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Università Degli Studi Di Torino Università Degli Studi Di Milano Dip Università degli studi di Torino Università degli studi di Milano Dip. di Culture, politica e società Dip. di Scienze sociali e politiche PhD PROGRAM SOCIOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL RESEARCH – 31st cohort ENGAGING STATELESS AND STATE-LINKED DIASPORAS: ASSYRIANS AND ARMENIANS IN THE NETHERLANDS Doctoral dissertation by Nare Galstyan Supervisor: Prof. Maurizio Ambrosini Co-Supervisor: Prof. Giovanni Semi Director of Doctoral Program: Prof. Mario Cardano i ` ii ABSTRACT The central aim of this research is to examine the complexities of relations between state, homeland, and diaspora by putting the existence and absence of nation-states as a salient divide between diaspora groups. At present, there have been few systematic, comparative studies that reflect commonalities and differences of stateless and state-linked diasporic networks. As the Armenian and Assyrian diasporas are two of the oldest diasporic communities in the world, they provide a backdrop for an expansive illustration of diaspora engagement practices in stateless and state-linked environments. The Dutch-Assyrian and Dutch-Armenian communities represent also a timely research context for studying conflict-affected diasporas because of the tense situation in Nagorno- Karabakh and ongoing conflicts in the Middle East. The research studies pro-active diaspora engagement practices: transnational justice-seeking activities for conflict, post-conflict settings and human rights violations; collective remittances in support of the homeland and other transnational communities in need; diasporas actions in support to newly-arrived migrants. The findings of this research contribute to the field of diaspora studies by expanding understanding of the importance of homelands for diasporas and the complex relation of diasporas with the statehood dynamics of their homeland. The dissertation argues that “statelessness” and “state-linkedness” are not static and dichotomous, but rather contested and nuanced categories. Despite being neglected and dismembered from the “official” diaspora discourses, stateless diasporas find alternative links with territories within states that they refer to as homelands. Diasporas do this through their trusted networks and transnational institutions. Likewise, the existence of states is not a sufficient condition for diaspora-state cooperation. Despite the influence of structural factors, diasporas have the autonomy to decide on how to position themselves towards their homelands “of nation-state” and “without nation-state.” The research offers a closer look at the plurality of non-state organised actors in shaping both institutionalised and unofficial, non-institutionalised diaspora engagement practices. iii ` ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD has been an important step for my career advancement and a life-changing journey. There are many people whose support I sincerely acknowledge. Foremost, I wish to thank Professor Ambrosini not only for his excellent supervision and detailed comments on my work, but for keeping me enthusiastic and confident about my research. I am thankful to NASP (Network for the Advancement of Social and Political Studies) for my research funding. I have immensely benefitted from classes and consultation with professors at the University of Milan and University of Turin. I spent significant periods of my dissertation at the Political Science Department at the University of Amsterdam and the Center for the Study of International Migration at the University of California Los Angeles. Many of my ideas were generated and developed within those research environments thanks to discussions I had with faculty members. I am indebted to all of the Dutch-Armenians and Dutch-Assyrians who opened their homes to me and shared their stories. Most of them offered me more than just the desired information and gave advice and assisted during the very critical stages of my fieldwork. I owe a special thanks to my family in Yerevan, Armenia for their constant support, courage, and patience. My father who inspired and guided me with his academic career, and my mother for giving me the persistence to reach my goals. A special thanks to my friend and family in Los Angeles, California as well for being so supportive during the most intense last months of dissertation writing. Last but not least, I want to thank all of my colleagues and friends with whom I connected with as a result of this PhD journey. iv 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 Research Question ................................................................................................................ 6 Outline of the Thesis .............................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: DIASPORA, STATEHOOD AND DIASPORA ENGAGEMENT PRACTICES ............................................................................................................ 13 Diasporas: From “Static Groups” to “Projects”..................................................................... 13 1.3.1 What Can Transnationalism Add? .................................................................................... 17 Homeland, Diasporas and Statehood .................................................................................... 21 1.4.1 What about Stateless Diasporas? ...................................................................................... 27 Diaspora Engagement from Diaspora-Focused Perspective .................................................. 30 1.5.1 Diaspora Engagement Spheres and Types of Contributions .............................................. 32 1.5.2 Types of Contribution ...................................................................................................... 35 1.5.3 Actors facilitating diaspora engagement ........................................................................... 38 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 43 Methodological approach ..................................................................................................... 43 Data Collection Methods and Tools .................................................................................... 48 Development of data collection tools ................................................................................... 52 Fieldwork and Field Access ................................................................................................. 54 Data Analyses ......................................................................................................................56 Reflection of the Fieldwork: Researcher and Cases Interactions ........................................... 58 Language Barrier ................................................................................................................ 60 Ethical Consideration and Trustworthiness of the Data ........................................................ 60 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER 3: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND MIGRATION PATTERNS ............................... 63 Assyrians: “We are not Arabs, We are not Kurdish, and Our Religion is Not Islam.” ........... 63 Migration Patterns of Assyrians ........................................................................................... 67 Armenian Transnation ......................................................................................................... 70 Migration Patterns of Armenians to the Netherlands ............................................................. 74 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 76 v ` CHAPTER 4: THE ROLE OF POLICIES OF THE STATES OF REFERENCE (ARMENIA AND “ASSYRIA”) IN CONSTRUCTING DIASPORAS ............................................................................. 78 Assyrians and Turkish, Iraqi, Syrian States: Strangers At Home .......................................... 80 4.1.1 Assyrians and Turkey: Alienation from the State ............................................................. 80 4.1.2 Assyrians and Iraq: Contradictory Relationship ................................................................ 85 4.1.3 Assyrians and Syria: Contradictory Relationship ............................................................. 88 Armenia and Diaspora Armenians: Successful and Unsuccessful Attempts at Cooperation .. 92 4.2.1 Formation of Statehood and Accumulating Experience with Cooperating with the Diaspora 92 4.2.2 Soviet Era: Mutual Intolerance ......................................................................................... 93 4.2.3 Post-Independence Cooperation and Scepticism: "Your Country, Our Homeland" ............ 97 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER 5. ORGANISATIONAL LANDSCAPE: EXISTING AND FAILED ORGANISATIONS 110 Organisational Landscape .................................................................................................. 111 Assyrian Transnational Organisations
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