental conditions, but also associated with alleviating the poverty of local community (The State Council of the People's Republic of China, 1999).

On May 23rd 2001, administration of Ordos started a project on Implementation of the Eco-migration and Offsite Poverty Alleviation Immigration Pilot Project (Eco-migration Project), approved by the Development and Planning Commission of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government. Based on this plan, from 2001 to 2005, local residents’ willingness was surveyed for the Eco-migration Project. From 2005 to 2010, Eco-migration Project was conducted while considering the willingness of rural residents.

1.4 Definition of Terms

Eco-migrant, also known as “Environmental migrant”, was defined as: People who have to leave their habitats for the environmental disruptions, whatever they are triggered by human being or happened naturally. By “environmental disruption” is meant any physical, chemical and/or biological changes in the ecosystem (or the resource base) that render it temporarily or permanently, unsuitable to support human life (El-Hinnawi, 1985).”

In the year of 2007, The International Organisation for Migration proposed the working definition for environmental migrants:

"Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad (IOM, 2007) ."

However, there is not a universally accepted definition of “environmental migrant” considering the complexity of this topic. In the year of 2007, the International Organization of Migration identified four scenarios for the environmental induced migration (IOM, 2007).  Scenario A: Migration at less advanced stages of gradual environmental change  Scenario B: Migration at advanced stages of gradual environmental change  Scenario C: Migration due to extreme environmental events  Scenario D: Migration due to large-scale development and land conservation

In this study, the operational definition for eco-migrant refers to people that have to migrate due to environmental conservation activities and extreme environmental degradation. This reflects the two scenarios below (Baidu, 2013).

 Scenario A: Migrant who has to relocate due to Environmental conservation and restoration, e.g. Eco-migration in Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve Area (SNNR), Qinghai, China. SNNR is the headwater of the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Mekong River. Since large scale human activity already accelerate the environmental degradation in this area, local residents have to relocate to better protect this environmentally fragile area and to promote natural restoration.  Scenario B: Migrant has to leave their traditional habitat, since environmental service cannot sustain their livelihoods. For example, in Mashan, Guizhou province, China, due to rocky desertification caused by continued soil erosion, local residents lost their household income and had to migrate.

2. Methods The researcher developed a theoretical framework for policy analysis and evaluation through literature review from the previous studies on eco-migration, human migration, and sustainable development. And at the same time, the researcher looked through the Publications from the related department of UN, such as UNDP, UNEP, UNCCD, and UNCED. Other organizations, like International Organization of Migration (IOM), published lots of research papers. The principle of effective eco-migration can be found in these papers. These papers helped a lot in this study.

Qualitative and quantitative data has been collected via a variety of approaches to explore the impacts of this Eco-migration Project. The researcher has collected the annual government reports, such as National Economic and Social Development Statistic Bulletin of Ordos, from year 2001 to 2010 to obtain economical, demographical, and environmental information of this city. Descriptive statistics has been employed to analyze the data from these annual reports.

Besides, lots of environmental information related to this eco-migration project was controlled by the government. In the process of data collection, local government played an important role. By well communication with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Dongsheng District, a related data platform was built. With the help of EPA of Dongsheng District, Regional Development and Reform Commission introduced the related government report, which cannot be found publicly. Another important administration agency of this project is Bureau of Landscape and Forestry, this department was in charge of the work of grassland restoration and desertification control. Through hard work, the head of this Bureau hand drafted the project process report. These officers’ kindly help is important to this study.

A field study was conducted in this project to find out the real situation of the construction of the settlement of Eco-migration. The researcher visited three eco-communities, Hantaizhen, Kangbashi, and Fengshuiliang. Structured interviews with local people who have been involved with Eco-migration Project have conducted in the visit. The researcher selected the interviewees randomly. Totally, nine effective questionnaires were made. Through interviews, qualitative data was collected about this Project.

In our filed study, language is a challenge for the study. This challenge exists in three perspectives.

One is the accent difference. China is a big nation. Within this nation, people have diverse accents. To understand their accent, these interviewees spoke very slowly at the request of the researcher. Another is some of eco-migrants speak another language-Mongolian as a majority of the eco-migrants are Mongol. In the field work, the researcher found a translator to solve this issue. The last one is the meaning difference. The meaning of same word is different among different regions. For example, centimeter means Mongolia centimeter in this area, which equals to the length of knuckle.

In this project, the public information is very limited. Any kind of information related to water and soil is restricted to national security in China. For the environmental perspective of eco-migration, such information is really important to assess the impact of this project. The lacking of environmental information may weaken the study result.

3. Literature Review The following chapter presents a review of the literature relating to theories of migration and eco-migration, value orientation and its relationship with sustainable development. This review builds a foundation for this study, which serves to justify the importance of exploring the Eco-migration model in a developing country - China.

3.1Theories of Migration

In 2010, the International Organization for Migration published a report about the trend of the world migration. The number of international migrants is supposed to be about 214 million in 2010 and will reach 405 million by 2050 (IOM, 2010). For the view of anthropology, lots of scientists talked about the reason of human migration.

3.1.1 Theories of Human Migration

In 1885, Prof. Ravenstein published a paper named “The Law of Migration” in the Journal of the Statistical Society. Such migration mode was considered to be the foundation of modern migratory theory. Based on his research, most migrants only travel at a short distance and the long distance migrant prefers a large city as their destination. Meanwhile, he found the relationship within the scope of gender and age (Ravenstein, 1885).

Everett (1966) categorized the reason of human migration into two groups: Push factors and Pull factors. Push factors are things that push people leave their original place. And, pull factors are things that attract people move to another area. According to Everett (1966), - “In every area there are countless factors which act to hold people within the area or attract people to it, and there are others which tend to repel them. They are shown in the diagram [Figure 5] as + and – signs. There are others, shown as 0’s, to which people are essentially indifferent.” These factors can be employment, environment, social security, or other perspectives that they care. In the process of decision making, people will compare all these factors to make a best solution.

Fig.5. Origin and Destination Factors and Intervening Obstacles in Migration Source: Everett, 1966

With the social development, migration theories reflected several contemporary factors, such as world system theory, climate cycle theory, and others. The world system theory divided the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries (Thomas, 1997). The unbalanced development of different countries affects labor transportation, international-trade, and finally, human migration. In addition, climate cycle theory identified the reason of Eurasian nomadic movement in Central Asia as the climate cycle (Terminski, 2012).

3.1.2 Theories of Eco-migration

In the year 2008, Afifi and Warner first investigated the environmental variables in a migratory model. With the help of push and pull theory, they found out that the environment has a positive impact on the migration (Afifi and Warner, 2008). With the help of push and pull theory, the factors, in response to environment, that affect the final decision can be clarified. Push factor: Pull factor:  Natural disaster  Better employment  Gradual climate change  Better ecosystem  Environmental induced conflict  Better social security It’s obvious that push factors are more environmentally related than pull factors.

3.1.3 Classification of Eco-migration

1). Based on the difference of time period, Eco-migration can be divided into long-term migration and short-term migration (UNDESA and UHU-EHS, 2011). Long term eco-migration can be divided into two groups. a) Direct eco-migration The main reason for eco-migration can be defined as the direct response to sea level rise, drought, desertification, or other environmental factors. The climate change will gradually exacerbate these environmental stressors.

b) Indirect eco-migration The environmental factors play an important role in inducing the eco-migration, but not the main reason.

Short-term migration: The short-term migration also called as emergency migration. Such kind of eco-migration is always caused by earthquake, flood, tornado, tsunami, cyclones, or other sudden environmental hazards. The IPCC pointed out that such kind of environmental disaster will increase in the 21st century, and hence, the potential of short-term eco-migration will increase relevantly (IPCC, 2007).

2). Based on the spatial difference, eco-migration can be divided into international migration and internal migration. Internal Migration includes two kinds of migration: rural-urban migration, also known as urbanization, and rural-rural migration.

3.1.4 Numbers of Eco-migrant

Based on the record of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there was about 24 million eco-migrants by the year of 2002 (UNHCR, 2002). The estimation of the potential number of eco-migrants is very complicated. There are five reasons explained this complication (IPCC, 2007): a) Such migration is always multi-direction and temporary. b) The factors that affect the decision making are complicate. c) The censuses of eco-migrants are unreliable. d) There is not a well-recognized definition of eco-migrant. e) Sometimes, eco-migration is just a strategy.

Therefore, the prediction of the number of eco-migrants in 2050 varies from 50 million to 350 million. IPCC predicted that this number will reach 150 million (IPCC, 2007). Dr. Stern predicted this number will be close to 200 million (Stern, 2006). Based on IOM’s estimation, the number could reach 200 million by 2050 (IOM, 2009).

3.2 Migration and Sustainable Development

"One of the gravest effects of climate change may be those on human migration (IPCC, 1990)."

3.2.1 Definition of Sustainable Development

There is not a common accepted definition of Sustainable Development. However, the most quoted one is from the Brundtland Report, “Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). Further, the Rio Declaration identified the two concepts inside this statement. One is the concept

11 of needs, especially the needs of the poor, which should be given overriding priority. The other is the concept of limitation, which limited by the technology and social organization.

Fig. 6 The concept of Sustainable Development Source: Wikipedia, 2013

The principle of Sustainable Development includes the following perspectives (UNEP, 2003):  Balancing the combination of social, environmental, and economical goals throughout each sectors and generations.  Broad participation and effective partnership among government, communities, and private sectors.  Continuity of the Sustainable Development strategies, strong political commitment, and good governance.  Focus on implementation and develop realistic objectives.

The relationship between Eco-migration and sustainable development can be analyzed through its three interrelated economic, social and environmental perspectives.

3.2.2 The Economic Pillar

From the view of economy, the most effected industries would be the one that depends on the ecosystem, such as agriculture, forestry, and fishery. The environmental degradation, such as land overuse, deforestation or over fishing, can induce the eco-migration. Besides, the unsustainable working approach, like using inappropriate technology, can also lead to eco-migration (IPCC, 2007).

The real estate industry is another sector that will be heavily affected by eco-migration. Since people

12 are willing to leave the areas that threatened by all kinds of environmental hazards, the value of these real estates will drop quickly (UNDESA/DSD and UHU-EHS, 2011).

The utility sector can also be affected by the eco-migration. The eco-migration infers to the relocating of population. Since migration movement is not well planned, these eco-migrants may lead to severe challenges in the availability and distribution of utilities. At this point, government plays an important role in managing the utility system. Therefore, the effective management of eco-migration depends on the capacity of the government to provide utilities, especially for water and energy supply (UNDESA/DSD and UHU-EHS, 2011).

Under the concept of sustainable development, the main component in economic perspective is to maximize the social wellbeing and eradicate poverty. The eco-migrant in their receiving area will learn new skills. Then, these eco-migrants will transfer their new knowledge, skills, and remittance back to their sending area, helping against poverty. Through capacity building, the improved livelihood of their families and communities can help them deal with the environmental challenges (IOM, 2010). The social wellbeing can be strengthened. On the other hand, without well-planning of the eco-migration movement, such migration may exacerbate the poverty of the sending area, since the people left behind are exposed to livelihood deterioration, poverty, and vulnerability. In the receiving area, the eco-migrants may overexploit the environmental service. Then the conflict between limited natural resource and the growing population may lead to new poverty (UNDESA/DSD and UHU-EHS, 2011).

3.2.3 The Environmental Pillar

The relationship between migration and environment is affected by:  The constant growth of the global economy and increasingly uneven distribution of wealth among and within countries (Rubio, 2001; Sen, 2002).  The inability of many farmers to copes with the results of climate change economically, to adopt sustainable patterns of pollution, and to remain competitive (Babbitt, 2006).  The devaluation of rural life, lands, and resources, which often leads to migration (Berkes, 2002; Zamora and Foladori, 2006).

Climate change can lead to eco-migration. Take sea-level rise for example. The sea-level rise can directly push the sea-shore resident to move. In Papua New Guinea, there are around 2400 people had to leave their homes due to sea-level rise (Anthoff et al, 2006). This number supposed to rise dramatically, since there are about 146 million people living less than one meter above sea-level. Besides, the other factors like desertification, climate change, and tornados can induce the eco-migration.

Migration-movement can cause deforestation in many means, such as the settlement of farms by agricultural colonists; the extraction of timber for housing or fire wood; and, the growth of demand for agricultural productions. Then, the expansion of agriculture can cause further deforestation (UNFPA, undated).

Since forests are the most bio-diverse regions in the world (UNFPA, undated), migration activities can

13 largely affected the biodiversity. Besides, in the process of eco-migration, some regions might be gradually abandoned and plant or animal specific to that region would be lost forever (UNDESA and UNU-EHS, 2010). Migration-movement can negative affect the biodiversity in three approaches (Oglethorpe et al, 2007): 1. Species and genetic diversity loss. 2. Habitat loss. 3. Loss of ecological connectivity.

Projected sea level rise due to global warming will largely impact coastal areas, where most of the main cities of the world and the densest populations are located. While most people will be able to move in response to climate-related threats such as sea-level rise and increased storm intensity, these large-scale migrations will create serious obstacles to conservation in both sending and receiving areas (Meyerson, 2003). To some extent, existing protected areas may be inadequate for their original objects because of climate induced shifts in ecosystems and biodiversity and the direct effects of sea-level rise, and may face new challenges due to human migration.

In addition, eco-migration might exacerbate water problems, especially in the case of rural-urban migration. Households in urban areas consume more water than in the rural areas; Take Guatemala, for example. The daily water consumption per person in urban areas is 120 liters, twice as much as it is the case in rural areas (Instituto de Agricultura, 2006). The lifestyle transportation will finally exacerbate the water crisis in urban area.

3.2.4 The Social Pillar

From social perspective, sustainable development refers to the linkage between nature and human. For human perspective, it should be improving the social welfare of people, securing the access to basic health and education services, and respecting to human rights. From social perspective, this means effective grass-root participation in the decision making process and conserving the various cultures.

For the sending area, brain drain is a big challenge for the sustainable development. As the environmental hazards push people to move, the sending area experienced the rapid population decrease. Unsustainable social impacts include the loss of viability of small-scale and traditional producers and the massive migration of rural workers (Rubio, 2001; Bartra, 2003). Insufficient labor cannot secure the sustainable development of the sending region. This situation will be exacerbated without effective management. Besides, Food security might be affected by rural-urban migration, since people moved out of the rural area, leaving their farm behind, and hereby, reducing the potential food supply.

For the receiving region, the rapid population growth challenges the social sustainable development in several aspects. Eco-migration may induce conflict over natural resource for the population exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving area. The case of Darfur illustrates how environmental problem can lead to violence: tribes living in this area of Sudan were in a never-ending contest over the already scarce natural resources and the conflicts that occurred in this region due to environmental degradation only further contributed to such environmental crisis (Acketoft, 2008).

Waste management is another challenge for the receiving area. The rapid population growth usually associates with related increase of waste. The increase of waste might damage the sanitation of the whole region. And by the same time, urban center relies on adjacent ecosystem services to break down its biodegradable wastes (UNFPA, undated). Overusing of this system may finally break the whole system.

3.2.5 Challenge for Sustainable Development

In the context of globalization, migration trends pose at least seven major challenges for achieving the goal of sustainability development (Frederick et al, 2007).

1. Environmental impacts of urbanization In America, rapid urbanization has created large cities with polluted water, soil, and air; the rapid population growth expanded the demand for environmental services (Avila, 2006; Izazola, 2006; Walker and Hoski, 2006). Natural deterioration often accompanies social deterioration. Many poor urban residents lack the ability to fulfill basic human needs, such as education, recognition, identify, employment, and property (Anand and Sen, 1997). Exclusion and marginalization of major social groups, by large migration flows, have led to conditions of insecurity and lawlessness in many urban areas of the developing countries and some cities in developed countries (Melé et al. 2000; Schteinger and Salazar, 2000). In addition, larger eco-footprint will be produced by increasing personal vehicle ownership and lifestyle change.

2. Forest frontier migration and population growth The causes of forest frontier migration include the factors like rapid population growth, unequal land distribution, development policies, and armed conflicts in adjacent regions (Barbieri and Carr, 2002). In some forest frontier regions, rapid population growth continues as a function of both high fertility rates, deforest, and migration. Every year, about seven million hectares forest are lost, due to agriculture expansion (MA, 2005). For example, in the Petên region of northern Guatemala, more than 70% of the original forest cover lost in the past five decades; during this period, human population growth averaged 8–9% annually, approximately half of which was the result of migration (Sader et al., 1997; Meyerson, 2003).

3. The abandonment and “aging” of the countryside The depopulation of agricultural and rural areas, along with a demographic shift toward an increased average age of remaining residents (“aging”), is a potentially irreversible process that could represent serious threats to natural systems and resources locally (Guzmán, 2006; Zamora and Foladori, 2006). In parts of the Americas, rural depopulation trends are already creating a problem by reducing the social capital and labor needed for sustainable local development (Merino, 2004).

4. Unsustainable industrialized farm, forest, and fishing system The major indirect drivers of land and soil degradation are local population growth and migration, which affect land-cover change and resource exploitation at many scales (MA, 2005). Many

existing agro-production systems are unsustainable in terms of groundwater, energy, and fertilizer use (Camin et al., 2006). Besides, agro-production systems are usually economically unsustainable, particularly in where they depend on large economic and natural subsidies.

5. Global warming effects on natural systems, agro-ecological systems, and urban areas Climate change, including the modification of temperature and precipitation patterns, could ultimately lead to human migration and related environmental issues. For instance, warming may enhance the desertification trends that have already seen in many areas of the world and increase the intensity of hurricanes (Santer et al., 2006). In addition, warming can also increase the frequency and intensity of forest fires (Kasischke et al., 1995).

6. Sustainable human systems in developing countries In many developing countries, the governments lack the scientific and technical expertise to conduct effective ecological assessments and design conservation strategies. Besides, accountability and enforcement systems may be weak. Governance strategies are often not well coordinated through agencies; hence, programs to promote migration and development may be indirect conflict with environmental policies (UN Millennium Project, 2005). Structural and bureaucratic limitations impede the development of ecologically sustainable human systems, and the situation is more complicated by migration. Also, for the poor, the loss of basic natural assets and substandard living conditions in turn weaken the possibilities for sustainable human development (UN Millennium Project, 2005).

7. Weakening ties between migrants and their original communities Based on the study of some American communities, the recent international and rural–urban migration made these communities lose fundamental human resources, including heads of households and community leaders (Zamora and Foladori, 2006). This loss of human capital can adversely affect the potential to achieve social and environmental sustainability. Strengthening the relationships between local and migrant communities could help to invent new perspectives and possibilities for local sustainability, prosperity, and democracy. However, recent tightening of migration plan puts these potential opportunities in jeopardy (Durand, 2006).

3.3 Summary

Eco-migration and sustainable development are closely related. Several studies have analyzed the relationship between migration and the Millennium Development Goals (IOM, 2005), but no study has focused on the specific impact of eco-migration. Among all the states members of the UN, Eighty-two of them confirmed that they were conducting a National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) in 2007(UN, 2008). NSDS was defined as “the way in which a country is addressing the challenge of progressing towards its goals of sustainable development. It is a plan or method for achieving these goals and, thus, reflects an ongoing process and not a “one-off” document” (UNSDKP, 2001). It is important to involve the factors of eco-migration into NSDS. In addition, more attention should be given to internal movements within the borders of one country (le Blanc, 2008).

4. Results

The impacts of eco-migration project in Ordos were analyzed through the lens of sustainability, which includes economic, environmental, and social aspects. Besides the quantitative data analysis, the development and impacts of this project ware analyzed by following the interdisciplinary research method in which social science was conducted. Nine interviews were involved and the qualitative data was provided to understand the perceptions of participants for this eco-migration project.

4.1 Economic Impact

Poverty Alleviation

In the year 2000, there were five counties were national-level poverty-stricken counties among eight counties of this city (Blog.sina.com). They were Zhungeer County, Wushen County, Yijinhuoluo County, Ertuokeqian County, and Hangjin County. Based on the standard of the national poverty countries of 2000, the annual income was lower than 630 Yuan RMB, equals to 76.09 USD a year (Based on the currency of year 2000), 0.207 USD a day (CSSN.CN). At the year of 2000, the international poverty line was 1 USD a day, anchored by the World Bank. The annual income of these poorest counties of China was largely below the international standard.

Within ten years’ time, in 2010, these five counties were removed from the list of national poverty counties of China. The average annual income of these rural residents was about 8,756 Yuan RMB, equals to 1281.99 USD a year, 3.51 USD a day. In the year 2008, World Bank renewed International Poverty Line to 1.25 USD a day (World Bank, 2010). Based on this standard, the annual income of these five counties was 2.8 times of this international poverty line.

Labor transportation

In the year 2003, Industrial Classification and Codes for National Economic Activities categorized the economic activities into three categories. The first industry includes Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and, aquaculture industry. The second industry includes mining, manufacturing, building, and, electricity, gas, and water supply industry. The third industry includes the other industries (Industrial Classification and Codes for National Economic activities, GB/T4754―2002).

Based on the master plan of Eco-migration project, the economic activities that eco-migrants were involved can be divided into two groups. Some of the eco-migrants continue to make a livelihood in the first industry. The other eco-migrants transferred their livelihood from the first industry to the second or third industry.

Take Dongda Eco-migration village for example. Dongda Eco-migration village is located in Fengshuiliang, Dalate, Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China. Fengshuiliang is in the east side of Kubuqi desert. The total area is 53 square kilometers. This village was designed for 100,000 eco-migrants, who kept their livelihood in the first industry, doing cultivation and vegetation planting. In 2005, the first 800 households relocated here. In this village, the annual household income of eco-migrants was raised from around 20,000 Yuan RMB to more than 80,000 Yuan RMB.

For the eco-migrant chose to join the second and third industries, the government provided free professional training to these eco-migrants. The local government of Ordos built five eco-migrant training centers, located in Zhungeer County, Dalate County, Wushen County, Hangjin County, and Yijinhuoluo County. This training program follows the Purchase orders approach. Since this training method, the employment rate is above 60 percent.

Macroeconomic impact

Based on the Ordos’s National Economic and Social Development Statistic Bulletin year 2001 to 2012, Figure 6 showed that the Annual Farmer’s net income per capital was increased from 2077 to 11416 Yuan (Ordos on Line, 2013).

Fig.7. Annual Income Change of Ordos from 2001 to 2012 Source: Ordos’s National Economic and Social Development Statistic Bulletin, 2001 to 2012

Based on the Engel’s Law, as the income rises, the proportion of income spent on food falls, even if actual expenditure on food rises. This is, Engel coefficient = Expenditure on food ÷ total consumption expense In China, this statistic is treated as a reflection of the living standard. In the year 2001 the Engel Coefficient was 0.47. In the year 2005, the Engel coefficient was 0.32. In the year 2009, this ratio was reduced to 0.27(Ordos on line, 2013).

Besides that, the ratio of income type changes with the processing of this eco-migration project. Before relocating to the new community, the majority of the family income came from the family business income. These rural residents depended on traditional agriculture and animal husbandry. The salary income only occupied a small portion of all their income. After relocating, these eco-migrating transferred their livelihood to the other industry. The ration of salary to whole family income increased about 10 percent in ten years’ time.

Table 1 Family Income Diversification from 2001 to 2012 Source: Ordos’s National Economic and Social Development Statistic Bulletin, 2001 to 2012

Year Annual Farmer’s net Salary income Family business Other income income per capital(Yuan income RMB) 2001 2077 NA NA NA 2002 2470 NA NA NA 2003 3090 26.5% 66.7% 6.8% 2004 3908 25.3 66.8 7.9% 2005 4601 29% 63% 8% 2006 5308 33% 59% 8% 2007 6123 35.47% 56.19% 8.34% 2008 7052 36.99% 53.81% 9.2% 2009 7803 38.77% 51.41% 9.82% 2010 8756 38.24% 51.43% 10.33% 2011 10045 34.53% 47.7% 17.77% 2012 11416 NA NA NA

Number of livestock

In this project, the nomadic approach of livestock feeding was prohibited. All livestock were returned to the cage for feeding. This kind of enclosed feeding largely improving the capacity of breeding. In the year 2000, the number of livestock in Ordos was 6.15 million. By the year of 2006, this number arrive its peak 14.988 million. Then, for better protecting the grassland, a new policy called balance feeding between grass and livestock was implemented in May, 27th, 2006. Since that time, the number of livestock and the production of pasture were gradually down to the equilibrium (Ordos on line, 2013).

Table 2 Change of the number of livestock from 2000 to 2010 Source: Ordos’s National Economic and Social Development Statistic Bulletin, 2001 to 2012 Year Number of livestock 2000 6,150,000 2001 6,258,500 2002 6,371,700 2003 8,202,000 2004 10,940,000 2005 13,832,000 2006 14,988,000 2007 13,513,000 2008 13,163,000 2009 12,948,000 2010 8,263,000

4.2 Environmental Impact

Ordos is located in the upper stream of the Yellow River. The total area of this city is 86,752 square kilometers. Before the eco-migration project, the major environmental challenge is soil erosion, caused by the combined effect of drought, wind erosion, water erosion, and low vegetation coverage. The heavily water erosion area is 47,298 square kilometers, 54.1% of the total area. The heavily desertification space is 27,666 square kilometers, 31.6% of the total area. The erosion modulus is 5000-18000t/a·Km2. The sum of annual soil erosion is 190,000,000 ton. Every year, this area transferred 150,000,000 ton sand to Yellow river, accounting for 10% of the total sand transportation to the yellow river. This sand transportation includes 100,000,000 ton coarse sand, accounting for 25% of the total coarse sand transportation to the Yellow river (Miaof et al., 2009).

Since 2001, with the processing of Eco-migration project, all the soil erosion area was managed by the Grassland restoration project and Return farmland to forest project (food1.com). Within these two projects, three restoration plans were enforced in the three development areas, no grazing in Proscribed Development Zone, limited grazing in Limited Development Zone, and rotational grazing in Priority Development Zone.  No grazing: any kind of grazing activities were forbidden on the grassland for more than one year.  Limited grazing; limit grazing activity for more than three months and less than one year.  Rotational grazing: Based on the restoration schedule, do small scale grazing activity on the grassland rotationally.

By the end of 2009, the total area for these grazing control projects is 394,000,000 square hectometers, accounting for 70.7% of the total grassland in Ordos (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009). East four counties (Dongsheng District, Yijinhuoluo County, Dalate County, and Zhungeer County), were enforced no grazing policy. Total no grazing grassland in these four counties is 1.38 million square hectometers. The west four counties (Wushen County, Hangjin County, Ertuoke County, and Ertruokeqian County) implemented regional no grazing policy. The acreage for no grazing is 1.1 million square hectometers and fenced grassland 1.46 million square for limited grazing. The area for rotational grazing is 1.86 million square hectometers, accounting for 33.4% of total grassland (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009).

The government supports the vegetation planting project since 2001. Every year, 67,000 square hectometers forest are planted, 133,000 square hectometers grass are sown by the aircraft, 67,000 square hectometers grass are planted by human (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009). Besides, 80,000 square hectometer of water and soil loss area are restored.

In the year 2000, the vegetation coverage was 30% (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009). In 2009, this number rose to 75%. Besides, the average height of the bush was grown from 15cm to 35 cm. Sloping grassland’s forage production grown from 450kg per square hectometers to 750 kg per square hectometers. Sand land’s forage production has grown from 720kg per square hectometer to 960kg per square hectometer (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009). The average forage production was increased about 35% (Inner Mongolia Water, 2009). With the transformation of rural environment, the biodiversity is also largely improved. The population of wild animals, like Pheasant, Chukar, Hare, and Owl, was largely increased. Also, with the accumulation of deadwood and defoliation, a layer was formulated to help conserve the soil and water, especially in the slope area.

To better protect the grass restoration, the government hired the ranger to supervise the wild fire and manage the grassland. In the bordering area of Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Ningxia province, every ranger in charge of 5 kilometer of the boundary. In the other area, every range in charge of 100,000 Mu, equals to 66.67 square kilometers. The ranger must be familiar with the local environment, has a strong sense of responsibility, and has good education background. Any kind of traditional agriculture or animal husbandry activity is prohibited in the conservation area.

4.3 Social Impact

The guideline of this Eco-migration project is Easy to Move out, Satisfy to Settle down, and Approach to improve well-being (China.com.cn). Based on the guideline of this project, a “Four-One” policy was developed as a promise to secure the success of this project. “Four-One” policy means: One job, One Social insurance, One Stipend, and One house.

Before relocating, these eco-migrants live in the extreme environmental area. These eco-migrants engaged in the traditional agriculture and cattle ranching. They always follow the nomadic livestock feeding method in a long period of time. In the year 2001, the rural population was 935,000 (News.cn). Through ten year’s eco-migration, the number of rural population was reduced to 523,000 (Ordosfp.gov.cn). 408,000 rural residents were relocated within ten years’ time.

Based on the guideline of the Eco-migration project, the local government enforced the “Four-One” policy for the following perspectives:

Housing

Based on the regional legislation, the local government provided free housing to the eco-migrant. Every family can get a 70 square meters apartment for free (Ordos city government, 2009). If the qualified eco-migrant already has house in the relocating area, they can choose the equivalent cash compensation. After eco-migrating, the vacant office buildings were renovated to new community. The rural resident, who has mental retardation, disease, disable, or too old that lose the ability to work, will resettle to the same location in these communities. But, they cannot engage in the traditional agriculture or animal husbandry industry. The related public service expense will be defrayed by the local government.

Living Subsidy

This allowance was enforced by the local government. “Any eco-migrant, moved out from their hometown, can get the living subsidy of at least 4,000 Yuan RMB annually for five years.” “Eco-migrant, who moved out from the limited development zone or the priority development zone to the urban area or industrial park and have rental income less than 4,000 Yuan RMB, can get the living subsidy for the difference of 4,000 Yuan RMB for five years.” After five years’ time, if the eco-migrant has stable employment, this allowance will be cancelled. If the eco-migrant does not have stable employment, they will have low-income allowance of urban resident.

Home Owner Association Fee (HOA fee) stipend

To motivate the eco-migrant, the administration of Dongsheng District provides the HOA fee stipend. The HOA fee of the eco-migrant’s community is 1.5 Yuan RMB per square meter per month for the building has six floors or less or 2 Yuan RMB per square meter per month for the building has more than six floors. The government will pay 50% of the HOA fee for five years (Ordos city government, 2009).

Career training

To do a good preparation for the job market, the government provided the professional training opportunity to the eco-migrants for free. Within these years, the local government invested 100 million Yuan RMB to train 120,000 eco-migrants (Ordos city government, 2011). The training project followed by the orders of training approach.

Employment

Based on the different condition of the eco-migrant, the government provided employment opportunity to secure their living. In addition, some local government provided employment incentives to the eco-migrant, take Dongsheng District for example. The administration of Dongsheng District provides the following incentives: a) The eco-migrant join the governmental officer’s recruitment test can lower the educational requirement for 1 to 2 levels. The score of written test will add 2 points. b) The eco-migrant has the priority to work for the bureau of landscape, and department of environmental sanitation, or work as the assistant police. Besides, the department of construction and environmental sanitation has already reserved lots of job positions for the eco-migrant. c) The local government encourages the local business hiring the eco-migrant. The local business that hired the eco-migrant for more than one year can get the allowance from the local government. The amount of allowance is based on how many people these companies hired.

Healthy Insurance

The eco-migrant, moved out from the limited development zone or the priority development zone and rent all their land, has the same healthy insurance as unemployed urban residents’ medical insurance. The eco-migrant, who didn’t rent out their land or rent part of their land, has the new cooperative medical insurance for rural and pastoral residents.

Senior Citizen Assistance

All the eco-migrant’s senior security is transferred from their rural area to the urban area’s security system. Everyone can get 450 Yuan RMB a month (Ordos city government, 2009). In addition, the senior from the minority group can get this pension five years ahead of time, which is 55 years old for man and 50 years for woman. Considering the self-paying rate, regularly it is 4%. But the minority

22 only needs to afford 2% (Ordos city government, 2009).

4.4 Results of Interviews

In my interview, 9 eco-migrants were involved. For the age range, 2 of them are from 20 to 35, 4 of them are 36 to 50 years old, 3 of them are 41 to 60 years old. The ratio of male to female is 2 to 1. For their educational background, 4 of them had attended school. Two have elementary level background, one has junior high school level background, and one has high school level background. Among these eco-migrants, 4 of them have attended the professional training program, offered by the government. After relocating, 6 of nine of our interviewees got the new job in the department of construction or environmental sanitation or some local companies. From our survey, these nine interviewees all thought their wellbeing was improved. Comparing to their former livelihood, they are satisfied with the new living style.

The major improvement is mainly from financial and environment aspects. Before migrating, their annual income is around 10,000 to 20,000 Yuan RMB. After relocating, in the first year, their family income was 50,000 to 60,000 Yuan RMB. In addition, with the gradually adapting to the new livelihood, they think the new community provides more convenient public service. For example, every community has a healthy service office to provide basic medical care. However, before migrating, these rural residents need to walk one or two hours to get these basic services.

For better improving this project, our interviewees suggested that, child education is important and there is a need to establish more schools. They indicated that although every community has an elementary school or located near a school, the teacher resource is a big challenge for a rapid developing city. For example, some school has already been built for a while. But, for this reason, these schools cannot be fully operated. In the second place, most of the senior eco-migrants are homesick to different extents since they spent their life in the old living place. Getting familiar with the new environment is a big challenge for them. In the third place, the conservation of the minority ethnical culture is another important perspective for the policy maker to consider. They said that the schools should include language and culture courses to teach their next generation about Mongolian and Mongolian culture.

4.5 Sustainable livelihood

For the sustainable livelihood transaction, some rural residents chose to keep in the 1st industry. These rural residents transited their formal traditional agriculture and wrangler living method to a new enclosed grazing and greenhouse cultivation approach. Dongda eco-migrant community provided a good example for this. They planted grass in the sandlot. These grasses provide forage grass for the animal husbandry industry. And, by the same time, the sandlots get restored. Finally, these animals go to pharmacy and fur industry.

Dongda Eco-migrant village’s chain of industries

Planting grass in the desert area:  Alfalfa  Salix cheilophila  Astragalus adsurgens Pall.

Rex Rabbit

Mink

Raccoon Cultivation Fur industry industry

Fox

Wolf

Pharmacy

Fig.8. Dongda Eco-migrant’s village’s chain of industries

Source: farmers.com.cn. 2013

5. Discussion According to the Discussion note from Migration and Environment of IOM in 2007, an effective Eco-migration Management should following these four principles.

1) Proactive policy and early action Early planning and action are essential to orderly and humane environmental migration management and can, in some cases, limit mass or forced migration and its impact on human security. A proactive approach can also mitigate the adverse environmental impact of unmanaged mobility.

2) Comprehensive and coherent policies As many States will face multiple environmental migration scenarios simultaneously, comprehensive and evidence-based policy, as well as sufficient budgetary support for long term planning, is needed. Such policies should seek a balance between migration control and facilitation. They should also be informed by inter-ministerial and cross-sectorial dialogue and structures to ensure policy coherence.

3) Bilateral and regional cooperation As migration and environmental processes are transnational phenomena, gains can be achieved through inter-State cooperation in relevant policy areas. In fostering such cooperation, regional consultative processes on migration could provide useful forums for dialogue, research ach capacity building.

4) Multi-stakeholder partnerships Benefits can also come from strengthening inter-agency cooperation and partnerships among public and private sectors, non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations, trade unions, individual migrants and diaspora associations.

In addition, implementing effective policies and programs to deal with eco-migration requires the following elements (UNDESA and UNU-EHS, 2011): 1. Stronger scientific basis and appropriate data collection 2. Effective legal systems and respect of human rights 3. Participatory and transparent process 4. Policy coherence, both at the horizontal and at the vertical level 5. Adequate funding 6. Technical expertise development and promotion of dialogue between experts in different fields 7. Consideration of the needs of the most vulnerable 8. Synergies between sending and receiving regions 9. Risk management 10. An inclusive approach to the issue

In the Eco-migration project of Ordos, the local government use five years’ time to do the pilot test. From 2001 to 2005, the rural resident voluntary joined the eco-migration project. However, the effect was not as good as the government’s prediction. Hence, since 2006, the government used whole community migrating approach to ensure the environmental restoration. These five years’ experience provided valuable evidence for further improving the policy. Such evidence-based policy helps the

25 local government achieving its long-term goal – sustainable development.

One challenge for the sustainability of this eco-migration policy is budgetary support. Within recent ten years, Ordos experienced its rapid economic improvement. With the strong financial support, this eco-migration project can run very well. However, if this support is lost, the future of this project may not be so prosperous.

In this project, all these eco-migrants moved within the boundary of Ordos. Such kinds of relocating provided a limit on the issues arising due to eco-migration. Further, this project not only benefits the eco-migrant, but also benefits the environment, business, and government. The closed cooperation among different department helps to ensure the success of this project.

Based on the ten elements to successful enforcing an eco-migration project (see above), the Eco-migration project in Ordos has lots of characters that fits these elements. But, the policymaker still needs to take more consideration about the need of the most vulnerable, like woman, children, and the elderly. If the adaptation program can take into account, the social impact of this project will be better.

In the master plan of this project, one important missing part is the risk management, like the description in the Discussion note of IOM in 2007: “Policymakers and scientists should try to reduce the risks related to natural hazards and environmental degradation. They should implement development policies that take into account not only the impact on the environment but also the potential for migration as an outcome of environmental degradation and natural hazards.”(IOM, 2007)

Besides, through the decision making process, the government directed eco-migration project needs more suggestions from the other stakeholders. In the project design process, the rural residents in the sending area and the residents in the receiving area didn’t join the decision making process. The ignoring of these valuable advices will threat the sustainable development in future.

6. Conclusion China as a developing country is experiencing the rapid urbanization and economic improvement. With sufficient financial supply, the local government, especially some resourceful provinces, can do some huge environmental reconstruction project and, at the same time, combat poverty. The government organized, sponsored, and directed a project like this Eco-migration project in China. Such kinds of working approach reflected the centralization of authority to some extent. This kind of organization is good for policy implementation, but not good for attracting the valuable suggestion from the other stakeholders.

In our communication with the administration officer of this Eco-migration project, these officers have already identified a threat for the sustainable development of the whole city – the diversification of the industrial construction. The current fast development depends on the four main industries, which are called “Sheep, Coal, Soil, and Gas” (In Chinese, these words are Yangmeituqi, which means finally got success after a long term failure and depression.). Sheep means Cashmere industry. Ordos is the base for all the cashmere product of China. Coal means coal mining industry. Ordos has huge coal reserves,

26 ranking only behind Shanxi of China. Soil means rare-earth, account for 80 percent of the reserve of the global. Gas means natural gas. All these four industries bring great profit to the local government. However, the simplification of the industry construction makes that the GDP is easily affected by the market. So, how to diversify this industrial construction of Ordos is a hot topic attracting the attention of not only administration officers, but also scholars.

Enough financial support is essential to the success of this kind of project. The local government must ensure the continuous budget for a long period of time. Hence, the potential risk for the failure of such project is obvious. Besides, the factors that affect the settlement of human being are comprehensive. One of the main factors is the climate change, hazarding the current human settlement. In addition, several non-climate factors influence the eco-migration, such as overpopulated settlements, overused natural resources, security issues, deforestation, economic structures, and production techniques (Warner et al., 2008). Based on the Agenda 21, the future research should be conducted on how environmental factors interact with socio-economic factors as a cause of migration (UNCED, 1992).

Maintaining the capacity of natural systems to provide environmental goods and services in the context of shifting demographic patterns is a challenge that affects not only human well-being but also the conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity (MA, 2005). The eco-migration project of Ordos provides an example for the governmental directed up-down eco-migration model. Accompanying the eco-migration project, the restoration project in the grassland or desert area greatly improves the rural environment, conserving soil and water, and finally, achieving its temporary goal of anti-desertification.

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Appendix ⅰ: Questionnaire in Chinese 调查问卷

本问卷采用匿名方式进行，所有调查内容均用于学术研究，非商业用途。

1. 年龄：

A. 20-35 B. 36-50 C. 51-65 D. 65+

2. 性别：男/女

3. 学历：

A. 无 B. 小学 C. 初中 D. 高中 E. 本科 F. 本科以上

4. 从您移民之后，是否经过国家安排的培训：是/否

如果参加过，培训内容：______

5. 从您移民之后，是否从事新工作？

是什么工作？

6. 您的生活有改变吗？如果有，请列举一下。

7. 您对现在的生活满意吗？

8. 您觉得政策的哪些改善可以使您的生活更好？

Appendix ⅱ: Questionnaire in English

Questionnaire (Anonymous collected, all the information used for scientific data, no commercial using)

1. Age: A. 20-35 B. 36-50 C. 41-65 D. 65+

2. Gender: Male/Female

3. Educational level: A. None B. Elementary school C. Junior high school D. High school E. College F. Graduate & Up

4. Since you have been relocated, have attended skill training program offered by government: If yes, which program: ______

5. After your relocating, do you have a new job? If yes, specify your job: ______

6. Has your life improved in anyway? How?

7. Are you satisfied with current livelihood?

8. Which improvement can be made by the government to better serve the migrant?