sign in sign up
<<
Home , Balin (Middle-earth), Elizabeth Solopova, Macmillan Publishers, Pearl (poem), The Notion Club Papers, Tolkien Estate

The Keys of Middle-earth Also by Stuart Lee

A COMPANION TO J. R. R. TOLKIEN

Also by Elizabeth Solopova and Stuart Lee KEY CONCEPTS IN MEDIEVAL LITERATURE The Keys of Middle-earth Discovering Medieval Literature Through the FictionofJ.R.R.Tolkien

2nd

Stuart Lee Reader, , UK Elizabeth Solopova Research Fellow, University of Oxford, UK © Stuart Lee and Elizabeth Solopova 2005, 2015 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 2015 978-1-137-45468-3

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition 2005 Second edition 2015 published by Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-137-45469-0 ISBN 978-1-137-45470-6 () DOI 10.1057/9781137454706 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the . Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lee, Stuart D. The keys of Middle-Earth : discovering medieval literature through the fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien / Stuart Lee, Reader, University of Oxford, UK ; Elizabeth Solopova, Research Fellow, Oxford University, UK. — Second edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel), 1892–1973—Criticism and interpretation. 2. Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel), 1892–1973— Knowledge—Literature. 3. Literature, Medieval—Adaptations—History and criticism. 4. Fantasy fiction, English—History and criticism. 5. Literature, Medieval—Appreciation—England. 6. Middle Earth (Imaginary place) I. Solopova, Elizabeth. II. Title. PR6039.O32Z677 2015 823.912—dc23 2015013020 For Sarah, Erin, Michael, and Anastasia

Contents

Acknowledgements xii

List of Abbreviations xiii

1 How to Use This Book 1

2 Introduction 2 2.1 Background 2 2.1.1 The aim of The Keys of Middle-earth 2 2.1.2 This is not a source book 3 2.1.3 Tolkien’s career 5 2.1.4 Tolkien’s fiction and medieval literature 10 2.1.5 Beyond medieval studies 14 2.2 Medieval literature and language: the basics 15 2.3 Specific medieval languages and literatures 21 2.3.1 Old English 21 2.3.2 Middle English 25 2.3.3 Old Norse 28 2.3.4 Gothic 30 2.3.5 Finnish 32 2.3.6 Celtic 35 2.4 Thematic and technical parallels 37 2.4.1 The theme of the quest 38 2.4.2 The epic 41 2.4.3 The runes 44 2.4.4 and Tolkien’s verse 49 2.4.5 The names 60 2.4.6 Middle-earth and the medieval world 64

3 The Editions 68

4TheTexts 71 73 4.1 Túrin Turambar – the Kalevala, ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ (S, ‘Of Túrin Turambar’) 74 4.1.1 Plot summary 74 4.1.2 Medieval text: ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ from the Kalevala 74 4.1.3 Discussion 76

vii viii Contents

4.1.4 Canto/Runo 36 of the Kalevala, ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ 78 4.1.5 Notes 112 4.1.6 Further reading 112 4.2 Eärendil – Christ I, ll. 104–29 (S, ‘The Voyage of Eärendil’) 113 4.2.1 Plot summary 113 4.2.2 Medieval text: Christ I 113 4.2.3 Discussion 114 4.2.4 Christ I, ll. 104–29 116 4.2.5 Notes 120 4.2.6 Further reading 120

The 121 4.3 and the Dwarves – Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 (TH,‘An Unexpected Party’) 122 4.3.1 Plot summary 122 4.3.2 Medieval text: Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 122 4.3.3 Discussion 126 4.3.4 Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 128 4.3.5 Notes 132 4.3.6 Further reading 134 4.4 Bilbo and ’s Riddle-Game – Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23; Vafþrúðnismál; and two Old English riddles (TH, ‘Riddles in the Dark’) 136 4.4.1 Plot summary 136 4.4.2a Medieval text 1: Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23 136 4.4.2b Medieval text 2: Vafþrúðnismál 137 4.4.2c Medieval text 3: Two Old English riddles 139 4.4.3 Discussion 140 4.4.4a Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23 144 4.4.4b Vafþrúðnismál 150 4.4.4c Two Old English riddles ‘Storm’ and ‘Moth’ 168 4.4.5a Notes for Solomon and Saturn II 170 4.4.5b Notes for Vafþrúðnismál 171 4.4.5c Notes for ‘Storm’ and ‘Moth’ 175 4.4.6 Further reading 177 4.5 Bilbo meets – , ll. 2207–311 (TH, ‘Inside Information’) 178 4.5.1 Plot summary 178 4.5.2 Text: Beowulf, ll. 2207–311 178 4.5.3 Discussion 181 4.5.4 Beowulf, ll. 2207–311 186 4.5.5 Notes 192 4.5.6 Further reading 194 Contents ix

The Lord of the Rings 197 4.6 The Elves at – , ll.117–94 (FR,‘Many Meetings’; TH, ‘A Short Rest’ and ‘Flies and Spiders’) 199 4.6.1 Plot summary 199 4.6.2 Medieval text: Sir Orfeo, ll. 117–94 199 4.6.3 Discussion 201 4.6.4 Sir Orfeo, ll. 117–94 206 4.6.5 Notes 208 4.6.6 Further reading 208 4.7 ’s ‘Lament of the Stones’ – The Ruin (FR, ‘The Ring Goes South’) 209 4.7.1 Plot summary 209 4.7.2 Medieval text: The Ruin 209 4.7.3 Discussion 210 4.7.4 The Ruin 214 4.7.5 Notes 218 4.7.6 Further reading 219 4.8 The Fight at Balin’s Tomb – The Fight at Finnsburg and ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ (FR, ‘The Bridge of Khazad-Dûm’) 220 4.8.1 Plot summary 220 4.8.2a Medieval text: The Fight at Finnsburg 220 4.8.2b Medieval text: ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 221 4.8.3 Discussion 223 4.8.4a The Fight at Finnsburg 228 4.8.4b ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 232 4.8.5a Notes for The Fight at Finnsburg 236 4.8.5b Notes for ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ 237 4.8.6 Further reading 239 4.9 The Crossing of the Nimrodel – Pearl, ll. 61–180 (FR, ‘Lothlórien’) 240 4.9.1 Plot summary 240 4.9.2 Medieval text: Pearl, ll. 61–180 240 4.9.3 Discussion 242 4.9.4 Pearl, ll. 61–180 244 4.9.5 Notes 252 4.9.6 Further reading 252 4.10 ’s Death – Beowulf, ll. 26–52 (TT, ‘The Departure of Boromir’) 254 4.10.1 Plot summary 254 4.10.2 Medieval text: Beowulf, ll. 26–52 254 4.10.3 Discussion 254 4.10.4 Beowulf, ll. 26–52 258 4.10.5 Notes 260 x Contents

4.10.6 Further reading 260 4.11 ’s List – Maxims II (TT, ‘Treebeard’) 261 4.11.1 Plot summary 261 4.11.2 Medieval text: Maxims II 261 4.11.3 Discussion 261 4.11.4 Maxims II 266 4.11.5 Notes 270 4.11.6 Further reading 271 4.12 The Rohirrim – The Wanderer and Beowulf, ll. 306–70 (TT,‘The King of the Golden Hall’) 272 4.12.1 Plot summary 272 4.12.2a Medieval text 1: The Wanderer 272 4.12.2b Medieval text 2: Beowulf, ll. 306–70 272 4.12.3 Discussion 273 4.12.4a The Wanderer 282 4.12.4b Beowulf, ll. 306–70 288 4.12.5a Notes for The Wanderer 292 4.12.5b Notes for Beowulf, ll. 306–70 294 4.12.6 Further reading 295 4.13 The Battle of Pelennor Fields, the Death of Théoden, and the Arrival of the Mûmakil – The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84, Ælfric’s Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519, and Jordanes, Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) (RK, ‘The Battle of Pelennor Fields’) 296 4.13.1 Plot summary 296 4.13.2a Medieval text 1: The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84 296 4.13.2b Medieval text 2: Ælfric’s Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519 297 4.13.2c Medieval text: Jordanes, Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) 297 4.13.3 Discussion 300 4.13.4a The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84 310 4.13.4b Ælfric’s Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519 314 4.13.4c Jordanes, Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) 316 4.13.5a Notes for The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84 319 4.13.5b Notes for Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519 320 4.13.5c Notes for Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) 321 4.13.6 Further reading 323 4.14 The Landscape of – Beowulf, ll. 1345–82 and Sir Gawain and the , ll. 713–63 (RK, ‘The Land of Shadow’) 325 4.14.1 Plot summary 325 4.14.2a Medieval text 1: Beowulf, ll. 1345–82 325 4.14.2b Medieval text 2: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,ll. 713–63 325 4.14.3 Discussion 327 Contents xi

4.14.4a Beowulf, ll. 1345–82 332 4.14.4b Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ll. 713–63 334 4.14.5a Notes for Beowulf, ll. 1345–82 338 4.14.5b Notes for Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ll. 713–63 338 4.14.6 Further reading 339 4.15 The final journey – The Seafarer (RK, ‘The Grey Havens’) 340 4.15.1 Plot summary 340 4.15.2 Medieval text: The Seafarer 340 4.15.3 Discussion 340 4.15.4 The Seafarer 348 4.15.5 Notes 354 4.15.6 Further reading 355

Bibliography 356

Index 369 Acknowledgements

The authors of the book would like to acknowledge the following people and institutions for all their kind help. Some of these contributed to the first edi- tion and others to subsequent work both authors have produced on Tolkien which have informed this second edition: Cathleen Blackburn, Catherine Walker, William Fliss, Patrick Conner, Judith Priestman, Elaine Treharne, Corrina Readioff, Catherine Rohll, the staff at the Bodleian Library, and The Tolkien Estate. We would also like to thank HarperCollins Ltd for allowing us to quote from the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, and OUP for the extract from the Kalevala.

Copyright notice

Extracts from , by J. R. R. Tolkien (1999a) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from , by J. R. R. Tolkien (2004) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from The Silmarillion, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2013) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2009) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2014) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from , by J. R. R. Tolkien (2013) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from , by J. R. R. Tolkien (2001) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from On Fairy-stories, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2008c) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2002a) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, by J. R. R. Tolkien (1995b) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from Defeated, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2002) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extracts from The Lost Road, by J. R. R. Tolkien (2002) reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. Extract from the Kalevala transl. by K. Bosley (1989) reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.

xii Abbreviations

Throughout this book we have made use of a series of abbreviations. These are presented as follows.

Published works by J. R. R. Tolkien

BLT1 , Part One, The History of Middle-earth I, edited by (2002). BLT2 The Book of Lost Tales, Part Two, The History of Middle-earth II, edited by Christopher Tolkien (2002). Essays The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays, edited by Christopher Tolkien (HarperCollins, 2002a). Individual essays are occasionally referenced, but citation is usually just by page number. FR The Fellowship of the Ring. References to The Lord of the Rings are by Volume, Book, Chapter and are taken from the three volume 50th anniversary edition published in 2004. Letters The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, edited by with the assistance of Christopher Tolkien (HarperCollins, 1995b). Cited by letter number and page number. Lost Road The Lost Road and Other Writings, in The History of Middle-earth V, edited by Christopher Tolkien (2002). Morgoth’s Ring, in The History of Middle-earth X, edited by Christopher Tolkien (2002). Notion Club The Notion Club Papers in Sauron Defeated, pp. 145–327. Return The Return of the Shadow: The History of the Lord of the Rings Part One, in The History of Middle-earth VI, edited by Christopher Tolkien (HarperCollins, 2002). RK . Sauron Sauron Defeated: The History of the Lord of the Rings Part Four, in The History of Middle-earth IX, edited by Christopher Tolkien (HarperCollins, 2002). SG The Legend of Sigud and Gudrún, edited by Christopher Tolkien (HarperCollins, 2009). TH The Hobbit or There and Back Again (HarperCollins, 1995a). Cited by page number. Treason The Treason of : The History of the Lord of the Rings Part Two, in The History of Middle-earth VII, edited by Christopher Tolkien (2002).

xiii xiv List of Abbreviations

S The Silmarillion. TT . War The War of the Ring: The History of the Lord of the Rings Part Three, in The History of Middle-earth VIII, edited by Christopher Tolkien (2002).

Manuscripts of J. R. R. Tolkien

Tolkien’s unpublished work referred to in this book are his academic papers kept in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, or the manuscripts of his fiction in Marquette University, Milwaukee (US). The academic papers are in the process of being cat- alogued, and references therefore are to the current shelfmarks, such as Tolkien A29/1 (see Lee, 2014b).

Languages

AN Anglo-Norman Finn. Finnish Goth. Gothic Med. Lat. Medieval Latin MnE Modern English MnG Modern German OE Old English OFr Old French OHG Old High German ON Old Norse OS Old Saxon

Titles of other works, and publishers

ASPR Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records Beo Beowulf Chronology Hammond and Scull vol. 2 (2006) CUP Cambridge University Press ES English Studies MA Medium Aevum OED The Oxford English Dictionary (20-volume 2nd edition, plus three Additions volumes published 1993–7). Online edition used throughout which has additional updates each quarter (http://dictionary.oed.com/) OUP Oxford University Press PMLA Proceeding of the Modern Language Association Reader’s Guide Hammond and Scull vol. 1 (2006) SN Studia Neophilologica TS : An Annual Scholarly Review (West Virginia University Press, 2004 onwards) List of Abbreviations xv

Technical terms a. adjective edn. edition f. feminine f. xx or ff. xx folio/folios followed by number, and then r for recto, or vforverso ind. indicative lit. literally l. xx or ll. xx line or lines followed by number m. masculine MS manuscript n. neuter num. numeral part. participle pl. plural pres. present prs. person repr. reprinted rev. revised sg. singular st. stanza subj. subjunctive transl. translated v. verb