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Digital Geometry, a Survey

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Digital Geometry, a Survey Digital Geometry, a Survey Li Chen David Coeurjolly University of the District of Columbia Université de Lyon, CNRS, LIRIS ABSTRACT used directly. This paper provides an overview of modern digital geometry Image processing and computer graphics are two main and topology through mathematical principles, algorithms, reasons why digital geometry was developed. First, a dig- and measurements. It also covers recent developments in the ital image is stored in a digital array, and the image must applications of digital geometry and topology including im- be processed using some geometric properties of this type age processing, computer vision, and data science. Recent of data|digital arrays. In computer graphics, the internal research strongly showed that digital geometry has made representation of the data is usually in the form of triangu- considerable contributions to modelings and algorithms in lation or meshes. However, when the image is displayed on image segmentation, algorithmic analysis, and BigData an- the screen, it must be digitized since the screen is a digital alytics. array. Two popular examples can provide explanations as to why digital geometry is necessary. First, most image process- Keywords ing and computer vision problems require extracting cer- Digital geometry, Digital topology, image processing tain objects from the image. This process is called image segmentation, and it usually involves separating meaningful objects from the background. Even though the boundary 1. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL GEOM- of an object appears to be a continuous curve, it is actually ETRY a sequence of digital points. Identification, measurement, Digital geometry is the study of the geometric properties and extraction are all related to digital geometry. In Fig. of digital and discrete objects stored in computer or elec- 1(a), the top image is the original, and the bottom image tronic formats. In general, digital geometry has two mean- is the digitized version where its boundary is a set of pixels ings: (1) Objects that are formed using digital or integer represented as small square-blocks. points, which is the more narrow definition; and (2) Objects Second, in computer graphics, we usually need to draw a that are computerized formations of geometric data, which line or set of lines in different colors on the screen. They are has a much bigger scope. We can view digital geometry as a drawn on 2D arrays, raster screens, instead of 2D Euclidean subcategory of discrete geometry that has a close relation- planes. This is not usually a perfect line at the pixel level ship with computerized applications. Digital geometry is since it is a digital line that requires a digital geometric highly related to computational geometry, which is more fo- algorithm such as the Bresenham algorithm to generate such cused on algorithm design for discrete objects in Euclidean a line (See Fig. 1(b)). space [26, 13]. A problem occurs when we articulate the curves or bound- However, digital geometry has its own set of problems and ary curves digitally. If we agree that a line or curve can be challenges including those involving distance measure and linked by pixels diagonally (with only one shared point at the formatting of digital objects, which are different than the corner of the two pixels), then blank pixels a and b are arXiv:1807.02222v1 [cs.DM] 6 Jul 2018 methods used with discrete objects. Digital geometry also also connected in Fig. 1(a). This is to say that the boundary has some advantages since the data can usually be sampled curve of the region cannot separate a plane into two discon- directly in its digital form. For instance, contrary to discrete nected areas. Therefore, digital geometry faces a new prob- geometry or computational geometry, digital geometry does lem that does not usually occur in continuous mathematics. not require a conversion process from digital sampling to This property is called the Jordan Curve theorem [23, 26]. discrete forms such as triangulation. Sampled data can be Digital geometry was first considered by A. Rosenfeld [39] J. Mylopoulos, and T. Pavlidis in the early 1970s [36]. In the 1980s, G. Herman and his associates studied digital sur- Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed faces [4]. D. Morgenthaler and Rosenfeld were the first to for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full cita- define digital surfaces [35]. T. Kong and A. Roscoe con- tion on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ducted a deep investigation of the properties of digital sur- ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or re- publish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission faces [27]. In the 1990s, the conference Vision Geometry and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]. drew many researchers to this field. Many researchers wrote monographs for this special area, see [44, 23, 32] to name c 2018 ACM. ISBN 978-1-4503-2138-9. a few. In 2004, a comprehensive book on digital geometry DOI: 10.1145/1235 meaning that p has 26 neighbors (vertices in its neighbor- hood). For p, a is a directly adjacent point, and b and c are indirectly adjacent points. b is closer to p comparing the dis- tance between p and c. Therefore, there are a total of 3 types of adjacencies: 6-, 18-, and 26-adjacencies shown in Fig. 2. A path of digital points with α adjacency, α = 6; 18; 26, is called a α-connected path or α-path [35]. Note that in 2D, there are only two adjacencies: 4- and 8-adjacency. (a) (b) Figure 2: A point p and its 3D neighborhood Np. There are 6 direct adjacent points such as a, 18 pla- Figure 1: Digital Curves and Lines. nar diagonal adjacent points such as b (including a's), and 26 all adjacent points such as c (including a's and b's). was written by R. Klette and Rosenfeld [26]. There have been many remarkable developments including: Algorithms Digital surface was first mathematically defined by Mor- on 3D thinning, a digital Gauss-Bonnet theorem, and soft- genthaler and Rosenfeld (1981)[35]. They stated that a dig- ware systems for digital geometry DGtl[2]. Each year, many ital surface locally splits a neighborhood Fig. (2) into two conferences and events are held that directly relate to digital disconnected components where the thickness of the surface geometry. They can be found on the official digital geometry is 1. website (http://tc18.org). In the future, the following theoretical problems can be Definition 1. (Morgenthaler and Rosenfeld) Let α; β 2 studied and solved: (1) Homeomorphism between two solid f6; 18; 26g. A point p in S is an (α; β)-(simple) surface objects in 3D, (2) The digital Poincar´econjecture and re- point, and S(p) is p's neighborhood in S if lated constructive methods, and (3) Fast algorithms for per- (1) S(p) is an α-component, sistent analysis. Digital geometry is potentially a powerful (2) Np − S(p) has exactly two β-components and p is β- tool that can be applied in data science and BigData, which adjacent to both β-components, includes topological data processing using digital methods. (3) Each of the α-neighbors is β-adjacent to both β-components Digital geometry may also prove useful in the applications of Np − S(p). of the Graphical Processing Unit (GPU). GPU is currently We can see that there are a total of nine types of digi- embedded in many computer systems as a digital array form tal surfaces when we choose different αs and βs. Based on of image processing and computer graphics. Kong and Roscoe's research, most of these cases do not exist Digital geometry usually also contains digital methods for in terms of real world examples [27]. Chen and Zhang gave computational differential geometry in graphics. Due to the another definition mainly for (6,26)-surfaces, called parallel- length limitations, this article only focuses on image related move based surfaces [11]. The advantages of this type of approaches. Furthermore, we do not review computerized surface is that it can be extended to higher dimensions to de- tomography,a very sophisticated research area in digital ge- fine digital manifolds [11]. Let Σm be an m-dimensional grid ometry. Interested readers may refer to [24, 20]. space. A 0-cell is a point and 1-cell is a line-segment with two adjacent points. A 2-cell in (6,26)-surfaces is a square 2. DIGITAL SURFACES AND CLASSIFICA- with 4-points, etc. If we parallel move a 1-cell, we can get an- other 1-cell. In addition, these two 1-cells form a 2-cell. We TION say two 2-cells are 1-adjacent if they share a 1-cell. There- A digital curve can be viewed as a sequence of digital fore, we can define 1-connectedness (line-connectedness) as points such as the boundary of the connected region shown a path of 2-cells where each adjacent pair shares a 1-cell. in Fig. 1 (a). It can also be described mathematically as a path of vertices on a graph [23, 11]. However, defining a Definition 2. (Parallel-move Based) A connected subset digital surface is much more difficult. S of Σm is a digital surface if any point p 2 S is included in A main research topic in digital geometry is how to de- some 2-cell of S, and (1) Any two 2-cells are 1-connected in termine the digital surface or boundary of a solid object.
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