Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1 This was a generic term used in British India denoting a place beyond waters. 2 Bejoy Kumar Sinha, In Andamans: The Indian Bastille, Kanpur, 1939. 3 M.M. Kaye, Death in the Andamans, St Martin’s Minotaur, New York, 2000; Lee Langley, Persistent Rumors, Milkweed Editions, Minneapolis, 1992. The film Kalapani was released in 1996. 4 Begun as a mutiny, a popular rebellion against the British engulfed most of northern India in 1857. 5 David Arnold, ‘India: The Contested Prison’, in Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Confinement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2007, pp. 147–184; and ‘The Self and the Cell: Indian Prison Narratives as Life Histories’, in David Arnold and Stuart Blackburn, eds, Telling Lives in India: Biography, Autobiography and Life History, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 29–53; Frank Dikotter, Crime, Punishment and the Prison in Modern China, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002; Peter Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2001. 6 Bruce F. Adams, The Politics of Punishment: Prison Reforms in Russia, 1863–1917, Northern Illinois University Press, DeKalb, 1996, shows how Russian historiography has played a role in making revolutionary martyrs of political prisoners. 7 Manu Goswami, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2004, p. 7. 8 Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of the British India (1947) and the first Governor-General of independent India (1947–48). 9 Nicholas Mansergh and Penderel Moon, eds, India: Transfer of Power, 1942–47, HMSO, London, Doc no. 132 (June 1947, pp. 253–255); 133 (June 1947, p. 255); 165 (June 1947, pp. 312–313); 190 (June 1947, pp. 353–354). 10 Jinnah’s telegram to Viceroy Mountbatten cited in a letter from the Viceroy to Secretary of State on 5 July 1947, in Mountbatten Collection, India Office Records (IOR) British Library, Mss Eur/F 200, no. 3. Jinnah complained about Mountbatten’s decision to hand over the Islands to India on the basis that the Andamans were ‘not part of India historically and geographically’, and that these islands occupied a strategic position on the sea route which was the main channel of communication between East and West Pakistan. 11 Jawaharlal Nehru, ‘Congress Comments on the Draft Announcement, Secret, New Delhi, 16 May 1947’, in Mansergh and Moon, India: Transfer of Power, vol. IX, doc. no. 464, pp. 855–857. 12 Some of the local writers are Govindsingh Pawar, ‘Editorial’, in Dweep Lahiri, 25, 2001; Gauri Shankar Pandey, The Cellular Jail, The National Memorial, Port Blair, 1987. 13 L.P. Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1756–1947, Sterling Publishers, Delhi, 1968. 14 R.C. Majumdar, The Penal Settlement in Andamans, Government of India, 1975; Barindra Kumar Ghose, The Tale of My Exile, Pondicherry, 1922; V.D. Savarkar,

192 Notes 193

The Story of My Transportation for Life, translated by V.N. Naik, Bombay, 1950; Niranjan Sen, Bengal’s Forgotten Warriors, People’s Publishing House, Bombay, 1945; Bejoy Kumar Sinha, In Andamans: The Indian Bastille, 1939; Upendranath Bandhopadhyaya, Nirvasiter Atmakatha, National Publishers, Calcutta, 1967. 15 Clare Anderson, The Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion, Anthem South Asian Studies, London, 2007; and ‘Sepoys, Servants and Settlers: Convict Transportation in the Indian Ocean, 1787–1945’, Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Confinement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2007, pp. 185–220. 16 K.S. Singh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, People of India Series, 12, Anthropological Survey of India, Madras, 1994; Clare Anderson, ‘Fashioning Identities: Convict Dress in Colonial South and Southeast Asia’, History Workshop, 52, Autumn 2001, pp. 153–174; and ‘Godna: Inscribing Indian Convicts in the Nineteenth Century’, in Jane Caplan, ed., Written on the Body: The Tattoo in European and North American History, Reaktion Books, London, 2000, pp. 102–117; and Legible Bodies: Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia, Berg, UK, 2004. 17 Satadru Sen, Disciplining Punishment: Colonialism and Convict Society in the Andaman Islands, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2000; ‘Policing the Savage: Segregation, Labor and State Medicine in the Andamans’ The Journal of Asian Studies, 58, 3, 1999, pp. 753–773; ‘Rationing Sex: Female Convicts in the Andamans’, South Asia, 30, 1, 1999, pp. 29–59. 18 Frederick Cooper, ‘Postcolonial Studies and Study of History’, in Ania Loomba et al., eds, Postcolonial Studies and Beyond, Duke University Press, Durham, 2005, pp. 401–422. 19 Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1995, p. 6. 20 Much in the same manner as Madagascar colonies. See Alison Games, ‘Oceans, Migrants, and Character of Empires: English Colonial Schemes in the Seventeenth Century’, Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges, 12–15 Feb 2003, Library of Congress, Washington D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/ proceedings/seascapes/index.html. 21 Alan Frost, Convicts and Empire: A Naval Question, 1776–1811, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1980 and Botany Bay Mirages: Illusions of Australia’s Convict Beginnings, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 1994; Mollie Gillian, ‘The Botany Bay Decision, 1786: Convicts, Not Empire’, English Historical Review, 97, 1982, pp. 740–766; David Mackay, ‘Far-Flung Empire: A Neglected Imperial Outpost at Botany Bay 1788–1801’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 9, 2, 1981, pp. 125–145. 22 Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance’, Archival Science, 2, 2002, pp. 87–109. 23 Delhi Historians’ Group, Communalization of Education: The History Textbook Controversy, New Delhi, 2001; Safdar Hashmi Memorial Trust, Communalisation of History: The Assault on History: Press Reportage, Editorials and Articles, New Delhi, 2002. 24 Partha Chatterjee and Anjan Ghosh, eds, History and Present, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2002. 25 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000. 26 Goswami, Producing India, 2004, pp. 4–20. 27 Robert J.C. Young, Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA, 2001; Bart Moore-Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory: Contexts, Practices, Politics, Verso, London, 1997; Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, eds, 194 Notes

The Post-colonial Studies Reader, Routledge, New York, 1995; Antoinette Burton, ed., After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and Through the Nation, Duke University Press, Durham, 2003; Steven Englund, ‘The Ghost of Nation Past’, Journal of Modern History, 64, 2, June 1992, pp. 299–320; Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2005, pp. 91–112. 28 David Harvey, Social Justice and the City, Edward Arnold, London, 1973, Conscious- ness and the Urban Experience, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1985; Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History, Faber and Faber, London, 1987; Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, Blackwell, Oxford, 1991 (English trans.); Derek Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, Blackwell, Cambridge, MA, 1994. 29 The idea and expression is borrowed from Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay, 1987. 30 R. Mukherjee and L. Subramanium, eds, Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean World, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1998; Satish Chandra, ed., Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, Sage Publications, Delhi, 1987; Auguste Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1966; see H.P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003; David E. Sopher, The Sea Nomads: A Study of the Maritime Boat People of Southeast Asia, National Museum, Singapore, 1977; K.N. Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990; Richard Hall, Empires of Monsoon: A History of the Indian Ocean and its Invaders, HarperCollins, London, 1996; Kernail Singh Sandhu, Indians in Malaya: Some Aspects of Their Immigration and Settlement (1786–1957), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1969; Clare Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean: Transportation from South Asia to Mauritius 1815–53, Macmillan, Houndmills, 2000. 31 E. Valentine, Henry Bernstein and Tom Brass, eds, Plantations, Proletarians and Peasants in Colonial Asia, Frank Cass, London, 1992; Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834–74, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995; Shula Mark and Peter Richardson, eds, International Labour Migration: Historical Perspectives, published for the Institute of Commonwealth Studies by Maurice Temple Smith, London, 1984; Barbara Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, eds, British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1987; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000; Anand Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers in Southeast Asia in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries’, Journal of World History, 14, 2, 2003, pp. 179–208. 32 Shawkat M. Toorawa, The Western Indian Ocean: Essays on Islands and Islanders, The Hassam Toorawa Trust, Port Louis, 2007. 33 Frank Broeze, ed., Gateways of Asia: Port Cities of Asia in the Thirteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Kegan Paul International, London, 1997; Indu Banga, ed., Ports and Their Hinterland in India, 1700–1950, Manohar, Delhi, 1992; Dane Kennedy, The Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1996; Barbara Bender, Landscape Politics and Perspectives, Berg Publishers, Providence and Oxford, 1993; Queeny Pradhan, ‘Empire in the Hills: A Study of Simla, Darjeeling, Ootacamund and Mount Abu (Late Nineteenth Century and Early Twentieth Century)’, PhD thesis submitted at the Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 2000. 34 Richard Grove, ‘Conserving Eden’, Comparative Studies in History and Society, 35, 1993, pp. 318–351; Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Edens and the Notes 195

Origins of Environmentalism, 1600–1860, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994; Ecology, Climate and Empire: The Indian Legacy in Global Environmental History, 1400–1940, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1998. 35 Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Fontana, London, 1966 [1981]; Marshall D. Sahlins, Islands of History, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985; Eric Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982; Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe, 1990, Chapter 5; Adam Kuper, The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion, Routledge, 1988; John Gillis, Islands of the Mind: How the Human Imagination Created the Atlantic World, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2004. 36 T.H. Eriksen, ‘In Which Sense do Cultural Islands Exist?’, Social Anthropology, 1, 1B, 1993, pp. 133–147. As Erikson argues, ‘in both biological, linguistic and socio-cultural respects, islands tend to be less isolated than, for example, moun- tain valleys’. This is because ‘water tends to unite; mountains tend to divide’. Also see D. Venkatesan, ‘Study of Island Cultures and Ecology: A Perspective’, Man in India, 72, 1, March 1992, pp. 15–27 and K.S. Singh, ‘Island Anthropology Retrospect and Prospects’, Man in India, 71, 4, 1991, pp. 545–569. 37 Ibid.; Anderson, ‘Sepoys, Servants and Settlers’, 2007, pp. 185–220. 38 Thomas R. Metcalf, ‘Empire Recentered: India in the Indian Ocean Arena’, in G. Blue, M. Bunton and R. Croizier, eds, Colonialism and the Modern World: Selected Studies, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, 2002, pp. 25–39; Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2006; Martin Lewis and Kären Wigen, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Meta- geography, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1997; Jerry Bentley, ‘Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks of Historical Analysis’, Geographical Review, 89, 2, 1999, pp. 215–224; Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconﬁguration of Early Modern Eurasia’, Modern Asian Studies, 31, 3, 1997, pp. 735–762. This point has been also made with regard to the Atlantic by John R. Gillis who argues that ‘in the age of industrial capitalism and the nation state, history turned its back on Atlantic Oceania, forgetting that it had ever existed. The nineteenth century progressive imagination turned inward to focus on roads and bridges, ignoring water-borne forms of transportation. No longer stepping stones to the future, islands retreated into the mists of history, waiting, like castaways, to be rescued from oblivion’, in Islands of the Mind, 2004. On globalization and the historical profession see: Homi K. Bhabha, ‘Foreword: Framing Fanon’, in Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, Grove Press, New York, pp. vii–lxii; Prem Shankar Jha, Twilight of the Nation State: Globalization, Chaos and War, Pluto Press, London, 2006; John B. Friedman, Longitudes and Attitudes: The World in the Age of Terrorism, Anchor Books, New York, 2003; Kerry Ward, ‘“Tavern of the Seas?” The Cape of Good Hope as an Oceanic Crossroads during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges, 12–15 Feb, 2003 Library of Congress, Washington D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/ proceedings/sea-scapes/index.html.; Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W. Norton and Co., New York, 2002; Martin W. Lewis and Karen Wigen, ‘A Maritime Response to the Crisis in Area Studies’, Geographical Review, 89, 2, 1999, pp. 161–168; Bernhard Klein and Gesa Mackenthun, eds, Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean, Routledge, New York, 2004. 39 Ward, ‘“Tavern of the Seas?”’, 2003; Games, ‘Oceans, Migrants, and Character of Empires’, 2003; Martin Lewis, ‘Dividing the Ocean Sea’, Geographical Review, 89, 2, 1999, pp. 188–214. 196 Notes

40 Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969; Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers, 1995; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000, Frank Broeze, ‘The Muscles of Empire: Indian Seamen and the Raj, 1919–1939’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 18, 1, 2001, pp. 43–67. G. Balachandran, ‘Conflicts in the International Maritime Labour: British and Indian Seamen, Employers and the State, 1890–1939’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 39, 1, 2002; and ‘Searching for the Sardar: The State, Pre-capitalist Institutions, and Human Agency in the Maritime Labour Market, Calcutta, 1850-1935’, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds, Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia, Oxford University Press, Delhi and Oxford, 1996, pp. 206–236; J.J. Ewald, ‘Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen, and Other Migrants in the Northwestern Indian Ocean, c. 1750–1914’, American Historical Review, 105, 1, 2000, pp. 69–91; Takashi Oishi, ‘Indian Muslim Merchants in South Africa 1875–1920: With Special Remarks on Their Migration in the Indian Ocean Region’, in Yasuro Hase, et al., eds, South Asian Migration in Comparative Per- spective: Movement, Settlement, and Diaspora, Japan Center for Area Studies, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, 2002, pp. 305–350, and Claude Markovits, The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000; Kenneth McPherson, ‘The Social Expansion of the Maritime World of the Indian Ocean: Passenger Traffic and Com- munity Building, 1815–1939’, in Klaus Friedland, ed., Maritime Aspects of Migration, Bohlau, Cologne, 1989; Conference papers of G. Balachandran, ‘South Asian Sea- farers and their Worlds: c. 1870–1930s’ and Diane Robinson-Dunn, ‘Lascar Sailors and English Converts: The Imperial Port and Islam in late 19th-Century England’, Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges, 12–15 Feb. 2003, Library of Congress, Washington D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/ seascapes/index.html; Robert Bollard, ‘How to Create a Tradition: The Seamen’s Union and the Great Strike of 1917’, http://www.historycooperative.org/ proceedings/asslh2/bollard.html; Ravi Ahuja, ‘Mobility and Containment, The Voyages of South Asian Seamen, 1900–1960’, International Review of Social History, 51, 2006, pp. 111–141. However, one must note that the Ocean as a historical framework is not entirely new to South Asian history. Unlike the Pacific and the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean boasts of a range of sophisticated historical research works on maritime history of the ancient, medieval and early modern periods. See Mukherjee and Subramanium, Politics and Trade, 1998; Chandra, Indian Ocean, 1987; Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean, 1966; Ranabir Chakravarti, ‘Seafaring, Ships and Ship Owners: India and the Indian Ocean (AD 700–1500)’, in David Parkin and Ruth Barnes, eds, Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology in the Indian Ocean, Routledge Curzon, London, 2002, pp. 28–61 and ‘Visiting Faraway Shores: India’s Trade in the Western Indian Ocean (c. CE 800–1500)’, presented at a Conference in Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi, 2004; H.P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003 and ‘Seafaring in the Bay of Bengal in the Early Centuries AD’, Studies in History, 6, 1, 1990, n.s., pp. 1–14; Sopher, The Sea Nomads, 1977; Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe 1990; Hall, Empires of Monsoon, 1996; Parkin and Barnes, Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology, 2002; Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1993; Radhakumud Mookerji, Indian Shipping: A History of Sea-borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the Earliest Times, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1912; N. Karashima, Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic Sherds, Taisho University, Japan, 2002; K.S. Mathew, Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, Manohar, Notes 197

New Delhi, 1995. H.P. Ray and J.F. Salles, eds, Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, Manohar, New Delhi, 1996; Mukherjee and Subramanium, Politics and Trade, 1998; Markus Vink, ‘“The World’s Oldest Trade”: Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century’, Journal of World History, 14, 2, 2003, pp. 131–178; Vimla Begley and Richard Daniel de Pubma, Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1991; F. De Romanis and A. Tchernia, Crossings: Early Mediterranean Contacts with India, Manohar, New Delhi, 1997; Stanley Burstein, ‘State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade’, Interactions: Regional Studies, Global Processes, and Historical Analysis, 28 Feb–3 March, 2001, Library of Congress, Washington D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/burnstein.html 41 Lewis and Wigen, ‘A Maritime Response’, 1999 and Marcus Vink, ‘Indian Ocean Studies and the “New Thalassology”’, Journal of Global History, 2, 2007, pp. 41–62. 42 Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-Century Commerce and Navigation, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1972; Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797, Routledge, London and New York, 1992; Thomas C. Patterson, ‘Early Colonial Encounters and Identities in the Caribbean: A Review of Some Recent Works and Their Implications’, Dialectical Anthropology, 16, 1, 1991, pp. 1–14; Greg Dening, ‘The Geographical Knowledge of the Polynesians and the Nature of Inter-Island Contact’, in Jack Golson, ed., Polynesian Navigation, The Polynesian Society, Welling- ton, 1963, pp. 102–131 and Islands and Beaches: Discourse on a Silent Land, Marquesas 1774–1880, The Dorsey Press, Illinois, 1980; Philip Steinberg, The Social Construction of the Ocean, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001; G. Jyotsna Singh, ‘History of Colonial Ethnography: The Ideological Formation of Edward Terry’s A Voyage to East India (1655 & 1665) The Merchants and Mariners Preservation and Thanksgiving (1649)’, in Ivo Kemps and J.G. Singh, eds, Travel Knowledge, European ‘Discoveries’ in the Early Modern Period, Palgrave, New York, 2001, pp. 197–210; Stuart B. Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting and Reﬂecting on the Encounters Between the Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994; D. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing and Imperial Adminis- tration, Duke University Press, Durham, 1993; Mary Louis Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Routledge, London, 1992; Zarine Cooper, ‘Analysis of the Nature of Contacts with the Andaman Islands during the last two Millennia’, South Asian Studies, 5, 1989, pp. 133–147. 43 Jeanne Garane, Discursive Geographies: Writing Space and Place in French, Rodopi, New York, 2005; Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Explorations and Empire, Blackwell, Oxford, 2001; Robert A. Stafford, ‘Annexing the Landscapes of the Past: British Imperial Geology in the Nineteenth Century’, in John M. Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and the Natural World, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990, pp. 67–89; Harvey, Social Justice and the City, 1973, Consciousness and the Urban Experience, 1985; M. Chisholm and D.H. Smith, eds, Shared Space and Divided Space: Essays on Conﬂict and Territorial Organization, Unwin Hyman, London, 1990; R. Shields, Places on the Margin: Alternative Geographies of Modernity, Routledge, London, 1991; N. Perera, Society and Space: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Postcolonial Identity in Sri Lanka, Westview Press, Boulder, 1998; Michael Kearney, World View, Chandler and Sharp, Novato, 1984; Mike Crang and Nigel Thrift, Thinking Space, Routledge, London, 2000. 198 Notes

44 Ian J. Barrow, Making History, Drawing Territory, British Mapping in India, c. 1756–1905, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003. Barrow demonstrates the way the clarity and scientific nature of the late eighteenth century colonial maps, like historical documents, was beguiling. These maps hid the existent reality of the contemporary colonial rule in Bengal that was still tenuous and where officials, engaged in mapping and surveying, were being constantly attacked and evaded by local people. 45 Mrinalini Sinha, Specters of Mother India: The Global Structuring of an Empire, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2006, pp. 16–19. 46 I borrow the idea of unevenness from Goswami, Producing India, 2004. 47 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000; Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969; J.B. Hirst, Convict Society and Its Enemies, George Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1983. 48 Carlos Aguirre, ‘Prisons and Prisoners in Modernising Latin America (1800–1940)’, in Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Confinement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2007, pp. 14–54. 49 Zarine Cooper, ‘Early Communication Networks in the Bay of Bengal’, in Archaeology and History: Early Settlements in the Andaman Islands, Oxford University Press, India, 2002, pp. 8–31. The Andamanese today are represented by four groups – the Jarawa who inhabit the Middle and South Andamans; the Sentinelese who live on the North Sentinel Island; Onge who are located in Little Andaman; and the Great Andamanese who live on Strait Island. The Great Andamanese, ori- ginally a group of twelve tribes, occupied the length and breadth of the North, Middle and South Andamans, and were the first ones to come in contact with the British and the penal settlement. 50 Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, 1994; Deborah Bird Rose, Dingo Makes Us Human: Life and Land in an Australian Aboriginal Culture, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000.

Chapter 1

1 Braudel, The Mediterranean, 1966 [1981]. 2 The English East India Company (EEIC) was formed as a trading company in London by Royal Charter in 1600. It became a territorial power in India after 1757. The British Crown as the Government of India replaced the EEIC in 1858 and it was formally dissolved by Act of Parliament in 1874. 3 Home, Public, 28 April, 1783, 43, National Archives of India, Delhi, hereafter NAI; Home, Public, 28 April 1783, 44, NAI. 4 Home, Public, 10 March 1788, 30, NAI; Secret, 22 Dec 1788, Proc. Vol., pp. 4788–4808, NAI; Secret, 30 Dec 1789, 6–29, NAI. 5 B. Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1996; C.A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996; J.B. Harley (edited by Paul Laxton) The New Venture of Maps: Essays in the History of Cartography, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2001; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765–1843, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1997. According to Edney, ‘Easy systematic survey constituted a geographical “panopticon”’; Barrow, Making History, Drawing Territory, 2003. Notes 199

6 R.H. Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India, vol. 1, Eighteenth Century, Survey of India, Dehradun, 1945, p. 5. 7 Ibid., p. 1. 8 William Cornwallis to Blair, 4 Sep 1789, Cor 51, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, hereafter NMM; Home, Public, 6 August 1858, 76–78, NAI. 9 M.V. Portman, History of Our Relations with the Andamanese, vol. 1, Calcutta, 1899, p. 91. 10 Alastair Pennycook, in his English and the Discourses on Cannibalism, Routledge, London and New York, 1998. 11 The works of David Harvey were among the ﬁrst to contest the neglect of space in addressing social relationships, Harvey, Social Justice and the City, 1973 and Consciousness and the Urban Experience, 1985; Chisholm and Smith, eds, Shared Space and Divided Space, 1990; Shields, Places on the Margin, 1991. 12 Charles Verlinden, ‘The Transfer of Colonial Techniques from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic’, in F. Fernandez-Armesto, ed., The European Opportunity, Variorum, Aldershot, 1995, pp. 225–248; Eric Leed, The Mind of the Traveller: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism, New York, Basic Books, 1991, p. 134; Dening, ‘The Geo- graphical Knowledge’, 1963, pp. 102–131; Steinberg, The Social Construction of the Ocean, 2001, pp. 54–58; Games, ‘Oceans, Migrants, and Character of Empires’, 2003; Ward, ‘“Tavern of the Seas?”’, 2003. 13 Jyotsna G. Singh, ‘History of Colonial Ethnography’, 2001, pp. 197–210; Seymour Phillips, ‘The Outer World of the European Middle Ages’, in Stuart Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting and Reﬂecting on the Encounters Between the Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994, pp. 23–63, Schwartz demonstrates the way New World discoverers ‘fell back on the implicit ethnographies’. Stephen Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991. 14 Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire, 1993 and Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 1992. Also see Brian V. Street, The Savage in Literature: Representations of ‘Primitive’ Society in English Fiction 1858–1920, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1975. 15 Moti Chandra in his Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1977, cites references to sea travel between India and China from Indian and Chinese sources, all of which concur that the ‘Indian ships had to encounter terrible storms in Bay of Bengal and in the South China sea which caused shipwrecks’, p. 93. 16 Early history of the Andamans is reminiscent of the Waqwaq Islands, see Shawkat M. Toorawa, ‘The Medieval Waqwaq Islands and the Mascarenes’, in Toorawa, ed., The Western Indian Ocean: Essays on Islands and Islanders, The Hassam Toorawa Trust, Port Louis, 2007, pp. 49–66. 17 According to M.V. Portman the Muslim travellers’ account has survived only as quoted in Pemberton’s Collection of Voyages and Travels, London, Vol. 7, 1811. 18 Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, translated and with an introduction by Ronald Latham, Penguin Books, 1958, p. 258. 19 Joseph Ritson, An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food as a Moral, London, 1802, p. 133; F.J. Mouat, Adventures and Researches Among the Andaman Islanders, London, Hurst and Blackett, 1863, p. 7. 20 John Mandeville, The Book of John Mandeville, translated with an introduction by C.W.R.D. Moseley, Penguin Books, 1983, pp. 136–139. 21 Iain M. Higgins, Writing East: The ‘Travels’ of Sir John Mandeville, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1997; Sarah Salih, ‘Idols and Simulacra: Paganity, 200 Notes

Hybridity and Representation in Mandeville’s Travels’, in Bettina Bildhauer and Robert Mills, eds, The Monstrous Middle Ages, University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 2004, pp. 113–133. 22 Cited in Peter Yapp, ed., The Travellers’ Dictionary of Quotation, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1983, p. 9. 23 For a detailed exposition of the travel narratives see Zarine Cooper, ‘Early Communication Networks in the Bay of Bengal’, in Archaeology and History: Early Settlements in the Andaman Islands, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2002, pp. 8–31. 24 Portman, History of Our Relations, vol. 1, 1899, pp. 50–79. 25 Cited in Zarine Cooper, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Maritime Contacts: The Andaman Islands’, in H.P. Ray and J.F. Salles, eds, Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, Manohar, Delhi, 1996 and 1998, pp. 240–245, p. 19. 26 Christine G. Andrews, ‘The Boucicaut Masters’, Gesta, 41, 1, Artistic Identity in the Late Middle Ages, 2002, pp. 29–38. 27 Henri Omont, Livres de Merveilles, Marco Polo, Odoric De Pordenone, Mandeville, Hayton, Etc., Volume I, Catala, Paris, 1907; Millard Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berri: the Boucicaut Master, Studies in the History of European Art, Vol. 3, Phaidon, London, 1968, pp. 117–122, and ‘Light as Form and Symbol in Some Fifteenth-Century Paintings’, The Art Bulletin, 27, 3, 1945, pp. 175–181; Donal Byrne, ‘Manuscript Ruling and Pictorial Design in the Work of the Limbourgs, the Bedford Master, and the Boucicaut Master’, The Art Bulletin, 66, 1, 1984, pp. 118–136; Andrews, ‘The Boucicaut Masters’, 2002, pp. 29–38. 28 Am grateful to my senior colleague Jim Collins, professor of French history, for his invaluable help in tracing the history of the Boucicaut image and illu- minating me about the mistaken attributions and constructed nature of the manuscript’s text. 29 Omont, Livres de Merveilles, Paris, 1907, Plate 70 (folio 76 verso), Plate 69 (folio 74 verso), Plate 92 (folio 106), and Plate 94 (folio 107). 30 Anthony Pagden, ‘The Peopling of the New World: Ethnos, Race and Empire in the Early-modern World’, in Miriam Eliav-Feldon, Benjamin Isaac and Joseph Ziegler, eds, The Origins of Racism in the West, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, pp. 292–312. 31 Charles de Miramon, ‘Noble Dogs, Noble Blood: The Invention of the Concept of Race in the late Middle Ages’, and Valentin Groebner, ‘The Carnal Knowing of a Coloured Body: Sleeping with Arabs and Blacks in the European Imagination, 1300–1550’, in Miriam Eliav-Feldon, Benjamin Isaac and Joseph Ziegler, eds, The Origins of Racism in the West, Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, pp. 200–216 and pp. 217–231 respectively; John Block Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981 and ‘Cultural Conﬂicts in Medieval World Maps’, in Schwartz, Implicit Understandings, 1994, pp. 64–95; Rudolf Wittkower, ‘Marvels of the East: A Study in the History of Monsters’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Insti- tutes 5, 1942, pp. 159–97; Paul Freedman, ‘The Medieval Other: The Middle Ages as Other’, in Timothy S. Jones and David A. Sprunger, eds, Marvels, Monsters, and Miracles: Studies in the Medieval and Early Modern Imaginations, Michigan University Press, Kalamazoo, 2002, 1–24. Notes 201

32 Debra H. Strickland, ‘Artists, Audience, and Ambivalence in Marco Polo’s Divisament du monde’, Journal Viator, 36, 2005, pp. 493–529; ‘The Exotic in the Later Middle Ages: Recent Critical Approaches’, in Literature Compass, 5, 1, 2008, pp. 58–72 and Saracens, Demons, and Jews: Making Monsters in Medieval Art, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2003. 33 Edward W. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1978; Wilton Marion Krogman, ‘Sherlock Holmes as an Anthropologist’, The Scientific Monthly, 80, No. 3, 1955, pp. 155–162. 34 Romila Thapar, ‘The Image of the Barbarian in Early India’, Comparative Studies in History and Society, 13, 1971, pp. 408–436 and Aloka Parasher-Sen, ‘Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest Dwellers in the Mauryan Period’, Studies in History, 14, 2, 1998, pp. 173–192. 35 M.V. Portman was a British official who took his charge in the Andamans in 1879 and wrote A History of Our Relations with the Andamanese, Calcutta, 1899. Also see Zarine Cooper, ‘Early Communication’, 2000. 36 Home, Judicial, 27 April, 1860, 6–7, A, NAI. Also see Zarine Cooper, Ibid. 37 Home, Public, 28 April 1783, 44, A, NAI. 38 David Tomas, Transcultural Space and Transcultural Beings, Westview Press, Boulder, 1996. Tomas refers to the Andamans and the experience of the encounter as ‘Transcultural Space’, that is ‘a transient space produced by fleeting intercultural relations and generated by situations governed by misrepresentation or represent- ational excess’, p. 1. 39 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 22. Also see the section on ‘piracy’ in Chapter 2. 40 Ibid., p. 17. 41 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, 76–98, NAI and Foreign, 22 May 1857, 133, NAI. This was the view of many of the visitors to the Islands such as Colonel Symes and J.H Quigley. Colonel Symes argued that the desire to eat human flesh arose ‘more from the impulse of hunger, than from voluntary choice’, in Foreign, Political, 22 May 1857, 134, NAI. Most probably these people had read and were influenced by Blair’s account of the Andamanese in his survey report. 42 This is evident in the public approval and popularity of shipwreck narratives which described instances of cannibalism by sailors for survival. One such case was the shipwreck of Meduse, in 1819, which had a strong impact on the contemporary European imagination. Some of the survivors of the wreck were said to have eaten human flesh which they cut into strips and dried in the sun, and claimed that it was quite palatable. Another such immensely popular narrative was an 1838 publication, Shipwreck of the Stirling Castle, by John Curtis. See Lynette Russell, ‘Mere Trifles and Faint Representations: The Representations of Savage Life Offered by Eliza Fraser’, in Ian J. McNiven, L. Russell and K. Schaffer, eds, Constructions of Colonialism: Perspectives on Eliza Fraser’s Shipwreck, Leicester University Press, London, 1998, pp. 51–62. A.W. Brian Simpson in his work (Cannibalism and the Common Law, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) narrates the story of the shipwrecked Mignonette (1884) and the manner in which public opinion was unequivocally sympathetic towards its survivors who had eaten a young man. 43 Home, Public, 23 March 1795, 1, A, NAI. 44 Chatham Island is part of the Andaman group of islands where Blair started the Settlement in 1789. 45 Cited in Portman, History of Our Relations, 1899, pp. 68–69, emphasis my own. 202 Notes

46 Even Portman attests that he ‘had evident doubts as to their alleged cannibalism’, but is loath to break with former traditions, in History of Our Relations, 1899, pp. 75–76 and Phillips, ‘The Outer World’, 1994, pp. 23–63. Also see Tomas, Transcultural Space, 1996. 47 Mouat mentions this in his ‘Narrative of an Expedition to the Andaman Islands in 1857’, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 32, 1862, pp. 109–126. Also, Home, Judicial, 12 Feb 1858, 26, NAI, and Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 14–27, NAI. 48 Driver, Geography Militant, 2001. This book demonstrates the production and con- sumption of the exploration narratives in the course of the acquisition of the Empire. Also Stafford, ‘Annexing the Landscapes of the Past’, 1990, pp. 67–89; A.W. Crosby, ‘Ecological Imperialism: The Overseas Migration of Western Europeans as a Biological Phenomenon’, in Donald Worster, ed., The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 103–117; Satpal Sangwan, ‘From Gentlemen Amateurs to Professionals: Reassessing the Natural Science Tradition in Colonial India, 1780–1840’, in Richard H. Grove, Vinita Damodaran and Satpal Sangwan, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1998, pp. 210–236; Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions, 1991. According to Greenblatt, ‘the European mimetic capital. […] Easily crossed the boundaries of nation and creed’. Similar is Pratt’s idea of anti-conquest regarding expeditions and travel writings by the Europeans in the eighteenth century employing Enlightenment classificatory categories. 49 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 66 (emphasis my own). 50 Mouat in his reports always juxtaposed his conclusions to those of Colebrook’s from the previous century demonstrating that he was well-acquainted with the earlier writings on the Andamans. Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 14–27, NAI. Home, Judicial, 12 Feb 1858, 26, NAI. 51 Felix Padel, The Sacrifice of Human Being: British Rule and the Konds of Orissa, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995, pp. 144–153, see the section ‘Saving Meriahs: A Robinson Crusoe Complex’. Also, Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850, Knopf, New York, 2004. 52 J.C. Haughton, The Report on Intercourse with the Aborigines, in Home, Public, 21 Feb 1862, 50 A, NAI. 53 Gillis, Islands of the Mind, 2004. 54 Zarine Cooper, ‘Analysis of the Nature’, 1989’, pp. 133–147. 55 Ray, ‘Seafaring in the Bay of Bengal AD’, 1990, pp. 1–14. 56 Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean, 1966. A map in the book shows the location of Nicobars on the Dravidian and Chinese routes, pp. 102–103. 57 Buzurg Ibn Shariyar, Kitab Ajaib-ul-Hind, translated by G.P.S. Freeman-Grenville, East West, London, 1980. 58 Al-Marwazi, The Accounts of Al-Marawazi, translated by V. Minorsky, Hakluyt Society, London, 1942. 59 Ahmad Ibn Majid, Kitab al-Fawaid fi Usul al-Bahr wal-Qawaid, translated by G.R. Tibbetts, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean Before the Coming of the Portuguese, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1981. 60 There exists a great deal of epigraphic evidence of ancient Tamil merchants traversing the Bay of Bengal and having a regular and sustained contact with Thailand, Burma, Java, parts of the Indonesian archipelago and China. For epigraphic evidence see N. Karashima, Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities, 2002. Also see Ranabir Chakravarti, ‘An Enchanting Seascape: Through an Notes 203

Epigraphic Lens’, Studies in History, 20, 2, 2004, pp. 305–315 and Frost, Convicts and Empire, 1980, p. 95. Fanny Parkes’ account also refers to the Nicobars, Wanderings of Pilgrim, in Search of the Picturesque, During Four-and-Twenty Years in the East; With Revelations of Life in Zenana, vol. 1, London, 1850, pp. 13–19; and so does Mirza Abu Taleb whose ship on the way to Europe was diverted towards Nicobar to replenish its stock of water, in Charles Stewart, Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa and Europe during the Years 1799–1803, London, 1814, p. 12. 61 P.J. Kitson, ed., Travels, Explorations and Empires: Writings from the Era of Imperial Expansion 1770–1835, vol. 5, The South Seas: Writings from the Southern and Central Paciﬁc, Pickering and Chatto, London, 2002; Lucile H. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens, Academic Press, New York, 1979; N. Perera, Society and Space: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Postcolonial Identity in Sri Lanka, Westview Press, Boulder, 1998; Michael Kearney, World View, 1984; C.A. Bayly, ‘Knowing the Country: Empire and Information in India’, Modern Asian Studies, 27, 1, 1993, pp. 3–43; Gillis, Islands of the Mind, 2004; Phillips, ‘The Outer World’, 1994, pp. 23–63. 62 Vinay Lal, ‘Unanchoring Islands: An Introduction to the Special Issue on “Islands: Waterways, Folkways”’, Emergences: Journal for the Study of Media and Composite Cultures, 10, 2, 2000, pp. 229–240. 63 Shakespeare’s John of Gaunt expresses this sense of pride perfectly when he calls England: ‘This royal throne of kings, this sceptered isle. […] This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise, This Fortress built by Nature for herself, Against infection and the hand of war: This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it in the ofﬁce of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house, Against the envy of the less happier lands.’ Cited in Richard II, in Stanley W. Wells and Gary Taylor, eds, The Complete Works of Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988. These notions had long been part of the British psyche. Thomas Coventry, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal in 1635, strongly articulated this national sense of security in these words: ‘The dominion of the sea, as it is an ancient and undoubted right of the crown of England, so it is the best security of the land’, cited in Yapp, The Travellers’ Dictionary, p. 221. 64 Colley, Captives, 2004, examines the role of physical insularity of Britain in fostering its ‘imperial involvement and success’, p. 10. 65 Fabian, Time and the Other, 1983. According to him, ‘geopolitics had its foundations in chronopolitics’. John R. Gillis, ‘Taking History Offshore: Atlantic Islands in Euro- pean Minds, 1400–1800’, in Rod Edmond and Vanessa Smith, eds, Islands in History and Representation, Routledge, London and New York, 2003, pp. 19–31. In John Gillis’s view, the Islands epistemes began to change in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Once they were explored, mapped and inventorized the ‘utopia went subterranean’ or the utopia began to be seen in temporal instead of spatial terms. 66 David Arnold, ‘“Illusory Riches”: Representations of the Tropical World, 1840–1950’, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 21, 1, 2000, pp. 6–18, p. 7. 67 For instance, the British located Mauritius, like the Andamans, on a differential time scale. However, Mauritius’s temporal location was seen as representing the infancy, the idyllic childhood of the British Isles, which had succumbed to the depredations of the modern industrial present. Unlike the Andamans, Mauritius was a romantic escape from Europe and served as a botanical laboratory and 204 Notes

a conservatory of the empire. This shows that the interplay of the notions of Eden and Wilderness was not simply an inversion of binary categories. Grove, ‘Conserving Eden’, 1993, pp. 318–351; Green Imperialism, 1994; Ecology, Climate and Empire. 1998. Also see John Prest, The Garden of Eden: The Botanic Garden and the Re–Creation of Paradise, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1981 and also see P.C. Almond, Adam and Eve in Seventeenth Century Thought, Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999. According to Prest, until the eighteenth century Europeans commonly believed that the Garden of Eden was to be found in the East. John Mandeville, Christopher Columbus and Vespucci interpreted the newly discovered lands in terms of the Old Testament. 68 This is concurrent with the shift in the characterization of island societies. Death and disease were the two main features of this discourse on the Tropics. See David Arnold, Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1998. Also see Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, New York, 1981. 69 David Arnold, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion, Blackwell, Oxford, 1996. 70 Cited and discussed in Arnold, The Problem of Nature, 1996. 71 Philip Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780–1850, Macmillan, London, 1965. Also see H. Reynolds, ‘Racial Thought in Early Colonial Australia’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 20, 1, 1974, pp. 45–53. Reynolds argues that the ‘frontier’ life was not conducive to the idealization of the tribal life, and while the concept of Noble Savage might have been popular amongst the elite, ‘it may have not penetrated very deeply amongst the illiterate masses’. 72 C.W.B. Anderson, Report on the Exploration in the North Andaman, Calcutta, 1905. Anderson was the assistant superintendent in the Andaman Commission. C.E. Parkinson, A Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands: An Account of the Trees, Shrubs and Principal Climbers of the Islands, published by M/s. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, 23-A, New Connaught Place, Dehradun, 1921; P. Lal, Andaman Islands: A Regional Geography, Calcutta, Archaeological Survey of India, 1976. 73 Michael Symes, An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1795, London, 1800; 1995, p. 129. 74 The failure of the British to retain hold over the Andamans at this time runs parallel to the failed colonization of Madagascar colonies which much like the Andamans were overrun with disease and death. See Games, ‘Oceans, Migrants, and Character of Empires’, 2003. 75 Mouat, ‘Narrative of an Expedition’, 1862, pp. 109–126. 76 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 95. 77 John Ritchie, ‘Description of the Earliest Known Contact with the Andamanese’, this article was edited and published by R.C. Temple as ‘An Unpublished 18th Century Document about the Andamans’, The Indian Antiquary, 30, p. 232 of pp. 232–238 (seen cited on http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/ritchie/ rep-ritchie.html). 78 N. Bhattacharya, ‘Pastoralists in a Colonial World’, in D. Arnold and R. Guha, eds, Nature, Culture and Imperialism, Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49–85. He locates this ideology of improvement not simply as colonial but one having a long lineage in the Western thought. 79 H.N. Fairchild, The Noble Savage, New York, 1928. Fairchild quotes Walter Raleigh’s description of a particular non-cultivating community, ‘They never eat anything Notes 205

that is set or sown; and as at home they use neither planting nor manurance, so when they come abroad, they refuse to eat … but that which nature without labour brings forth’, p. 21. 80 Curtin, The Image of Africa, 1965, p. 62. 81 P.C. Dutta, The Great Andamanese: Past and Present, Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, 1978; J.C. Haughton, ‘Papers Relating to the Abor- igines of the Andaman Islands’, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 30, 1861, pp. 251–263; E.H. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of Andamans, Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland by Trubner, London, 1883 (Sanskaran Pra- kashan, Delhi, 1975), and Portman, History of Our Relations, 1899. Also see Ajay Skaria, ‘Being Jangli: The Politics of Wildness’, Studies in History, 14, 2, 1998, n.s., pp. 193–215. 82 L. Cipriani, On the Origin of the Andamanese, in Census of India 1951, appendix E, 17, 1, The Government of India, 1955, pp. 66–71. 83 Niclas Burenhult ‘Deep Linguistic Prehistory, with particular reference to Anda- manese’, Working Papers, 45, pp. 5–24, Lund University, Department of Linguis- tics, Lund, Sweden, 1996 (seen on http://www.ling.lu.se/disseminations/pdf/45/ Burenhult.pdf). 84 Zarine Cooper, ‘Analysis of the Nature’, 1989, pp. 133–147. 85 According to E.H. Man, the first British official to undertake an anthropological/ethnological study on the Andamans noted in his monograph On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andamans published in 1883 that they did not even know how to start a fire. 86 Zarine Cooper, ‘Analysis of the Nature’, 1989, pp. 133–147. 87 Ritchie, ‘Description of the Earliest Known Contact’, 1771, p. 232 of pp. 232–238. 88 ‘Captain Blair’s Report, dated 9th June’, reproduced by R.C. Temple in Indian Antiquary, April 1900, p. 109. 89 Ibid., p. 113. 90 Home, Public, 23 March 1795, 1, A, NAI. 91 Portman, History of Our Relations, 1899, p. 64. 92 Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 14–27, NAI. 93 Mouat, ‘Narrative of an Expedition’, 1862, pp. 109–126. 94 Ibid. 95 Patterson, ‘Early Colonial Encounters’, 1991, pp. 1–14. 96 Hulme, Colonial Encounters, 1992; Francis Baker et al., eds, Cannibalism and the Colonial World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998; Brian A.W. Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law: The Story of the Tragic Last Voyage of ‘Mignonette’ and the Strange Legal Proceedings to Which it Gave Rise, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985; Jim McDowell, Hamatsa: The Enigma of Cannibalism on the Pacific Northwest Coast, Ronsdale Press, Vancouver, 1997. 97 I.M. Lewis, Religion in Context: Cults and Charisma, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996. 98 The lineage of the discourse on cannibalism in Europe goes back to the earliest times. The ancient Greek myth of the cannibalistic father of the Olympian god Zeus, and the Cyclops in Homer’s Odyssey, directly informs the cursed character of Atreus in Aeschylus’ famous play Agamemnon. Such portrayals took on a distinctive graphic hue following the xenophobic delirium of the Crusades. For instance, there is a miniature of a Tartar eating a human leg and roasting a body on the spit from the thirteenth century found in Matthew of Paris’s Historia Maiora, cited in Charles Zika, ‘Cannibalism and Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe: Reading the Visual Images’, History Workshop Journal, 44, 1997, pp. 77–105. 206 Notes

99 Gananath Obeyesekere, ‘“British Cannibals”: Contemplation of an Event in the Death and Resurrection of James Cook, Explorer’, Critical Inquiry, 18, 1992, pp. 630–654. 100 For a detailed discussion see Hulme, Colonial Encounters, 1986 [1982]. 101 Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, Harper and Row, New York, 1984; Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions, 1991; Lewis D. Wurgraft, The Imperial Imagination: Magic and Myth in Kipling’s India, Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, 1983, Tomas, Transcultural Space, 1996; H.E. Martel, ‘Hans Staden’s Captive Soul: Identity, Imperialism, and Rumors of Cannibalism in Sixteenth-Century Brazil’, Journal of World History, 17, 1, 2006, pp. 51–70. 102 Gananath Obeyesekere, ‘Narratives of the Self: Chevalier Peter Dillon’s Fijian Cannibal Adventures’, in Barbara Creed and Jeanette Hoorn, eds, Body Trade: Captivity, Cannibalism and Colonialism in the Paciﬁc, Routledge, New York and Pluto Press, Sydney, 2001, pp. 69–111. 103 On fear fuelling cannibal imagination see Paul Lyons, ‘Lines of Fright: Fear, Perception and the “Seen” of Cannibalism in Charles Wilke’s Narrative and Herman Melville’s Typee,’ in Creed and Hoorn, eds, Body Trade, 2001, pp. 126–148. 104 Bayly, Empire and Information, 1996; Philip B. Wagoner, ‘Precolonial Intellectuals and the Production of Colonial Knowledge’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 45, 2003, pp. 783–814. Thomas Trautmann, ‘Inventing the History of South India’, in Daud Ali, ed., Invoking the Past: The Uses of History in South Asia, Oxford University Press, London, 1999, pp. 36–54; Eugene F. Irschik, Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795–1895, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994. These scholars study the process of formation of colonial knowledge in the context of British India and have argued in favour of it being a product of a ‘dialogic’ process where the European and indigenous cognitive frames coalesced. For a critique of these writings see Pratik Chakrabarti, ‘“Neither of Meate Nor Drinke, But What the Doctor Alloweth”: Medicine amidst War and Commerce in Eighteenth-Century Madras’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 80, 2006, pp. 1–38. Chakrabarti argues that these historians fail to depict ‘the multi- faceted shifts in economic realities, trust, legitimacy, and agency underlining these “dialogues”’. 105 My argument here is closer to Bernard Cohn’s (Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1996) who does not see the formation of colonial knowledge as a dialogic process. According to him, it was the European episteme which became the order of the day. Patricia M.E. Lorcin, Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice and Race in Colonial Algeria, I.B. Tauris, London, 1995, Second edition, 1999, makes a similar argument in case of colonial Algeria where the staying power of colonial characterizations is attributed to the French racial ideology, which in turn embodied European Enlightenment values. 106 Captain John Ritchie’s Report, ‘Remarks upon the Coast and Bay of Bengal, The Outlets of the Ganges and Interjacent Rivers’, 1771, reproduced by R.C. Temple ‘Unpublished XVIIIth Century Document about the Andamans’, Indian Antiquary, June 1901, p. 235 of pp. 232–238. 107 Reported by T. Farquhar, Superintendent, Central Prison, Allahabad to W. Muir, Secretary to Government of the North-Western Provinces, 14 Jan 1859, in Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, NAI. 108 Hulme, Colonial Encounters, 1986, p. 85; Asad, ‘Anthropology’, 1979, pp. 87–94, and Gillis, ‘Taking History Offshore’, 2003, pp. 19–31. Notes 207

109 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, pp. 33–36. 110 Mouat, ‘Narrative of an Expedition’, 1862, pp. 109–126. 111 Nicholas Dirks, The Scandal of Empire: Indian and the Creation of Imperial Britain, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2006, p. 31.

Chapter 2

1 Ernest Hart, Commissioner of the Nicobar Islands (1921–28). Hart wrote poems with a pencil in a personal journal that he maintained while living in Port Blair, in Collected Papers, Mss Eur/D 738, IOR. 2 Colonel Horace Man was the Superintendent of convicts at Moulmein in 1858. Col. Man was in charge of the new settlement in the Andamans for the initial two months until Dr James Pattison Walker (an experienced Superintendent of jails in India) took charge as the ﬁrst Superintendent of Port Blair in March 1858. Col. Man later served as the Superintendent of Port Blair from March 1868 to March 1871. 3 Home, Public, 7 May 1858, 74, A, NAI. 4 Home, Judicial, 11 June 1858, 10–11, NAI. 5 Several historians and writers present the heightened desire for an overseas penal station in the wake of the Revolt of 1857 as the raison d’etre for the colonization of the Andamans in 1858. See Majumdar, The Penal Settlement, 1975; K.S. Singh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1994; Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000; Abdul Subhan, Geography – Islands of Andaman and Nicobar, Government High School, Port Blair, 1938; Narayan H. Kulkarni, ‘Andamans and 1857’, in Mukti-Tirth Andaman, Calcutta, 1982, pp. 1–9; Pandey, The Cellular Jail, 1987; Govindsingh Pawar, ‘Swatantrata se Poorva Dweepon mein Hindi ke Vikas mein 1857 ke Kaidiyon ka Yogdaan’, Dweep Lahiri, 25, 2001, Editorial. Pandey, The Cellular Jail, 1987. 6 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 17. 7 Majumdar, The Penal Settlement, 1975. 8 Secret Dept, 15 July 1789, No. 7 & 8, NAI; 14 July 1789, Extract from the Bengal Consultations, in Indian Antiquary, May 1900, p. 123. 9 William Cornwallis’ Correspondence, Journal, Oct 1791–April 1794, Cor 15, NMM. 10 Letter from Major A. Kyd to Governor-General, in Home, Public, 27 March 1793, 6, A, NAI. Letter from Mr. J. Fombelle, Registrar of the Nizamut Adalat to Mr. J.L. Chauvet, the Sub-Secretary, written on 3 April, in Home, Public, 8 April 1793, 7, C, NAI. 11 Minute of the Governor-General, in Home, Public, 19 Dec 1794, 5, A, NAI. 12 The British decided, as early as 1787, to transport convicts to Penang and engage them in clearing and cultivating the land. They believed that ‘it would be a greater punishment to a Bengallie to be thus forced from his connections than any other mode’ and it will ‘work great changes in those who are now wavering when they see the effects of their idleness’. Thus, Penang was also a place for correcting the ‘devious, effeminate, and indolent’ character of the Bengalis. Home, Public, 9 July 1787, 19, A, NAI. 13 According to Nilkantha Sastri the Cholas conquered the Nicobars (called Manakkavaram) in 1025AD. See K.A. Nilkantha Sastri, History of South India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1955 [1999]. 208 Notes

14 Chakravarti, ‘Seafaring, Ships and Ship Owners’, 2002, pp. 28–61. Also see Kenneth McPherson, ‘Trade and Traders in the Bay of Bengal: Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries’, and Om Prakash, ‘European Corporate Enterprises and the Politics of Trade in India, 1600–1800’, in R. Mukherjee and L. Subramanium, eds, Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean World, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1998, pp. 183–209 and pp. 165–182, respectively; Bentley, ‘Sea and Ocean Basins’, 1999, pp. 215–224. 15 Jennifer L. Gaynor, ‘Maritime Ideologies and Ethnic Anomalies: Sea Space and the Structure of Subalternity in the Southeast Asian Littoral’, Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges, 12–15 Feb 2003, Library of Congress, Washington D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/ index.html; M.N. Pearson, ‘Merchants and States,’ in James D. Tracy, ed., Political Economy of the Merchant Empires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 41–116; John E. Wills, Jr., ‘Maritime Asia, 1500–1800: The Interactive Emer- gence of European Domination’, American Historical Review, 98, 1, 1993, pp. 83–105; Elizabeth Mancke, ‘Early Modern Expansion and the Politicization of Oceanic Space’, Geographical Review, 89, 2, 1999, pp. 225–236 and ‘Ocean Space and the Creation of a Global International System, 1450–1800’, in Daniel Finamore, ed., Maritime History as World History, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, 2002, pp. 149–166. 16 Similar to the ‘islands’, ports also played a signiﬁcant role in colonial ocean politics. There is a growing literature on the fate of various port towns in the colonial period which has informed the present study on islands. Broeze, Gateways of Asia, 1997; Banga, Ports and their Hinterland, 1992; Ashley Jackson, War and Empire in Mauritius and the Indian Ocean, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2001. 17 Home, Public, 3 Jan 1787, OC. No. 32, pp. 91–94, NAI. 18 Home, Public, 2 July 1784, OC. No. 14, NAI. 19 K.K. Ghatak, ‘The Origins of the British Opium Monopoly’, Calcutta Review, 162, 1962, pp. 243–246. 20 A. Aspinall, Cornwallis in Bengal: The Administrative and Judicial Reforms of Lord Cornwallis in Bengal Together with Accounts of the Commercial Expansion of The East India Company, 1786–1793, and of the Foundation of Penang, 1786–1793, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1931, pp. 188–205. 21 K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, Penguin Books, India, 1981 [2005], pp. 237–248. 22 Home Public, 7 Dec 1778, OC. No. 26, NAI; Home Public, 6 July 1781, OC. No. 32, NAI; Home Public, 6 July 1781, OC. No. 31, NAI; Home Public, 19 Feb 1781, OC. No. 3, NAI. 23 Om Prakash, ‘Opium Monopoly in India and Indonesia in the Eighteenth Century’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 24, 1, 1987, pp. 63–80. 24 Bhaswati Bhattacharya, ‘Dutch East India Company and the Trade of the Chulias in the Bay of Bengal in the late Eighteenth Century’, in K.S. Mathew, ed., Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, Manohar, Delhi, 1995, pp. 347–361. 25 Home, Public, 23 March 1795, 1, A, Letter from Major A. Kyd to Sir John Shore written on 4 March, NAI. Frost, Convicts and Empire, 1980, discusses the strategic and naval concerns of the Company in this period in the East and the way the Andamans and Australia ﬁgured in it. Also see Anirudh Deshpande, ‘The Bombay Marine: Aspects of Maritime History, 1650–1850’, Studies in History, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 281–301, for the evolution and deployment of the Bombay Notes 209

Marine against the Indian and Continental powers in the Indian subcontinent by the Company; and the role of Marine surveys in colonial conquests. 26 Secret Dept., 22 Dec 1788, NAI. 27 B.A. Saletore, ed., Fort William: India House Correspondence, 1782–85, vol. 9, Delhi, 1959. 28 Foreign, Secret, 28 Nov 1789, Letter no. 26, NAI and Saletore, Fort William, 1959 and Phillimore, Historical Records, 1945. Also Edney, Mapping an Empire, 1997. 29 Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1968. Even on the eve of transfer of power in 1946, Viceroy Lord Mountbatten saw the Andamans and Nicobar Islands possessing a ‘great strategic signiﬁcance’ and suggested, in case Nehru was to push for securing the Andamans for Union of India, to give up the Andamans and retain the Nicobars as a colony of His Majesty’s Government, in Mansergh and Moon, India: Transfer of Power, Doc no. 132 (June 1947, pp. 253–255); 133 (June 1947, p. 255); 165 (June 1947, pp. 312–313); 190 (June 1947, pp. 353–354) and Viceroy’s Correspondence in Mountbatten Collection, Mss Eur/F 200, no. 3, IOR. 30 Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1968. 31 Home, Public, 28 April 1783, No. 43, NAI and Home, Public, 28 April 1783, No. 44, A, NAI. Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India, 1945, p. 46. 32 A summary of Capt. Ritchie’s report (1771) in Indian Antiquary, June 1901, p. 238. 33 Home, Public, 10 March 1788, 30, C, NAI; S.H. Askari, ed., Fort William – India House Correspondence, 1787–1791, vol. 16, Delhi, 1976. 34 Lord Cornwallis (Governor-General) to William Cornwallis (Commander in Chief of East Indies), 27 June 1789, Letters of Admiral William Cornwallis (1744–1819), Cor/58, NMM. 35 Lord Cornwallis to William Cornwallis, 5 Sep 1789, Cor/58, NMM. Also see Pradip Barua, ‘Military Developments in India, 1750–1850’, Journal of Military History, 58, 1994, pp. 599–616. 36 Home, Public, 13 July 1791, 4, A, NAI and Home, Public, 29 July 1791, 3, A, NAI. 37 Lord Cornwallis to William Cornwallis, 27 June 1789, Cor/58, NMM. Also Frost, Convicts and Empire, 1980, p. 148. 38 Instructions to Lt. Blair, from E. Hay, Secretary to the Government of India, Secret Department, 22 Dec 1788, NAI. 39 Company surveyors believed that sulphur could be unearthed on one of the volcanic islands amongst the Andaman group, called the Barren Island. Seizing new sources of sulphur was a persistent worry with the British because they had experienced its shortage during the Anglo-Carnatic Wars. The French had cut off their supply of sulphur by purchasing the entire stock in Cochin and other places on the Malabar Coast. Secret Department, 22 Dec 1788, NAI. 40 Home, Public, 30 June 1790, NAI. Blair also sent the redwood found on the Island as an experiment to the China market and specimens of other kinds of wood which could be useful in building ships. Home, Public, 20 August 1790, 26, A, NAI; Home, Public, 21 Dec 1792, 40, NAI; Home, Public, 22 Sept 1790, 19, A, NAI; and Home, Public, 7 Sep 1791, 8, A, NAI. 41 The EEIC solicited the expert aid of Colonel Kyd who was the Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta, and who had already been conducting experiments on cultivation of opium since the 1780s. He undertook a survey of Andaman’s ﬂora and fauna to assess their commercial possibilities. Home, 210 Notes

Public, 20 Feb 1789, NAI; Home, Public, 2 May 1792, 16, NAI; Home Public, 2 May 1792, 16, NAI. Deepak Kumar has shown how the early botanical invest- igations were of commercial and military, as well as scientific, importance, in ‘Evolution of Colonial Science in India Natural History and the East India Company’, in John M. Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and the Natural World, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990, pp. 51–66. 42 Home, Public, 7 Sep 1971, 8, A, NAI. 43 In the later 1780s there was also a drastic reduction of expenses in all establishments and salaries. Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India, 1945, p. 5. 44 de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, 1981 [2005], pp. 237–248. 45 Letter from Major A. Kyd to Sir John Shore written on 4 March 1975, in Home, Public, 23 March 1795, 1, A, NAI. 46 Aspinall, Cornwallis in Bengal, 1931, p. 204. 47 Ibid., p. 193. 48 Secret Dept, 7 April 1788, NAI. 49 McPherson, The Indian Ocean, 1993, pp. 214–215. 50 McPherson, ‘Penang 1786–1832: A Promise Unfulfilled’, in Frank Broeze, ed., Gateways of Asia: Port Cities of Asia in the Thirteenth and Twentieth Cen- turies, Kegan Paul International, London, 1997, pp. 109–126, and ‘Trade and Traders’, 1998, pp. 183–209; D.K. Bassett, ‘The Historical Background, 1500–1815’, in Wang Gungwu, Malaysia: A Survey, Frederick A. Praeger, London, 1964, pp. 113–127; Anand Yang, ‘Bandits and Kings: Moral Authority and Resistance in Early Colonial India’, The Journal of Asian Studies, 66, 4, 2007, pp. 881–896. 51 Home, Public, 24 Aug 1785, OC. No. 52, NAI. 52 Home, Public, 18 June 1787, OC. No. 8, pp. 221–223, NAI. 53 Home, Public, 9 July 1789, 19, A, NAI. 54 The British intelligence officers believed that the ‘piratical’ activity prevented small boats, carrying provisions of stock, from plying between different ports. As a measure to control piracy, they built ‘gallies’, to be rowed by ‘river- dacoits’ of Bengal who had been condemned to perpetual imprisonment. They hoped this would serve as a ‘very exemplary and appropriate punishment’ and also help curtail ‘piracy’. Home, Public, 22 Jan 1796, OC. No. 15, NAI. 55 McPherson, ‘Penang 1786–1832’, 1997, pp. 109–126. However, Penang was to lose its supremacy in the Southeast Asian waters with the ascendancy of Singapore and the shifts in British trading patterns following the Napoleonic Wars. By 1830, Penang was demoted to the status of a Residency and, in 1832, also shorn of its title as the capital of the Straits. 56 Home, Public, 5 Feb 1796, 8, A, NAI. 57 Headrick, The Tools of Empire, 1981, pp. 174–175. Headrick quite astutely notes, ‘Among Empires, the most unusual kind is that of the sea. The Minoans, the Greeks, the Phoenicians, and the Vikings all dominated for the time the seas around them, but only once has there been a truly global thalassocracy, a nation whose fleet and merchant marine were dominant on almost all the seas of the world. This was Great Britain in the nineteenth century’. 58 McPherson, ‘Trade and Traders’, 1998, pp. 183–209. 59 For a study of the disastrous impact of abolition on Indian cotton manufac- turers and the sagging value of the Indian rupee, see Amales Tripathi, Trade and Finance in the Bengal Presidency, 1793–1833, Oxford University Press, Calcutta, 1979. Notes 211

60 Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–42, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1951; Reprint 1969. 61 Davis Skuy, ‘Macaulay and the Indian Penal Code of 1862: The Myth of the Inherent Superiority and Modernity of the English Legal System Compared to India’s Legal System in the 19th Century’, Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3, 1998, pp. 513–558. C.A. Bayly and Thomas A. Timberg reinforce the thesis of N.K. Sinha, Amales Tripathi and Asiya Siddiqi in their articles ‘The Age of Hiatus: The North Indian Economy and Society, 1830–50’, and ‘Hiatus and Incubator: Indigenous Trade and Traders, 1837 and 1857’, in A. Siddiqi, ed., Trade and Finance in Colonial India, 1750–1860, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 218–249 and pp. 250–264 respectively. 62 Radhika Singha designates the various Acts passed at this time as ‘crude devices for securing conviction with the semblance of “due process”’, in ‘Providential Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation’, Modern South Asia, 27, 1, 1993, pp. 83–146. 63 K.N. Chaudhuri, ‘Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments (1757–1947)’, in The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2, 1757–1970, Orient Longman, Madras, 1982, pp. 804–877. 64 Chaudhuri shows the way India, in the 1830s, was ‘rapidly becoming the clearing-house for the reciprocal payments in the triangular trade between Britain, China and United States and also in-between Britain, China and India, giving rise to a complex system of multilateral financial settlements’. See his ‘India’s Foreign Trade and Cessation of the English East India Company’s Trading Activities, 1828–1840’, and Amales Tripathi, ‘Indo-British Trade between 1833 and 1847 and the Commercial Crisis of 1847–8’, in Siddiqi, Trade and Finance, 1995, pp. 290–320 and pp. 265–289 respectively. 65 C.A. Bayly, ‘The Age of Hiatus: The North Indian Economy and Society, 1830–50’, in Siddiqi, Trade and Finance, 1995, pp. 218–249. 66 H.P. Ray, ‘Seafaring in Peninsular India in the Ancient Period: of Watercraft and Maritime Communities’, in David Parkin and Ruth Barnes, eds, Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology in the Indian Ocean, Routledge Curzon, London, 2002, pp. 62–91; G.A. Prinsep, An Account of Steam Vessels and of Pro- ceedings Connected with Steam Navigation in British India, Calcutta, 1830; Henry T. Bernstein, Steamboats on the Ganges: An Exploration in the History of India’s Modernization through Science and Technology, Orient Longman, Calcutta, 1960; Headrick, The Tools of Empire, 1981 and The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940, Oxford University Press, New York, 1988; Anne Bulley, The Bombay Country Ships, 1790–1833, Curzon Press, Surrey, 2000; Mookerji, Indian Shipping, 1912. Mookerji documents the gradual decline of Indian shipbuilding in the nineteenth century. 67 P.J. Marshall, ‘Western Arms in Maritime Asia in the Early Phases of Expansion’, Modern Asian Studies, 14, 1, 1980, pp. 13–28. 68 Prinsep, An Account of Steam Vessels, 1830, p. 5. 69 Steamers were popular initially only for inland navigation. Amongst the few reasons which slowed down the advance of steam navigation in the Indian Ocean was the prohibitive costs of freight rates and cabin charges, and the absence of natural harbours of sufficient size which the British could exploit effectively. The existing port towns of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were such that they catered only to limited requirements. Further, the civil engineering works which had to be undertaken in order to overcome the difficulties in building good harbours were still in their infancy in the Subcontinent and the 212 Notes

administrative and financial backup required for the purpose was also missing. See F.J.A. Broeze, K.I. McPherson and P.D. Reeves, ‘Engineering and Empire: The Making of Modern Indian Ocean Ports’, in Satish Chandra, ed., Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, Sage Publications, Delhi, 1987, pp. 254–301. 70 Even Marx saw steam as a force to reckoned with. In an article titled ‘The Future Results of British Rule in India’, published in the New York Herald Tribune on 8 Aug 1853, he remarked, ‘Steam has brought India into regular and rapid communication with Europe, has connected its chief ports with those of the South-Eastern Ocean and has revindicated it from the isolated position which was the prime law of its stagnation’. Cited in P.C. Joshi, ed., Rebellion 1857: A Symposium, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, 1957, p. 213. 71 Freda Harcourt, ‘Black Gold: P & O and the Opium Trade, 1847–1814’, Inter- national Journal of Maritime History, 6, 1, 1994, pp. 1–84. 72 Steam had a similar impact on the islands in Pacific Ocean where ‘harbours with little or no hinterland like Gibraltar, Papete (Tahiti), Las Palmas (Canaries), and Saint Vincent (Cape Verde Islands) became major halting and coaling stations for passing steamers’, in Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress, pp. 18–48. 73 Arakan and Tenassarim were provinces in Burma. The Commissioner was the head of the administration in a particular area. 74 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, NAI. 75 Extract from the Memorandum by Captain J. C. Haughton, in Home, Public, 15 Oct 1862, 12–13, A, NAI. 76 Wurgraft, The Imperial Imagination, 1983, shows how in the mid-nineteenth century the British shifted their attention to the ‘frontier’ and the way the British literature of the times began to celebrate the ‘British heroism on the frontier’. 77 Michael H. Fisher, The Politics of British Annexation, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1993, pp. 1–49. 78 French privateers in collusion with American ships also continued to menace the British supremacy of the Indian Ocean in the early decades of the nineteenth century. See S.B. Singh, European Agency Houses in Bengal, 1783–1833, Calcutta, 1966, pp. 198–210; Nicholas Tarling, Piracy and Politics in the Malay World: A Study of British Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century South-East Asia, Cheshire, Melbourne, 1963; Carl A. Trocki, Prince of Pirates: Temenggongs and the Develop- ment of Johor and Singapore, 1784–1884, Singapore University Press, Singapore, 1979. Tarling and Trocki talk about the way the Europeans essentialized the Malay character as ‘pirates’. 79 The references to piracy in the region abound in the Foreign Department records of the mid-nineteenth century. Foreign, Secret, 16 Sep 1831, 1–2, NAI; Foreign, Political, 5 Oct 1844, 240–245, NAI; Foreign and Political, 5 Oct 1844, 980, NAI; Foreign, Political, 25 April 1845, 171, NAI; Foreign, Political, 25 April 1845, 175, NAI; Foreign, Political, 25 April 1845, 176, NAI; Foreign, Secret, 27 Nov 1847, 12–13, NAI; Foreign, 9 Aug 1850, 219, NAI; Foreign, 26 Dec 1851, 194–206, F.C., NAI; Foreign, Political, 28 April 1854, 180–187, NAI; Foreign and Polit- ical, 14 Sept 1855, 86–97, NAI; Foreign and Political, 28 Feb 1856, 107–108 K.W., NAI; Foreign, Political, 8 Jan 1858, 63, NAI. Also the Journal of Robert Allan (an officer of HMS Salsette, 1813) Mss Eur/ A 196, IOR. Allan exchanged fire with an American privateer around Nicobar in 1813. 80 Foreign, 15 Oct 1852, 74, NAI, Dicey, here, is referring to the Nicobar Islands. 81 Foreign, 15 Oct 1852, 71–72, NAI. 82 Foreign, 29 May 1857, 131–134, NAI. Notes 213

83 Home Public, 6 Aug 1858, NAI. 84 Foreign and Political, 28 Feb 1856, 107–108 K.W., NAI. 85 Foreign, Political, 25 April 1845, 170, NAI. 86 Foreign, Political, 25 April 1845, 173, NAI. 87 Osamu Kondo, ‘Japan and the Indian Ocean, at the Time of the Mughal Empire, with Special Reference to Gujarat’, in Satish Chandra, The Indian Ocean Explor- ations in History, Commerce and Politics, Sage Publications, New Delhi 1987, pp. 174–190. Kondo’s article talks about the wako pirates of Japan, who along with the Chinese had raided the Korean peninsula and the South and East China Seas since the fourteenth century. Toussaint, in History of the Indian Ocean, 1966, also reaffirms that ‘the great plague of the Indian Ocean in the seventeenth century was piracy’, which was ‘a veritable hydra with hundreds of heads forever springing up anew’, p. 144. Ashin Das Gupta, ‘Trade and Politics in Eighteenth Century India’, in Ashin Das Gupta, The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500–1800, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2001, pp. 141–179, talks about the Bugi and Anak Raja pirates of Malaya, whose activities in the late eighteenth century had their origins in the disruptions caused by Dutch intervention in the Indian Ocean and the in-fighting between the local leaders. Also see H.P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, pp. 43–47. 88 See Lauren Benton, ‘Legal Spaces of Empire: Piracy and the Origins of Ocean Regionalism’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 47, 4, 2005, pp. 700–724. 89 In one case in 1789 some speculators from Madras erected, on the Coco Island, a windmill for the manufacture of coconut oil, without obviously bothering to bring it to the knowledge of the British. Much to their chagrin the Company officials found out about it only when a ship coming towards the Andamans picked up two starving natives, who had been abandoned by the mill’s proprietor on the Islands, in 6 May 1793; Letter from Major Kyd to Edward Hay, Secretary to Government, Fort William, in Indian Antiquary, April 1902, pp. 209–210. 90 For a historiographical overview on piracy see J. Starkey David, ‘Pirates and Markets’, Research in Maritime History, 7, 1994, pp. 59–80. See Deshpande, ‘The Bombay Marine’, 1995, pp. 281–301, for everyday piracy, or ‘cruising’ as it was called by the Company’s Bombay Marine in the eighteenth century; Tonio Andrade, ‘The Company’s Chinese Pirates: How the Dutch East India Company Tried to Lead a Coalition of Pirates to War against China, 1621–1662’, Journal of World History, 15, 4, 2004, pp. 415–444, shows the way the Dutch hired Chinese pirates to conduct maritime raids. 91 Janin Hunt, The India-China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century, McFarland & Co., North Carolina, 1999, pp. 141–153; S.C. Hill, ‘Notes on Piracy in Eastern Waters’, Indian Antiquary, 52, 1923, p. 26. 92 Zarine Cooper, Archaeology and History: Early Settlements in the Andaman Islands, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002. Cooper, while analysing piracy in the Indian Ocean, does not problematize the use of the category of ‘piracy’ and reasserts the European notions of oriental pirates disrupting the flow of legitimate commerce in the Indian Ocean. 93 See Chakravarti, ‘Visiting Faraway Shores’, 2004. He talks about the famous Chinese voyages under Admiral Cheng Ho (1404–33) during the Ming period. Also Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring, 2003; Sopher, The Sea Nomads, 1977. 94 There is considerable historical data attesting to the involvement of the Euro- peans (the Dutch and the French), and the Asians (the Malays and Chinese) 214 Notes

in the slave trade since the seventeenth century. See R.C. Temple, ‘The Trade in Andamanese Slaves’, Indian Antiquary, 30, 1901, p. 120; Vink, ‘The World’s Oldest Trade’, 2003, pp. 131–177; Zarine Cooper, ‘Analysis of the Nature Millenia’, 1989, pp. 133–147 and Archaeology and History, 2002, pp. 8–31. 95 Hill, ‘Notes on Piracy’, Indian Antiquary, 1923, p. 27. 96 Nicholas Tarling, ‘Pirates and Convicts: British Interest in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the mid-Nineteenth Century’, in Nicholas Tarling, ed., Imperial Britain in Southeast Asia, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1975, Chap. 10, and also his Piracy and Politics, 1963. He talks in detail about the prevalence of piracy in the Andaman seas and the involvement of Nicobarese in it. This is about the only historical work that draws a connection between ‘piracy’ and the subsequent colonization of the Andamans. 97 Foreign and Political, 5 Oct 1844, 90, NAI. 98 Home, Judicial, 4 July 1860, 3–6, A, NAI. 99 See Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1968, for a detailed survey of the history of the Nicobars and its occupation by the Danes. 100 Foreign, 15 Oct 1852, 75, NAI; Foreign, 1 Oct 1856, 37, NAI; Home, Port Blair, July 1875, 18, NAI. 101 Home, Marine, 2 Nov 1855, 2, NAI. 102 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, NAI. 103 Captain Henry Hopkinson, Commissioner of Arracan to W. Grey, Secretary to the Government of Bengal, 8 Feb 1856, Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, NAI. 104 The Committee comprised Dr Mouat who was to inspect the possibility of establishing a penal settlement on the Islands; Dr Playfair was to judge the Islands on medical and scientiﬁc basis and Lt. Heathcote was responsible for surveying the coast and harbour. Selections from the Records of the Government of India (Home Dept.), no. 25, The Andamans Islands, Calcutta, 1859. 105 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, NAI. 106 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, 76–98, NAI. 107 The Secretary to the Government of India in the 1830s and Governor of Jamaica in the 1870s. 108 Home, Public, 6 Aug 1858, 76–98, NAI. 109 Comment by the President-in-Council, J.P. Grant on 19 March 1856 (emphasis my own) in Home, Public, 6 August 1858, 76–78, NAI. 110 Captain Henry Hopkinson, Commissioner of Arracan, to W. Grey, Secretary to the Government of Bengal, 8 Feb 1856, cited in Portman, History of Our Relations with the Andamanese, vol. 1., pp. 190–191. 111 Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 45. 112 Michael Ignatieff, ‘State, Civil Society and Total Institutions: A Critique of Recent Social Histories of Punishment’, in S. Cohen and A. Scull, eds, Social Control and the State, Historical and Comparative Essays, Martin Robertson, Oxford, 1983, pp. 75–105. 113 Ibid. 114 Home, Marine, 27 March 1857, 19, A, NAI; Home, Marine, 27 March 1857, 20, A, NAI. The Andamans were given a priority during the surveys because of the ‘trafﬁc between Madras and Pegu’ and because of the proposed reoccupation of the Islands. 115 John William Kaye, The History of the Great Revolt, 3 volumes, Gian Publishing House, New Delhi, 1988; Charles Ball, The History of Indian Mutiny, Masters Publishers, New Delhi, 1981; R.M. Coopland, A Lady’s Escape from Gwalior, London, 1859; G.W. Forrest, A History of the Indian Mutiny, 3 volumes, London, Notes 215

1904; G.B. Malleson, History of Indian Mutiny, 3 volumes, Scribner and Sons, New York, 1878–1880; J. Cane-Brown, The Punjab and Delhi in 1857, Delhi, 1861 [1970]; Edward Thompson, The Other Side of the Medal, London, 1926; C.J. Griffiths, A Narrative of the Siege of Delhi with an Account of the Mutiny at Ferozpore in 1857, London, 1910; C.T. Metcalfe, Two Native Narratives of the Mutiny in Delhi, London, 1898; William H. Russell, My Indian Mutiny Diary, London, 1857; R.C. Majumdar, Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857, Calcutta, 1957; Rudrangshu Mukherjee, Awadh in Revolt, 1857–58: A Study of Popular Resistance, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1984; and C.A. Bayly, ed., Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986. 116 Bayly, Empire and Information, 1996, p. 316. 117 The sentence of transportation was revived earlier in the century in the 1820s against the backdrop of the Company’s final drive to secure a stable frontier and to offset the financial costs of annexations by making the conquered ter- ritories pay for their development. The colony of Amboyna was the first to employ Bengal convicts. In 1816, with the passage of Regulation XIV, transportation to Mauritius and its immediate dependencies and the employment of convicts to work at such a place was legalized and with it transportation of convicts to Mauritius began in earnest. In 1828, Tenasserim, which had been ceded by the King of Ava in 1826, was added to the penal settlements under the British. See T.K. Bannerjee, Background to Indian Criminal Law, Orient Longman, Calcutta, 1963, pp. 91–93. 118 Home, Judicial, 26 Feb 1858, 12–13, NAI and Home, Judicial, 9 April 1858, 4, NAI. 119 Foreign, 6 Aug 1858, 554–559, NAI. 120 This was to change later, when the physical health and the age of the convict became major considerations in his eligibility for transportation to the Andamans. 121 A letter from C.B. Thornhill, Inspector General of Prisons, North-West Province to G.E.W. Couper, Secretary to the Government of North-West Province, in Home, Judicial, 20 April 1860, 3–7, A, NAI. 122 See D. Hay, ‘Property, Authority and Criminal Law’, in D. Hay, ed., Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England, Penguin, Harmonds- worth, 1977, for an illustration of the point that criminal law functioned as an ideological system; and Kaushik Roy, ‘Coercion through Leniency: British Manipulation of the Courts-Martial System in the Post-Mutiny Indian Army, 1859–1913’, The Journal of Military History, 65, 2001, pp. 937–964, which looks at the way the British evolved a bureaucratic penal system through the court-martial system following the mutiny, which was aimed at maintaining discipline through ‘moderation’; also see Kaushik Roy, ‘Logistics and Loyalty: The Welfare Mechanism in the British-Indian Army, 1859–1913’, in P.S. Gupta and Anirudh Deshpande, eds, The British Raj and its Indian Armed Forces: 1857–1939, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002, pp. 98–124. 123 Beattie has also remarked that transportation ‘[provided] proof of the king’s care for his people and frequent demonstrations of his exercising his proper role by tempering justice with mercy’, J.M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England, 1600–1800, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986, p. 473; Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830–1914, Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990; John Styles, ‘“Our Traitorous Money Makers”: The Yorkshire Coiners and the Law, 1760–83’, in John Brewer and John Styles, eds, An Ungovernable People: The English and their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century, Hutchinson University, London, 1980, pp. 172–249. 216 Notes

124 Home, Judicial, 14 Jan 1859, 17–21, NAI; Home, Judicial, 31 May 1864, 91–101, B, NAI. 125 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000. Sen erroneously locates transportation within the Foucauldian paradigm where he sees it as part of the general movement of ‘retreat of public punishment’. 126 See Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers’, 2003, pp. 179–208; David Arnold, ‘The Colonial Prison: Power, Knowledge and Penology in Nineteenth Century India’, in David Arnold and David Hardiman, eds, Subaltern Studies, Vol. 7, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1994, pp. 140–178; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000; and Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969. Also see Abbot Emerson Smith, ‘The Transportation of Convicts to the American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century’, American Historical Review, 39, 2, 1934, pp. 232–249; Curtin, The Image of Africa, 1965, pp. 91–95; Frost, Convicts and Empire, 1980 and Botany Bay Mirages, 1994; Gillian, ‘The Botany Bay Decision’, 1982, pp. 740–766; Mackay, ‘Far-Flung Empire’, 1981, pp. 125–145; C.H.M. Clark, A History of Australia: From the Earliest Times to the Age of Macquarie, Vol. 1, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1962–87; and Tim Coates, Convicts and Orphans: Forced and State-Sponsored Col- onizers in the Portuguese Empire, 1550–1755, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2001. Coates has looked at the way exile, as a sentence of the Portuguese courts (and after the 1550s the Tribunals of the Inquisition), was used as a powerful tool by the Portuguese state. The state moulded the punishment to suit its changing needs. Criminal exiles, in Coates’ opinion, were the answer to various dilemmas, which extended from labour shortages in the army and on the galleys to the problem of scant supply of colonizers at home or overseas. In the two hundred years (c.1550–1750) of history that Coates has examined, the judicial and inquisitorial authorities around the Portuguese world channelled nearly 50,000 exiles to new homes. This was a notable ﬁgure when contrasted to the humble population statistics of these regions. His work further charts some of the ways in which the Portuguese authorities used exiles for empire-building and demonstrates how exile was a durable and yet a ﬂexible sentence. 127 Remark by the Governor of Straits Settlements, cited in Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969, p. 139. 128 Home, Judicial, 8 Jan 1858, 7–9, NAI. 129 Home, Judicial, 8 Jan 1858, 270–274, NAI; Home, Judicial, 8 Jan 1858, 7–9, NAI. 130 Home, Public, 8 Jan 1858, 270–274, NAI. 131 Home, Public, 22 Jan 1858, 63–65, NAI. 132 A sanitarium was to be established at Curlew Island (Callagouk) on the Tenas- serim Coast. However, the project had to be given up because the redirection of convict population to the Andamans created a labour shortage. Home, Judicial, 30 July 1862, 64–65, A, NAI and Home, Judicial, 6 Nov 1862, 5–8, A, NAI. 133 George K. Alapatt, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857: Indian Indentured Labour and Plantation Politics in British Guiana’, Journal of Indian History, 59, 1–3, 1981, pp. 295–314. 134 The Colonist, 14 Oct 1857, The Port of Spain Gazette, 26 Oct 1857, The Palladium, Oct 1857, cited in Alapatt, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857’, 1981, p. 303. 135 Lytton to Wodehouse, Despatch no. 2, 71/6349, 15 July 1858, cited in George K. Alapatt, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857’, 1981, pp. 307–308. 136 Home, Judicial, 25 June 1858, 12–19, NAI; Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 12–13, NAI; Home, Judicial, 26 Feb 1858, 1, NAI. Notes 217

137 Home, Judicial, 19 Feb 1858, 5–8, NAI; Home, Judicial, 26 Feb 1858, 1, NAI; Extract from a Despatch from Court of Directors in Political Dept., No. 19 of 1858, 18 May 1858, Selections from the Records, 1859. 138 Home, Judicial, 9 July 1858, 5–6, NAI; Home, Public, 26 Nov 1858, 76–92, NAI. 139 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 6–10, NAI. 140 Ibid. J. P. Grant was reacting to the execution of 81 recaptured convicts who had escaped from the Settlement in April 1858. 141 Captain Horace Man reoccupied the Andamans as a convict settlement in March 1858. At the time, Man was the Executive Engineer and the Superintendent of Convicts at Moulmein. Until J.P. Walker’s arrival Man looked after the Settlement and served as the Superintendent of the Andamans from March 1868 to March 1871. 142 Letter from C. Beadon, Secy to the Govt. of India to Captain H. Man, 15 Jan 1858, Selections from the Records, no. 15, 1859, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/ F 98, no. 29, IOR. 143 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI. 144 Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 2 Dec 1862, 1–3, A, NAI. 147 Home, Judicial, 30 Sept 1859, 18–20, NAI; Home, Judicial, 11 Nov 1859, 9–10, NAI. However, there remained a lack of clarity over the issue. Many convicts sentenced to transportation continued to await their turn in provincial jails for deportation either because of overcrowding in the Andamans or else because they did not measure up to the minimum physical standards prescribed by the State for deportation. (In April 1858 it was decided not to transport men who had lost a limb to the Andamans, even though they might have been sentenced to transportation. Home, Judicial, 2 July 1858, 1–14, NAI). 148 Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, No. 40, IOR. 149 Aparna Vaidik, ‘Sazaa-i-Kalapani: Banished Rebels of 1857’, in Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, ed., Rethinking 1857, Orient Longman, forthcoming. 150 Home, Public, 5 March 1858, 10–14, NAI. 151 Home, Judicial, 11 Nov 1859, 8, NAI; Home, Judicial, 20 April 1860, 3–7, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 9 Dec 1859, 6–7, NAI; Home, Judicial, 14 Jan 1859, 17–21, NAI; Home, Judicial, 30 July 1858, 18–20, NAI; Home, Judicial, 11 Nov 1859, 8, NAI. 152 Home, Judicial, 9 July 1858, 5–6, NAI; Home, Judicial, 26 Feb 1858, 12–13, NAI. 153 Home, Public, 17 Dec 1858, 96–101, NAI. 154 R.C. Temple, ‘Round About the Andamans & Nicobars’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 22 Dec 1899, 48, 2, 457, pp. 105–125, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, No. 36, IOR.

Chapter 3

1 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 6–10, NAI. The central government, however, did retain the veto power to sanction or disallow any policy or regulation that it thought unsuitable. The case of Norfolk Island was similar to that of the Andamans where there was no blueprint available for its penal system. The 218 Notes

work of Lauren Benton (A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2010) shows that this resulted in enforcement of a quasi-legal system on Norfolk Island. 2 Carlos Aguirre, The Criminals of Lima and Their Worlds: The Prison Experience, 1850–1935, Duke University Press, Durham, 2005. Aguirre also discusses, in the context of Latin American prisons, the way various factors such as paucity of financial resources, lack of control over prison guards, a poor personnel recruitment policy and corruption in the jail limited state authority and disrupted state goals within the prison. 3 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 6–10, NAI. 4 Home, Public, 1 April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI. 5 Home, Port Blair, June 1901, 60, NAI. 6 Home, Judicial, 11 June 1858, 10–11, NAI, A letter of Henry Hopkinson, the Commissioner of Tennasserim to Cecil Beadon, Secretary to the Government of India, April 1858. 7 Home, Marine, 20 June 1861, 40–47, NAI; Home, Marine, 22 April 1861, 10, NAI. 8 Home, Marine, 7 March 1861, 5–16, NAI; Home, Marine, 22 April 1861, 10; Home, Marine, 15 April 1861, 5–7, NAI. 9 Home, Marine, 7 March 1861, 5–16, NAI. 10 Home, Public, 28 Oct 1862, 176, B, NAI. 11 Home, Judicial, 25 June 1858, 31–33, NAI. 12 Home, Marine, 23 March 1855, 8, NAI; Home, Marine, 23 March 1855, 7, NAI. 13 Home, Judicial, 25 June 1858, 4–6, NAI. 14 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 15 Home, Judicial, 5 March 1858, 4, NAI. 16 Home, Judicial, 9 July 1858, 5–6, NAI. 17 Home, Judicial, 2 Feb 1861, 1–7, A, NAI. 18 Home, Public, 1 April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI; Home, Public, 29 May, 1866, 61–62, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, NAI. 19 Census Report for 1901, R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/ F 98, no. 42, IOR. 20 Lord Canning at the time of the colonization of the Islands had warned that enemies could use the colony as a stepping-stone to India in the event of war. This happened eventually in 1942 when the Japanese took over the Andamans and used it as a naval base until their defeat in 1945. Officials had repeatedly cautioned the Government regarding the possible security threats to the Islands. As J.S. Campbell noted, ‘It may be a matter for the consideration of the government whether the entrances to the bay should not be, to some extent, for- tified, so as to protect the Settlement from a foreign enemy’: Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 21 Home, Public, 28 Oct 1862, 41–43, NAI; Home, Public, 29 May 1866, 61–62, A, NAI. 22 Home, Judicial, 25 Feb 1859, 4–6, NAI. 23 Census Report for 1901, R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/ F 98, no. 42, IOR. 24 Home, Public, 26 April 1866, 22–23, A, NAI. 25 Home, Judicial, 1 July 1860, 15–16, NAI. 26 The whistlers were substituted by firing of guns by the year 1904. 27 Home, Port Blair, July 1904, 26, NAI. 28 Home, Port Blair, April 1905, 116, NAI and Home, Port Blair, Dec 1905, 15 to 17, NAI. Notes 219

29 Revenue and Agriculture Department, Forests, May 1882, 145–146, B, NAI. 30 Letter from Captain B. Rogers, 26 April 1871, Mayo Papers, Add. MS 7490/8/9, Cambridge University Library (CUL). 31 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Jan 1919, 61, NAI. 32 ‘The quantity of ﬁsh adapted for the food of man he [Dr Playfair] ascertained to be inexhaustible and the stock of small sweet oysters large enough to replenish the exhausted beds in every part of the world … we could depend on an abundant, unintermittent supply of excellent water during the whole year’, from the report of the Andaman Committee, cited in Mouat, Adventures and Researches, 1863, p. 195. 33 Home, Public, 20 Feb 1869, 62–63, A, NAI. 34 It was as early as 1870, at the behest of Lord Mayo, that the question of making Port Blair self-supporting by the expansion of agriculture was taken up by the Government: see Census Report of the Andaman and Nicobars, Government of India, 1931, p. 31. 35 Home, Judicial, 18 June 1858, 12–13, NAI; Home, Judicial, 21 May 1858, 8, NAI. 36 Home, Marine, 25 Feb 1859, 33–35, NAI. 37 Home, Public, 9 Dec 1862, 4–10, NAI. 38 Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI; Home, Port Blair, March 1905, 43, NAI; Home, Port Blair, August 1907, 142, NAI; and Home, Port Blair, June 1911, 52, NAI. 39 Home, Public, 28 March 1862, 40–42, A, NAI. 40 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1882, 76–78, NAI. 41 Home, Port Blair, March 1880, 25–27, NAI. 42 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1860, 7–23, A, NAI. 43 Although the inhabitants of the Islands were forest dwellers, it was not possible for the British or the settlers to set up habitation without clearing the forests and underwood. These Islands have some of the world’s best decorative timbers – Padauk, Silvergray, Chikrassy, Koko, Marblewood. Until the 1880s, the local timber was seen as ‘useless’, and teakwood from Burma was being imported. In fact, until as late as 1929, the Dhup and Papita wood which was later found most ‘useful’ as matchwood, was ‘being thrown away after making use of them as ﬂoats to raft sinker logs’: see Census of India, 1951, Report of B.S. Chengapa, Conservator, Working Plans, Port Blair, Andamans. 44 Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 45 Home, Port Blair, Nov 1881, 16, NAI. 46 Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 51, NAI. 47 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI. A month after being at Port Blair, Dr Walker had sent for his wife. Mrs Walker on her arrival found no house ready for her to live in and therefore camped in the naval vessel in the harbour with her husband. Also in ‘The Forgotten Islands’, by Frances Stewart Robertson, wife of Anthony William Robertson, Indian Police, Asst Commissioner in Andamans (1923–27), Mss Eur/F 209, No. 1, p. 14, IOR. 48 Home, Judicial, 17 Sep 1858, 11–14, NAI. 49 Home, Public, 28 Oct 1862, 41–43, NAI. 50 Warneford, Mss Eur/ F 388, No. 1, IOR. 51 ‘Sketch of life in the Andaman Islands’, R.H. Lowis, India Forest Dept., Asst Supdt. and Deputy Commissioner at Port Blair (1898–1922), Mss Eur D 1032, IOR. 52 ‘A Short Account of a Visit to the Andaman Islands’ by E.W. Prevost from Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalist Field Club, Vol. XI, Part 3, 1894–95, 220 Notes

in E.H. Man Collection, MS 118, in the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London (RAI). 53 C. Beadon Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars: The Narrative of a Cruise in the Schooner ‘Terrapin’, with Notices of the Islands, their Fauna, Ethnology, John Murray, London, 1903, p. 20. 54 ‘The Forgotten Islands’, Mss Eur/F 209, No. 1, p. 62, IOR. 55 Ibid., pp. 4 and 65. 56 Ibid., p. 63. 57 Report of the Visit to the Penal Settlement at Port Blair by the Hon’ble Sir Reginald Craddock in November 1913, in Home, Port Blair, April 1914, 34, NAI. 58 ‘The Forgotten Islands’, Mss Eur/F 209, No. 1, p. 4, IOR. 59 Letter from Captain B. Rogers, 26 April 1871, Mayo Papers, Add. MS 7490/8/9, CUL. 60 Ibid. 61 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, Appendix I, NAI. 62 Rogers, CUL, 1871. 63 Ibid. 64 Martin G. Wynne, Indian Police (1929–47), Asst. Commissioner of the Settlement (1934–38), Collected Papers Mss Eur/C 294, IOR. 65 T.S. Blakeney, ‘An Impression of the Andaman Islands’, in T.S. Blakeney, Collected Papers, Mss Eur C 299, IOR. He was the Assistant Manager (Injipara) Estate, Valparai, Coimbatore, and visited the Andamans in 1936. 66 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, Appendix I, NAI. 67 Ibid. 68 Mark Harrison, Climates & Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and British Imperialism in India 1600–1850, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999. In Har- rison’s view, in the nineteenth century the European vision regarding the possibility of their acclimatization in Indian climate shifted and a more racialized distinction began to be made between temperate and tropical Indian climates, whereby India came to be ‘viewed with terror, as a reservoir of filth and disease’. Thus climate, according to Harrison, became ‘one of the chief constraints upon their imperial ambitions’ because ‘to admit the possibility of acclimatization was to admit that the distinction between the colonizer and the colonized was less than fundamental’. In the case of the Andamans, no significant shift in episteme from the late-eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century (a phenomenon which was occurring on the Indian subcontinent as a result of British territorial expansion) is discernible because the Islands’ colonization did not really begin until the mid-nineteenth century. Unlike India (and the West Indies) where there was a ‘considerable optimism in the late eighteenth century about the possibility of acclimatization’, in the Andamans acclimatization of the British was never even considered a possibility. Also see Arnold, ‘Illusory Riches’, 2000, pp. 6–18. 69 Home, Marine, 3 Sep 1858, 9–11, NAI. 70 Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 51, NAI. 71 Home, Judicial, 7 May 1858, 24–46, NAI. 72 Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants, 1883, p. xvi. 73 Home, Public, July 1867, 21–211, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, March, 1880, 25–27, NAI; Report by E.E. Waters, Senior Medical Officer on 1 October 1903 in Home, Port Blair, April 1904, 42, NAI; Home, Port Blair, April 1906, 73, NAI; and Home, Port Blair, April 1906, 81, NAI; and Report of Colonel C.J. Bamber, a Sanitary Commissioner, who visited the Andamans in October 1908, in Home, Port Blair, Dec 1908, 26, NAI. Notes 221

74 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI. In the later period, overcrowding in the barracks, insufficient supplies and infrastructure for the increased number of convicts along with mosquitoes breeding in swamps and rice fields, lack of a proper local sewage system, and insufficient nutritious food also contributed to diseases such as phthisis, malaria and dysentery. 75 Annual report for the year 1884–85, Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 2, NAI. 76 Jacques Pouchepadass, ‘Colonialism and Environment in India, Comparative Perspective’, Economic and Political Weekly, August 19, 1995, pp. 2059–2067. 77 Foreign, 22 May 1857, 133, NAI. 78 C.J. Lyall and A.S. Lethbridge, The Report on the Working of the Penal Settlement of Port Blair, Home, Port Blair, June 1890, NAI. 79 Arnold, The Problem of Nature, 1996, p. 153. 80 Randall Packard, The Making of a Tropical Disease: A Short History of Malaria, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2007. 81 Ibid., p. 12. 82 Rhodes Murphey, ‘The City in the Swamp: Aspects of the Site and Early Growth of Calcutta’, The Geographical Journal, 130, 2, 1964, pp. 241–256. 83 Packard, The Making of a Tropical Disease, 2007, pp. 84–110. The author’s conclusions are borne out by a recent publication by scholars in the Department of Zoology of Oxford University. See G.D. Shanks and D.J. Bradley, ‘Island Fever: The Historical Determinants of Malaria in the Andaman Islands’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 104, 3, March 2010, pp. 185–190. 84 James L.A. Webb, Jr., Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, p. 7. 85 David Arnold, ‘Indian Ocean as a Disease Zone, 1500–1950’, South Asia, 14, 2, 1991, pp. 1–21. 86 David Arnold, Warm Climate and Western Medicine, Rodopi Press, Amsterdam and Atlanta, 1996; Also see Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000, Chapter 4, titled ‘Doctors and Discipline’, and ‘Policing the Savage’, 1999, pp. 753–773, for an in-depth analysis of the use of medicine as a disciplinary device on the Andamans. 87 Home, Judicial, 25 March 1859, 28, NAI. 88 Home, Port Blair, Oct 1873, 19–22, A, NAI and Home, Port Blair, March 1880, 25–27, NAI. Experiments for treating leprosy with gurjan oil and quinine for malaria were conducted on the convicts. 89 Home, Public, 24 Sept 1870, 44–45, A, NAI, and Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1902, 74, A, NAI. 90 Home, Port Blair, May 1873, 10 to 17, A, NAI. 91 Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 92 Portman, History of Our Relations, 1899, vol. I, pp. 68–69 (emphasis my own). 93 Ibid., p. 53 94 Ibid., p. 79. 95 Ibid., p. 115. 96 Home, Public, 4 Aug 1863, 6–8, A, NAI. Corbyn wrote three narratives of the expeditions that he undertook with the Andamanese, including reports on the Andaman Homes. 97 Home, Judicial, 27 Aug 1858, 6–8, NAI. 98 Home, Judicial, 7 April 1860, 2–8, NAI. 99 Home, Judicial, 19 May 1860, 9–12, NAI. 100 Home, Public, 3 March 1865, 1–6, A, NAI. 101 The Great Andamanese is the term used for an amalgamation of twelve Anda- manese tribes spread out throughout the length and the breath of the Great 222 Notes

Andamans (a set of three huge islands – North, Middle and South Andamans). By the 1960s, intermixing between the twelve tribes had taken place and the nomenclature ‘The Great Andamanese’ began to be used for them. Amongst the Great Andamanese, it was the Aka bea Da who were the first tribe to come into prolonged contact with the British. 102 Report on Andaman Homes written by J.N. Homfray for Jan 1873, in Home, Port Blair, May 1873, 10 to 17, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Aug 1873, 7–8, A, NAI. 103 Home, Port Blair, May 1882, 20–21, B, NAI. 104 Home, Port Blair, May 1873, 10 to 17, A, NAI. 105 A note by R.C. Temple, ‘Memorandum on the Supervision of Labour in Port Blair’ on 7 Jan 1895 in R.C. Temple Collection, MSS Eur/F 98, no. 42, IOR. 106 For instance, according to Sen, the ‘legal and procedural feasibility of surveillance in the Andamans was in sharp contrast to the situation on the mainland’. In his view the enforcement of surveillance was extremely difficult in the mainland jails, while the island character of the colony in the Andamans made it easier to cordon, quarantine, segregate and keep the convicts under surveillance: Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000. Similarly, Clare Anderson asserts: ‘Indeed, during the early years of settlement the landscape and population of the Islands provided a sort of natural prison. In the absence of secure places of confinement or sufficient personnel, the threats posed by the unknown jungle, sea and inhabitants comprised the convict guard’: Anderson, ‘Sepoys, Servants and Settlers’, 2007, pp. 185–220, p. 207 (emphasis my own). Also see Majumdar, Penal Settlement, 1975. 107 Murphey, ‘The City in the Swamp’, 1964, pp. 241–256, p. 255.

Chapter 4

1 Stephen A. Toth, Beyond Papillon: The French Overseas Penal Colonies, 1854–1952, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2006. Toth also argues that on examination of the penal administration ‘one sees not a monolith of surveillance and success but rather a deeply contingent and often fractured domain’. 2 The early studies on convict management in the Andamans have been mostly descriptive in character or have sought to bolster the nationalist position by highlight- ing the excesses of the system. Satadru Sen’s monograph on the Andamans is the only signiﬁcant academic work, which has analyzed the system of convict management in the Andamans. See Majumdar, Penal Settlement, 1975 and Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1968 and Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000. 3 I am grateful to Lauren Benton for this insight. 4 Frank Dikotter, ‘“A Paradise for Rascals”: Colonialism, Punishment and the Prison in Hong Kong 1841–1891’, Crime, History and Societies, 8, 1, 2004, pp. 49–63. Dikotter also demonstrates that the ‘colonial state’ was not a homogenous entity. 5 Victor Turner, The Forests of Symbol: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1967; see its Chapter 4, ‘Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage’, pp. 93–111. 6 Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 57, NAI. 7 Home, Public, 25 June 1870, 68–70, A, NAI. 8 The issue of loss of caste because of travel overseas was purely a colonial con- struct and affected only a small section of Hindu society. The British worked the Brahminical notion and the fear of loss of caste into an all-compassing category in their haste to classify the essential characteristics of Indian society. Indians Notes 223

have had a long and robust seafaring tradition since ancient times, which would not have existed if there were a strong taboo attached to crossing the seas. See Chakravarti, ‘Seafarings, Ships and Ship Owners’, 2002, pp. 28–61; Chandra, Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, 1977; Chandra, The Indian Ocean, 1987; Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe, 1990; McPherson, The Indian Ocean, 1993; Mookerji, Indian Shipping, 1912; Ray, ‘Seafaring in the Bay of Bengal’, 1990, pp. 1–14 and Archaeology of Seafaring, 1999. 9 The clearest enunciation of this could be found in the report of The Prison Discipline Committee of 1838 which had decided to retain penal transportation in the penal statutes, based on the view that it had the capacity to inspire fear and awe in the hearts of the natives of India. ‘On the people of this country, the simple operation of removal to a distance is to increase the exemplary force of punishment to a very great degree. Generally over India a sentence of transportation beyond the black water is regarded with inexplicable horror. The effect of such a sentence on the convict is short of the effect of a sentence of death, whilst the effect of such a sentence on the bystanders is greater than the effect of the sentence of death.’ Report of the Prison Discipline Committee, Government of India, Calcutta, 1838, p. 86. 10 Home, Public, 1 April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI (emphasis my own). 11 Ibid. 12 Trained to be a medical practitioner, Walker studied medicine at Aberdeen and became assistant surgeon in 1845 in the Bengal Medical Service. 13 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI and Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI. 14 Ibid. 15 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 2 March 1860, 13–16, A, NAI and Home, Public, 4 Aug 1865, 7–8, A, NAI. All the ordinary convicts received an allowance of one anna and nine pice per day, out of which they provided for their own clothes and food. Orderlies, petty ofﬁcers, mechanics, and boatmen received four to ﬁve rupees a month, the Commis- sariat coolies received four to six rupees. Home, Public, April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 20, NAI; Home, Judicial, 9 March 1860, 26–32, A, NAI; Home, Public, 28 March 1862, 67–68, A, NAI; Home, Public, 15 Sep 1862, 40–42, A, NAI; Home, Public, July 1867, 21–211, A, NAI; Home, Public, 2 July 1870, 18–19, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, July 1873, 27–28, A, NAI. 16 The Government of India, however, refused to sanction any general introduction of the free settlers on the Island but agreed to let the free people employed by the settlement administration on the Islands to import their families. Home, Judicial, 30 July 1858, 11–15, NAI. 17 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI. 18 Note by G.C. Collyer, Chief Engineer, Straits Settlement, to Capt. J.G.R. Forlong, Executive Engineer on Special duty, 24 Sep 1859, in Home Judicial, 4 Oct 1865, 22–23, A, NAI. 19 Home, Judicial, 4 Oct 1865, 22–23, A, NAI. 20 Home, Judicial, 1 July 1864, 10–11, NAI. 21 B. Ford, The Acts, Resolutions, Orders, & c., of the Government of India to Regulate the Administration of the Penal Settlement of Port Blair, Andaman Islands, With a Code of Regulations Based Thereon, Calcutta, 1868, pp. 85–86. 22 Cited in A.P. Howell, Note of Jails and Jail Discipline in India, 1867–68, Calcutta, 1868, also Home, Public, 29 May 1866, 61–62, A, NAI. 224 Notes

23 Colonel Horace Man was the father of the famous E.H. Man. Both father and son had served as Superintendents of the Andamans. See Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 21, A, NAI and Home, Judicial, 15 Jan 1858, 23, A, NAI. 24 Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 1990. Wiener maps the differing views on crime and criminality in nineteenth-century England on a linear scale of succes- sion. However, the occurrence of these views in a chronological linearity needs to be problematized because Wiener does not take into account the possibility of co-existence of the differing views. Moreover, he presents the existence of these ideologies in different eras as hegemonic ideas without any contestation, thereby silencing any contemporary criticisms of the dominant ideologies. 25 Home, Public, 27 March 1869, 167 to 169, A, NAI. 26 The Prison Discipline Committee (1838) took a similar view. It did not see crime in India as a product of ‘depravity of character, such as is usually the crime of an English malefactor’. Crime was more a result of the social environment of the criminal: ‘His general character differs less from that of the mass of his country- men than would be the case in more civilized and moral countries. A large pro- portion of crimes in this country are committed by persons whose tribe have done the same time out of mind, and they are almost as naturally the result of birth, as another man’s honest trade.’ Given this character of the Indian criminal application of this punishment was quite effective because the convict, once removed from all that is familiar, finds it easy to commence an honest life unlike the English criminal who suffers from depravity of character. Report of the Prison Discipline Committee, 1838, p. 97. 27 Home, Public, 27 March 1869, 167 to 169, A, NAI. 28 Home, Judicial, 30 Oct 1869, 57–59, A, NAI. 29 J. Scarlet Campbell was the Secretary to the Home Department, Government of India, at the time. Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 30 Home, Public, 27 March 1869, 167 to 169, A, NAI. 31 Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1982. 32 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI (emphasis my own). 33 Ibid. 34 Home, Public, 27 March 1869, 167 to 169, A, NAI. 35 Ibid. 36 Convicts who had served a fixed period of term on the Settlement received ticket-of-leave. It conferred on the convicts the status of self-supporters. With the ticket-of-leave the convicts were free to seek employment within the Settle- ment and also to marry. In the initial years of the Settlement’s inception, the convicts were given tickets after a short probation and those who brought money with them were made self-supporters almost on arrival. There were twelve divisions of convicts of whom the self-supporters constituted the twelfth division with head- quarters on Ross. In 1871, the number of divisions was reduced to six of which the first consisted of self-supporters. By 1874, a more rigorous classification was introduced and no ticket was given until the convict had been resident for twelve years, a period which was subsequently reduced to ten years. In 1901, out of the population of 11,947 convicts, there were 2,115 self-supporter convicts. 37 Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908, pp. 84–87. 38 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 51–84, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI; Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908, pp. 59–76. 39 Radhika Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1998. Notes 225

40 See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, 1986; George Rudé, Criminal and Victim: Crime and Society in Early Nineteenth Century England, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985; and Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 1990; and Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Penguin Books, London, 1977; David J. Rothman, Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic, Little, Brown, Boston, 1971; Michael Ignatieff, A Just Measure: The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1978. 41 Although the Prison Discipline Committee (1838) upheld indoor jail labour, intra-mural labour did not evince immediate converts. The ﬁnancial logic of the Colonial State ensured continued use of extra-mural labour for fulﬁlling the government schemes for building all-weather roads linking the Presidency towns and the ill-equipped jail buildings. 42 Arnold, ‘India: The Contested Prison’, 2007, pp. 147–184 and Singha, A Despotism of Law, 1988. 43 Home, Judicial, 17 Oct 1862, 23–24, NAI. 44 Ibid. 45 Arnold, ‘The Colonial Prison’, 1994, pp. 140–178; Singha, A Despotism of Law, 1998; Padmini Swaminathan, ‘Prison as a Factory: A Study of Jail Manufactures in the Madras Presidency’, Studies in History, 11, 1, 1995, pp. 77–100; Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 1990; Anand Yang, ‘“Disciplining Natives”: Prisons and Prisoners in Early Nineteenth Century India’, South Asia, 10, 2, 1987, pp. 29–45, and Crime and Criminality in British India, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1985. 46 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 47 Home, Port Blair, March 1894, 5, NAI; Home, Port Blair, April 1895, 14, NAI; Home, Port Blair, July 1893, 78–81, NAI. 48 John Mulvany, ‘Two Notable Prison Administrators’, Calcutta Review, 6, 292, 1918, p. 83. 49 Home, Judicial, 19 June 1869, 14–15, A, NAI. 50 Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, A, NAI. 51 This is not to suggest that the physical and logistical problems that the British confronted on the Islands were resolved in entirety. The problems continued to persist but over the years the British became more equipped to deal with them. 52 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1909, 31–33, A, NAI. 53 Home, Port Blair, July 1893, 78–81, NAI. 54 See Chapter 6. 55 Home, Port Blair, Sep 1895, 26–28, NAI. 56 R.C. Temple, ‘The Penal System at the Andamans’, Journal of Society of Arts, Feb 24 1899, vol. XLVII, No. 2, 414, pp. 192–305, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 36, IOR. 57 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, May 1906, 137, NAI. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Letter of Lt. Col. H.A. Browning, 6 Dec 1910, in Home, Port Blair, May 1911, 77–78, A, NAI. 61 Home, Port Blair, Jan 1896, 94, NAI. 62 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000. 63 Howell, Note of Jails and Jail Discipline, 1868. 64 Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908, pp. 77–88. 65 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, no. 52, NAI. 226 Notes

Chapter 5

1 As one official stated, ‘Labour is the grand desideratum in the infancy of every colony; and it is especially so in the present state of Andamans Islands. Dense jungles are to be cleared, in order to render these Islands a fit abode for man. […] It is work, hard work that is wanted.’ Report by Dr G.G. Brown, dated March 1859, in Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 51, NAI. 2 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000; Aparna Vaidik, ‘Working the Islands: Labour Regime in Colonial Andamans (1858–1921)’, in Marcel van der Linden and Prabhu Mohapatra, eds, Towards Global Labour History: New Comparisons, Tulika, Delhi, 2009, pp. 57–81. 3 Matrimony and domesticity were a continuing concern even in the colony of New South Wales. According to local officials ‘more marriages would make the colony more “moral”’. See Hirst, Convict Society, 1983, p. 80, and Aparna Vaidik, ‘Settling the Convict: Matrimony and Family in the Andamans’, in Studies in History, 22, 2, 2006, pp. 221–251. 4 Home, Port Blair, Nov 1908, 48–52, A, NAI. 5 Marriage, as a socio-economic institution, was favoured in this period of history in most of the plantation colonies. The works of Marina Carter and Prabhu Mohapatra on indentured labour in Mauritius and British Guiana show the way marriage provided the much-needed social stability to the labour force and also aided in local reproduction of labour once the shift in the international migration of labour began to take place. Another very important reason for an indenture system favouring marriage was to fob off any criticism by the colonial authorities because negative press regarding the social life of the indentured labour had the potential of leading to its discontinuance, as it had in the case of slavery. Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers 1995; Prabhu P. Mohapatra, ‘Restoring the Family: Wife Murders and the Making of a Sexual Contract for Indian Immigrant Labor in the British Caribbean Colonies, 1860–1920’, Studies in History, 11, 2, n.s. 1995, pp. 227–260. 6 The marriage of the deported female convicts was sanctioned after five years of stay in the Settlement. Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI. 7 Home, Port Blair, August 1915, 66, NAI. 8 See Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers, 1995; Mohapatra, ‘Restoring the Family’, 1995, pp. 227–260. 9 Home, Judicial, 2 Dec 1862, 1–2, A, NAI. See Vaidik, ‘Settling the Convict’, 2007, pp. 221–251. 10 See Paula J. Byrne, Criminal Law and Colonial Subject: New South Wales, 1810–1830, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, for a study of the female convicts in New South Wales whose presence was also primarily determined by their ‘sexual value … to the convict colony’. The fact that women were under- valued and underemployed in the Australian penal colony is also borne out by Stephen Nicholas, Deborah Oxley and Peter R. Shergold, eds, Convict Workers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988. 11 Home, Judicial, 19 May 1860, 41–48, A, NAI. 12 Cited in the Proceedings Volume of Home, Port Blair, August 1915, 66, NAI. 13 Home, Public, 7 June 1865, 11–13, A, NAI. 14 Cited in Sen, ‘Rationing Sex, 1999, pp. 29–59. 15 R.H. Lowis, ‘Sketch of Life in the Andaman Islands’, Mss Eur D 1032, IOR. Notes 227

16 For a discussion of women’s work, see Nirmala Banerjee, ‘Working Women in Colonial Bengal: Modernization and Marginalization’, in Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid, eds, Recasting Women, Kali for Women Press, New Delhi, 1989, pp. 267–301. 17 Deborah Oxley, The Convict Maids: The Forced Migration of Women to Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p. 227. 18 For instance, there were very few convicts of sweeper or ‘Bhungee’ caste, and in the early years of the Settlement, the hospital often overran with convicts suffering from bowel complaints, which made the sanitation situation quite grave. Given the convicts’ caste sensibilities, Superintendent Walker in 1858 decided not to compel ordinary convicts to work as sweepers but to hire some from Calcutta. Thereafter in the Settlement, Brahmins cooked and the ones from lower castes cleaned but they were always in short supply. Home, Judicial, 20 Aug 1858, 25–33, NAI. 19 Ibid. 20 For instance, Walker received a proposal in 1858 from the Government of India for sending volunteer convict artisans from Bengal to Port Blair. However, much to Walker’s dismay none of the convict-artisans in Bengal jails were willing on any terms to cross the kalapani. Suggestions to obtain convicts from Straits Settlement or hiring of a free gang from Calcutta also did not work out. Home, Judicial, 25 June 1858, 21–23, NAI. 21 Home, Public, June 1870, Proceedings Volume, 61 and 62, NAI. 22 Home, Public, 4 Feb 1871, 168–171, A, NAI. 23 Home, Public, 1 Jan 1870, 83–85, NAI. 24 Gratuities: Jemadars at Rs. 5 per month; 1st Tindal at Rs. 2; 2nd Tindal and Rs. 1; Peons at Rs. 1; 1st Class Workmen at Rs. 2; 2nd Class Workmen at Rs. 1; 3rd Class Workmen at 8 Annas; and the 4th Class Learners were not given any gratuity. Handbook for the Andaman and Nicobars, 1877, pp. 31–32. 25 The Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908, pp. 69–71. 26 Handbook for the Andaman and Nicobars, 1877, pp. 31–32. 27 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Oct 1907, 65, NAI. 28 Thanesari, Mohammad Jafar, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-Ajib, Delhi, 1879, reprint, Lahore, 1993, p. 67. 29 High officials, landowners, clerics, state officials. 30 Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000 and Hirst, Convict Society, 1983. In the Anda- mans, the system of classification took some time to evolve but even after its introduction, convicts from different classes could be worked together on the same kind of labour work; see Vaidik, ‘Working the Islands’, 2009, pp. 57–81. 31 Nicholas et al., Convict Workers, 1988, passim; David Kent and Norma Townsend, The Convicts of the Eleanor, Merlin/Pluto Press, Sydney, 2002. However, the data from the Andamans challenges this conception of ‘efficiency’ posited by the revisionist historiography. 32 Home, Port Blair, June 1887, 34, NAI and Home, Port Blair, 5 Feb 1900, 27, NAI. 33 Home, Port Blair, July 1909, 14, NAI. 34 Ibid. 35 Home, Port Blair, March 1880, 25–27, NAI. 36 Ibid. 37 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1883, 76–78, NAI. 38 Ibid.; Home, Port Blair, May 1881, 3–5, NAI. 228 Notes

39 J.F.A. McNair’s (Superintendent of Convicts in Straits Settlement) note on the Convict Warder System, Home, Judicial, 11 Aug 1864, 44, B, NAI; Home, Judicial, 30 April 1864, 102–103, B, NAI; Home, Judicial, 4 Oct 1865, 22–23, NAI. Also, Arnold, ‘The Colonial Prison’, 1994, pp. 140–178. 40 There was one jemadar to every station containing more than a hundred convicts; and for every hundred convicts, there was one tindal, six peons, and two umedwars. The overseers arranged with the station jemadar for the distribution of the men for the next day’s work, to prevent any delay in the morning parade. 41 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 42 Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 43 According to Clare Anderson, the use of convict petty officers was a way of ‘integration of convicts within the hierarchy of command’, to give the colony greater social stability. 44 At one time the Superintendent was even willing to take on Nubian and African long-term prisoners from the East African Protectorate in order to ‘meet the labour difficulty’. Home, Port Blair, Feb 1900, 5, A, NAI. 45 For some years, the Settlement officials debated starting the transportation of Chinese convicts. They were useful from the point of view of skilled labour as they made valuable artificers. The Settlement officers were not much interested in having Chinese convicts because there was a general stereotype about them being ‘of desperate character convicted of piracy and burglary’. Home, Public, 15 Oct 1862, 8–9, A, NAI. 46 Home, Judicial, 16 Nov 1860, 7–9, A, NAI. 47 Home, Judicial, 9 March 1860, 18–20, A, NAI. 48 Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars, 1903. He noted, ‘Of the Burmese, however, the greater part are serving sentences of ten years, for engaging too recklessly in the national pastime of dacoity, and many of them are employed in the jungle and as boatmen’, p. 27 (emphasis my own). 49 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 9 March 1860, 18–20, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, 18 May 1898, 29–30, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, 16 Dec 1901, 18, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, 12 May 1906, 135, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, 20 Feb 1907, 37, A, NAI. 50 Home, Judicial, Sep 1875, 237–239, A, NAI. 51 Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI. 52 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, May 1907, 19, A, NAI. Burmese female term-convicts also began to be transported to the Andamans in time, ‘in view of the desirability of encouraging convict marriages’. See Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Jan 1918, 80–83, NAI. 53 They were even being sent to Southeast Asian colonies. Most of them were Por- tuguese and received preferential treatment. See Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers’, 2003, pp. 179–208. 54 Home, Public, 19 Jan 1794, 4, A, NAI; Home, Public, 31 Oct 1794, 2, A, NAI. 55 Home, Judicial, 10 Sep 1858, 20–21, NAI. 56 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 28–31, NAI; Home, Judicial, 6 May 1859, 22–26, NAI. 57 Home, Judicial, 10 Sep 1858, 20–21, NAI; Home Judicial, 7 Jan 1859, 6–8, NAI; and Home, Judicial, 1 June 1860, 1–6, NAI. 58 Home, Judicial, 7 Jan 1859, 6–8, NAI. 59 Home, Judicial, 28 Jan 1863, 49–51, A, NAI. 60 Home, Public, 20 Dec 1862, 39–40, NAI. Notes 229

61 Home, Public, 14 Sep 1863, 24–27, A, NAI. It is unclear whether only the Euro- peans were allowed in the library or if anyone who read English could access it. 62 Home, Public, 1 Feb 1865, 1–3, A, NAI. 63 Home, Ecclesiastical, 6 Oct 1862, 4–5, NAI. 64 Home, Judicial, 10 Sep 1858, 7–9, NAI. 65 Home, Judicial, Proceeding Volume, Sep–Dec 1868, 11–12, NAI. 66 Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 67 A term-convict was one who did not serve a life sentence. The terms of sentence generally ranged between three to seven years. On the expiry of his sentence, the term-convict was to return to his homeland. Home, Judicial, 30 July 1858, 18–20, NAI; Home, Public, 10 Sep 1858, 60–61, NAI. 68 Discussed in Chapter 7. 69 Foreign, Internal, Sep 1891, 35–36, B, NAI. 70 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI. 71 And he felt that ‘if somewhat heavier expense was incurred, and the extension of the plan pushed on energetically in a short time there would undoubtedly be a ﬂourishing agricultural settlement and a Province worthy of the British nation. It is also probable that considerable revenue would be obtainable from other sources viz. Coffee, iron, coal, wood’, in Home, Public, 27 Jan 1863, 60–62, A, NAI. 72 Home, Public, 28 Nov 1862, 71, A, NAI. 73 Home, Public, 20 Dec 1865, 37–38, A, NAI. 74 Home, Public, Feb 1867, Proceedings Volume, A, NAI. 75 Home, Public, July 1867, 21–22, A, NAI. 76 Home, Public, 19 March 1870, 141–143, A, NAI. 77 Home, Public, 8 April 1871, 67–68, A, NAI. 78 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 75, A, NAI. 79 Annual Report for the year 1878–79, Home, Port Blair, March 1880, 25–27, NAI 80 Home, Port Blair, Proceeding Volume, March 1906, 50–56, NAI. 81 In Robert J. Steinfeld’s account of the nineteenth-century discourse on free and unfree labour, the ‘duration of the contracted-for service’ formed an index of classiﬁcation between free and unfree labour. The working men saw the men under long duration contract service as ‘bound as slaves’ and the ones with short-term contract as ‘free’. Steinfeld establishes, through this examination of working men’s attitude to labour obligation, that not only were the labour practices and regimes being continuously reinterpreted from below but a crucial denominator for internal differentiation of the workforce was the ‘tem- porality of labour obligation’. See Robert J. Steinfeld, Coercion, Contract, and Free Labour in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001. 82 See Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908. 83 Letter from F.J. Mouat, Inspector of Jail to C.J. Buckland, Junior Secretary to the Government of Bengal, written on 11 May 1858 in Home, Judicial, 25 June 1858, 21–23, A, NAI. 84 Home, Public, 28 March 1862, 67–68, A, NAI. 85 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, A, NAI. 86 16 annas in a rupee. 87 J.S. Campbell mentions these rates in his report written in April 1872, in Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, A, NAI. 88 Home, Public, 24 Jan 1865, 33–35, A, NAI. 230 Notes

89 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 20, NAI; Public Works Department, Forests, Jan 1868, 8–11, B, NAI; Public Works Department, Forests, Sep 1868, 16 to 18, NAI; Home, Public, 26 Nov 1870, 122–123, B, NAI; Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Nov 1874, 30–33, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Feb 1881, 36–38, NAI. 90 The survey of the Andamans’ forests began in 1881–82. Home, Forests, May 1880, 9, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Dec 1880, 11–12, B, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Nov 1881, 16, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Aug 1883, 76–78, NAI; and Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI; Revenue and Agriculture Department, Proceedings Volume, Feb 1895, 90–92, A, NAI. In response to the need of the hour the Settlement officials prepared a separate Forest Manual for the proper regulation of convict labour, which classified and specified the hours of work; and the time required for completion of a task work; see R.L. Heinig, Forest Manual of the Andamans, 1899, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 35, IOR. 91 The Madras and Bombay Government gun-carriage factories, the Military Gym- nasium in Roorkee, the Indian Marine Department, and Woolwich Arsenal were some of the buyers of Andaman timber. Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars, 1903. 92 M.H. Ferrar, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1884–85, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1886. 93 In the year 1894–95, the Forest Department’s daily labour force was 436 compared to 532 in the previous year, which was further reduced to 316 in 1895–96. The actual need of the Forest Department was about 1,200 forest workers. The cost of extraction amounted to Rs. 19 per ton in the year 1896–97 compared to Rs. 7.8 a ton in 1890–91. See Revenue and Agriculture Department, Forest, Sep 1895, 33–35, B, NAI. 94 W.R.L. Jacob, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1919–20, Calcutta, 1921. 95 Revenue and Agriculture Department, Forests, Nov 1910, 6–8, A, NAI. 96 Home, Port Blair, Nov 1911, 35–36, NAI. 97 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, NAI. 98 A note by L. Carthy, the Secretary of Port Blair School Committee, in Home, Public, 6 Jan 1865, 6, A, NAI. 99 Home, Education, May 1872, 17–18, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, 1875, 9 to 11, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1919, 56, NAI. 100 The books prescribed for study were – Tashri ul Huroof, Kissa Soorujpoor, Taleem ul Mobbtadee, Kissa Dhurm Singh, Khoosh ha Sibeean, Mufaid ul Insha, Hissa doyam Insha Urdu, Mizabah ul Musahut, Tarikh Badshahan Inglistan, Kurreem ul loghat, Geography awul, Tarikh Hindostan, Tasheel ul Kawaid. Home, Port Blair, Dec 1875, 19 to 21, NAI. 101 Home, Department, October 1910, 5, NAI. 102 Home, Port Blair, Nov 1911, 35–36, NAI. 103 Home, Port Blair, March 1915, NAI; Home, Port Blair, July 1918, 22–23, NAI; Home, Port Blair, April 1918, 81–82, A, NAI. 104 Abdul Majeed, ‘Memoirs of Master Subhan’, in Golden Jubilee Souvenir, Govern- ment Boys’ Senior Secondary School, Port Blair (1946–1996), Sep. 1997, pp. 6–10. Master Abdus Subhan, born in 1894, is revered in the Andamans as a great educa- tionist. The Settlement administration employed him as a teacher from 1913 until he retired in 1950. He was one of the beneficiaries of the scholarship for higher studies in Burma. In this article, his son has reproduced a memoir, that Notes 231

he chanced upon after his father’s death, on the early education system in the Andamans. 105 Home, Port Blair, June 1876, 19 to 22, NAI. 106 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI. 107 F.A.M. Dass, The Andaman Islands, Good Shepherd Convent Press, Bangalore, 1937, pp.71–72 and Census of India, Report on the Andamans, Chapter 7, ‘The Local-Born Population’, 1931, pp. 29–30. 108 Temple, Collection, MSS Eur/F 98, no. 42, IOR. 109 Ibid. 110 K.S. Singh, ‘Rise of Andaman Hindi’, in K.S. Singh, ed., Andaman and Nicobar Islands: People of India Series, 12, Anthropological Survey of India, Madras, 1994, pp. 246–252. 111 Gauri Shankar Pandey, ‘The Most Happiest Day’, in Golden Jubilee Souvenir, Government Boys’ Senior Secondary School, Port Blair (1946–1996), Sep. 1997, pp. 12–22; Madan Mohan Singh, ‘Andaman Mein Natak Nautanki’, Sankalp, Akashwaani Port Blair, 3, Sep 2001, Port Blair, pp. 26–30; and Govind Mishra, ‘Ahlakhand Suna Nahi Dekha’, in Silver Jubilee Souvenir, Akashwaani Club, Port Blair, 1990, pp. 21–23. 112 There is a huge amount of literature on Australian labour history which establishes the crucial role played by aboriginal labour in the development of the Frontier. These writings also see racial management as a signiﬁcant part of the aboriginal labour system. Michael Bennett, ‘A Long Time Working: Abor- iginal labour on the Coolangatta Estate, 1822–1901’, The Past is Before Us, 30 June–2 July, 2005, University of Sydney, http://www.historycooperative.org/ proceedings/seascapes/index.html; Mark Hannah, ‘Aboriginal Workers in the Australian Agricultural Company, 1824–1857’, The Past is Before Us, 30 June–2 July, 2005, University of Sydney, http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/index.html; A. Curthoys and C. Moore, ‘Working for the White People: A Historiographical Essay on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Labour’, Labour History, 69, 1995, pp. 1–29; C.D. Rowley, The Destruction of Aboriginal Society, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1970; R. Evans, ‘“Kings” in Brass Crescents: Deﬁning Aboriginal Labour Patterns in Colonial Queensland’, in K. Saunders, ed., Indentured Labour in the British Empire, 1834–1920, Croom Helm, London, 1984; H. Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia, Penguin, Ringwood, 1982; A. McGrath, Born in the Cattle: Aborigines in Cattle Country, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1987; D. May, Aboriginal Labour and the Cattle Industry: Queensland From White Settlement to the Present, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994; P. Brock, ‘Pastoral Stations and Reserves in South and Central Australia, 1850s–1950s’, Labour History, 69, 1995, pp. 102–114; S. Hodson, ‘Nyungars and Work: Aboriginal Experiences in the Rural Economy of the Great Southern Region of Western Australia’, Aboriginal History, 17, 1, 1993, pp. 73–92; D. Bairstow, ‘With the Best Will in the World: Some Records of Early White Contact with the Gampignal on the Australian Agricultural Company’s Estate at Port Stephens’, Aboriginal History, 17, 1, 1993, pp. 4–16. 113 The Jarawas was one such term. The Andamanese trackers associated with the British (now known as Great Andamanese) were the ones to use the term to des- cribe their unfriendly co-Islanders. It was not a self-appellation of the Jarawas. 114 Home, Public, Aug, 1867, 49, NAI. 115 Home, Public, 21 June 1865, 51, A, NAI. 116 Home, Public, 21 Aug 1869, 165–116, NAI. 117 Home, Public, 19 June 1869, 2–4, NAI. 232 Notes

118 Annual Report for the year 1904–05, in Home, Port Blair, 12 May 1906, 135, NAI. 119 Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 40, IOR. 120 Home, Public, 31 July 1863, 17–20, A, NAI. 121 J.N. Homfray’s report on the ‘Andaman Home’, in Home, Public, 8 April 1865, 35, A, NAI. 122 Home, Public, 18 Dec 1869, 64–65, A, NAI. Penelope Hetherington, Settlers, Servants and Slaves: Aboriginal and European Children in the Nineteenth Century in Western Australia, University of Western Australia Press, Crawley, 2002, shows how aboriginal children, through institutionalization, were being prepared for ‘low-status employment’ in Western Australia. Also see Viswajit Pandya, ‘Deforesting among Andamese Children: Political Economy and History of Schooling’, in B.S. Hewlett and M.E. Lamb, eds, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods – Evolutionary, Developmental and Cultural Perspectives, Aldine Transactions, New Brunswick, 2005, pp. 385–406. 123 Home, Public, 31 March 1866, 108–109, A, NAI. 124 Home, Public, 16 Jan 1869, 60–61, A, NAI. 125 Home, Public, 28 Dec 1866, 94–96, A, NAI. 126 Home, Public, 31 March 1866, 108–109, A, NAI. 127 Home, public, Nov 1867, 37, NAI; Home, Public, 16 Jan 1869, 60–61, A, NAI. 128 Home, Public, 21 June 1865, 51, A, NAI. 129 Home, Public, 11 Jan 1864, 10–11, A, NAI. 130 Home, Public, 21 June 1865, 51, A, NAI. 131 Ibid. 132 Home, Public, 13 Aug 1865, 28–31, A, NAI. 133 Home, Public, 20 Feb 1869, 62–63, A, NAI. 134 Zarine Cooper, ‘Perceptions of Time’, 1993, pp. 261–267. 135 Three Andamanese had been captured and taken to Moulmein for ethnological study. It was found that all three were suffering from a pulmonary infection. The ofﬁcials in Moulmein cited the example of the tribes in Tasmania and New Zealand who had also developed pulmonary disease since the introduction of blankets and other European clothing, ‘which seems to have been unknown before’. 136 Sen, ‘Policing the Savage’, 1999, pp. 753–773. 137 Man, The Aboriginal Inhabitants, 1883; 1975, p. iii; E.H. Man, A Dictionary of the South Andaman Language, Bombay, 1923, and The Nicobar Islands and Their Peo- ple, Guildford, 1932; Portman, History of Our Relations, 1899, ‘Andamanese Music’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 20, 1888, pp. 181–218, ‘Notes on Andaman- ese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp. 362–371, ‘The Andamanese Fire Legend’, Indian Antiquary, 26, 1898, pp. 14–18, ‘Disposal of the Dead among the Andamanese’, Indian Antiquary, 25, 1896, pp. 56–57; R.C. Temple, The Practical Value of Anthropology, Indian Antiquary, June 1905, pp. 132–144, ‘Remarks on the Andaman Islanders and Their Country’, Indian Antiquary, 52, 1923, pp. 151–157 and 216–224, ‘A Plan for A Uniform Scientiﬁc Record of the Lan- guages of Savages’, The Indian Antiquary, July 1907, pp. 181–195, ‘The Trade in Andamanese Slaves’, The Indian Antiquary, 30, 1901, p. 120; and A. Thompson, ‘Description of the Andaman Bone Necklace’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 2, 1881, pp. 295–309. 138 Edward Gait, ‘Some Observations on the Andamanese’, Man in India, 2, 1922, pp. 97–99; A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, ‘The Religion of the Andaman Islanders’, Folklore, 20, 1909, p. 257, ‘Notes on the Language of the Andaman Islands’, Notes 233

Anthropos, 14, 1914, pp. 36–52, and The Andaman Islanders: A Study in Social Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1922; Louis Robert Sullivan, A Few Andamanese Skulls: With Comparative Notes on Negrito Cranio- metry (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 23, 4), The Trustees, New York, 1921, pp. 175–201. 139 I. Langham, The Building of British Social Anthropology, W.H.R. Rivers and Cambridge Disciples in the Development of Kinship Studies, 1898–1931, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Holland, 1981; Sita Venkateswar, Development and Ethno- cide, Colonial Practices in the Andaman Islands, IWGIA, Copenhagen, 2004; Zita van der Beek and Marcel Vellinga, ‘Man the Collector Salvaging Andamanese and Nicobarese Culture through Objects’, Journal of the History of Collections, 17, 2, 2005, pp. 135–153; David Tomas, ‘Tools of the Trade. The Production of Ethnographic Observations on the Andaman Islands, 1858–1922’, in G.W. Stocking, ed., Colonial Situations: Essays on the Contactualization of Ethno- graphic Knowledge, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1991, pp. 75–108; E. Edwards, ‘Science Visualized. E.H. Man in the Andaman Islands’, in E. Edwards, ed., Anthropology and Photography, 1860–1920, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1992, p. 113. 140 Robert Steinfeld, Invention of Free Labour: The Employment Relation in English and American Law and Culture, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1991, ‘Changing Legal Conceptions of Free Labour’, in Stanley L. Engerman, ed., Terms of Labour: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labour, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1999, pp. 144–146, and ‘Labour – Free or Coerced? A Historical Reassessment and Differences and Similarities’, in Tom Brass and Marcel van der Linden, eds, Free and Unfree Labour: The Debate Continues, Berne, Switzerland, 1997, pp. 107–126; David Northrup, ‘Free and Unfree Labour Migration, 1600–1900: An Introduction’, Journal of World History, 14, 2, 2003, pp. 125–130; David Eltis, Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2002; Gyan Prakash, Bonded Histories: Genealogies of Labour Servitude in Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990. 141 Though existence of convict resistance, for instance in the form of escapes, did circumscribe the functioning of the colonial administration. 142 David Neal, The Rule of Law in a Penal Colony, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991. 143 Kent and Townsend, The Convicts of the Eleanor, 2002; Kent and Townsend also challenge the ‘slave’ or victim thesis and stress the complexity of convict employment.

Chapter 6

1 Home, Judicial, 12 Nov 1858, 6–16, NAI. 2 Ibid. 3 Home, Judicial, 19 Aug 1859, 10–12, NAI. 4 Home, Jails, 1929, 186, NAI. 5 Home, Judicial, 22 Oct 1858, 13–18, NAI. This policy of keeping the convicts fettered changed when the Settlement ofﬁcials saw that wounds and ulcers caused by fetters increased mortality amongst convicts. Also see Clare Anderson, ‘“The Ferringees are Flying – the Ship is Ours!”: The Convict Middle Passage in Colonial South and Southeast Asia, 1790–1860’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 42, 2, 2005, pp. 143–186. 234 Notes

6 A. Saunders Dyers, ‘The Andaman Islands’, Calcutta Review, 116, 1903, pp. 260–291. 7 Home, Judicial, 12 Nov 1858, 6–16, NAI. 8 Home, Public, 1 April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI 9 Home, Public, 14 Sep 1864, 48–49, A, NAI; Home, Public, 13 Aug 1865, 28–31, A, NAI. 10 Fazl-i-Haqq-Khairabadi, Baaghi Hindustan, Almajma-ul-Islami Fazul Uloom Mohammadabad, Guahana, Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, 4th edition, 1985. A Tran- slation of Assouratul Hindiah wa Qasaid fitnatul Hind: Angrezi Mazalim Ke Larzakhez Waquaiat Jung-e-Azadi ki Khooni Dastan. Fazl-i-Haqq Khairabadi was a theologian, linguist and litterateur par excellence of his times. He was friends with great lum- inaries such as poet Ghalib and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. It is believed that writing a fatwa against the British during the Revolt of 1857 was the ‘crime’ which got him deported to the Andamans. For further details see Jamal Malik, ‘Letters, Prison- Sketches and Autobiographical Literature: The Case of Fadl-e Haqq Khairabadi in the Andaman Penal Colony’, The Indian Economic and Social History Review, 43, 1, 2006, pp. 77–100. 11 Fazl-i-Haqq Khairabadi wrote his book with charcoal and pencil on pieces of cloth and scraps which were brought back to India and put together by his son Abdal Haqq Khairabadi in book form. This book narrates the story of the rebellion in 1857 and the life of Fazl-i-Haqq Khairabadi on the Andamans. Baaghi Hindustan is also considered a very fine example of Arabic literature. The book remained in a manuscript form in private hands until its publication on India’s independence in 1947. 12 Khairabadi, Baaghi Hindustan, 1985, p. 76 (of the Arabic version). This is not a literal translation. The book was read out to me in translation from Urdu and Arabic by Dr Faizan Ahmad, Assistant Archivist, National Archives of India, and Dina Hussein, graduate student at Georgetown University, History Department. 13 Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 51, NAI. Amlah – officer, Bunneah – trader or merchant, Zamindar – landowner, Faurah – showel. 14 Home, Judicial, 30 July, 1858, 11–15, NAI and Home, Judicial, 3 August 1858, 5–7, NAI. 15 Home, Public, 1 April 1864, 1–12, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Nov 1881, 16, NAI. 16 Home, Port Blair, Dec 1880, 59 to 61, NAI. 17 Inspection Report by Alexander Mackenzie (Secretary to the Government of India, Home Department, visited the Andamans to review the working of the penal settlement), 29 Dec 1885, in Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 18 See Anderson, ‘Fashioning Identities’, 2001, pp. 153–174, for a detailed analysis of the significance of hair cropping amongst the convicts; and Joy Damousi, Depraved and Disorderly: Female Convicts, Sexuality and Gender in Colonial Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 85–110, shows the way head- shaving was used to undermine the femininity of convict women. 19 J.P. Walker to C. Beadon, 20 July 1858, Selections from the Records of the Government of India in the Home Department, No. XXIV and XXV on Andamans, Calcutta, 1859. 20 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 6–10, NAI. 21 Home, Judicial, 7 May 1858, 24–46, NAI; Walker to C. Beadon, 17 April 1858 (Doc. no. 36). 22 Home, Judicial, 7 Jan 1859, 14, NAI. 23 Home, Judicial, 29 July 1859, 1–20, NAI. Notes 235

24 Home, Judicial, 19 May 1860, 29–31, A, NAI. 25 Home, Judicial, 7 May 1858, 24–26, NAI. 26 See Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 75, NAI. 27 Home, Port Blair, 12 May 1906, 135, NAI. 28 Home, Judicial, 6 Jan 1860, 7–23, A, NAI. 29 Home, Judicial, 16 July 1858, 6–10, NAI. 30 Home, Public, 4 Jan 1896, 21–22, NAI. 31 Ibid. 32 Home, Public, 8 Feb 1868, 52–53, NAI. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 ‘Letter from W. Hudleston, Secretary to the Government to Madras to the Secy to the Govt of India, Home Dept., Ooty, 10 June 1873’, R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur /F 98, no. 37, IOR. 36 ‘Letter from Colo. C. Harvey, General Superintendent of Operations for the Suppression of Thuggee and Dacoity to the Secy to the Gov. of India, Foreign Dept., 16 April 1873’, in Selection from Correspondence (1870–75) of the late Field Marshall Sir D.M. Stewart, when Chief Commissioner of the Andamans and Nicobar Islands, 1900, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 37, IOR. 37 Patricia O’Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth Century France, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1982. O’Brien has demonstrated how the inmate subculture, instead of converting the prisoners into honest citizens, reinforced criminal identiﬁcations. 38 Home, Port Blair, June, 1890, 74, NAI. 39 Home, Port Blair, July 1910, 13–20, NAI. 40 Thanesari, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-i-Ajeeb, 1879 [1993], pp. 72–73. 41 Home, Port Blair, June 1893, 8–9, NAI. 42 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1896, 39–45, NAI. 43 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, Appendix I, NAI. 44 Ibid. 45 Temple, ‘The Andaman Tokens’, The Indian Antiquary, July 1897, pp. 192–194. 46 Home, Public, Nov 1867, 98–101, B, NAI (Report on the Settlement by Major H.N. Davies, Secretary to Chief Commissioner, British Burma, On Special Duty). 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Patricia O’ Brien, The Promise of Punishment, 1982. 50 Narrated to the superintendent of the prison in their home province, in Home, Judicial, Proceedings Volume, July–Dec 1859, No. 57, NAI. 51 Thanesari, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-i-Ajeeb, ‘Is tarikh se, tarikh-e-rihai tak humne phir barrack ya libas ya khana kaidiyon ka kabhi nahi dekha. […] go, 18 baras tak misle-mulziman kalepani mein rahe’, 1879 [1993], p. 58. 52 W. Walker, Report of the Committee of Jail Administration in India, Calcutta, 1889. 53 Report by Lyall and Lethbridge, in Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI. 54 Home, Port Blair, Dec 1910, 80–93, A, NAI (emphasis my own). 55 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, NAI. 56 Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, No. 40, IOR. 57 Home, Judicial, 19 May 1860, 41–48, A, NAI. 236 Notes

58 See Hamish Maxwell-Stewart and Ian Duffield, ‘Skin Deep Devotions: Religious Tattoos and Convict Transportation to Australia’, in Jane Caplan, ed., Written on the Body: The Tattoo in European and American History, Reaktion Books, London, 2000, pp. 118–135. They show that the convicts were tattooed by the administration on board the ship to Australia but the ships were also the place where the convicts removed their tattoos. The voyage was a creative and a reconsti- tutive space where body modification and alterations took place. Also see J. Bradley and Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, ‘Embodied Explorations: Investigat- ing Tattoos and the Transportation System’, in I. Duffield and J. Bradley, eds, Representing Convicts: New Perspectives on Transported Labour Migration, Leicester University Press, London, 1997, pp. 183–203, and Anderson, Legible Bodies, 2004. 59 Home, Judicial, 19 May 1860, 41–48, A, NAI. 60 The notion of ‘silence’ is borrowed here from the anthropological theory of ‘muted groups’, which was first proposed by Edwin Ardener. ‘Muteness’, according to this theory, was the result of power relations between the dominant and sub-dominant groups. By muteness he did not simply imply silence or neglect but a failure to document the lives of the mute groups based on their versions of reality and their ways of structuring and understanding the world. See M.C. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1988. 61 Oxley, The Convict Maids, 1996. Also see Ashruya Faruqee, ‘Conceiving the Coolie Women: Indentured Labor, Indian Women and Colonial Discourse’, South Asia Research, 16, 1, Spring 1996, pp. 1–76. 62 ‘Mr Gwyne’s Deputation to Andamans in July 1921’. This paragraph is from the notes in his diary, in Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 63 See Oxley for an excellent exposition of the Victorian class and moral preju- dices circumscribing the characterization of female convicts in The Convict Maids, 1996; also see Ian Gothard, Blue China: Single Female Migration to Colonial Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001. 64 Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid, eds, Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History, Kali for Women, New Delhi, 1989; Meenakshi Mukherjee, ‘Story, History and Her Story’, Studies in History, 9, 1, n.s., 1993, pp. 71–85; Charu Gupta, Sexuality, Obscenity, Community: Women, Muslims and the Hindu Public in Colonial India, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2001; Judith Walsh, Domesticity in Colonial India: What Women Learned When Men Gave Them Advice, Rowman and Littlefield, Oxford, 2004. 65 Padma Anagol, ‘The Emergence of the Female Criminal in India: Infanticide and Survival under the Raj’, History Workshop Journal, 53, 2002, pp. 73–93. Anagol discusses how the ‘infanticidal woman was a creation of colonialism’. Satadru Sen, ‘The Female Jails of Colonial India’, The Indian Economic and Social History Review, 39, 4, 2002, pp. 417–438. 66 Deborah Oxley, ‘Female Convicts’, in Stephen Nicholas et al., eds, Convict Workers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 85–97. 67 Byrne, Criminal Law, 1993. 68 Sumanta Banerjee, Dangerous Outcast: The Prostitute in Nineteenth Century Bengal, Seagull, Calcutta, 1998. 69 Thanesari, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-Ajib, 1879 [1993], pp. 69–71. 70 Home, Port Blair, March 1882, 45 to 51, NAI. 71 With time feelings of resentment brewed amongst unmarried female convicts who were well behaved and had also served as petty officers. The system of granting remissions to female convict wives, which had been brought into force to facilitate the marriages of life-term convicts, was found to be inequit- Notes 237

able. Yet the system was continued. It was feared that ending the practice would jeopardize the already unstable system of convict marriages. Home, Port Blair, Oct 1884, 81 to 82, NAI. 72 Home, Public, 16 July 1862, 17–18, A, NAI. 73 Census Report for 1901, R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 42, IOR. 74 The convict marriages involved a range of contradictions which the colonial ofﬁcials either sought to deal with or ignore. This was also the case with convict marriages in Australia; see David Kent and Norma Townsend, ‘Colonial Marriage: A Case Study of the Swing Protestors’, Labour History, 74, May 1998, pp. 40–53. 75 ‘Ethnographic Doc.’ No. 1714, Centre for Anthropology (CA), British Museum. 76 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1891, 92 and 94, NAI. 77 Sen gives these statistics in ‘Rationing Sex’, 1999, pp. 29–59. 78 Ibid. 79 Home, Port Blair, Proceeding Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI. 80 ‘The Forgotten Islands’, Mss Eur/F 209 no. 1, p. 58, IOR. Frances Stewart Robertson was entrusted with the task of persuading women prisoners in the Indian jails to migrate to the Andamans for the purpose of providing female marriage partners. 81 Thanesari, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-Ajib, 1879 [1993], p. 74. 82 Her case was signiﬁcant as it incurred the ire of Superintendent D. M. Stewart, who made sure that in future the deportation of under-age girls was stopped. He expressed his outrage at such a young child being sentenced to transportation for life, where ‘transportation is simply a piece of brutal cruelty’. He felt that the place of the child was in some reformatory, in Home, Judicial, April 1872, 235–236, B, NAI. It was urged that juvenile convicts be kept in reformatories or penitentiaries in India until they were at least twenty years of age. Finally, in 1875, the Government of India decided that juvenile convicts if sentenced to transportation were to be detained by the local governments until they attained the age of eighteen, in Home, Port Blair, April 1875, 30–33, NAI. 83 For a dichotomous characterization of female convicts’ experience as victims or as liberating in the Australian context see A. Summers, Damned Whores and God’s Police, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1975 and M. Dixon, The Real Matilda: Woman and Identity in Australia, 1788–1975, Penguin, Melbourne, 1976; M. Aveling, ‘She Only Married to be Free, or Cleopatra Vindicated’, in The Push from the Bush: A Bulletin of Social History: Devoted to the Year of Grace, 1838, 2, Nov. 1978, pp. 116–124. For a detailed historiographical discussion see Norma Townsend, ‘The Other Matildas or The Empresses Have No Clothes’, presented at the Convict Conference Colonial Places, Convict Spaces, in Leicester, December, 1999. Also see Ashruya Faruqee, ‘Conceiving the Coolie Women’, Spring 1996, pp. 1–76. Faruqee shows that the coolie women were construed as culprits than as victims. 84 Home, Judicial, 17 Sep 1858, 1–2, NAI; Home, Judicial, 12 Nov 1858, 6–16, NAI; Home, Public, 17 Dec 1858, 96–101, NAI. 85 Sir Henry W. Norman (1826–1904) was the military member of the Supreme Council of India (1870–77). He visited the Andamans in 1874, following the murder of Lord Mayo, to ‘confer with the Superintendent on all matters connected with the welfare of the Settlement and specially as to the proposed rules for the management of convicts’. Home, Port Blair, Aug 1874, 72, A, NAI. 86 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1874, 75, NAI. 87 Nicholas, ‘Unshackling the Past’, 1988, pp. 3–13. 88 Home, Port Blair, Aug 1915, 66, NAI. 238 Notes

89 Home, Port Blair, Jan 1919, 61, NAI. 90 J.S. Campbell’s Report, written in April 1872, reference in Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, NAI; Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI; Home, Port Blair, April 1877, 5 and 6, NAI; Home, Port Blair, October 1881, 8 to 9, NAI. 91 Indrani Chatterjee, ed., Unfamiliar Relations: Family and History in South Asia, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2004. 92 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI. 93 It is interesting to note the way the study of convict marriage in the Andamans presents a completely different picture from Australia, where it was the jailers who saw the convict marriages more as concubinage than as a formal marital arrangement; see Oxley, The Convict Maids, 1996 (the case studies of Australia and the Andamans may differ in this regard but are surprisingly similar in the way both the Settlement officials and the male convicts characterized the convict women). In the Andamans, the officials took pains not only to educate but to enforce the sanctity of the marriage that the convicts contracted; while the convicts, on the other hand, took a much more informal view of their marriage in the foreign land. Thus, this ‘difference in the cultural capital of the convicts and their gaolers’ was significant in determining the contours of social and political rehabilitation of the convicts in penal societies. In the case of Australia the ‘convict cultural capital’ was tied up with class perceptions, in the Andamans, race was the constitutive element of convict cultural capital that distinguished them from the colonial administrators. 94 Home, Port Blair, Sep 1915, 37–40, A, NAI. 95 Ibid. 96 Home, Port Blair, Feb 1918, 39, NAI. 97 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, No. 52, Appendix I, NAI. 98 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Jan 1889, 110–112, A, NAI. 99 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, no. 52, NAI. 100 Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1908, pp. 159–166. 101 R.H. Lowis, ‘Sketch of Life in the Andaman Islands’, Mss Eur D 1032, IOR. 102 Home, Port Blair, May 1911, 81–82, NAI. 103 Home, Port Blair, October 1919, 495, NAI. 104 Ibid. 105 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volumes, August 1887, 68 and 69, NAI. 106 Home, Judicial, 13 July 1860, 8–14, A, NAI. Muttra Das was rewarded for all the trouble he went through by being appointed the Tehsildar in the Agra and Allahabad Division. Home Judicial, 11 Aug 1860, 19–20, A, NAI. 107 The Alipur Bomb Conspiracy: some revolutionaries in the wake of Swadeshi movement organized into a group called Jugantar and Dacca Anushilan Samiti. On 30 April 1908, members of Jugantar attempted to kill Magistrate Kingsford, a British judge known for giving harsh sentences to Indian nationalists. The bomb however missed its target and instead killed two British women. The Nagpur Conspiracy case: V.D. Savarkar’s brother Ganesh Savarkar organized an armed revolt against the Minto-Morley reforms of 1909. He was arrested and transported to the Cellular Jail. V.D. Savarkar was also implicated for allegedly plotting the crime and eventually sent to the Andamans. 108 Home, Port Blair, December 1909, 84–87, NAI. 109 Extract from the diary of David Barry, Overseer, Cellular Jail, dated 28 July 1912, in Home, Political, 3 December 1912, 11–31, NAI. Notes 239

110 Home, Political, Oct 1912, 61–64, B, NAI. 111 The jail memoirs of the revolutionaries were not published until later in the 1920s and 1930s, Ghose, The Tale of My Exile, 1922; Savarkar, The Story of My Transport- ation for Life, 1950; Sen, Bengal’s Forgotten Warriors, 1945; Sinha, In Andamans: The Indian Bastille, 1939; Bandhopadhyaya, Nirvasiter Atmakatha, 1967. 112 Home, Political, July 1912, 1, NAI; Home, Political, 3 December 1912, 11–31, NAI. This article, ‘Political Prisoners in the Andamans’, was reproduced in a newspaper called India published in London and dated 25 July 1913; clipping found in Home, Political, Jan 1914, 12, Deposit, NAI. 113 Home, Port Blair, Sep 1912, 149, NAI; Home, Political, Aug 1912, 107–108, B, NAI; Home, Political, Nov 1912, 43–44, B, NAI. 114 One can ﬁnd a detailed account of Craddock’s visit in Majumdar’s famous monograph The Penal Settlement in the Andamans (1975). He pieces together archival sources with prisoners’ autobiographical accounts published following their release to present a fair picture of the struggle. 115 Home, Political, Jan 1919, 207–216, B, NAI. 116 Majumdar, Penal Settlement, 1975. 117 Home, Port Blair, Sep 1916, 22–24, NAI. 118 The Lahore Conspiracy Case: the Lahore Conspiracy Case trial was held in the aftermath of the Gadar Conspiracy of 1915. A group of Indian revolutionaries stationed in United States called the Gadar Party had planned a pan-Indian mutiny in the British Indian army during the First World War. Exposed by inﬁltrators, several Gadarites were rounded up and tried in Lahore. Many of them were transported to the Andamans. 119 Majumdar, Penal Settlement, 1975. 120 Home, Political, August 1919, 27–32, B, NAI. 121 Home, Port Blair, March 1914, 2–2A, A, NAI. Mathur, History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1968, also mentions this, p. 143. 122 Letter from L. Stuart, from Lucknow to A. Earle, 5 April 1911, in Home, Port Blair, May 1911, 2, Deposit, NAI. 123 Home, Jails, Oct 1914, 32–45, NAI. 124 Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille, 2001. Zinoman shows how the anti-colonial struggle exploited the colonial contradictions; also see Arnold, ‘India: The Contested Prison’, 2007, pp. 147–184 and ‘The Self and the Cell’, 2004, pp. 29–53. 125 Home, Political, 3 December 1912, 11–31, NAI. 126 See Fisher, The Politics of British Annexation, 1993, pp. 1–49; and Skuy, ‘Macaulay and the Indian Penal Code of 1862’, 1998, pp. 513–557. 127 Singha, A Despotism of Law, 1988; Anupama Rao, ‘Problems of Violence, States of Terror: Torture in Colonial India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 36, 43, 2001, pp. 4125–4133. 128 Arnold, ‘India: The Contested Prison’, 2007, pp. 147–184; and ‘The Self and the Cell’, 2004, pp. 29–53; Anindita Mukhopadhyay, ‘Jail Darpan: The Image of the Jail in Bengali Middle-Class Literature’, Studies in History, 15, 1, n.s., 1999, pp. 109–144. 129 An Echo from Andamans, Letters Written by Br. Savarkar to his Brother Dr. Savarkar, Vishvanath Vinayak Kelkar, Nagpur, 1928, in a letter dated 15 December 1912. 130 Savarkar, The Story of My Transportation for Life, 1950, p. 76. 131 Toth, Beyond Papillon, 2006, argues that the reason that the public saw the writings of prisoners as authoritative because ‘they adhered to enormously popular literary and journalistic conventions that had wide currency at the time’; Aguirre, ‘Prisons and Prisoners in Modernising Latin America’, 2007, pp. 14–54. 240 Notes

132 Dikotter, Crime, Punishment and the Prison, 2002, Dikotter shows how incarceration of party members strengthened the Communist Party of China; Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille, 2001. Zinoman also examines ‘the crucial historical role of the colonial prison in the rise of Vietnamese communism’. 133 Home, Political, April 1911, 11–12, B, NAI. 134 Kent and Townsend, The Convicts of the Eleanor, 2002; Lucy Frost and Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, eds, Chain Letters: Narrating Convict Lives, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001.

Chapter 7

1 Hirst, Convict Society, 1983, p. 217. 2 Report of the Indian Jail Conference, Calcutta, 1877. 3 Ibid. 4 Howell, Note on Jails and Jail Discipline in India 1867–68, 1868. 5 A similar dialectics existed in the case of the abolition debate on the French penal colony, New Caledonia. See Toth, Beyond Papillon, 2006. 6 Inspection Report by A. Mackenzie, 29 Dec 1885, in Home, Port Blair, July 1886, 98, NAI. 7 Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI. According to the Committee ‘the journey from Calcutta or Madras to Port Blair is but three and a half days by steamer and the voyage [is] now performed under conditions of little hardship, and is in no respect likely to be more dreaded that a voyage to Rangoon, which hundreds of Indians voluntarily undertake every year’. 8 For example, according to E.C. Bayley, the ‘main object of punishment – the main ground on which there is any justification for inflicting it – is the deterring effect which it has on others, anything which affects this, as the uncertainty of the weight of punishment, or the possibility of greatly lightening its burden, pro tanto, diminishes its efficacy, and also the justification for inflicting it’. 9 Report of Prison Discipline Committee, Calcutta, 1838. 10 Home, Port Blair, July 1906, 38–40, A, NAI (in note written by H.G. Stokes, a government official, on 14 June 1906). Also T.K. Banerjee, Background to Indian Criminal Law, Orient Longman, Calcutta, 1963, pp. 91–92. 11 The Government of India passed a resolution at Fort William in 1811, which stated: ‘At all events, it is an unquestionable fact that a sentence of transportation is at present by no means regarded with that dread which it is essential is should inspire in order to restrain ill-disposed persons from the commission of public offences.’ Resolution of the Govt. at Fort William, Bengal Criminal Judicial Consultations, 10 Dec 1811, cited in T.K. Banerjee, Background, 1963, p. 91, footnote 154. 12 Alapatt, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857’, 1981, pp. 295–314; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000, ‘Fashioning Identities’, 2001, pp. 152–174, and The Indian Uprising, 2007; Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969; Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers’, 2003, pp. 179–208, and ‘Bandits and Kings’, 2007, pp. 881–896. 13 The Andamans were not the only place being used for transportation. In 1870, the Lahore Central Jail and all the Central Jails in Bengal were appointed as places to which persons sentenced to transportation could be sent. However, the Andamans were the only major convict settler colony. Home, Judicial, 8 Jan 1870, 40–42, A, NAI; Home, Judicial, 22 Jan 1870, 30–31, A, NAI. 14 Foreign, Internal, Sep 1906, 90–91, B, NAI. Notes 241

15 29 Sep 1906 in Foreign, Internal, May 1907, 143–151, B, NAI. 16 30 Nov 1905 in Ibid. 17 Report by Lyall and Lethbridge, in Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI. 18 Ibid. 19 Home, Port Blair, June 1890, 74, NAI. 20 Sanjay, Nigam, ‘Disciplining and Policing the “Criminals by Birth”, Part I: The Making of a Colonial Stereotype – The Criminal Tribes and Castes of North India’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 27, 2/3, 1990, pp. 131–164, and Part II: The Development of a Disciplinary System, 1871–1900’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 27, 2/3, 1990, pp. 257–287; and Meena Radhakrishna, ‘Surveillance and Settlements under the Criminal Tribes Act in Madras’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 29, 2, 1992, pp. 171–198. 21 R.C. Temple ‘The Penal System at the Andamans’, Journal of the Society of Arts, Feb 24 1899, 47, 2, p. 414 in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 36, IOR. The views of the people who believed that the Andamans was a place of reform are resonant of those of the Australian colonists who, in the face of opposition by abolitionists, claimed that ‘the colony imported criminals, but didn’t make its own’. See Hirst, Convict Society, 1983, p. 210. 22 Home, Port Blair, August 1874, no. 52, Appendix I, NAI. 23 Ibid. 24 Temple, ‘The Penal System’, 1899, p. 414, IOR. 25 Home, Port Blair, Nov 1908, 48–52, A, NAI. 26 C.G. Dingwall-Fordyce, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1893–94, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1895; R.L. Heinig, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1895–96, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1897; Anderson, Report on the Exploration, 1905 and Report of Forest Resources, 1981. 27 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, January 1919, 61, NAI. 28 The complaints of the Settlement ofﬁcials were reminiscent of those of the curator of Herbarium of the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta called Mr Kurz, who had been sent to the Andamans (in March 1856) to make a collection of plants. He had also complained about convict labour and stated in 1868 that ‘the convict labour too is a very indifferent one (ﬁve convicts are said to do the same work as one free native worker) and scarce. […] Their untrustworthiness, moreover, would make a story of a Conservator in jungles without good protection dangerous’. Public Works Department, Forests, Jan 1868, 8–11, B, NAI. 29 In Heinig, Progress Report of Forest, 1897. 30 Jacob, Progress Report of Forest, 1921. 31 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Jan 1919, 61, NAI. 32 Home, Public, 4 Aug 1865, 7–8, A, NAI; Home, Port Blair, August 1874, 52, A, NAI. For instance, they were not allowed to bring in or sell liquor, arms, powder, shot or saltpetre in the Settlement. They had to obtain a ‘pass’ for keeping indi- viduals in employment and for bringing goods into the Settlement, and the Superintendent could ask them to leave the Islands at any time. 33 Merk’s note written on 15 Sep 1904, in Foreign, Internal, Sep 1906, 90–91, B, NAI. 34 Foreign, Internal, Sep 1906, 90–91, B, NAI. 35 Home, Port Blair, July 1906, 39, NAI. 36 Report of the Indian Jail Conference, Calcutta, 1877. 37 22 Feb 1907 in Home, Port Blair, Dec 1910, 80, NAI. 38 Report by C.W. Gwyne, 13 August 1921, in Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 242 Notes

30 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, July 1920, 120, NAI; Revenue and Agriculture Department, Forests, Nov 1910, 6–8, A, NAI and Home, Port Blair, August 1920, 77–78, A, NAI. 40 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, Jan 1919, 61, NAI. The exploitation of the forests in the Andamans was not extensive. The limited and centralized character of human settlements prevented large-scale exploitation. Of the total of about 1,500 square miles of workable forests, twenty-ﬁve per cent was still virgin by 1958, in spite of about eighty years of interference. See O.P. Bhargava, ‘Tropical Evergreen Virgin Forests of Andaman Islands’, Indian Forester, 84, 1958, pp. 20–29. 41 Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 42 Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, No. 40, IOR. The Settlement overcame the shortage of labour in some cases by greater input of technology. For instance, the handlooms used by the female convicts slowly gave way to pedal looms in 1902. In addition a new pin winder, bobbin winder and warp beaming machine were brought into use to improve the quality of the thread used. It was hoped that this would economize labour, increase the outturn and improve the discipline among the female convicts as the use of these machines prevented concealment of bad work. Home, Port Blair, 22 Dec 1902, 110, A, NAI. 43 J.W.A. Grieve, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1914–15, Calcutta, 1916. 44 Report by Sir Reginald Craddock on his visit in November 1913 in Home, Port Blair, April 1914, 34, NAI. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Home, Port Blair, August 1915, 66, NAI. 49 Ibid. 50 Home, Port Blair, Feb 1918, 39, NAI. 51 David Arnold has shown that the mainland jails were also rife with corruption by convict warders; ‘The Colonial Prison: Power, Knowledge and Penology in Nineteenth Century India’, in David Arnold and David Hardiman, eds, Sub- altern Studies, vol. 7, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995. 52 Home, Port Blair, Oct 1917, 40–41, A, NAI. 53 Ibid. 54 Home, Jails, Dec 1920, NAI. 55 Ernest Hart, Collected Papers, Mss Eur/D 738, IOR. 56 Home, Education, May 1872, 17–18, A, NAI and Home, Port Blair, Dec 1874, 42–44, NAI. Also see the Census of India, Report on the Andamans, Chapter 7, ‘The Local-Born Population’, 1931, pp. 29–30. 57 ‘Ethnographic Doc.’ no. 1714, CA. 58 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, July 1895, 78–81, NAI. 59 Home, Port Blair, Proceedings Volume, August 1915, 66, NAI. 60 Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI; Education, Health and Lands, Oversees branch, Oct 1926, 59–61, B, NAI. 61 R.C. Temple to the Secretary to the Government of India, 27 Sep 1895, in Home, Port Blair, Jan 1896, 111, NAI. 62 Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars, 1903, p. 344. 63 Ernest Hart, Collected Papers, Mss Eur/D 738, IOR. He was the Commissioner of the Nicobar Islands, 1921–28. 64 Santanu Das, ‘Sepoys, Sahibs and Babus: India, the Great War, and Two Colonial Journals’, in Mary Hammond and Shafquat Towheed, eds, Publishing in the First Notes 243

World War: Essays in Book History, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2007, pp. 61–77; Judith M. Brown, ‘War and the Colonial Relationship: Britain, India and War of 1914–1918’, in D.C. Ellinwood and S.D. Pradhan, eds, India and World War I, South Asia Books, Columbia, 1978, pp. 19–48. 65 A.C. Bose, ‘Indian Revolutionaries during the First World War: A Study of their Aims and Weaknesses’, in Ellinwood and Pradhan, eds, India and World War I, 1978, pp. 109–126; Alan Raucher, ‘American Anti-Imperialists and the Pro-India Movement, 1900–1932’, The Paciﬁc Historical Review, 13, 1, 1974, pp. 83–110; Amit Kumar Gupta, ‘Defying Death: Nationalist Revolutionism in India 1897–1938’, Social Scientist, 25, 9/10, 1997, pp. 3–27; Don Dignan, The Indian Revolutionary Problem in British Diplomacy, 1914–1919, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1983; Tilak Raj Sareen, The Indian Revolutionary Movement Abroad, 1905–1921, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1979; Durba Ghosh, ‘Terrorism in Bengal: Political Violence in Inter-war Years’, in Durba Ghosh and Dane Kennedy, eds, Decentring Empire: Britain, India and the Transcolonial World, Sangam Books, Orient Longman, 2006, pp. 270–292. 66 Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885–1947, Macmillan, New Delhi, 1983, p. 165; Stanley Wolpert, ‘Congress Leadership in Transition: Jinnah to Gandhi 1914–1920’, in Ellinwood and Pradhan, eds, India and World War I, 1978, pp. 127–140. 67 Michael Silvestri, ‘“The Sinn Fein of India”: Irish Nationalism and the Policing of Revolutionary Terrorism in Bengal’ The Journal of British Studies, 39, 4, 2000, pp. 454–486. According to Silvestri, after the First World War the Indian nationalists no longer saw Irishmen who were serving in India as ‘imperial servants’ but embraced them as a ‘fellow subject race’. 68 John Darwin, ‘Imperialism in Decline? Tendencies in British Imperial Policy between the Wars’, The Historical Journal, 23, 3, 1980, pp. 657–679; John Gal- lagher, ‘Nationalisms and the Crisis of Empire, 1919–1922’, Modern Asian Studies, 15, 3, 1981, pp. 355–368; Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007. Manela seeks to examine world history from a non-Eurocentric lens which gives equal historical agency to non-western actors in world politics but he attributes the creation of an international linkage between anti-colonial nationalisms to the then American President Woodrow Wilson’s inspirational speeches. For the Russian connection see Tilak Raj Sareen, Russian Revolution and India, 1917–1921, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1977; Puran Chandra Joshi, Lenin in Contemporary Indian Press, by P.C. Joshi, Gautam Chattopadhyay, Devendra Kaushik, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, 1970; Ali Ashraf and G.A. Syomin, eds, October Revolution and India’s Independence: Proceedings of the Soviet Land, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1977. 69 P.G. Robb, The Government of India and Reform: Policies Towards Politics and Constitution 1916–1921, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1976, p. 43. 70 A.K. Bagchi, Private Investment in India, 1900–1939, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1972; S.G. Panandikar, Some Aspects of the Economic Consequences of the War for India, D.B. Taraporewala, Sons & Co., Bombay, 1921, Judith M. Brown, Gandhi’s Rise to Power, Indian Politics, 1915–22, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1972; Ravindra Kumar, ‘Bombay Textile’ 1919’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 8, 1, 1971, pp. 1–29; P.C. Emmer, ‘The Meek Hindu’: The Recruitment of Indian Laborers for Service Overseas, 1870–1916’, in P.C. Emmer, ed., Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labour Before and After Slavery, Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1986, pp. 187–208; Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery, Oxford University Press, London, 1974, p. 367; Partha Sarthi Gupta, 244 Notes

Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914–1964, Macmillan, London, 1975, p. 52. 71 Another reason for the economic (industrial and labour) issues being at the fore- front was because World War I had put immense economic strain on the empire. See B.R. Tomlinson, ‘India and the British Empire, 1880–1935’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 13, 4, 1975, p. 349. 72 Sarkar, Modern India, 1983. 73 Tinker, New System of Slavery, 1974 and Sarkar, Modern India, 1983, pp. 244–247. 74 C.F. Andrews and W.W. Pearson, Indian Indentured Labour in Fiji (A Report to the Viceroy of India) 19 February 1916; John D. Kelly, A Politics of Virtue: Hinduism, Sexuality and Countercolonial Discourse in Fiji, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991; and Mohapatra, ‘Restoring the Family’, 1995, pp. 227–260. 75 John Gallagher and Anil Seal, ‘Britain and India Between the Wars’, Modern Asian Studies, 15, 3, 1981, pp. 387–414. According to Gallagher and Seal the War galvanized and accelerated certain issues and problems which pre-dated it, p. 9. 76 Letter from C.F. Andrews to R.H. Maxwell, Superintendent of Andamans, written from Manorville, Simla on 11 Sep 1937, in Home, Jails, 1937, 77/2, NAI. 77 Sarkar, Modern India, 1983, p. 165; Home, Jails, 28, Resolution no. 63, 1919, NAI. 78 Home, Jails, Dec 1920, NAI. 79 Report of Indian Jail Committee, Oct 1920 in Home, Jails, Dec 1920, NAI. 80 Ibid. 81 Ibid. 82 Home, Jails, Dec 1920, A, NAI. 83 Ibid. 84 Home, Jails, Dec 1920, NAI. 85 Ibid. 86 Ibid. 87 Sir Reginald Craddock, Home member of the Governor General’s Council, in Home, Port Blair, April 1914, 34, NAI. 88 Report of the Committee of Jail Administration in India, Calcutta, 1889. 89 H.H. Risley, the Secretary to the Government of India, to Superintendent Merk, in Foreign, Internal, Sep 1906, 90–91, B, NAI. 90 Home, Jails, 1921, 2-T-1(1), West Bengal State Archives, Kolkata (WBSA). 91 Ibid. 92 Home, Port Blair, June 1885, 84–87, A, NAI. 93 Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 94 Ross Island had a meteorological station since 1868 and a tidal observatory since 1880, in R.C. Temple Collection, MSS Eur/F 98, No. 38, IOR. Home, Port Blair, Dec 1920, 27, NAI. 95 Home, Jails, Dec 1920, NAI. 96 Ibid. 97 J.S. Campbell’s Report, written in April 1872, reference in Home, Port Blair, August 1874, no. 52, NAI. 98 Home, Port Blair, May 1880, 1 to 3, NAI. 99 Ibid. 100 Legislative Assembly Debates, 11 March 1921, pp. 956–960, Nehru Memorial and Museum Library, Delhi (NMML). 101 Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 102 Ibid. 103 Native Newspaper Reports, Calcutta, 1921, NAI Library. Notes 245

104 Ibid. 105 Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 106 Home, Jails, 1922, 44, NAI. 107 Home, Port Blair, Jan 1921, 27–29, NAI. 108 Report of the Indian Jail Committee, 1919–1920, Calcutta, 1920, vol. 1, pp. 310–311. The Indian Jail Committee of 1919 had denounced penal transportation as a ‘dehumanizing system’ and as the ‘relic of an exploded idea of ancient penology’, in which the ‘reformation of the individual was not seriously contemplated if it was not entirely ignored’. It recommended the substitution of transportation for life with rigorous imprisonment for life. This led to the abolition of the sentence of transportation in the Indian subcontinent in 1921. For the purpose, a bill was introduced in the legislative assembly on 23 September 1922, Legislative Assembly Debates, NMML. 109 Punjab was the only province granted temporary permission to deport convicts against their will, in Home, Jail, 1931, 111, NAI. 110 Home, Political, July 1920, 120, NAI. 111 Home, Jails, 1922, 8, NAI. 112 See Taylor C. Sherman, ‘From Hell to Paradise? Voluntary Transfer of Convicts to the Andaman Islands, 1921–1940’, Modern Asian Studies, 43, 2, 2009, pp. 367–388. 113 Home, Jails, 1922, 157, NAI. 114 Ibid. 115 Home, Port Blair, Jan 1921, 27–29, NAI. 116 Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI. 117 Home, Jails, 1925, 83, NAI. 118 Home, Jails, 1922, 44, NAI; Home, Jails, 1921, 2-T-1(1), WBSA. 119 Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI; Education, Health and Lands Dept, Overseas branch, Oct 1926, 59–61, B, NAI. 120 Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI. 121 Home, Jails, 1924, 451, NAI; Home, Jails, 1926, 404, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 187, NAI; Education, Health and Lands Department, Forest Branch, Sep 1926, 135–139, B, NAI; Home, Jails, 1929, 74, NAI; Home, Jails, 1925, 554, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 351, NAI; Home, Jails, 1922, 527, NAI; Home, Jails, 1923, 66, NAI; Home, Jails, 1925, 279, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 17, NAI; Home, Jails, 1926, 398, NAI; Home, Jails, 1926, 59, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 48, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 307, NAI; Home, Jails, 1927, 36, NAI. 122 Home, Jails, 29 Aug 1922, 418, NAI. 123 At the time of the decision to abolish transportation there were 11,532 convicts of whom 1,168 were self-supporters. Of the convicts 3,000 were convicted of ‘crimes of passion’, 6,000 were convicted of ‘serious offences’ but not ‘habitual’, and 2,500 were professional criminals. In addition there was a population of 3,000 which came under the category of local-born. Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI; Education, Health and Lands Dept, Overseas branch, Oct 1926, 59–61, B, NAI. 124 Home, Jails, 1926, 120, NAI; Education, Health and Lands Dept, Overseas branch, Oct 1926, 59–61, B, NAI. 125 Home, Jails, 1930, 30, NAI.

Conclusion

1 Brian Sandberg, ‘Beyond Encounters: Religion, Ethnicity, and Violence in the Early Modern Atlantic World, 1492–1700’, Journal of World History, 17, 1, 2006, 246 Notes

pp. 1–25; M. Perreault, ‘“To Fear and Love Us”: Intercultural Violence in the English Atlantic’, Journal of World History, 17, 1, 2006, pp. 71–94; Martel, ‘Hans Staden’s Captive Soul’, 2006, pp. 51–70; Janet Whatley, Jean de Lery: History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1992, pp. xv–xxxviii. 2 According to Clare Anderson, the management in Mauritius ‘was also far more reliant on the integration of convicts within the hierarchy of command that was ever explicitly acknowledged’. The case in the Andamans, however, differed, where the attempt was not only to integrate the convict into state-sponsored hierarchies but also to reform by restoring some measure of his social life which he had lost as a result of transportation. 3 Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers’, 2003, pp. 179–208. 4 Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944; Thomas Haskell, ‘Capitalism and the Origins of Human Sensibility’, parts 1 and 2, American Historical Review, 90, 2–3, 1985, pp. 339–361 and 547–566; Solow and Engerman, British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery 1987; Steinfeld, Invention of Free Labour, 1991, ‘Changing Legal Conceptions of Free Labour’, 1999, pp. 144–146, and ‘Labour – Free or Coerced?’, 1997, pp. 107–126; Northrup, ‘Free and Unfree Labour Migration’, 2003, pp. 125–130; Eltis, Coerced and Free Migration, 2002; Prakash, Bonded Histories, 1990; Nicholas, Convict Workers, 1988; Dufﬁeld and Bradley, Representing Convicts, 1997; Oxley, Convict Maids, 1996; John McDonald and Ralph Shlomowitz, ‘The Cost of Ship- ping Convicts to Australia’, International Journal of Maritime History, 2, 2, 1990, pp. 1–32; George Rudé, Protest and Punishment: The Story of Social and Political Protestors Transported to Australia, 1788–1868, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978; Sandhu, Indians in Malaya, 1969; Sen, Disciplining Punishment, 2000; Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean, 2000; Yang, ‘Indian Convict Workers’, 2003, pp. 179–208. 5 Singh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1994, p. 9. Bibliography

I. Unpublished Government Records and Private Papers

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Reverend Pollock, Two manuscripts on his visit to Andamans and Burma, MSS Eur D 674. Papers of Ernest Hart, Assistant Commissioner of Nicobar islands, MSS Eur D 738. E.H.M. Lowis and Mary Deane, articles and memoirs on Andamans, MSS Eur D 1032. Mrs and Brigadier C.E. Gray, Letters & Account of life in Indian Army, MSS Eur. D 1037. Admiral Cornwallis, Three letters regarding Naval Affairs, MSS Eur E 368. Sorabji Collection, the Papers of Cornelia Sorabji, MSS Eur F 165. Indian Civil Service Collection, MSS Eur F 180. John Henry Hutton, Papers, IOR Neg 11711–12. Mountbatten Collection, IOR Neg 15538–67. Miscellaneous Collection of Ofﬁcial and Private Correspondence and Papers of Historical and Geographical Accounts, IOR Pos 4211–32. Alexander Kyd, Three Reports, MSS Eur J 810–12, and Documents Collected on Andamans, MSS Eur K 150.

Home Miscellaneous Series Plan for Port Cornwallis, 388 (pp. 88–101). Observations of Melchior La Beaume on Colonization of Andamans, 434 (pp. 375–385). L.R. Reid to Lieut. Jacob, 552 (p. 5).

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II. Government Publications and Reports

Andaman and Nicobar Manual, 1868, 1886, 1908. Anderson, C.W.B., Report on the Exploration in the North Andaman, Calcutta, 1905. Askari, S.H., ed., Fort William – India House Correspondence, 1787–1791, vol. 16, Delhi, 1976. Black, C.E.D., Memoirs of Indian Surveys, 1891. Bradley, J.W., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1920–21, Calcutta, 1922. Bibliography 249

Census Reports of the Andaman and Nicobars, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, 1951, 1961. Christophers, S.R., Malaria in the Andamans, Scientiﬁc Memoirs by Ofﬁcers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India, Calcutta, 1912. Dingwall-Fordyce, C.G., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1893–94, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1895. Ferrar, M.H., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1884–85, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1886. Ford, B., The Acts, Resolutions, Orders, & c., of the Government of India to Regulate the Administration of the Penal Settlement of Port Blair, Andaman Islands, With a Code of Regulations Based Thereon, Calcutta, 1868. Grieve, J.W.A., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1914–15, Calcutta, 1916. Handbook for the Andaman and Nicobars, 1877. Heinig, R.L., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1895–96, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1897. ——, Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1896–97, Government of India Press, Calcutta, 1898. Howell, A.P., Note of Jails and Jail Discipline in India, 1867–68, Calcutta, 1868. Hutchinson, J., Observation on the General and Medical Management of Indian Jails, Calcutta, 1845. Imperial Gazetteer, Provincial Series, Andaman and Nicobars, Calcutta, 1907. Memoranda submitted to the Indian Statuary (Simon) Commission by the Government of India, Vol. IV, Part I, 1930, pp. 361–402. Jackson, J., Report of English System of Penal Servitude, 1926. Jacob, W.R.L., Progress Report of Forest Administration in Andamans, 1919–20, Calcutta, 1921. Parkinson, C.E., The Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands: An Account of the Trees, Shrubs and Principal Climbers of the Islands, published By M/s. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, 23-A, New Connaught Place, Dehradun, 1921. Phillimore, R.H., Historical Records of the Survey of India, vol. 1, Eighteenth Century, Survey of India, Dehradun, 1945. Report of Forest Resources of South and Middle Andamans, Forest Survey of India, Dehradun, 1981. Report of the Committee of Jail Administration in India, Calcutta, 1889. Report of Indian Jail Conference, Calcutta, 1877. Report of Indian Jail Committee, Calcutta, 1864. Report on Indian Jail Committee, 1919–20, Govt. Central Press, Simla, 1920. Report of Prison Discipline Committee, Calcutta, 1838. Saletore, B.A., ed., Fort William: India House Correspondence, 1782–85, vol. 9, Delhi, 1959. Selections from the Records of the Government of India in the Home Department, No. XXIV and XXV on Andamans, Calcutta, 1859. Walker, J.P., Rules for the Management and Discipline of Prisoners, Commission of Jail Management, 1889.

III. Colonial Literature (Monographs, Diaries, Articles) and Travel Literature

Andrews, C.F. and Pearson, W.W., Indian Indentured Labour in Fiji (A Report to the Viceroy of India) 19 February 1916. Aspinall, A., Cornwallis in Bengal: The Administrative and Judicial Reforms of Lord Cornwallis in Bengal Together with Accounts of the Commercial Expansion of The East 250 Bibliography

India Company, 1786–1793, and of the Foundation of Penang, 1786–1793, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1931. Birch, W.B., ‘The Andaman Islands’, Calcutta Review, 116, 1878, pp. 157–177. Bruce, G.E., Tom in the Andamans, Whitcombe and Tombs, Melbourne, 1930. Bryson, Alexander, Report of the Climate and Principal Diseases of the African Station, London, 1847. Cane-Brown, J., The Punjab and Delhi in 1857, Delhi, 1861; 1970. Colebrook, Lt. R.H., ‘On the Andaman Islands’, Asiatik Research, 4, 1795, pp. 385–395. Coopland, R.M., A Lady’s Escape from Gwalior, London, 1859. Cutting, S., The Fire Ox and Other Years, Collins, London, 1947. Dass, F.A.M., The Andaman Islands, Good Shepherd Convent Press, Bangalore, 1937. Day, Francis, ‘Observations on the Andamanese’, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, June 1870, pp. 153–163. Dyers, Saunders, A., ‘The Andaman Islands’, Calcutta Review, 116, 1903, pp. 260–291. Fairchild, H.N., The Nobel Savage, New York, 1928. Forrest, G.W., A History of the Indian Mutiny, 3 volumes, London, 1904. Freeman-Grenville, G.P.S., Kitab Ajaib-ul-Hind, East West, London, 1980. Gait, Edward, ‘Some Observations on the Andamanese’, in Man in India, 2, 1922, pp. 97–99. Grifﬁths, C.J., A Narrative of the Siege of Delhi with an Account of the Mutiny at Ferozpore in 1857, London, 1910. Haughton, J.C., ‘Papers Relating to the Aborigines of the Andaman Islands’, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 30, 1861, pp. 251–263. Hill, S.C., ‘Notes on Piracy in Eastern Waters’, Indian Antiquary, 52, 1923, p. 26. Kaye, John William, The History of the Great Revolt, 3 volumes, Gian Publishing House, 1988. Kloss, C. Beadon, In the Andamans and Nicobars: The Narrative of a Cruise in the Schooner “Terrapin”, with Notices of the Islands, their Fauna, Ethnology, John Murray, London, 1903. Lee-Warner, William, Memoirs of Field Marshall Sir Henry Wylie Norman, London, 1908. Mackenzie, Compton, All Over The Place, Fifty Thousand Miles By Sea, Air, Road And Rail, London, 1949. Malleson, G.B., History of the Indian Mutiny, 3 volumes, 1878–1880. Man, E.H., Aboriginal Inhabitants of Andamans, Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland by Trubner, London, 1883 (Sanskaran Prakashan, Delhi, 1975). ——, The Nicobar Islands and Their People, Guildford, 1932. ——, A Dictionary of the South Andaman Language, Bombay, 1923. Mandeville, John, The Book of John Mandeville, translated with an introduction by C.W.R.D. Moseley, Penguin Books, 1983. Markham, C.R., Memoir of Indian Surveys, London, 1878. Marshall, Henry, Notes on the Medical Topography of the Interior of Ceylon, London, 1821. McNair, J.F.A., Prisoners Their Own Warders: A Record of the Convict Prison at Singapore in the Straits Settlements Established 1825, Discontinued 1873, Together with a Cursory History of the Convict Establishments at Bencoolen, Penang and Malacca from the Year 1797, Westminster, 1899. Metcalfe, C.T., Two Native Narratives of the Mutiny in Delhi, London, 1898. Minorsky, V., The Accounts of Al-Marawazi, Hakluyt Society, London, 1942. Mouat, F.J., Adventures and Researches Among the Andaman Islanders, London, Hurst and Blackett, 1863. ——, ‘Narrative of an Expedition’, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 32, 1862, pp. 109–126. Mulvany, John, ‘Two Notable Prison Administrators’, Calcutta Review, 6, 292, 1918. Bibliography 251

Omont, Henri, Livres de Merveilles, Marco Polo, Odoric De Pordenone, Mandeville, Hayton, Etc., Volume I, Paris, Catala, 1907. Parkes, Fanny, Wanderings of Pilgrim, in Search of the Picturesque, During Four-and- Twenty Years in the East; With Revelations of Life in Zenana, vol. 1, London, 1850. Pemberton’s Collection of Voyages and Travels, London, 1811, vol. 7. Polo, Marco, Travels of Marco Polo, translated and with an introduction by Ronald Latham, Penguin Books, 1958. Portman, M.V., History of Our Relations with the Andamanese, vol. 1, Calcutta, 1899. ——, ‘The Andamanese Fire Legend’, Indian Antiquary, 26, 1898, pp. 14–18. ——, ‘Disposal of the Dead Among the Andamanese’, Indian Antiquary, 25, 1896, pp. 56–57. ——, ‘Notes on Andamanese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp. 362–371. ——, ‘Andamanese Music’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 20, 1888, pp. 181–218. ——, The Exploration and Survey of the Little Andamans, reprinted from the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1888. Prain, D., ‘Non-Indigenous Flora’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 59, 1891, pp. 235–261. Prinsep, G.A., An Account of Steam Vessels and of Proceedings Connected with Steam Navigation in British India, Calcutta, 1830. Radcliffe-Brown, A.R., The Andaman Islanders: A Study in Social Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1922. ——, ‘Notes on the Language of the Andaman Islands’, Anthropos, 14, 1914, pp. 36–52. ——, ‘The Religion of the Andaman Islanders’, Folklore, vol. 20, 1909, p. 257. Ritchie, John, ‘Description of the Earliest Known Contact with the Andamanese’, 1771, this article was edited and published by R.C. Temple as ‘An Unpublished 18th Century Document about the Andamans’, The Indian Antiquary, 30 June 1901, p. 232 of pp. 232–238 (seen cited on http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/ ritchie/rep-ritchie.htm). ——, ‘Remarks upon the Coast and Bay of Bengal, the Outlets of the Ganges and Interjacent Rivers’, 1771, reproduced by R.C. Temple, ‘Unpublished XVIIIth Century Document about the Andamans’, Indian Antiquary, June 1901, p. 235 of pp. 232–238. Ritson, Joseph, An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food as a Moral, London, 1802. Russell, William H., My Indian Mutiny Diary, London, 1857. Schlich, W., Schlich’s Manual of Forestry, Vol. 1, Policy in the British Empire, London, 1922. Stewart, Charles, Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa and Europe during the Years 1799–1803, London, 1814, p. 12. Sullivan, Louis Robert, A Few Andamanese Skulls: With Comparative Notes on Negrito Craniometry (Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 23, 4), The Trustees, New York, 1921, pp. 175–201. Symes, Michael, An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1795, London, 1880; 1995. Temple, R.C., ‘Remarks on the Andaman Islanders and Their Country’, Indian Antiquary, 52, 1923, pp. 151–157 and 216–224. ——, ‘A Plan for A Uniform Scientiﬁc Record of the Languages of Savages’, Indian Antiquary, July 1907, pp. 181–195. ——, ‘The Practical Value of Anthropology’, Indian Antiquary, June 1905, pp. 132–144. ——, ‘The Trade in Andamanese Slaves’, Indian Antiquary, 30, 1901, p. 120. ——, ‘The Penal System at the Andamans’, Journal of Society of Arts, Feb 24 1899, vol. XLVII, No. 2, 414, pp. 192–305, in R.C. Temple Collection, Mss Eur/F 98, no. 36, IOR. ——, ‘The Andaman Tokens’, Indian Antiquary, July 1897, pp. 192–194. Thompson, A., ‘Description of the Andaman Bone Necklace’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 2, 1881, pp. 295–309. 252 Bibliography

Thompson, Edward, The Other Side of the Medal, London, 1926. Tibbetts, G.R., Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean Before the Coming of the Portuguese, translation of Kitab al-Fawaid ﬁ usul al-bahr wal-qawaid of Ahmad b. Majid al-Najdi, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1981. Troup, R.S., Colonial Forest Administration, Oxford, 1941. Von-Furer-Haimendorf, Christoph, The Naked Nagas, Head-hunters of Assam in Peace and War, Thacker, Spink and Company Limited, Calcutta, 1946. Yapp, Peter, ed., The Travellers’ Dictionary of Quotation, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1983.

VI. Prison and Convict Literature

An Echo from Andamans, Letters Written by Br. Savarkar to his Brother Dr. Savarkar, Vishvanath Vinayak Kelkar, Nagpur, 1928. Ghose, Barindra Kumar, The Tale of My Exile, Pondicherry, 1922. Khairabadi, Fazl-i-Haqq, Baaghi Hindustan, Almajma-ul-Islami Fazul Uloom Moham- madabad, Guahana. Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, 4th edition, 1985. Savarkar, V.D., The Story of My Transportation for Life, translated by V.N. Naik, Bombay, 1950 (ﬁrst published in Marathi in 1927). Sen, Niranjan, Bengal’s Forgotten Warriors, People’s Publishing House, Bombay, 1945. Sinha, Bejoy Kumar, In Andamans: The Indian Bastille, Kanpur, 1939. Thanesari, Mohammad Jafar, Kalapani Ya Tarikh-Ajib, Delhi, 1879, reprint, Lahore, 1993. Upendranath Bandhopadhyaya, Nirvasiter Atmakatha, National Publishers, Calcutta. 1967.

VII. Secondary Books and Articles

Adams, Bruce F., The Politics of Punishment: Prison Reforms in Russia, 1863–1917, Northern Illinois University Press, DeKalb, 1996. Agnew, J.A., and J.S. Duncan, eds, The Power of Place: Bringing Together Geographical and Sociological Imaginations, Unwin Hyman, Boston, 1989. Aguirre, Carlos, ‘Prisons and Prisoners in Modernising Latin America (1800–1940)’, in Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Conﬁnement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2007, pp. 14–54. ——, The Criminals of Lima and Their Worlds: The Prison Experience, 1850–1935, Duke University Press, Durham, 2005. Ahuja, Ravi, ‘Mobility and Containment, the Voyages of South Asian Seamen, 1900–1960’, International Review of Social History, 51, 2006, pp. 111–141. Alapatt, George K., ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857: Indian Indentured Labour and Planta- tion Politics in British Guiana’, Journal of Indian History, 59, 1–3, 1981, pp. 295–314. Almond, P.C., Adam And Eve in Seventeenth Century Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999. Anagol, Padma, ‘The Emergence of the Female Criminal in India: Infanticide and Survival under the Raj’, History Workshop Journal, 53, 2002, pp. 73–93. Anderson, Clare, The Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion, Anthem South Asian Studies, London, 2007. ——, ‘Sepoys, Servants and Settlers: Convict Transportation in the Indian Ocean, 1787–1945’, Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Conﬁnement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2007, pp. 185–220. Bibliography 253

——, ‘“The Ferringees are Flying – The Ship is Ours!”: The Convict Middle Passage in Colonial South And Southeast Asia, 1790–1860’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 42, 2, 2005, pp. 143–186. ——, Legible Bodies: Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia, Berg, UK, 2004. ——, ‘The Execution of Rughobursing: The Political Economy of Convict Transport- ation and Penal Labour in Early Colonial Mauritius’, Studies in History, 19, 2, n.s., 2003, pp. 185–197. ——, ‘Fashioning Identities: Convict Dress in Colonial South and Southeast Asia’, History Workshop Journal, 52, Autumn, 2001, pp. 153–174. ——, Convicts in the Indian Ocean: Transportation from South Asia to Mauritius 1815–53, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2000. ——, ‘Godna: Inscribing Indian Convicts in the Nineteenth Century’, in Jane Caplan, ed., Written on the Body: The Tattoo in European and North American History, Reaktion Books, London, 2000, pp. 102–117. Anderson, David and Richard Grove, eds, Conservation in Africa: People, Problems and Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987. Andrade, Tonio, ‘The Company’s Chinese Pirates: How the Dutch East India Company Tried to Lead a Coalition of Pirates to War against China, 1621–1662’, Journal of World History, 15, 4, 2004, pp. 415–444. Andrews, Christine G., ‘The Boucicaut Masters’, Gesta, 41, 1, Artistic Identity in the Late Middle Ages, 2002, pp. 29–38. Arens, W., The Man-Eating Myth, Anthropology and Anthropophagy, Oxford University Press, New York, 1979. Arnold, David, ‘India: The Contested Prison’, in Frank Dikotter and Ian Brown, eds, Cultures of Confinement: A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2007, pp. 147–184. ——, ‘The Self and the Cell: Indian Prison Narratives as Life Histories’, in David Arnold and Stuart Blackburn, eds, Telling Lives in India: Biography, Autobiography and Life History, Permanent Black, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 29–53. ——, ‘“Illusory Riches”: Representations of the Tropical World, 1840–1950’, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 21, 1, 2000, pp. 6–18. ——, Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1998. ——, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion, Blackwell, Oxford, 1996. ——, Warm Climate and Western Medicine, Rodopi Press, Amsterdam and Atlanta, 1996. ——, ‘The Colonial Prison: Power, Knowledge and Penology in Nineteenth Century India’, in David Arnold and David Hardiman, eds, Subaltern Studies, vol. 7, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994, pp. 140–178. ——, ‘Indian Ocean as a Disease Zone, 1500–1950’, South Asia, 14, 2, 1991, pp. 1–21. —— and R. Guha, eds, Nature, Culture and Imperialism: Essays in the Environmental History of South Asia, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, eds, The Post-colonial Studies Reader, Routledge, New York, 1995. Ashraf, Ali, and G.A. Syomin, eds, October Revolution and India’s Independence: Proceedings of the Soviet Land, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1977. Atkinson, Alan, ‘The Free-Born Englishman Transported: Convict Rights as a Measure of Eighteenth-Century Empire’, Past and Present, 144, 1994, pp. 88–115. Attwood, Bain, ‘Aboriginal History’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 41, 1995, pp. 33–47. 254 Bibliography

Aveling, M., ‘She Only Married to be Free, or Cleopatra Vindicated’, in The Push from the Bush: A Bulletin of Social History: Devoted to the Year of Grace, 1838, 2, 1978, pp. 116–124. Bagchi, A.K., Private Investment in India, 1900–1939, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1972. Bailyn, Bernard, Atlantic History, Concept and Contours, Harvard University Press, Cambridge 2005. Bairstow, D., ‘With the Best Will in the World: Some Records of Early White Contact with the Gampignal on the Australian Agricultural Company’s Estate at Port Stephens’, Aboriginal History, 17, 1, 1993, pp. 4–16. Baker, A.R.H. and Mark Billinge, eds, Period and Place: Research Methods in Historical Geography, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982. Baker, Francis, Peter Hulme and Margaret Iversen, eds, Cannibalism and the Colonial World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998. Balachandran, G., ‘Circulation through Seafaring, Indian Seamen, 1890–1945’, in Claude Markovits et al., eds, Society and Circulation: Mobile People and Itinerant Cultures in South Asia, 1750–1950, Anthem, London and New York, 2006, pp. 89–130. ——, ‘South Asian Seafarers and Their Worlds: c. 1870–1930s’, conference paper presented in Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges, 12–15 Feb. 2003, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., http://www.historycooperative.org/ proceedings/seascapes/index.html. ——, ‘Conﬂicts in the International Maritime Labour Market: British and Indian Seamen, Employers and the State, 1890–1939’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 39, 1, 2002, pp. 71–101. ——, ‘Searching for the Sardar: The State, Pre-capitalist Institutions, and Human Agency in the Maritime Labour Market, Calcutta, 1850–1935’, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds, Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia, Oxford University Press, Delhi and Oxford, 1996, pp. 206–236. Ball, Charles, The History of Indian Mutiny, Masters Publishers, New Delhi, 1981. Banerjee, Nirmala, ‘Working Women in Colonial Bengal: Modernization and Marginal- ization’, in Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid, eds, Recasting Women, Kali for Women Press, New Delhi, 1989, pp. 267–301. Banga, Indu, ed., Ports and their Hinterland in India, 1700–1950, Manohar, New Delhi, 1992. Bannerjee, T.K., Background to Indian Criminal Law, Orient Longman, Calcutta, 1963, pp. 91–92. Banerjee, Sumanta, Dangerous Outcast: The Prostitute in Nineteenth Century Bengal, Seagull, Calcutta, 1998. Barrow, Ian J., Making History, Drawing Territory, British Mapping in India, c. 1756–1905, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003. Barua, Pradip, ‘Military Developments in India, 1750–1850’, Journal of Military History, 58, 1994, pp. 599–616. Bassett, D.K., ‘The Historical Background, 1500–1815’, in Wang Gungwu, Malaysia: A Survey, Frederick A. Praeger, London, 1964, pp. 113–127. Bayliss-Smith, Tim, Richard Bedford and Harold Brookﬁeld, Islands, Islanders and the World: Colonial and Post-colonial Experience of Eastern Fiji, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. Bayly, C.A., Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996. ——, ‘The Age of Hiatus: The North Indian Economy and Society, 1830–50’, in A. Siddiqi, ed., Trade and Finance in Colonial India, 1750–1860, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1995. Bibliography 255

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Alipore settling, 34, 36, 61, 68, 76–79, 82, bomb case, 156 103–105, 166, 184 jail, 115, 141–142 South Andaman, 8, 24, 169 Andaman Islands strategic colony, 33, 35–36, 39–40, 42, agricultural colony, 14, 16–17, 23–28, 46–47, 51, 52–53, 87, 162, 68–70, 76–79, 104, 105, 154, 182, 178–179, 186, 188 183, 185 traveller’s accounts, 5, 7, 17–18 climate, 4, 10, 45–46, 63, 70, 75–76, see also surveyors 115, 134, 135, 176 Andamanese, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17–23, 24, commercial colony, 6, 14, 23–25, 40, 25, 29–33, 52, 73, 80–84, 86, 137, 67, 68–70, 104, 105, 123, 150–151, 183, 187 127–128, 131, 161, 162, 166–169, Aka Bea De, 84, 86 176, 178, 185, 186, 188 cannibalism, 1, 4, 5, 6, 15, 17–23, 26, committee, 17, 30, 51, 62, 68 28, 29, 31–32, 33, 35, 52, 80–82, cost, 34, 40, 61–65, 64, 65, 86–70, 80, 84, 187 86–87, 105, 108, 113–114, 115, Census, 128 168, 169, 176, 178, 186, 188, civilizing, 6, 14, 17, 28–29, 30–31, 189 33–34, 52, 84, 128–130 ﬁrst settlement, 6, 16, 22, 27–28, disease, 130, 183 36–43, 115 Great Andamanese, 81, 84, 86 forests, 4, 10, 21, 27, 36, 45, 61–62, hostility, 29–30, 50, 80, 81, 84, 183 68, 69–70, 75–79, 82, 86, 104, Jarawas (Jarrahwallah), 84, 86, 127, 108, 114–115, 118, 119, 121, 183 136–137, 142, 167, 168–169, 176, labour, 15, 28–29, 123, 127–130, 161 180, 181, 183 Little Andamanese, 86 see also tropical jungle population, 127 life, 14, 70–75, 71, 72, 97, 118–119, resistance, 15, 20–31, 61, 82, 130 126–127, 134–135, 141–142, 156, settled life, 29, 129 160, 162, 185 silence, 15, 30 Little Andaman, 8, 127 trade, 127–128 Middle Andaman, 8, 117, 136, 168, tribes, 8, 84, 85 169, 184 see also under individual names nationalist apotheosis, 2–3, 7, 132, see also Orientalism 159–160, 191 Arab, 17, 19, 25 see also India artiﬁcer corps, 36, 108–109, 154 North Andaman, 8, 81, 168, 169, 184 Atlantic penal colony, 1–2, 4–5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, history, 11 35–37, 50–60, 61–62, 65–68, islands, 12 74–75, 79, 82, 86, 89–103, 131, Ocean, 11, 12, 17, 187 132–160, 161–186, 187–190 Australia, 6, 26, 37, 52, 54, 55, 93, 152, see also penal settlement at Port 188 Blair colonization of, 6, 93 second settlement, 6, 23, 35, 43–60 convict transportation, 54, 55 see also penal settlement at Port female convicts, 145 Blair history, 110

277 278 Index

Bay of Bengal, 1, 6, 12, 16, 23, 24, 25, Burmese, 51, 114–115, 116, 137 33, 35, 38–41, 43, 45, 46, 47–50, 51, caste, 89, 108, 110, 143–144, 148, 62, 87, 133, 178 156, 170, 171, 176 see also Indian Ocean children, 14, 108, 125–127, 126, 153, Bencoolen, 37 155, 173, 186 Bengal, 8, 16, 36, 39, 40, 47, 58, 79, 109, see also local-borns 118, 139, 159, 191 classification, 14, 90, 91, 94, 104, Bhantu, 184 105, 109, 183 Blair, Archibald (member, the Bombay crimes, 14, 74–75, 138–141, 170 Marine), 16–17, 21, 22, 28, 30, 35, Eurasian/European, 114, 115, 36, 39, 40 118–120, 181 Boucicaut, Master, 19 escape, 14, 61–62, 76, 82, 90, 115, branding, 106 127, 132, 135, 136–138, 142, Burma, 20, 33, 39, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 144, 145, 167 64–65, 114–115, 116, 124, 127, 137, family, 14, 104, 105–107, 141, 153, 140, 162, 167, 184 154–155, 176, 183, 185 family migration, 57, 107, 118, Campbell Report, 93, 96, 120, 125 141, 156, 162, 182, 183, Campbell, J.S. (secretary to the Home 185 Department of India), 93, 96, 103 female, 14, 79, 104, 105–108, 107, cannibalism, see Andamanese 110, 120, 122, 135, 143–150, Caribbean, 31, 33, 175 147, 149, 150, 155–156, 162, see also West Indies 176, 181, 184 Cellular Jail on the Andamans, 1, 2, 3, 4, Indian, 7, 33, 35, 57, 89, 93, 95, 103, 5, 7, 11, 13, 65, 73, 96–97, 99, 109–110, 114, 190 101–102, 156–160, 170, 176, 181, 186 see also political prisoners administration, 97, 99, 101–102 labour, 14, 36–37, 51, 52, 55–56, 68, construction, 97, 115, 124 69, 87, 89, 91, 95–96, 100, 104, labour, 95–96, 97, 99 109, 113, 120, 121–123, 161, life, 99, 101 166–167, 168, 169, 178, 179, recommendations, 96 184, 186, 190 solitary confinement, see punishment life, 14, 88–97, 99, 101–102, 115, Ceylon, 9, 27, 37, 38, 41, 188 120–123, 121, 122, 132–160, chain gangs, 73, 94, 133, 142 156–158, 164, 179, 184, Chief Commissioners, 64–65, 124, 155, 190 183, 191 life-time, 14, 115, 121, 122–123, Beadon, Lt. Col. H.C., 172, 177–181 122, 164 see also superintendents compare term convicts China, 14, 20, 33, 47, 49, 55, 69, 104, literate, 14, 97, 109–110, 138 109, 123–124, 137, 139, 140, 167 marriage, 14, 105–107, 106, 143, trade, 38, 39, 42–43, 44, 45 147–148, 147, 149, 169–170, Chowkidari system, 113–114 171, 172, 184 Colebrooke, R.H. (member, Bengal mortality, 76, 77, 80, 115, 133, Engineers, c.1780s), 16, 21, 22, 28, 135 30, 39 occupation, 108–110, 110, 111, 112, convicts, 1, 11, 14–15, 35, 36–37, 52, 147 53–60, 56, 61–64, 66–69, 73, 74–75, officers, 66–67, 90, 113–114, 118, 76–77, 79–80, 84, 86, 88–103, 121, 137, 170, 171–172 104–125, 127, 130–131, 132–160, property, 153–155, 184–185 161–173, 175–186, 190 punishment, see punishment accounts, 7, 93, 137, 141–142, 157, 164 race, 14, 114 Index 279

redemption, 52, 88–94, 97, 101–103, Denmark, 39, 41, 43, 49–50 151, 154, 164–166, 169–173, 175, descriptive roll, 64, 144 176, 190 discipline, 3, 68, 88, 90, 92–94, 95, 97, release, 103, 105, 113, 122, 141, 145, 99, 101–102, 113–114, 120, 123, 147, 152–156, 152, 169–170, 171, 161–166, 168, 169, 176–182 175, 178, 183, 184 see also convicts; punishment religion, 107, 119, 143–144, 147, 148, disease, 1, 6, 27–28, 40, 61, 75–80, 130, 170, 182 132, 133, 134, 167, 169, 175, 181 segregation, 3, 4, 10, 62, 65, 87, 90, see also medicine 94, 96, 99, 101, 180, 189 malaria, 27, 46, 68, 75, 76–79, 78, self-supporters, 69, 90. 94, 105–107, 130, 135, 167, 176 113, 137, 153–155, 162, 165, 166, syphilis, 130 171, 172, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, tropical, 27–28, 45–46, 75–80 182, 183, 184 venereal, 79 suicides, 14, 77, 132, 135–136, 138, Doyle, Arthur Conan, 1, 19, 73, 115 157, 160 dubhash, 32–33 surveillance, 3, 4, 10, 62, 65–68, 87, Dutch, 37, 38, 41 94, 113–114, 189 term, 14, 115, 120–123, 121, 122, 162 English East India Company (EEIC), 16, compare life-time convicts 36, 37, 38, 39, 40–41, 43–44, 47, ticket-of-leave, 94, 105, 118, 143, 180, 48–49, 50, 56, 57, 87 182 transportation, see punishment First World War, 7, 158, 161, 173, 175 voluntary migration, 7, 123, 182–186 food, 21, 22, 63, 68–69, 89, 94, 99, 101, wages, 123, 167, 184, 185 109, 124, 127, 129, 133, 135, 137, warders, 99, 113–114, 115 181 wives, 14, 139, 147–148, 153, 154, Forest Department, 66, 124, 169, 185 155, 171, 179, 182, 183, 185 Forrest, Captain Thomas, 16, 39 Corbyn, Reverend H., 82 Fort William, 43, 50–51, 61, 90, 162, Cornwallis, William (Commander in 186 Chief of East Indies, brother of Lord see also India Cornwallis), 40 free settlers, 36, 89, 90, 91, 103, 107, Craddock, Sir Reginald (Chair, Indian 173, 176, 182, 184, 190 Constitutional Reforms see also labour Committee), 73, 157, 169–170, 175, France, 19, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43–44, 97 178 Craik, Henry D. (Ofﬁciating Revenue Gadar (or Ghadr) Party, 159, 174 Secretary to the Government of gambling, 123, 139, 179 Punjab; Deputy Secretary to the Governor-General in India Home Department of India), 158, Canning, Lord, 52, 53 176–177 Cornwallis, Lord, 36, 39 crimes, 14, 57–59, 58, 59, 92, 103, 105, Mayo, Lord, 68, 73 110, 113, 119–120, 123, 125, 134, Mountbatten, 2, 13 138–140, 145–146, 149–150, 163, see also India 164, 171–172 Grant, J.P. (member, Supreme Council character, 92, 95 of the Governor-General, 1854–59), environment, 92 51–52, 57 hereditary, 92 habitual, 123, 170, 185 Homfray, J.N., 127, 129–130 passion, 123, 164, 185 homosexuality, 68, 101, 170, 171–172, Crusoe, Robinson, 22, 23, 26, 31 173, 175, 179–180 280 Index

Hopkinson, Henry (Captain, kalapani, 1–2, 4, 7, 73, 89, 132, 156, Commissioner of Arracan), 51–52 160, 187–188 Howell, A.P., 102–103, 162–163 compare muktitirth Khairabadi, Fazl-i-Haqq (1797–1861), India, 6, 19–20, 26, 32–33, 38–39, 134 44–47, 73, 79, 87, 93, 95, 96, 104, 108, 109, 113, 114, 115, 123, 124, labour, 3, 11–13, 14, 28–29, 36–37, 51, 126, 132–135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 52, 55–56, 68, 69, 79, 91, 99, 145, 146, 153, 154, 155, 156–160, 104–131, 135, 166–169, 173, 166, 169–170, 171, 174–175, 182, 174–175, 178–180, 182–186, 189 184, 188, 189, 190–191 Andamanese, 15, 28–29, 123, convicts, see convicts 127–130, 161 Government of, 48, 51, 53–54, 55, 57, contractual, 14, 104, 123, 167, 169, 58, 64–65, 120, 161, 165, 170, 186 171, 173, 175, 176–177, 178, 180, convict, see convicts 182 female, 107–108 jails, see jails forest, 36, 68, 69, 75, 76, 114–115, nationalists, 2–3, 7, 9, 102, 156–160, 118, 119, 124, 127, 166–167, 161, 173–174, 177, 180–182, 168–169, 173, 176, 178, 184 187–188, 191 free, 14, 36, 64, 68, 104, 108, 109, see also Andamans 123–125, 139, 140, 167, 169, 176, Indian Jails Committee, 69, 158, 165 186 Committee of 1919, 158, 169, 173, see also free settlers 175–182 indentured, 56, 89, 124, 169, Indian Ocean, 6, 9, 11–12, 13, 35, 37, 174–175, 186 42, 43–45, 47, 54, 55, 60, 179, 187, intra-mural, 95–96, 97, 99 188 and local borns, 125–126, 126 see also Bay of Bengal and race, 56, 104, 114 islands shortage, 55–56, 166, 168, 178, 184, Chatham, 22, 65, 124, 125, 136, 185 186 Devil’s, 4, 174, 175 wages, 123 Fiji, 26 see also convicts Nicobar, 19, 24, 25–26, 29, 35, 37, 39, Lahore Conspiracy Case, 158 43, 46, 47, 49–50, 73, 191 Legislative Assembly of India, 7 Norfolk, 4, 26, 180 leprosy, 19 Ross, 65, 67, 73, 75, 79, 84, 125, 140, Lethbridge, A.S., see Lyall & Lethbridge 143 Committee Viper, 125, 179 local borns, 125–126, 126, 172–173, see also under individual names 178, 182 see also space Lyall & Lethbridge Committee (C.J. Lyall and A. Lethbridge), 96, jails, 11, 54, 94–97, 131, 155, 165, 170, 97, 115, 141, 163, 165 180, 184 Cellular, see Cellular Jail on the malaria, see diseases Andamans Malacca, Straits of, 24, 41, 42, 43, 47 Indian, 51, 54, 55, 93, 94–95, 95, 109, see also Straits Settlements 120, 132, 138, 141–142, 146, Malaya, 15, 20, 21, 32, 33, 36, 47, 48, 163–166, 175–178, 182–184 49, 131, 163 Jail Conference of 1877, 163, 164, 168, Man, E.H. (Captain), 57, 69, 76, 130 178 marks system Jarawa, see Andamanese marks, 101–102, 109, 122 Index 281 marriage, 14 military and police, 66, 67, 99, 127, see also convicts 140, 183 Mauritius, 6, 9, 10, 37, 45, 56, 69, 131, review, 161–182 163, 174, 186, 188, 189–190 see also Andaman Islands Moplah, 184 Penang, 9, 37, 40, 41–43, 50, 55, 64, Mouat, F(rederick) J(ohn) (Inspector 113, 131, 163, 186, 189 General of Jails, Bengal; Head, the piracy, 6, 20, 43, 47–50, 60, 63 Andaman Committee), 17, 22–23, Bay of Bengal, 47–50 28, 30, 33, 34, 36, 51, 52, 55, 96–97, Malay, 47–49 123 Nicobar, 43, 47, 49–50 Moulmein, 23, 50, 51, 63, 108, 114, taxonomical invention, 48 119 political prisoners, 1, 2, 3, 7, 57–59, 99, see also Burma 102, 132, 156–160, 177, 181–182 muktitirth, 1, 2, 4, 7, 102, 132, 156–160, hunger strike, 157, 158 187–188 life, 156–157 compare kalapani petition, 7 mulk, 3, 125, 126 repatriation, 157–158 seditionist, 156 Napier, General Robert, 89, 92 see also Cellular Jail on the Andamans; nationalism India see Andamans; India; space Polo, Marco, 18, 19 Norman, Henry (military member, Port Blair, 35 Supreme Council of India), 96 see also Andaman Islands; penal settlement at Port Blair opium, 38, 40, 45, 64, 68, 123, 139, Port Cornwallis, 40 179 Portman, M(aurice) V(idal), 80–82, 82, Orientalism, 5, 6, 9, 19, 20, 22, 26–27, 83, 130 30–31, 33–34, 188 Prison Discipline Committee of 1836, 163 Pacific Ocean, 12, 17, 54, 55 prostitution, 146, 154, 169–170, 171, padouk (timber), 124 173, 175, 180 Panopticon, 96 punishment see also Cellular Jail on the Andamans; capital, 54, 57, 95, 135, 146, 164 jails economic, 173 penal settlement at Port Blair, 6, 13–14, fetters, 97, 101, 133, 142, 170 35–36, 50–53, 56–60, 61–87, 66, flogging, 101, 135, 142, 180 88 hair-cropping, 135, 181 abolition, 142, 161, 165, 167–168, incarceration, see Cellular Jail on the 170, 173, 175–182 Andamans; jails administration, 61–63, 64–68, 73–74, penal diet, 101, 181 82, 97, 99, 102–103, 104, public, 54, 95 113–114, 157, 189, 191 solitary confinement, 101, 142 communication and transport, 61–65, tonsuring, 135 67–68, 70, 72, 74–75, 139–140, transportation, see transportation 169, 188, 191 withdrawal of privileges, 135 see also punishment construction, 6, 50–60 race, 18, 21, 52, 56, 80–81, 86, 104, currency, 140 114 education, 125–126, 172, 182 Rangoon, see Burma medicine, 3, 66, 79–80, 97, 101, 130, release, see convicts 135, 183, 184, 189 religion, see convicts 282 Index reports Superintendents, 63, 64–65, 66, 69, 88, Indian Jails Committee of 1919, 158, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 103, 104, 106, 169, 173, 175–182 109, 118, 135, 137, 139, 156, 157, Jail Conference of 1877, 164, 168, 175, 181 178 Browning, Col., 155, 166, 168 Prison Discipline Committee of Cadell, Col., 178–179 1836, 163 Douglas, Lt. Col. M.W., 157, 170–172, resistance, see Andamanese; 183 convicts Ferrar, Col. M.L., 184, 185 Revolt of 1857, 2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 35, 50, Ford, Lt. Col., 91, 92, 94 53, 55, 58, 96, 160, 178 Haughton, J.C., 97, 123–124 Ritchie, John (hydrographer, English Kyd, Alexander, 16, 21, 30, 36 East India Company), 16, 17, 20, Man, Col. Horace, 92–93, 94, 108, 28, 29, 32–33, 39 109, 120, 127 Risley, Herbert H. (secretary to the Merk, W.R.H., 142, 167–168 Home Department of India), Stewart, D.M., 74–75, 115, 139, 166 163–164 Temple, R.C., 60, 80, 99, 128, 130, Robertson, Frances Stewart (wife of 143, 166, 173 Anthony William Robertson), Tytler, R.C., 121 72–73 Walker, J.P., 57–58, 70, 76, 90–91, 92, rule of law, 158–159 136, 141, 156 surveyors, 5, 6, 16–17, 19, 20–23, 27, 28, Savarkar, V.D., 156, 159, 160 29, 32–33 Shipping, see penal settlement at Port Blair; transportation Ten Degree Channel, 23–24, 25 Singapore, 9, 37, 48, 50, 52, 55, 64, 113, Thanesari, Mohammad Jafar, 109–110, 131, 163, 167, 186, 189 131, 139, 141, 146–147, 149, see also Straits Settlements 153 space, 2–3, 5, 8–10, 23–29, 33–34, 35, tobacco, 68, 129–130, 179 92–93, 102, 130, 132, 187–191 transportation colonial, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 15, 130 abolition of, 161–166, 167, 170, 177, island, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17, 26–29, 183, 184 33–34, 37–38, 45, 61–87, 93, sentence of, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 36, 104, 187–188 53–55, 56, 57, 59, 73, 93, 94, national, 2–3, 5, 7, 8, 132, 159–160 95–96, 103, 120, 138, 141, 146, spatial history, 5, 8–10, 187–191 148, 157–158, 160, 176, 179 Sri Lanka, see Ceylon voyage, 70, 88–91, 115, 132–134, steamships, 13, 44–45, 48, 51, 62, 189, 190 63–64, 72, 119, 169 tropical jungle, 5, 10, 13, 45, 75, 76, companies, 45, 64 77, 82, 86, 104, 108, 121, 130, 136, impact on the Indian Ocean, 45 137, 167 impact on the Andaman Islands, 13, see also Andaman Islands 45–47, 63–64 tropics, 4, 9, 17, 27–28, 115, 187 navigation, see penal settlement at see also Andaman Islands Port Blair Straits Settlements, 47, 54, 55, 56, 90, West Indies, 46, 55, 56, 69, 174, 175 92, 94, 113, 188, 189–190 see also Caribbean see also Malacca, Straits of; Penang; women, 14, 72–73, 153, 154, 171, 172, Singapore 175, 176, 179, 184 Sumatra, 13, 19, 24, 81 see also convicts