The Keys of Middle-earth Also by Stuart Lee A COMPANION TO J. R. R. TOLKIEN Also by Elizabeth Solopova and Stuart Lee KEY CONCEPTS IN MEDIEVAL LITERATURE The Keys of Middle-earth Discovering Medieval Literature Through the FictionofJ.R.R.Tolkien 2nd edition Stuart Lee Reader, University of Oxford, UK Elizabeth Solopova Research Fellow, University of Oxford, UK © Stuart Lee and Elizabeth Solopova 2005, 2015 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 2015 978-1-137-45468-3 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition 2005 Second edition 2015 published by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-137-45469-0 ISBN 978-1-137-45470-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137454706 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lee, Stuart D. The keys of Middle-Earth : discovering medieval literature through the fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien / Stuart Lee, Reader, University of Oxford, UK ; Elizabeth Solopova, Research Fellow, Oxford University, UK. — Second edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel), 1892–1973—Criticism and interpretation. 2. Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel), 1892–1973— Knowledge—Literature. 3. Literature, Medieval—Adaptations—History and criticism. 4. Fantasy fiction, English—History and criticism. 5. Literature, Medieval—Appreciation—England. 6. Middle Earth (Imaginary place) I. Solopova, Elizabeth. II. Title. PR6039.O32Z677 2015 823.912—dc23 2015013020 For Sarah, Erin, Michael, and Anastasia Contents Acknowledgements xii List of Abbreviations xiii 1 How to Use This Book 1 2 Introduction 2 2.1 Background 2 2.1.1 The aim of The Keys of Middle-earth 2 2.1.2 This is not a source book 3 2.1.3 Tolkien’s career 5 2.1.4 Tolkien’s fiction and medieval literature 10 2.1.5 Beyond medieval studies 14 2.2 Medieval literature and language: the basics 15 2.3 Specific medieval languages and literatures 21 2.3.1 Old English 21 2.3.2 Middle English 25 2.3.3 Old Norse 28 2.3.4 Gothic 30 2.3.5 Finnish 32 2.3.6 Celtic 35 2.4 Thematic and technical parallels 37 2.4.1 The theme of the quest 38 2.4.2 The epic 41 2.4.3 The runes 44 2.4.4 Alliterative verse and Tolkien’s verse 49 2.4.5 The names 60 2.4.6 Middle-earth and the medieval world 64 3 The Editions 68 4TheTexts 71 The Silmarillion 73 4.1 Túrin Turambar – the Kalevala, ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ (S, ‘Of Túrin Turambar’) 74 4.1.1 Plot summary 74 4.1.2 Medieval text: ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ from the Kalevala 74 4.1.3 Discussion 76 vii viii Contents 4.1.4 Canto/Runo 36 of the Kalevala, ‘The Cowbone Whistle’ 78 4.1.5 Notes 112 4.1.6 Further reading 112 4.2 Eärendil – Christ I, ll. 104–29 (S, ‘The Voyage of Eärendil’) 113 4.2.1 Plot summary 113 4.2.2 Medieval text: Christ I 113 4.2.3 Discussion 114 4.2.4 Christ I, ll. 104–29 116 4.2.5 Notes 120 4.2.6 Further reading 120 The Hobbit 121 4.3 Gandalf and the Dwarves – Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 (TH,‘An Unexpected Party’) 122 4.3.1 Plot summary 122 4.3.2 Medieval text: Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 122 4.3.3 Discussion 126 4.3.4 Vo˛luspá, stanzas 9–16 128 4.3.5 Notes 132 4.3.6 Further reading 134 4.4 Bilbo and Gollum’s Riddle-Game – Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23; Vafþrúðnismál; and two Old English riddles (TH, ‘Riddles in the Dark’) 136 4.4.1 Plot summary 136 4.4.2a Medieval text 1: Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23 136 4.4.2b Medieval text 2: Vafþrúðnismál 137 4.4.2c Medieval text 3: Two Old English riddles 139 4.4.3 Discussion 140 4.4.4a Solomon and Saturn II, ll. 47–68 and 104–23 144 4.4.4b Vafþrúðnismál 150 4.4.4c Two Old English riddles ‘Storm’ and ‘Moth’ 168 4.4.5a Notes for Solomon and Saturn II 170 4.4.5b Notes for Vafþrúðnismál 171 4.4.5c Notes for ‘Storm’ and ‘Moth’ 175 4.4.6 Further reading 177 4.5 Bilbo meets Smaug – Beowulf, ll. 2207–311 (TH, ‘Inside Information’) 178 4.5.1 Plot summary 178 4.5.2 Text: Beowulf, ll. 2207–311 178 4.5.3 Discussion 181 4.5.4 Beowulf, ll. 2207–311 186 4.5.5 Notes 192 4.5.6 Further reading 194 Contents ix The Lord of the Rings 197 4.6 The Elves at Rivendell – Sir Orfeo, ll.117–94 (FR,‘Many Meetings’; TH, ‘A Short Rest’ and ‘Flies and Spiders’) 199 4.6.1 Plot summary 199 4.6.2 Medieval text: Sir Orfeo, ll. 117–94 199 4.6.3 Discussion 201 4.6.4 Sir Orfeo, ll. 117–94 206 4.6.5 Notes 208 4.6.6 Further reading 208 4.7 Legolas’s ‘Lament of the Stones’ – The Ruin (FR, ‘The Ring Goes South’) 209 4.7.1 Plot summary 209 4.7.2 Medieval text: The Ruin 209 4.7.3 Discussion 210 4.7.4 The Ruin 214 4.7.5 Notes 218 4.7.6 Further reading 219 4.8 The Fight at Balin’s Tomb – The Fight at Finnsburg and ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ (FR, ‘The Bridge of Khazad-Dûm’) 220 4.8.1 Plot summary 220 4.8.2a Medieval text: The Fight at Finnsburg 220 4.8.2b Medieval text: ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 221 4.8.3 Discussion 223 4.8.4a The Fight at Finnsburg 228 4.8.4b ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 232 4.8.5a Notes for The Fight at Finnsburg 236 4.8.5b Notes for ‘Cynewulf and Cyneheard’ 237 4.8.6 Further reading 239 4.9 The Crossing of the Nimrodel – Pearl, ll. 61–180 (FR, ‘Lothlórien’) 240 4.9.1 Plot summary 240 4.9.2 Medieval text: Pearl, ll. 61–180 240 4.9.3 Discussion 242 4.9.4 Pearl, ll. 61–180 244 4.9.5 Notes 252 4.9.6 Further reading 252 4.10 Boromir’s Death – Beowulf, ll. 26–52 (TT, ‘The Departure of Boromir’) 254 4.10.1 Plot summary 254 4.10.2 Medieval text: Beowulf, ll. 26–52 254 4.10.3 Discussion 254 4.10.4 Beowulf, ll. 26–52 258 4.10.5 Notes 260 x Contents 4.10.6 Further reading 260 4.11 Treebeard’s List – Maxims II (TT, ‘Treebeard’) 261 4.11.1 Plot summary 261 4.11.2 Medieval text: Maxims II 261 4.11.3 Discussion 261 4.11.4 Maxims II 266 4.11.5 Notes 270 4.11.6 Further reading 271 4.12 The Rohirrim – The Wanderer and Beowulf, ll. 306–70 (TT,‘The King of the Golden Hall’) 272 4.12.1 Plot summary 272 4.12.2a Medieval text 1: The Wanderer 272 4.12.2b Medieval text 2: Beowulf, ll. 306–70 272 4.12.3 Discussion 273 4.12.4a The Wanderer 282 4.12.4b Beowulf, ll. 306–70 288 4.12.5a Notes for The Wanderer 292 4.12.5b Notes for Beowulf, ll. 306–70 294 4.12.6 Further reading 295 4.13 The Battle of Pelennor Fields, the Death of Théoden, and the Arrival of the Mûmakil – The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84, Ælfric’s Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519, and Jordanes, Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) (RK, ‘The Battle of Pelennor Fields’) 296 4.13.1 Plot summary 296 4.13.2a Medieval text 1: The Battle of Maldon, ll. 111–84 296 4.13.2b Medieval text 2: Ælfric’s Homily on the Maccabees, ll. 499–519 297 4.13.2c Medieval text: Jordanes, Getica, XXXVIII (197) – XLI (217) 297 4.13.3 Discussion 300 4.13.4a The Battle of Maldon, ll.