The Guitar Duo: Interaction and Group Creativity

Adam Batstone

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts Department of Music University of Toronto

Adam Batstone

Doctor of Musical Arts

Department of Music University of Toronto

2020 Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the phenomenon of group creativity through the guitar duo, an ensemble which has received little scholarship in the field of music ensemble research. Specifically, this study revealed ways in which professional guitar duos manage non- verbal communication, and how they perceive moments of empathetic creativity during rehearsal and performance. A historical survey of the development of the guitar duo ensemble, along with literature review on specific issues of ensemble performance served as the backdrop for an observational study on the Henderson-Kolk guitar duo. Qualitative data was derived from video recordings of rehearsal and performance in order to examine rehearsal strategies that professional guitar duos utilize in order to promote group synergy and empathetic attunement during performance. A questionnaire was also forwarded to four members of other professional guitar duos which revealed insights into each individual’s own perception of the experience of empathetic attunement and how moments of empathetic creativity are cultivated. Results revealed an overall change in the main mode of communication between rehearsal to performance. Guitar duos utilize different rehearsal strategies to inspire or generate moments of creativity during performance, and the flow of empathetic communication is contingent on a duo’s capacity to listen and respond to each other’s musical intuitions in the moment.

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Jeffrey McFadden for his guidance and patience throughout the process of planning and executing this research. Your musical knowledge and expertise have been a constant source of inspiration.

Thanks to my advisory committee, Dr. Robin Elliott and Dr. John Brownell for taking interest in my research and providing valuable guidance throughout the process.

I would like to thank Dick Bourgeois-Doyle for the constant feedback and encouragement. I appreciate all the time you gave me, reading and re-reading drafts of my work.

I would also like to thank my wife, Dr. Rebecca Batstone for all the unwavering support while completing this research. Watching you achieve your success in academia has inspired me and kept me on the path to completing this journey. I couldn’t have asked for a better role model and best friend.

Finally, I would like the thank my parents, Angie and Peter for their unconditional love and support. Without their encouragement, I may have never followed my dream in becoming a musician.

iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments...... iii

Table of Contents ...... iv

List of Appendices ...... vii

General Introduction ...... viii

Chapter 1 ...... 1

1.1 Introduction ...... 1

1.2 17th and 18th Century ...... 2

1.3 19th Century ...... 6

1.3.1 Mauro Giuliani ...... 7

1.3.2 Fernando Sor ...... 12

1.3.3 Second Half of 19th Century ...... 18

1.4 Spain and South America ...... 21

1.5 Presti-Lagoya ...... 25

1.6 Abreu Brothers ...... 35

1.7 Assad Duo ...... 38

1.8 Concluding Remarks ...... 44

Chapter 2 ...... 46

2.1 Introduction ...... 46

2.2 Hierarchy of Group ...... 49

2.3 Verbal Communication ...... 54

2.4 Notation / Group Interpretation ...... 56

2.5 Nonverbal Communication, Visual Cues/Gesture ...... 61

2.6 Musical Communication ...... 70

2.7 Concluding Remarks ...... 77

Chapter 3 ...... 80

3.1 Introduction ...... 80

3.2 Methodology ...... 82

3.3 Observational study results ...... 86

3.3.1 Rehearsal and performance communication results ...... 88

3.4 Discussion ...... 92

3.5 Creativity...... 95

3.6 Questionnaire responses...... 98

3.7 Concluding remarks ...... 102

3.8 Future directions ...... 104

References ...... 106

Appendices ...... 117

List of Figures

Figure 1: Johnson, The Flatt Pavin, transcribed for guitar, mm. 33–37 ...... 5

Figure 2: Giuliani, Variazioni concertanti, Op. 130, Theme, mm. 1-4 ...... 9

Figure 3: Rossini, Sinfonia nell' Opera Elisabetta (Il Barbiere di Siviglia), arranged by Giuliani, mm. 1-4...... 11

Figure 4: Sor, Les Deux Amis, Op. 41, Theme, mm. 1-8 ...... 17

Figure 5: L’hoyer, Trois duos Concertants, Op. 31, no. I, mvt. III, Rondo, mm. 1-5...... 21

Figure 6: Falla, Danse Española no. I, La vie brève, mm. 5-13 ...... 23

Figure 7: Rodrgio, Tonadilla, Mvt. I, Allegretto ma non troppo, mm. 7-12...... 29

Figure 8: Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Les Guitares bien Temperes, Prelude no. 4 in E major, Op. 199, mm. 1-2...... 31

Figure 9: Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Les Guitares bien Temperes, Prelude no. 17 in B major, Op. 199, mm. 1-4...... 32

Figure 10: Piazzolla, Tango Suite, Mvt. I, Allegro, mm. 133–135 ...... 42

Figure 11: Assad, Tres Cenas Brasileiras pour deux guitars, Mvt. III, Recife Doe Corais, mm. 1- 6...... 43

Figure 12: Pie charts depicting rehearsal time ...... 89

Figure 13: Bar plots depicting proportion of verbal and non-verbal communication categories during rehearsal...... 90

Figure 14: Bar plots depicting proportion of non-verbal communication categories during performance ...... 91

List of Appendices

Appendix A: Consent forms

Appendix B: Member check interview transcripts

Appendix C: Responses to questionnaire

vii

General Introduction

Communication is fundamental to fostering group creativity in small music ensembles.1

The most frequent models used to examine communication in small ensembles have been predominantly limited to the string quartet and piano duo. The guitar duo provides an optimal model for studying group creativity due to the intense collaboration that is fostered between only two individuals. Much of the current research however, has focused on the individual’s role within the ensemble and has not taken a holistic view of how interaction can cultivate group creativity.2 Applying a holistic perspective of collaboration to the guitar duo ensemble allows for a more explicit view of the group creative process, and how learning and sense making occurs within the ensemble.3 Specifically, my study asks, i) what rehearsal strategies do professional guitar duos utilize in order to promote group synergy and empathetic attunement during performance, and ii) what is the relationship between communication and creativity in the context of the guitar duo?

The phenomenon of group creativity within a complex system such as a small music ensemble is influenced by many factors. In their study on the string quartet, Tovstiga, Odenthal, and Goerner examine the notions of learning and sense-making that occur within the organizational setting experienced by a string quartet. They state, “Learning in the organization

1 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2), 115-37. 2 Salazar, Abran J. 2002. Self-organizing and complexity perspectives of group creativity. In New direction in group communication., ed. Lawrence R. Frey, 179, Sage. 3 Tovstiga, George, Stefan Odenthal, and Stephan Goerner. 2004. Sense-making and learning in complex organizations: The string quartet revisited. Paper presented at The Fifth European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, Innsbruck, Austria. viii

seeks to reconcile the needs, motives, and values of individual diversity and consensus toward developing new knowledge, which leads to improved collective understanding”.4 The act of learning and sense-making rely on the explicit use of communication between agents of the complex system, which is facilitated through stocks of common knowledge that grounds the interaction. Analogous to interacting with someone in a conversation, group music making requires a process of grounding, where shared information is constantly updated and refined through the act of communication.5 In their analysis on conversation, Clark and Brennan explain the two main factors that define the process of grounding, “One is purpose – what the two people are trying to accomplish in their communication. The other is the medium of communication – the techniques available in the medium for accomplishing that purpose, and what it costs to use them”.6 In order to promote synchrony during a performance, an ensemble must coordinate both content and process through the process of grounding.7 Examining how a professional guitar duo manages this moment by moment process is one of my main research objectives.

In an effort to present an accurate depiction of how modern guitar duos manage interaction and promote creative outcomes, I have conducted a broad survey of historical performance practices and highlighted important duo works. Specifically, in Chapter 1, I present an in-depth look at the history of the guitar duo ensemble, from the early lute duos of the

Renaissance to the most influential duos of the twentieth century. Three of the most famous

4 Tovstiga, George, Stefan Odenthal, and Stephan Goerner. 2004. Sense-making and learning in complex organizations: The string quartet revisited. Paper presented at The Fifth European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, Innsbruck, Austria. 5 Clark, Herbert H., and Susan E. Brennan. 1991. Grounding in communication. In Perspectives on socially shared cognition., eds. Lauren Resnick, Levine B., M. John, Stephanie Teasley and D., 13, American Psychological Association. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. ix

guitar duos, the Presti-Lagoya duo, the Abreu brothers, and the Assad duo, have all had considerable influence on how the guitar duo ensemble is perceived today. Exploring how the guitar duo ensemble has grown out of a culture which was predominantly oriented around the traditions of the virtuoso soloist will help elucidate a clearer understanding of the overall evolution of the duo ensemble.

To understand the unique challenges of guitar duo performance, Chapter 2 consists of a literature survey comprised of material that focuses on issues of small ensemble rehearsal and performance. An examination of recently published scholarly books, periodicals, and research papers based on small ensembles such as violin and piano (the violin sonata), two pianos, and string quartet serve to highlight unique aspects to the rehearsal process of the guitar duo. This literature review serves as a detailed backdrop for my own exploration of communication and creativity within the guitar duo ensemble, which follows in Chapter 3.

Chapter 3 contains the data and results of an observational study I conducted on the

Henderson-Kolk guitar duo. The aim of this study was to identify points of empathetic attunement, a deep level of non-verbal communication between guitarists that can lead to moments of group creativity, which is manifested as spontaneous musical variations. My goal was to identify not only the creative moments that occur within the intense collaborative relationship between members of a guitar duo but also shed light on how professional guitar duos optimize rehearsal strategies that focus on promoting the emergence of empathetic attunement and risk-taking during performance. A questionnaire was also forwarded to several other professional guitar duos and served to substantiate the findings of the observational study. The feedback I received from the questionnaire regarding the participants experience rehearsing and

performing in a professional guitar duo sparked an interesting discussion on how moments of empathetic creativity occur within the guitar duo ensemble.

The guitar duo has become an increasingly popular professional ensemble over the past several decades, and the body of repertoire available for this small ensemble has grown exponentially.8 Performing and travelling with a fellow musician has become an increasingly attractive venture for many solo guitarists. Although the guitar duo was often traditionally utilized as a pedagogical enterprise for teacher and student duos, young guitarists have recently begun exploring nontraditional career routes, including performing in professional ensembles such as the guitar duo. Opportunities for guitarists to participate in collaborative music making are now more abundant than ever, and in many academic programs such as the University of

Toronto and Eastman School of Music, performing in a small ensemble is a pre-requisite to graduation. Young guitarists are being exposed to the unique aspects of performing with others and are learning applied skills regarding communication and ensemble interaction through direct participation. Despite the increasing popularity of this ensemble, little research has been conducted on how professional guitar duos manage moments of creativity. This research will help illuminate the link between communication and creativity within the guitar duo ensemble and provide insight into the methods by which guitar duos manage interaction and promote creativity.

8 Duarte, W. John. 1969. The future of the guitar duo. Guitar Review (37) (May), 10. xi

Chapter 1 History of the Guitar duo

1.1 Introduction

Although the classical guitar is typically thought of as a solo instrument, over the past several decades, the guitar duo ensemble has experienced an exponential growth in popularity.

The guitar duo is now considered a distinguished ensemble combination, appreciated by audiences around the world. Similar to the piano or violin during the nineteenth century, the guitar underwent a cultural transformation in the early twentieth century through the rising popularity of virtuoso celebrity figures who redefined societal conceptions of their instrument.

Figures such as pianist Franz Lizt, the violinist Nicolo Paganini, and subsequently, the guitarist

Andrés Segovia, not only had a considerable impact on the music written for their respective instruments, but also the music world at large. As the guitar’s primary ambassador in the early

20th century, Segovia helped redefine the public’s perception of the classic guitar. Despite the fact that he exclusively performed as a soloist, he obviously saw merit in the guitar duo ensemble. He encouraged several of his students to participate in guitar duos and even wrote a short piece for the guitar duo titled, Divertimento. The development of the guitar duo ensemble runs roughly parallel with that of the solo guitar, and the body of repertoire that is now available for the guitar duo is in part, a consequence of several key duos who pushed the medium forward, setting a new precedent that would influence and inspire other guitarists to explore the duo genre.

In order to gain a clear understanding of how the guitar duo has evolved and become established as a commonplace ensemble, a survey of the history of music written for the ensemble, as well as 2 an in-depth look at the three most influential guitar duos of the twentieth century, the Presti-

Lagoya duo, the Abreu brothers, and the Assad duo, is necessary. These three duos were selected due to their commitment pursuing an international career predominantly involved with duo performance.

1.2 17th and 18th Century

An examination of the history of fretted instruments in the sixteenth and seventeenth century reveals a wealth of solo music written across Europe for instruments such as the vihuela, lute, and theorbo. Despite the large body of surviving solo works, plucked string instruments were regularly included in ensemble performances, and were often responsible for providing continuo realization. These musicians would often improvise chordal accompaniment that would serve as the harmonic foundation on which other musicians of the group would perform.9 This type of improvisation required an acute sense of awareness in which a proficient performer would interact with fellow ensemble members during performance in order to promote synchrony. Graham Wade states, “Wherever fretted instruments have been played, ensemble work and spontaneously improvised music have formed a vital part of the scene”.10 The skills gained from this kind of ensemble participation could be realized in a variety of ensemble combinations, including small groups such as duets.

9 Williams, Peter, and David Ledbetter. 2001. Continuo Oxford University Press. 10 Wade, Graham. 1969. An historical perspective of the guitar duo. Guitar Review. May, 7.

Performances by two or more instrumentalists would have been a regular occurrence at court.11 Some of the earliest examples of works for two plucked instruments can be found in the

Spanish vihuelist and composer Enríquez de Valderrábano’s (fl1547), Libro de Musica de

Vihuela Intitulado Silva de Sirenas. Book four of this seven volume collection of vihuela music exclusively contains works written for two vihuelas. These duet pieces account for the only known surviving works for two vihuelas.12 Jesús Sánchez states, “The pairing of two vihuelas is, in many ways, an authentic reflection of Renaissance performance traditions. Not only does it conform to the period’s preference for combining instruments from the same family, as opposed to those with different sonorities, it also follows the Renaissance practice of playing polyphonic duets on plucked instruments, with one instrument (known as the tenorista) providing harmonic support and the other supplying melodic figuration and embellishment”.13

Although the popular Spanish vihuelist Luis de Narváez (1526-1549) did not publish any music for two vihuelas, his solo works often exhibit a high degree of polyphony, featuring complex contrapuntal textures with overlapping phrases that are exceptionally suitable for performances by two musicians.14 In reference to Narvaez’s Diferencias sobre O Gloriosa

Domina, Wade states, “The texture of this music indicates the desirability of employing the duo as a means for conveying the full subtlety of the part-writing”.15 Despite the increasing complexity of solo music for plucked string instruments, “polyphonic duets did not disappear;

11 Wade, Graham. 1969. An historical perspective of the guitar duo. Guitar Review. May, 7. 12 Griffiths, John. 2001. Valderrábano, Enríquez de. Oxford University Press. 13 Sánchez, Jesús. 2011. Adios mi amor: Duets for vihuelas, eds. Jesús Sánchez, Manuel Nieto Minguillón. Trans. Manuel Nieto Minguillón. Vol. CD Brilliant Classics, 94302. 14 Wade, Graham. 1969. An historical perspective of the guitar duo. Guitar Review. May, 7. 15 Ibid, 7.

4 duo performance delivered an enhanced sonority and made accessible a polyphonic repertoire that was almost impossible for one instrument”.16

The English lutenist and composer Thomas Robinson’s (1560-1610) substantial lute method, School of Musique, published in 1603, lends further evidence of a thriving duo tradition.

At the outset of this method, Robinson includes six lute duets, an inclusion which was typical in many introductory methods written during the early seventeenth century. In fact, roughly two thirds of lute music sources from the English ‘Golden Age’ (1575-1620) contain music written for two lutes. Novice lute students would be introduced to duet playing at a very early stage in their musical and technical development.17

At the English courts, the prolific lutenist John Dowland (1563–1626) undoubtedly played duos, evidenced by the few surviving lute duet works that are attributed to him. These include, My Lord Chamberlain his Galliard, and My Lord Willoughby’s Welcome Home, the latter of which features an added obbligato to the existing work for solo lute. The earliest works for duo lute feature a ‘treble-ground’ format, in which one lute repeats a harmonic progression while the other lute provides a series of solo variations. Derived from Italian dance music, this popular compositional form spread across Europe and appears to have been utilized by many

English lutenists, including John Johnson (c.1545-1594).18 Surviving manuscripts of Johnson’s music from around 1590 are among the first works for two lutes that feature more equal melodic

16 Sánchez, Jesús. 2011. Adios mi amor: Duets for vihuelas, eds. Jesús Sánchez, Manuel Nieto Minguillón. Trans. Manuel Nieto Minguillón. Vol. CD Brilliant Classics, 94302. 17 Nordstrom, Lyle. 1985. English lute duets. Bis-cd-267., eds. Jakob Lindberg, Paul O'dette. Vol. CD. Åkersberga, Sweden: BIS Records, 2. 18 Ibid, 2.

5 and harmonic part distribution (Fig. 1).19 Composers of these initial equal compositions for two lutes eschewed the Italian treble-ground form, and instead opted to adopt traditional dance forms such as pavans and galliards, and eventually almains at around 1600.20

Figure 1: Johnson, The Flatt Pavin, transcribed for guitar, mm. 33–37. One of the earliest examples of a duo piece featuring a more balanced distribution of melodic and harmonic material.

From Italy, there are three surviving lute duets by Francesco da Milano (1497–1543), and at least seven duets by Ioanne Matelart (1538–1607). Five of these lute duos are based on solo lute works by Francesco, with an added obbligato part by Matelart.21 Wilson states, “The idea of writing an extra part to go with an existing solo was at the time a new idea, and most lute duets

19 Nordstrom, Lyle. 1985. English lute duets. Bis-cd-267., eds. Jakob Lindberg, Paul O'dette. Vol. CD. Åkersberga, Sweden: BIS Records, 3. 20 Ibid, 4. 21 Wilson, Christopher. 1994. Francesco canova da milano, lute music: Fantasias, ricercars and duets, eds. Christopher Wilson, Shirley Rumsey. Vol. CD Naxos 8.550774.

6 were of the treble and ground style, like the La Spagna setting, but this technique of making duets out of solos was to remain popular virtually throughout the history of the lute”.22

The quality of the surviving compositions from this era suggests that the plucked duo ensemble was a popular form of music making. Although we can presume that much of the music written and published during this era has been lost in obscurity, we must also recognize the oral tradition of passing music from teacher to pupil. Many of the musicians from this era were competently equipped to improvise; plucked instruments such as the lute or vihuela were great vehicles for improvising contrapuntal textures. Much of the music created this way would have only been preserved through word of mouth, eschewing the more formal need of notating it in tablature form. Wade states, “The high degree of creative awareness displayed in so many compositions for two lutes implies a sound historical continuity in this medium … modern concert artists who select duets from this era are closely participating in the tradition and preserving it for our own and future generations”.23 During the second half of the eighteenth century, the lute slowly began to fade in popularity, overshadowed by keyboard instruments.

1.3 19th Century

A more direct ancestor to the modern guitar, the nineteenth-century guitar, was a celebrated instrument that was popularized by several leading virtuosic figures. Composers such

22 Wilson, Christopher. 1994. Francesco canova da milano, lute music: Fantasias, ricercars and duets, eds. Christopher Wilson, Shirley Rumsey. Vol. CD Naxos 8.550774, 6. 23 Wade, Graham. 1969. An historical perspective of the guitar duo. Guitar Review. May, 8.

as Fernando Sor, Mauro Giuliani, and Dionisio Aguado, and Fernandino Carulli each wrote

several high-quality compositions for two guitars. Although there is no evidence of a regular

performing duo ensemble from this era, there are several accounts of these virtuoso soloists

occasionally performing guitar duo works.

1.3.1 Mauro Giuliani

In 1823, while in Naples during the last stage of his life, Mauro Giuliani (1781-1829)

frequently performed in a guitar duo with his daughter Emilia, who, like her father, was also a

very accomplished guitarist.24 Not unlike much of the guitar duo music of the time, Giuliani’s

original guitar duo compositions often, but not exclusively, feature a principle guitar I part, along

with a more subordinate guitar II part that typically serves an accompaniment role. Heck states,

“Giuliani could have begun by performing the relatively more difficult melodies while giving his

beginning students the chordal accompaniments; the musical roles could gradually be reversed as

the students became better able to move around the fingerboard”.25 These duo works are not

overly technically demanding and would have been accessible to amateur guitar enthusiasts

living in Vienna in the early nineteenth century. Below is the complete list of Giuliani’s guitar

duo arrangements and original compositions, including works with opus numbers and those

without. Several of these duos (Op. 66, 67, and 69) were written for a standard guitar and terz

guitar, a smaller guitar tuned a minor third higher. These pieces are frequently performed today

24 Heck, F. Thomas. 1995. Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso guitarist and composer. Columbus, OH: Editions Orphée, 176. 25 Ibid, 176.

8 with a capo on the third fret of a standard guitar, which emulates the pitch of the terz guitar. The asterisk (*) next to the work title indicates a piece that features more balanced part distribution between the two guitars.

Guitar duo works with opus numbers,

- Op 16a, Twelve Ländler

- Op 30, Rondeau alla Polacca, this is a guitar duo arrangement made by Giuliani of the

last movement of his first guitar concerto, Op. 30. The added guitar part is essentially an

arrangement of the orchestral accompaniment.

- Op 35, Gran Variazioni Concertanti *

- Op 55, Twelve Ländler

- Op 66, Three rondos for terz guitar and normal guitar *

- Op 67, Gran Potpourri for terz guitar and normal guitar *

- Op 69, La Lira Notturna for terz guitar and normal guitar

- Op 70, Polonaise concertante, this is a guitar duo arrangement made by Giuliani of the

last movement of his third guitar concerto, Op. 70. Similar to Op. 30, the second guitar

material is taken from the orchestra part.

- Op 75, Twelve Ländler

- Op 80, Twelve Ländler

- Op 91, Variations on ‘La Sentinelle’

- Op 92, Twelve Ländler

- Op 94, Twelve Ländler

- Op 116, Le Avventure di Amore (ten waltzes)

- Op 130, Variazioni Concertanti * (Fig. 2)

- Op 137, Tre polonesi Concertanti *

Figure 2: Giuliani, Variazioni concertanti, Op. 130, Theme, mm. 1-4, a piece which Heck speculates, could have been performed by Giuliani and his daughter Emilia.

Giuliani’s guitar duo works without opus numbers include many arrangements of operatic overtures, among these, four overtures by popular composers, Rossini, Bellini, and

Spontini. The complete list of Giuliani’s duo works without opus numbers consists of,

- Duo de l'opera L'Esule di Roma da Donizetti

- Marcia nell' introduzione di Semiramide per una o due chitarre

- Overture to Mozart's La Clemenza di Tito

- Sinfonia nell'Opera Elisabetta (Il Barbiere di Siviglia)

- Sinfonia nell'Opera La Cenerentola

- Sinfonia nell'Opera L'Assedio di Corinto

- Sinfonia nell'Opera La Gazza Ladra

- Sinfonia nell'Opera Spontini's La Vestale

- Sinfonia nell'Opera Bellini's Il Pirata

- Tarantella (by G.Lanza arr M.Giuliani)

- Auswahl der beliebtesten Deutschen vom Apollo Saal

Throughout his life, Giuliani showed an interest in arranging works for the guitar and guitar duo, and these duo arrangements have become staples in the modern guitar duo repertoire.

Specifically, his guitar duo arrangements display a high degree of ingenuity in the way he applied thick melodic and harmonic orchestral textures onto the fretboard. Giuliani takes full advantage of the additional guitar and produces surprisingly idiomatic, convincing adaptations of

Rossini’s timeless music. Heck states, “We have already seen how very important the element of song was in Giuliani’s compositions. His unusual ability to wed careful accompaniment to a pre- existing melody, and still come up with both a workable and a particularly guitaristic texture …

”.26 A surviving letter that Giuliani wrote to the Ricordi publishing house of Milan details that

Rossini actually gifted Giuliani many original scores from which he could make arrangements for solo and duo guitars. This would have occurred while Giuliani was living in Rome around

1821.27 According to Heck, Sinfonia nell' Opera Elisabetta (Il Barbiere di Siviglia) was published by Ricordi of Milan just one year after his death, in 1830 (Fig. 3).28

26 Thomas F. Heck, Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso Guitarist and Composer. Columbus: Editiones Orphee, 1995. p 191. 27 Ibid, 108. 28 Ibid, 108.

Figure 3: Rossini, Sinfonia nell' Opera Elisabetta (Il Barbiere di Siviglia), arranged by Giuliani, mm. 1-4.

In this arrangement, guitar one is responsible for the majority of the melodic material, while the accompaniment figures are assigned to guitar two. This would allow the publisher to offer an edition with a clear distinction between the lead and accompaniment material. Modern performance practice advocates balancing the parts in order to give both guitarists a chance to play the more active melodic material. Giuliani keeps both guitars in standard tuning and is also able to preserve the original key of the overture, E major/minor. This key works well for the guitar as almost all of the open strings can be utilized, including the open low sixth string E to form the bass note of the tonic triad.

1.3.2 Fernando Sor

Fernando Sor (1778-1839), arguably the most influential guitar figure from the late

eighteenth and early nineteenth-century, composed a substantial amount of music for the guitar.

His body of work includes pieces for solo, duo, as well as the guitar in a variety of small

ensemble combinations. Sor was born in Barcelona, but spent much of his life travelling around

Europe, composing and performing. When he returned to Paris in late 1826 or early 1827, he

devoted himself to the guitar, producing his Méthode pour la guitare, along with no less than 32

guitar works, which include his 12 guitar duos.29 Curiously, like Giuliani, Sor composed all of

his music for two guitars near the end of his life. He also frequently performed during this

period; we have record of at least 25 separate concert occasions, evidenced by the surviving

periodicals of the time. These concerts afforded Sor the opportunity to perform in a variety of

contexts, including the guitar duo. He occasionally performed in a guitar duo with his brother

Carlos,30 as well as with the influential Spanish guitarist, Dionisio Aguado (1784-1849), and on

at least one occasion, with his pupil, the French guitarist, Napoleon Coste (1805-1838).31

Specifically, we have records of Sor performing in a duo on the following dates,32

- February (specific date unknown) 1827, Duet with Aguado

29 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions. 30 Long, M. Richard. 1995. Sor guitar duets (complete), vol. 1, eds. Robert Kubica, van Wilma Berkel. Vol. CD NAXOS 8.553302. 31 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions, 104. 32 Ibid, 100 – 104.

- June 14, 1829, Duet with Aguado, (The details of this concert are not completely

known. The periodical Revue Musicale (V, 1829, pg. 304) states the name of the

performing guitarist as Ch. Sor, which could have been Fernando Sor’s brother

Carlos, who was also living in Paris at the time. Regardless, the concert received a

review which praised the guitarist for playing brilliantly. Fernando Sor received many

similar reviews during this time in Paris.

- March 27, 1831, duo with Aguado

- November 29, 1835, duo with Aguado

- April 24, 1836, duo with Aguado

- April or early May 1838, duo with Napoleon Coste (The last known concert in which

Sor performed)

These salon concerts often consisted of an array of performers, a format which was popular throughout Paris and London in the first half of the nineteenth century. The solo recital in the modern sense, featuring a single virtuoso artist performing an extended number of solo works, had not yet developed.33 In fact, even the virtuoso pianist Franz Liszt, known as one of the pioneers of the modern concert format, participated in these salon-type events at a young age.

There is no evidence to suggest that Sor gave solo recitals in the modern sense.34 Instead, he participated in salon type events which were often referred to as benefit concerts. Weber states,

33 Matanya Ophee, "Repertoire Issues" (Lecture, Editions Orphée, Inc., Columbus, OH, 2001), http://www.guitarandluteissues.com/defossa/repertoire.html (accessed November, 10). 34 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions, 101.

“A benefit concert always presented a variety of performers, both vocal and instrumental, usually with an accompanying ensemble, and often featured a performer of greater fame than the sponsor. As such, the benefit differed fundamentally from the Recital, since performing alone or with only an accompanist was virtually unknown until the late 1830s”.35 This more relaxed concert format likely would have given Sor the opportunity to meet and perform with a diverse group of musicians. Given the performance opportunities available in Paris, and the fact that

Aguado was also appearing on many of the same programs, it is not surprising that Sor produced a large amount of high-quality guitar duo music during this time. He would have had the chance to perform much of it with another virtuoso guitarist.

When Sor returned to Paris in late 1826 or early 1827, he initially lived in the Hotel

Favart in the Opera district, from at least 1828–1832. Coincidentally, Dionisio Aguado was also living there during this time.36 Sor had enormous respect for Aguado and dedicated several of his own compositions to him. Sor states, “I enjoyed listening to his exercises, either from my room or in his own, in a way which is not easy to explain, for Sr. Aguado, as well as being the finest guitarist in Europe in his own sweet, touching and melodious style, was the most amiable, modest and charming person whom I had met…”.37 Although Sor composed many guitar duets during his time living at the Hotel Favart, it is interesting to note that the complete surviving works by Aguado were written exclusively for solo guitar.38

35 Weber, William. 2001. Concert (ii) Oxford University Press. 36 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions, 104 – 105. 37 Ibid, 105. 38 Nogueire, Hugo Maia. 2017. Gran solo op.14 & rondo op.2 N.3: The sonority of the classical era. Master of Music., University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 10.

While living in Paris in the summer of 1828, Sor made the decision to change publishers from Meissonnier to Pacini. The latter arrangement allowed him to maintain control over his compositions, with the words ‘property of the composer’ appearing on the title page of many of his new works. Brian Jefferey states, “Sor was now his own publisher, as he says in the preface to his Op. 48, and he made some arrangement with Pacini, probably for marketing, which resulted in Pacini’s name also appearing on the title-pages…”.39 The first composition Sor published under this new business arrangement was his guitar duo, Op. 34, L’Encouragement.

Considering that Sor’s complete works for two guitars were written in the last stage of his life, and self-published under his agreement with Pacini, once he died on July 10th, 1839, all of his music from Op. 34 onward was no longer kept in print.40 For this reason, much of Sor’s guitar duo music was completely unknown until re-publication at a much later date.41 Technically, Sor was not as strict as Giuliani when dividing the melodic and accompanying material, however, in ten of the twelve duos he composed, part one is responsible for most of the higher register notes.

Six of his more pedagogical oriented duos, (Op. 34, 44bis, 53, 55, 61, 62), contain left-hand fingering indications, a detail which was often absent in his more virtuosic pieces.42 Sor’s compositions for two guitars are listed below.43 The two duo compositions in which the material is more equal (Op. 41 and Op. 63) are marked with an asterisk (*),

39 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions, 89. 40 Ibid, 89. 41 Ibid, 89. 42 Long, M. Richard. 1995. Sor guitar duets (complete), vol. 1, eds. Robert Kubica, van Wilma Berkel. Vol. CD NAXOS 8.553302, 3. 43 Jeffery, Brian. 1994. Fernando Sor, composer and guitarist. 2nd ed. Soar Chapel, Penderyn, South Wales: Tecla Editions, 92.

- Op. 34, L’Encouragement, Sor’s first guitar duo work. It is clearly meant for

pedagogical purposes as the first edition contains the designation, ‘L'élève and Le

maître’, student and teacher. A later publication of this work by his pupil Napoleon

Coste features a more balanced allocation of melodic and accompaniment material.44

- Op. 38, Divertissement

- Op. 39, Six Valses

- Op. 41, Les Deux Amis *, This work bears the dedication to Aguado, and the parts are

designated, Sor and Aguado. This piece would have most likely been one of the

compositions they performed together as a duo (Fig. 4).

- Op. 44 bis, Six Valses

- Op. 49, Divertissement Militaire

- Op. 53, Le Premier Pas vers moi

- Op. 54 bis, Fantaisie

- Op. 55, Trois Duos

- Op. 61, Trois Petits Divertissements

- Op. 62, Divertissement

- Op. 63, Souvenir de Russie *, It is possible that Sor was inspired to compose the duet

in the memory of his meeting with the Russian guitar virtuoso, Mikhail Vyssotsky,

44 Long, M. Richard. 1995. Sor guitar duets (complete), vol. 1, eds. Robert Kubica, van Wilma Berkel. Vol. CD NAXOS 8.553302, 3.

while he was traveling in Moscow many years prior.45 However, the composition

bears a dedication to his pupil, Napoléon Coste.46

Figure 4: Sor, Les Deux Amis, Op. 41, Theme, mm. 1-8, a piece which most likely would have been performed by Sor and Aguado.

Both Fernando Sor and Dionisio Aguado had an enormous impact on the development and promotion of the guitar. Not only are their works still often performed today, their students and colleagues sustained the tradition of writing and performing guitar music. Sor’s own pupil, with whom he performed duos, guitarist Napoléon Coste, wrote a small number of guitar duos, the most substantial of which is his Grand duo égales et concertantes, an extended work featuring four movements. There is also a surviving record of Coste performing in a duo with the

Italian guitarist, Luigi Sagrini (1809–1874), in 1828 in Valenciennes. They performed one of

45 Wade, Graham. 2001. A concise history of the classic guitar. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications, 90. 46 Long, M. Richard. 1995. Sor guitar duets (complete), vol. 2, eds. Robert Kubica, van Wilma Berkel. Vol. CD NAXOS 8.553302, 4.

Giuliani’s most substantial works for two guitars, Variazioni Concertanti Op 130, and enjoyed

an enthusiastic response from the public.47 Sagrini also wrote several original works and

arrangements for two guitars, although his music is all but lost to history.48

Aguado’s friend, the French guitarist, François de Fossa (1775–1849), produced a large

body of work for the guitar in different ensemble combinations. These pieces include substantial

arrangements of eight complete string quartets by Franz Joseph Haydn, for guitar duo.

The Italian guitarist, Fedinando Carulli (1770–1841), also settled in Paris during this

time. Throughout his life he produced a prolific amount of music for the guitar, including the

most guitar duo compositions of any nineteenth-century composer. His entire body of over 400

works, includes of about 80 guitar duos. These range from the 24 short duos from the third

section of his guitar method, Op. 27, to arrangements of orchestral music by Beethoven, Haydn,

Mozart, and Rossini.

1.3.3 Second Half of 19th Century

The guitar underwent an overall decline in popularity in the second half of the nineteenth

century. Berlioz writes in his treatise, Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration, “Since the

introduction of the pianoforte into all houses where the least taste for music exists, the guitar has

been little used, save in Spain and Italy … Composers employ it but little, either in church,

47 Wade, Graham. 2001. A concise history of the classic guitar. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications, 90. 48 Ibid, 90.

19 theatrical, or concert room. Its feeble sonority, which does not allow its union with other instruments, or with many voices possessed even of ordinary brilliancy, is doubtless the cause of this”.49 Due to the musical trends toward larger ensembles, more harmonically complex expressive gestures, and the desire for an extended dynamic range, the guitar steadily declined in popularity. Despite the reality of this recession, a small number of guitarists persevered and produced some of the highest quality music that had been written for the instrument.

The Slovenian guitarist Johann Kasper Mertz (1806–1856), produced over 100 works, including many high-quality guitar duets. Most of these duo compositions were composed for a standard guitar, and a terz guitar. Wade speculates that this is perhaps the main reason Mertz’s guitar duo music was almost completely neglected, until recent scholarship by Simon Wynberg, who released a ten-volume set of collected works by Mertz.50 Displaying influence from

Schubert, Mertz’s guitar duo music is a natural extension of his writing for the solo guitar. In many of these duo compositions, Mertz magnifies the virtuosic, vulnerable expressivity often characterized in his solo works.

The Swiss guitarist and concertinist, Giulio Regondi (1823–1872), composed some of the most virtuosic music for the guitar during the second half of the nineteenth century. Although all of his surviving guitar works are written for the solo instrument, there are records of Regondi performing in a guitar duo on several occasions. In 1834, the young Regondi played duos with the English guitarist, Catherina Pelzer (Madame Sidney Pratten). Paula Gillett states, “Catherina

49 Berlioz, Hector. 1882. A treatise on modern orchestration. Trans. Mary Cowden Clarke, ed. Joseph Bennett. London, New York: Novello, Ewer and Co., 69-70. 50 2014. Johann Kaspar Mertz: Guitar duets, eds. Johannes Möller, Laura Fraticelli. Vol. CD. US: Naxos 8.573055, 2.

20 first appeared on a London stage at the age of seven with another guitar prodigy, Giulio Regondi, later famous for his brilliant mastery of the concertina; the two children performed duets, elevated on a table”.51

Another relatively overlooked guitarist, who produced some of the most high-quality guitar duo music was the French guitarist, Antoine de L’hoyer (1768-1852). L’hoyer was in the

French military and travelled for much of his life, teaching guitar and working as a guitarist in the tsar’s court in St. Petersburg, Russia. Although many of his earlier works were written for the five-string guitar, following his return to France in 1813, he exclusively adopted the six-string guitar.52 While living in Paris, L’hoyer met the Italian guitarist Fernandino Carulli, with whom he collaborated. Although there are no specific records of the two guitarists performing as a guitar duo, the amount of guitar duo repertoire that L’hoyer produced from 1823 - 1826 leads one to believe that they would have at least played together recreationally.53 In fact, guitar duos make up about half of the music L’hoyer published from 1823 - 1826. L’hoyer’s compositions for two guitars exhibit a refined take on the classical style. Lorenzo Micheli states, “What does strike the listener’s attention in L’hoyer’s music is the utter equality of the two guitars. This perfect balance, probably the most successful attempt to use a concertante style in the whole repertoire for two guitars from the classical age, is achieved through a technical device consisting of doubling the exposition of the themes, which, in the sonata-form movements, are

51 Gillett, Paula. 2004. Entrepreneurial women musicians in Britain. In The musician as entrepreneur, 1700-1914, managers, charlatans, and idealists., ed. William Weber. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 211. 52 Stenstadvold, Erik. 2003. Lhoyer (1768-1852). Soundboard 29 (9). 53 Orga, Ateş. 2016. Antoine de lhoyer, complete works for guitar trio and quartet, eds. Jørgen Skogmo, Jens Franke and Oskar Werninge. Vol. CD. US: Naxos 8.573575, 3.

21 afforded in turn to both first and second guitar”.54 There is record of Mauro Giuliani’s pupil,

Justice Gründler, and the guitarist Carl Blum performing a “Concertante for two guitars” by

L’hoyer in Berlin sometime in January, 1817. Based on available evidence, the two most likely would have performed a work from L’hoyer’s Trois duos Concertants, Op. 31 (Fig. 5).55

Figure 5: L’hoyer, Trois duos Concertants, Op. 31, no. I, mvt. III, Rondo, mm. 1-5, a piece that most likely would have been performed by Gründler and Blum.

1.4 Spain and South America

Despite the decline in popularity of the guitar in the second half of the 19th century, the instrument and repertoire were further developed by a small number of enthusiasts in Spain, who set the stage for its impending revival in the twentieth century. The great Spanish guitarist Julian

Arcas (1832-1882) and his pupil Francesco Tárrega (1852-1909), responsible for teaching and

54 Micheli, Lorenzo. 2007. Antoine de lhoyer: Duos concertants, eds. Matteo Mela, Lorenzo Micheli. Vol. CD Naxos 8.570146. 55 Stenstadvold, Erik. 2003. Lhoyer (1768-1852). Soundboard 29 (3).

22 inspiring many of the next generation of guitarists, composed only a handful of original pieces for the guitar duo. Despite this, Tárrega did produce about 20 arrangements for two guitars, which includes works by composers, such as Haydn, Mendelsohn, Mozart, and Beethoven.56

Tárrega would also sometimes include duo pieces in his recitals where he would perform with his students. On several occasions he performed with his friend and pupil, Daniel Fortea (1878-

1953).57

Several of their students participated in guitar duos and were responsible for keeping the duo tradition alive through their arrangements and original compositions. Tárrega’s virtuosic pupil Miguel Llobet (1878-1938), performed in a duo with the Argentine guitarist, María Luisa

Anido (1907-1996). Llobet had met and mentored Anido while he temporarily relocated from

Barcelona to Buenos Aires around 1910.58 Llobet arranged a large number of works for two guitars from a variety of settings. These arrangements include works by Albéniz, Granados,

Aguirre, Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, and Tchaikovsky, among others. The two also went on to make one of the earliest guitar duo recordings, featuring pieces by Albéniz, Mendelssohn, and

Aguirre. These recordings would have been produced around 1925 - 1929.59

The notable pupil of Tarrega, the Spanish guitarist, Emilio Pujol (1886-1980), wrote a small number of original pieces for two guitars, as well as arranged several pieces for two guitars by famous composers such as Albéniz, Falla, Granados, and Bizet. Pujol often performed in a

56 Wade, Graham. 2017. Historical perspectives on the guitar ensemble. Classical Guitar Magazine. December 23, 2017. 57 Silver, Jack. Andres Segovia and his contemporaries vol. 12. Vol. CD. DOREMI DHR-7996, 7. 58 Purcell, Ronald C. 2001. Llobet soles, Miguel, Oxford University Press. 59 Bazzotti, Marco. Masters of the guitar vol. 1 SPAIN. Recordings 1925/1963. Trans. Daniela Pilarz. IDIS 6699 ed. Italy.

23 duo with his wife, the Spanish guitarist Matilde Cuervas (1888-1956).60 Their concerts were not exclusively duo, instead the two would play solo pieces followed by them coming together to perform duos.61 They made several recordings, one of which included Pujol’s arrangements of

Falla, in 1932 (Fig. 6).62 These popular arrangements are still often included in the repertoire of modern guitar duos.

Figure 6: Falla, Danse Española no. I, La vie brève, mm. 5-13. An arrangement for two guitars by Pujol, as recorded by Pujol and Cuervas in 1932.

60 Silver, Jack. Andres Segovia and his contemporaries vol. 12. Vol. CD. DOREMI DHR-7996, 9. 61 Ramírez, Hernández, and Fabián Edmundo. 2011. La obra compositiva de emilio pujol (*1886; 1980): Estudio comparativo, catálogo y edición crítica.Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. 62 Silver, Jack. Andres Segovia and his contemporaries vol. 12. Vol. CD. DOREMI DHR-7996, 9.

Alongside the thriving guitar culture in Spain, there was also a burgeoning enthusiasm for the guitar in South America, particularly in Argentina and Uruguay. “The single strung classical guitar came to Argentina early in the nineteenth century. The Italian guitarist Esteban Massini

(1778-1838), arrive to Argentina in 1822. Eight years later the poet Esteban Echeverria returned from his European studies, bringing with him the teachings of Sor and Aguado”.63 This would inculcate the European classic guitar tradition within South America, which would eventually elicit many of the prominent Spanish guitarists such as Llobet, Pujol, and Cuervas to travel to

South America in the early 20th century to teach and perform.64 The influx of international artists to Argentina and Uruguay would kindle a thriving community of enthusiasts, establishing the

Rio de la Plata as a “central axis for classical guitar activity”.65 Within this guitar community, guitar duos were performing and recording in South America as early as 1920. There are records of the tango guitarists José María Aguilar (1891-1951) and Enrique Maciel recording several

South American pieces as a guitar duo in 1923. José María Aguilar also recorded with the guitarist Rafael Iriarte (1890-1961) in 1925, and with Armando Pagés (1903-?) in 1927.66 Rafael

Iriate recorded guitar duos in the early 1920s with Rosendo Pesoa (1896-1951). In the early

1930s, Vicente Spina (1899-1959) and Reynaldo Baudino (1902-1966) recorded various South

American tango guitar duos.67

63 Silver, Jack. Segovia & his Contemporaries series. in DOREMI [database online]. http://www.doremi.com/segovia.html (accessed 01/12). 64 Ibid. 65 Ibid. 66 Discography of American Historical Recordings. Rafael Iriate (Instrumentalist: Guitar). in University of California [database online]. Santa Barbara, [cited 12/05 2018]. Available from https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/index.php/talent/detail/10289/Iriarte_Rafael_instrumentalist_guitar. 67 Ibid.

Additionally, the Canary Island duo, Victor Doreste (1902-1966) and Ignacio Rodríguez

(1894-1972) recorded repertoire in the late 1920s. These recordings consisted of arrangements of

Mozart’s, Minuetto de Don Juan, as well as an arrangement of a movement from Beethoven’s

Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 10 no. 3. In the early 1930s the two toured through Germany and gave a number of concerts.68

Several years later, Graciano Tarragó (1892-1973), pupil of Tarrega, performed and recorded with his daughter, the popular Catalan guitarist, Renata Tarragó (1927-2005). They recorded an album of Spanish guitar music in 1958.

1.5 Presti-Lagoya

The Presti-Lagoya guitar duo played a pivotal role in the evolution of the ensemble, expanding the existing tradition while also redefining the perceived possibilities of the guitar duo ensemble. Although previous solo guitarists did find some success playing guitar duos in their concerts, the guitar duo ensemble could be viewed as an ancillary, dispensable form, a novelty act that had not been fully developed on the concert stage. Up until the mid-1930s the guitar duo repertoire predominantly consisted of arrangements of popular classical pieces. The Presti-

Lagoya guitar duo would greatly expand the body of original repertoire for two guitars, establishing the guitar duo as a prevalent, celebrated music ensemble.69

68 Padrón Rodríguez, Jorge. 2016. Doreste Grande, Victor (1902-1966). Bienmesabe (607). 69 Duarte, W. John 1969. Rationale of the guitar-duo form. Guitar Review (37) (May).

Husband and wife, Alexandre Lagoya (1929-1999) and Ida Presti (1924-1967), first met in Paris after Lagoya had traveled there from his home country Egypt, with hopes of starting a career as a guitar performer.70 During their first meeting, which took place at a guitar society event, Presti asserted that Lagoya was the best guitarist she had ever heard.71 At the time of their first meeting, Presti had already established a modest career as a soloist. Gardiner states, “Presti had achieved somewhat of a celebrity status through her prodigious talents. Paired with Lagoya

(a guitarist of equal standing), they were a force to be reckoned with. They are widely regarded to be the finest guitar duo ever”.72 In 1952, they made their first public appearance as a duo.

Although it was well received, they continued to pursue opportunities for solo performances until about 1955, at which point they would choose to exclusively perform as a duo (until the premature death of Presti, after which Lagoya would continue solo activities). This would serve as one of the first examples in which two guitarists would exclusively pursue a career performing as a duo. Alice Artzt states, “Ida renounced this personal success without regret to form with

Alexandre Lagoya something that had never existed before, a permanent duo made up of two soloists”.73

The Presti-Lagoya duo was responsible for greatly expanding the guitar duo repertoire.

Although they would eventually have many substantial guitar duo works written and dedicated to them, at the outset of their career as a duo, their repertoire consisted mostly of arrangements made by Lagoya. Initially, Lagoya preferred to arrange music that was written for plucked string

70 Artzt, Alice. 2005. Ida Presti: Her life, her art. Ancona, Italy: Bèrben, 98. 71 Ibid, 101. 72 Gardiner, Duncan Robert. 2006. The classical guitar in Paris: Composers and performers c.1920-1960.Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, Edith Cowan University, 19. 73 Artzt, Alice. 2005. Ida Presti: Her life, her art. Ancona, Italy: Bèrben, 105, 108.

27 instruments and keyboards. His body of arrangements includes pieces from a variety of eras and styles, including Baroque works by Bach, Handel, Scarlatti, Soler, to early twentieth century

Spanish repertoire by Falla, Granados, and Albéniz. Henri Dorigny states, “These pieces were transcribed with complete fidelity to the originals and were further enhanced by the orchestral effects of the Duo’s sensitive interpretations. Such transcriptions stimulated other composers to write for two guitars”.74 Perhaps the greatest lasting influence the duo had on future generations runs through the large body of original works written for them. Due to their exceptional musical and technical abilities, the Presti-Lagoya duo were able to gain international recognition, prompting composers to consider contributing to the growing body of original pieces for two guitars. They would issue the mandate: “Write what you wish. Leave us to worry about the technical problems”.75 Duarte states, “they (also) developed the art of writing for the duo ensemble beyond all previous bounds. This was the product of their deep and unfailing musicianship and knowledge of the instrument; it guided not only their own prodigious work but also that of those who were fortunate enough to be able to write for them”.76 The original works written for the duo include pieces by many popular composers, and in fact, Ida Presti wrote several original pieces for the duo, including, Fantasia in homage to Bach in 1956, Etude n. 3 in

1966, and Danse d’Avila in 1959. Upon hearing the duo, Segovia was so impressed that he reached out to several well-known composers, requesting original duo works for them.77 The original works for two guitars written for the Presti-Lagoya duo include,

74 Dorigny, Henri. 1969. Ida Presti. Guitar Review (37) (May). 75 Duarte, W. John 1969. Rationale of the guitar-duo form. Guitar Review (37) (May). 76 Ibid. 77 Gardiner, Duncan Robert. 2006. The classical guitar in Paris: Composers and performers c.1920-1960.Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, Edith Cowan University, 20.

- Jean-Yves Daniel-Lesur: Élégie (1956)

- Pierre Petit: Tarantelle (1959); Toccata (1959)

- André Jolivet: Sérénade pour deux guitares' (1959)

- Joaquín Rodrigo, Tonadilla (1959). Rodrigo finished another piece for two guitars,

the Concierto Madrigal (originally named Concierto para una Virreina de España, in

1966, but Presti died before she and Lagoya could perform it. Angel and Pepe

Romero subsequently gave the first performance of it in Los Angeles on July 301th,

1967)78

- Georges Migot, Deux Preludes (1961)

- Georges Migot, Sonata for two guitars (1962)

- Pierre Wissmer: Prestilagoyana (1969)

- Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Sonatina Canonica pour deux guitares, Op. 196 (1961)

- Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Les Guitares bien tempérées - 24 Préludes et fugues

pour deux guitares, Op. 199 (1962)

- Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Concerto pour deux guitares et orchestre, Op. 201

(1962)

- Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fuga elegiaca pour deux guitares, Op. postuma (1967),

dedicated to ‘the memory of Ida Presti’

- Joaquín Rodrigo, Triptico para guitarra (1977)

78 Miura Martínez, Enrique. 2003. Rodrigo complete orchestral works vol. 5, eds. Ricardo Gallén, Joaquín Clerch. Trans. Susannah Howe. Vol. CD, Naxos 8.55584, 3.

Rodrigo’s Tonadilla, has become one of the most celebrated works in the guitar duo repertoire. Emblematic of his nationalistic, Spanish style, the piece also exhibits a Neo-Baroque character. Rodrigo was known for his early music influence, often blending direct Renaissance and Baroque musical references with his own original material.79 Bearing relation to the Italian intermezzo form, which is defined as a, “musical interlude played between acts of a theatrical presentation”80, the Tonadilla is theatrical in nature. Composed in three contrasting movements, the piece is written in a neo-baroque style, displaying influence from Domenico Scarlatti.81

Rodrigo utilizes both guitars to their full potential with melodic and rhythmic motives that often ricochet between the two parts in quick succession. The opening measures of the first movement,

Allegretto ma non troppo, exemplify this shifting texture with a short almost pointillistic melodic figure, supported by the driving sixteenth notes that fill out the texture and create a forward momentum (Fig. 7).

Figure 7: Rodrigo, Tonadilla, Mvt. I, Allegretto ma non troppo, mm. 7-12.

79 Donis Antonio, José. 2005. The musicologist behind the composer: The impact of historical studies upon the creative life in Joaquín Rodrigo's Guitar compositions. Master of Music., Florida State University. 80 Wade, Graham. 2008. Rodrigo guitar music vol. 1, ed. Jérémy Jouve, Vol. CD. Naxos 8.570286, 5. 81 Ibid, 6.

The most substantial work written for the Preti-Lagoya duo was Mario Castelnuovo-

Tedesco’s Les Guitares bien tempérées, 24 preludes and fugues pour deux guitars, Op. 199. The set of 24 prelude and fugues was composed in 1962, between March 8th and June 3rd, while

Castelnuovo-Tedesco was living in Beverly Hills, California.82 At the time of composition, it was the largest work ever conceived for two guitars and has proven to be one of the most popular works for guitar duo to date. It combines Castelnuovo-Tedesco’s neo-baroque influence with his unique ability to write memorable melodies. Utilizing all 24 keys in an alternating major/minor rising fifth sequence, Castelnuovo-Tedesco creates a series of novel textures which fully utilize both guitars. Graham Wade states, “There is an element almost of a diary here in which

Castelnuovo-Tedesco records his moods and emotions through a short creative period entirely dedicated to the production of this quite extraordinary collection of pieces, so varied, colorful and brilliant, ranging from the joyful to the melancholic”.83 The Greek guitar duo, Evangelos

Assimakopoulos and Liza Zoe, who were students of Presti, provided the fingering for the first edition of the work, due to the death of Ida Presti in 1967.84

The Prelude and Fugue no. 4 in E major, written on the 19th and 21st of March,85 is perhaps the most popular of the set. It contains very idiomatic writing, pointing towards

Castlenuovo-Tedesco’s deep understanding of the guitar and fretboard, while displaying his distinct melodic style through cinematic themes, not unlike much of his film music. The music is

82 Wade, Graham. 2008. Castelnuovo-tedesco, music for two guitars: 1, eds. João Luiz, Douglas Lora. Vol. CD. US: Naxos 8.570778, 2. 83 Ibid, 2. 84 Ibid, 2. 85 Ibid, 3.

31 orchestrated in a way that accentuates the themes, with the role of each guitar regularly switching, featuring a communal distribution of thematic material between both duo players.

The Prelude opens with material that utilizes both guitars in unison to create a thick arpeggio texture (Fig. 8). The suspended descending melodic line sits above the active accompaniment and is distinguished by its transparent scalar character. In this piece, Castelnuovo-Tedesco prudently delegates the two guitars to different registers, supporting a musical interpretation in which the piece can sound as if it were being played by four hands on a single instrument.

Lorenzo Micheli states, “In writing for two guitars, Castelnuovo-Tedesco always opts for a sharp separation of registers – the first guitar is given the medium-high, the second the middle- low – thus increasing the theatrical effectiveness and the dramatic quality intrinsic to the canon and creating a sense of dynamism and restlessness which will be recomposed only in the closing passage of every movement, or sporadically in some central episodes”.86

Figure 8: Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Les Guitares bien Temperes, Prelude no. 4 in E major, Op. 199, mm. 1-2.

86 Micheli, Lorenzo. 2007. Solaria, 20th century masterworks for two guitars, eds. Matteo Mela, Lorenzo Micheli. Vol. CD. Pomegranate Music 634479493386.

Another interesting piece from the Op. 199 set is the Prelude and Fugue no. 17 in B major, written on the 24th and 25th of May 1962. The prelude features an extended hocket texture, in which both guitars trade off notes in sequence, one playing while the other rests, then immediately switching (Fig. 9). The tempo direction ‘as quick as possible’, helps establish a texture which emphasizes the stereo capacity of the two guitars. In order to keep the tempo consistent, and the sixteenth notes metrically precise, the duo must be especially coordinated.

Figure 9: Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Les Guitares bien Temperes, Prelude no. 17 in B major, Op. 199, mm. 1-4.

The Presti-Lagoya guitar duo’s programs usually consisted of a variety of styles. On

March 26th, 1957, they performed works by Telemann, Bach, Sor, Carulli, Granados, as well as two original works that they had each composed.87 The duo began playing concerts using

Ramirez guitars, but in 1956, obtained two new guitars from the luthier and friend of Ida Presti,

Robert Bouchet. According to Artzt, the two new guitars were louder, and aided the duo when performing concertos in large concert halls.88 By 1957, the duo was being offered concerts

87 Artzt, Alice. 2005. Ida Presti: Her life, her art. Ancona, Italy: Bèrben, 113. 88 Ibid, 115.

33 internationally, and audiences were beginning to understand the rare musicianship the duo exuded during performance. Around 1964, the duo’s career was at its pinnacle. They were regularly performing for thousands of people, giving around 200 concerts a year.89

That same year, while on an American tour, they met, for the first time, with the great

Spanish guitarist Andrés Segovia, who expressed interest in hearing them perform privately. He was impressed by their ability to play with such unity. He would later praise the duo stating that they, “play a large guitar with twelve strings”.90 Following their initial connection with Segovia, they would meet with him again several times over the subsequent years while on tour. In 1965 while in Los Angeles at the end of March, they would meet with Segovia and Castlenuovo-

Tedesco. This was the first time the composer would have the pleasure of hearing some of the preludes and fugues from his Op. 199 composition, which he dedicated to the duo in 1962.91

By 1967, the duo had been performing for fifteen years. According to Artzt, their repertoire had grown exponentially, and they now had a total of ten complete concert programs, all lasting about an hour and half. Before the Presti-Lagoya duo formed, there had not been any concertos written for two guitars and orchestra. The first one they received was in 1956, a concerto titled, Fantaisie Concertante composed by Gontran Dessagne. Within the next twelve years, they would receive another 15 concertos, including a work from the great Spanish

89 Artzt, Alice. 2005. Ida Presti: Her life, her art. Ancona, Italy: Bèrben, 126. 90 Ibid, 129. 91 Ibid, 135.

34 composer Joaquin Rodrigo, Concierto para una Virreyna.92 Unfortunately, Presti would prematurely pass away in 1967, before this concerto would receive its premiere.93

Throughout their career they consistently recorded, leaving behind more than fifteen records, released on popular classical labels such as RCA and Philips.94 The composer Daniel-

Lesur brilliantly stated, “The Presti-Lagoya duo shows us how profound the guitar can be when engaged in a dialog with itself. Alteration of shadow and light, of accents, of gentleness. Molded, sensitive to the curves that oppose the rhythmic beats. More lively polyphony, and more fragile, which seems to spring naturally from the pairs of hands, and the meditation of souls”.95

The premature death of Ida Presti, at age 43, marked the end of Presti-Lagoya guitar duo.

The impact they had on the genre cannot be overstated. Duarte states, “The maturing of two remarkable and complementary talents, culminating in their fusion in such an epoch-making duo with the concomitant sacrifice of two distinguished careers, carried more than a suggestion of predestination. In the light of this, the tragic ending to their story, which was still far from fully developed, make no kind of sense that human understanding can conceive”.96 During their time performing and travelling they met and taught a large number of guitarists, inspiring several to create guitar duos and follow in the path the Presti-Lagoya duo had forged. These duos include,

The Athenian Guitar Duo, consisting of husband and wife, Evangelos Assimakopoulos and Liza

Zoi, who studied with Presti and Lagoya during the International Summer Guitar Academy of

92 Artzt, Alice. 2005. Ida Presti: Her life, her art. Ancona, Italy: Bèrben, 138. 93 Ibid, 138. 94 Ibid, 138. 95 Ibid, 141. 96 Duarte, W. John. 1969. Presti-Lagoya duo. Guitar Review (37).

Nice (1964-1967)97 as well as the Japanese-French, husband and wife duo, Ako Ito and Henri

Dorigny.98 With the tragic passing of Ida Presti, “Composition for two guitars was deprived of its most important ambassador, but the seed had now given fruit and duos were springing up all over the world. The baton was passed, curiously, to two pairs of Brazilian brothers: Sergio and

Eduardo Abreu … and above all, Sergio and Odair Assad”.99

1.6 Abreu Brothers

Another extraordinary guitar duo that challenged all expectations was the Abreu Guitar

Duo, consisting of the Brazilian brothers, Sergio and Eduardo Abreu. They started playing professionally as a duo in 1963, after several years of training from the Argentine guitarist,

Adolfina Raitzin Tarova (a.k.a Dona Adolfina/Monina Távora), a student of Segovia, who would also go on to be a mentor to the Brazilian guitar duo, the Assad brothers.100 She had heard the

Abreu brothers play together in 1961 and was so impressed, she made the decision to offer them coaching in advanced technique and musical interpretation.101 Their debut concert took place in

1963, at the hall of the Brazilian Press Association in Rio, in which the duo was well received by a full audience.102 Although the duo gained a considerable reputation due to their extremely

97 Sakallieros, Giorgos. 2014. Zōē [zoe, Zoi], liza [lisa, elisabeth]. Oxford University Press. 98 Duarte, W. John. 1969. Rationale of the guitar-duo form. Guitar Review (37) (May). 99 Micheli, Lorenzo. 2007. Solaria, 20th century masterworks for two guitars, eds. Matteo Mela, Lorenzo Micheli. Vol. CD. Pomegranate Music 634479493386. 100 Barros, Nicholas de Souza. 1994. An interview with Sérgio Abreu. Guitar Review 99 (Fall): 16. 101 Summerfield, Marice J. 2002. The classical guitar, its evolution, players and personalities since 1800. Fifth ed. United Kingdom: Ashley Mark Publishing Company. 102 Barros, Nicholas de Souza. 1994. An interview with Sérgio Abreu. Guitar Review 99 (Fall): 16.

36 synchronized playing, between 1963 and 1968, they surprisingly only performed approximately seven or eight concerts.103 Sergio Abreu explains, “Early on, when we were only playing one or two engagements a year, we had few problems, because we preferred studying to playing in public. Later, the life of the travelling musician started to wear us down, and each of us for his own reasons decided to stop”.104 Despite their lack of enthusiasm for travelling and public performance, they would garner much international acclaim. In 1968 they had their London debut concert at Wigmore Hall, which resulted in the duo being offered to sign a contract to record with the popular record label Decca, while at the same time be committed to release another recording with CBS.105

The repertoire that the Abreu brothers preferred to perform was more traditional, primarily being composed of arrangements made by Sergio, who would select music he thought could potentially work for two guitars. He would start by writing out a few pages, which the duo would then record and listen back. If they both agreed that the results were pleasing, he would commit to finishing the arrangement.106 The duo’s repertoire consisted of a variety of traditional works from different eras, including Baroque pieces by, Bach, Telemann, Scarlatti, along with nineteenth century works by Sor, and a variety of Spanish works by Granados, Albéniz, Falla, and Rodrigo. Sergio states, “many people felt we had programmed too much modern music. We usually tended to go in other directions”.107 The duo’s typical concert program always included

103 Barros, Nicholas de Souza. 1994. An interview with Sérgio Abreu. Guitar Review 99 (Fall): 16. 104 Ibid, 16. 105 Ibid, 16. 106 Marcelo Kayath, "Interview, Sergio Abreu" (Video Interview, https://guitarcoop.com.br/en/interview-sergio- abreu/ (accessed December 12, 2018). 107 Barros, Nicholas de Souza. 1994. An interview with Sérgio Abreu. Guitar Review 99 (Fall): 16.

37 both solo and duo works, which Sergio explains provided them with more material and afforded them a moment of respite during the concert.108 Typically, their concert program would commence with a set of duos, followed by a solo performance by Sergio before the intermission.

Following the intermission, Eduardo would play solo before they concluded with a final set of duos.109 They would record three albums, the second of which included the brothers performing solo pieces alongside duo works. Their last recording consisted of two concertos for two guitars, the Castelnuovo-Tedesco concerto, which was dedicated to the Presti-Lagoya duo in 1962, and the Santórsola concerto, which was dedicated to the Abreu brothers, and premiered in London in

1972.110

The Abreu brothers would reach their peak success from 1970 to 1975, during which time they toured more extensively, performing concerts in Australia, Europe, the United States, and Brazil.111 During this tour, the duo brought along a cassette recorder, which they used to capture their own concerts. This allowed them to analyze their own playing in order to determine what aspects could be improved upon.112 Duarte describes the two brothers, “Sergio, whose remarkable ability to sight-read difficult music recalls that of Ida Presti, is the more outgoing of the two, though his playing is of classic purity; Eduardo, both personally and through his

108 Marcelo Kayath, "Interview, Sergio Abreu" (Video Interview, https://guitarcoop.com.br/en/interview-sergio- abreu/ (accessed December 12, 2018). 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 Barros, Nicholas de Souza. 1994. An interview with Sérgio Abreu. Guitar Review 99 (Fall): 16. 112 Marcelo Kayath, "Interview, Sergio Abreu" (Video Interview, https://guitarcoop.com.br/en/interview-sergio- abreu/ (accessed December 12, 2018).

38 playing, reflects intense feeling beneath a seemingly placid exterior. This contrast of personality is also, perhaps, characteristic of the component players of successful duos”.113

1.7 Assad Duo

Continuing the musical tradition started by the Abreu brothers in Brazil, the Assad brothers have innovated in similar ways, furthering the musical possibilities of the guitar duo.

Born into a musical family in São Paulo, Brazil, Sergio Assad started playing the guitar through the instruction of his uncle, who taught him basic chord shapes so that he could accompany his mother when she sang.114 Shortly after Sergio had started learning, his younger brother Odair also wanted to learn how to play guitar. Sergio states, “When I was about eight years old, I wanted to play the guitar. But my father didn’t believe a child could play. Finally, when I was about 12, I got someone to teach me a few chords. It was easy to move from one chord to another. My father was impressed, and we started to play together. The next day, my brother

Odair got jealous. I handed the guitar to him, and actually it was easier for him. We had one guitar in the house, but that same day my father bought a second one”.115 Since the guitar was such a popular instrument in Brazil, there was a vast body of music written that included it. From the outset of their musical training they were heavily involved in ensemble playing, which included traditional Brazilian music and popular Choros, a musical form which consists of a

113 Duarte, W. John. 1969. The future of the guitar duo. Guitar Review (37) (May). 114 Cruz, João Paulo Figueirôa da. 2008. An annotated bibliography of works by the Brazilian Composer Sérgio Assad Doctor of Music., Florida State University. 115 Young, Doug. 2009. Sergio Assad interview. Acoustic Guitar Magazine. November.

39 small group of musicians accompanying a soloist.116 Their exposure to so much ensemble playing at a young age may account in part for the remarkable synchrony they exhibit when performing together.

In the late 1960s they initially travelled to the city of São Paulo to meet with the

Uruguayan guitarist Isaías Sávio (1902-1977) in hopes he could give the brothers instruction; however, their father was not satisfied with Sávio’s reaction to hearing the Assad brothers perform and decided against enlisting him as their teacher. They then travelled to Rio de Janeiro and met with the Argentine guitar teacher, Monina Távora, who had previously coached the

Abreu brothers. Sergio described her reaction during their first meeting, “Ah, these kids have a lot of talent! I am seeing again the Abreus”, she also prophetically predicted, “You are going to obtain an international career and see the whole world”.117 They would study under Távora from

1969 – 1976. These lessons occurred once a week and would occasionally last up to five hours.118 Although Távora did not use a specific method to guide the lessons, Sergio credits her informal approach for helping the brothers become more flexible musicians.119 When it came to making musical decisions on interpretation, she would frequently change her opinion, offering the Assad brothers multiple ways to solve different musical dilemmas. Contemporaneously, the

Abreu brothers were experiencing international success, and in a way serving as a model for the

Assad Duo. Although both Duos shared the same teacher, Távora encouraged the Assad Duo to create their own musical identity, suggesting they mix their background in Brazilian Choro with

116 Béhague, Gerard. 2001. Choro Oxford University Press. 117 Cruz, João Paulo Figueirôa da. 2008. An annotated bibliography of works by the Brazilian Composer Sérgio Assad Doctor of Music., Florida State University, 23. 118 Ibid, 23. 119 Ibid, 24.

40 more serious European classical works.120 Due to Távora’s connections in Rio, the Assad brothers had many performance opportunities which garnered them much exposure. By the

1970s the duo had already achieved success in Brazil, but did not perform abroad until 1970, in

Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.121 They then began to expand their career to include engagements across Europe, and eventually North America.

The Assad’s early repertoire consisted mostly of traditional Brazilian music. João Paulo

Figueirôa states, “The dichotomy between the practice of traditional music and ‘serious’ music is not sharply defined in Brazil and the Assad brothers always looked for a repertoire that could identify their personality as musicians. They identified this repertoire in the piece by Marlos

Nobre, Radamés Gnatalli and Egberto Gismonti”.122 Several of these composers’ works championed by the Assad Duo have now become staples in the guitar duo repertoire. Sergio states, “Somehow, we had to create our own repertoire. Somehow, at the end of the day, that's identified with what we do. There are other guitar duos in the world, but they don't play the music we play”.123 Perhaps the most famous piece dedicated to the Assads’ is the Tango Suite for two guitars composed by the famous Argentine composer, Astor Piazzolla, in 1984. Sergio admired Piazzolla and had made some arrangements for guitar prior to their first meeting in

October of 1983.124 The duo played several of these arrangements for him during their initial

120 Bret Williams, "Classical Guitar Insider" (Audio Interview, Episode 83, Serigo Assad, 2016), http://www.bretwilliamsmusic.com/episode-83-sergio-assad/ (accessed December 20, 2018). 121 Cruz, João Paulo Figueirôa da. 2008. An annotated bibliography of works by the Brazilian Composer Sérgio Assad Doctor of Music., Florida State University, 27. 122 Ibid, 28. 123 Woodard, Josef. 2000. Classical guitar's dynamic duo diversifies. Los Angeles Times, April 9, 2000, sec Performing Arts. 124 Bret Williams, "Classical Guitar Insider" (Audio Interview, Episode 83, Serigo Assad, 2016), http://www.bretwilliamsmusic.com/episode-83-sergio-assad/ (accessed December 20, 2018).

41 meeting in Paris following one of Piazzolla’s performances. He was so enthusiastic with the arrangements and performance that he committed to writing them a piece, which he delivered to them in early 1984.125

Tango Suite is written in three movements and is a great example of a virtuosic piece that takes advantage of the guitar’s idiosyncrasies. Piazzolla was familiar with the guitar and often included it in his tango ensemble compositions. The Jazz and Tango guitarist, Horacio

Malvicino, states, “Piazzolla’s use of the guitar in his own ensembles, we might note here, was playful – as a melodic rather than a rhythmic instrument”.126 In the case of the Tango Suite,

Piazzolla utilizes both guitars to maximum capacity, sharing melodic and rhythmic material throughout. The first movement even begins with guitar one providing percussion accompaniment, emulating the sound of various percussive instruments such as the bongo drum and tambourine. The compositional style that Piazzolla developed while writing for his tango ensemble clearly had influence on the style and fullness of the Tango Suite, in which the two guitars often emulate the totality of a full, larger ensemble. Sergio states, “we played some of the arrangements I’d made of his music for him. I used diminished chords that created this descending arpeggio-like thing, and he went nuts over that. I think he heard something there that surprised him and he liked it. Then, when we got the Tango Suite, that [musical figure] was in there! The end of the first movement is exactly what I did. But there was really nothing to change in his music – everything was written there for two guitars and he did a wonderful job”

125 Bret Williams, "Classical Guitar Insider" (Audio Interview, Episode 83, Serigo Assad, 2016), http://www.bretwilliamsmusic.com/episode-83-sergio-assad/ (accessed December 20, 2018). 126 Azzi, Maria Susana, and Simon Collier. 2000. Le grand tango, the life and music of Astor Piazzolla. New York: Oxford University Press, 150.

(Fig. 10).127 Sergio credits the Tango Suite and the relationship the duo had with Piazzolla as one of the main factors that invigorated their career.128

Figure 10: Piazzolla, Tango Suite, Mvt. I, Allegro, mm. 133–135, The descending unison chromatic figure which Piazzolla uses at the end of the first movement.

Alongside the body of original repertoire written for the Assad Duo, Sergio can also be described as a pioneer when viewed as both a composer and as an arranger. Some of his most substantial arrangements for two guitars include works by Jean-Phillippe Rameau, Domenico

Scarlatti, and Johann Sebastian Bach, to more contemporary jazz influenced works by Egberto

Gismonti, Villa-Lobos, and George Gershwin. Sergio’s involvement in the duo has had an immense influence on the way he composes and arranges music.129 He states, “I always work with the two guitars in perspective, but I try to not play one line against the second line, because

I always hear two lines in a single guitar. So even playing with just two instruments, I always had about four lines going on, so the polyphonic thing inside had always been very thick in our

127 Jackson, Blair, and Marc Teicholz. 2018. Assad on arranging. Classical Guitar Magazine. March 12. 128 Bret Williams, "Classical Guitar Insider" (Audio Interview, Episode 83, Serigo Assad, 2016), http://www.bretwilliamsmusic.com/episode-83-sergio-assad/ (accessed December 20, 2018). 129 Jackson, Blair, and Marc Teicholz. 2018. Assad on arranging. Classical Guitar Magazine. March 12.

43 arrangements and the things I write for two guitars” (Fig. 11).130 This approach is also evident in his works for solo guitar, which are often characterized by dense polyphonic textures that demand each voice to be articulated and treated independently.

Figure 11: Assad, Tres Cenas Brasileiras pour deux guitars, Mvt. III, Recife Doe Corais, mm. 1-6, An example of the dense, multi voice polyphony that often characterizes Assad’s compositions for two guitars.

The Assad Duo is known for their unique sense of unity, demonstrating a high degree of synchrony, despite performing complex rhythmic textures or virtuosic passages. Much of the

South American repertoire they have championed, such as the more traditional popular Brazilian music, or the music of Piazolla, demands a more aggressive, passionate interpretation to properly convey the essence of the music. There is also a sense of improvisation which is present in much of this music. The traditional Choro music of Brazil included guitars which would often improvise based on the atmosphere, and the material that the melodic instruments such as the mandolin or flute were playing.131 This sense of improvisation has remained an integral element

130 Jackson, Blair, and Marc Teicholz. 2018. Assad on arranging. Classical Guitar Magazine. March 12. 131 Béhague, Gerard. 2001. Choro Oxford University Press.

44 in the Assad Duo’s sound. Even though they exclusively perform music that is notated in a traditional manner, their ability to listen to and respond to each other’s musical cues creates an atmosphere in which the music sounds as if it is being discovered and translated in the moment.

“The two brothers don't have to make any other gestures because their music gleams with such innate virtuosity… They have such keen empathy for each other, they play as if they were two parts of the same body. They weave solo voices back and forth easily and combine their individual parts seamlessly”.132 Sergio attributes their ability to perform with such unity as a product of their upbringing. From such a young age they would practice together every day for many hours. This brotherly bond has enabled them to develop the strong sense of empathy evident in their playing and communication with each other.

1.8 Concluding Remarks

Several key factors have contributed to the success of these virtuoso guitar duos. They each consisted of members who committed to exclusively perform together as a duo, eschewing the desire to pursue a solo career. Although there are examples of soloists coming together to perform as a duo, the unified vision of duo performance demonstrated by the three discussed duos eneabled them to further develop the genre. This allowed them to completely focus on the duo ensemble and afforded them the opportunity to develop their own repertoire. Not only did each duo arrange music for two guitars, they also were determined to grow the body of original

132 Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 2007. Assad duo review. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 2007.

45 repertoire. As the guitar duo ensemble grew in popularity, an increasing number of composers became interested in composing works for two guitars.

The most successful guitar duos feature members who are comparably proficient at their instrument. Much of the most virtuosic music written for two guitars consists of balanced parts, promoting moments in which each guitarist is afforded the opportunity to contribute either melodic or rhythmic material. In order for a duo to produce a unified interpretation, they must be able to make communal decisions regarding the essence of the music and agree on what they are attempting to communicate through their potential performance. Duarte states that these issues,

“call for virtual equality of ability between the partners of a duo, on all fronts, for compatibility of outlook and temperament, and for sufficient time for these to come into play … the most successful duos have always been those in which the participants are either married or closely related in blood”.133 This is true in the case of the historical guitar duos, Presti-Lagoya duo, the

Abreu brothers, as well as the Assad duo who are currently still enjoying an active performance career. Due to the long relationship cultivated between the members of their respective guitar duos, as well as their total commitment to the development of a unified sound and approach to interpretation, each of these duos were able to effortlessly utilize empathetic non-verbal communication during performance.

In chapter 2, I examine different aspects of ensemble participation through an in-depth literature review, drawing from sources written on a variety of different ensemble combinations.

An analysis of the different aspects of ensemble participation will facilitate a deeper understanding of how professional guitar duo members successfully manage their ensembles.

133 Duarte, W. John. 1969. Rationale of the guitar-duo form. Guitar Review (37) (May).

Chapter 2 Principals of Ensemble Performance through the lens of the Guitar Duo

2.1 Introduction

When considering the validity of the guitar duo ensemble, potential musical expression can transcend the possibilities afforded by the solo instrument. With the addition of a second guitar, musical gestures can be magnified while the capacity for dynamic contrast is expanded; no longer is a composer limited in terms of note selection by a single left-hand confined to the spatial geography of a single fretboard. The separation of melody and accompaniment can be more easily realized, allowing for greater potential clarity of voice separation. Another important distinction is that guitar duo parts are typically less dense and are therefore often technically easier to perform. This affords the duo ensemble a more immediate focus on actual musical details, without the demand of having to work through the overly complex technical minutiae often present in solo repertoire. In contrast to solo performance, guitar duos frequently perform with sheet music present. This provides an extra level of security and comfort in high pressure performance situations. As more repertoire is being composed for the guitar duo, it is no surprise that this ensemble has become increasingly popular over the past several decades. Young guitarists are now learning communal music making skills through direct participation in small ensembles such as the guitar duo, trio, and quartet.

There is a plethora of skills a musician can acquire through ensemble participation.

Research has shown that proficiency in sight reading, rhythm, and overall musicianship improve

47 as result of ensemble experience.134 This collaborative approach to music making forces individuals to rely on a shared understanding of a common goal, achieved through different means of interaction within a group dynamic. Brinner states that, “interaction occurs in formal and informal performance, in rehearsal and in other learning situations. Whenever two or more people engage in producing and manipulating sounds together, they affect each other by coordination, directing, imitating, inspiring …”.135 Furthermore, collaboration allows for the potential of more spontaneous decision-making during rehearsal and performance. Murnighan and Conlon state, “A quartet tries to stamp each performance with its own character and style and, even after considerable rehearsal, members can surprise each other or their audience with spontaneous flourishes”.136

Numerous studies have explored the concept that ensemble participation elevates one’s own individual musicianship. Holliday states, “Once made apparent in an ensemble experience, the solo performer gives far greater attention to such subtleties of the performance than he ever did before. Details such as timbre, tone production, articulation and rubato all must be micromanaged between the ensemble in order to guarantee a unified sound”.137 This refined approach to music making acquired through ensemble participation undoubtedly affects one’s own understanding and experience of potential solo performance as well. The wealth of research on the implications of ensemble participation makes it clear that ensemble performance is one of

134 Holliday, Kent. 1977. Ensemble playing for burgeoning pianists. American Music Teacher 26 (3): 16-17. 135 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 168. 136 Murnighan, J. K., and Donald E. Conlon. 1991. The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: A Study of British String Quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2): 166. 137 Holliday, Kent. 1977. Ensemble playing for burgeoning pianists. American Music Teacher 26 (3), 17.

48 the most valuable endeavors a musician can embark on. This is especially true for guitarists, considering the limited exposure they generally have to chamber music or ensemble playing.

Details such as phrasing, breathing and rhythm all take on an extra dimension when musical outcome is shared with a duo partner. The negotiation of these parameters shapes one’s own conception of the structure of a piece of music and affect how clearly it can be communicated.

Byo and Lethco state, “Ensemble skills such as blending and balancing of sounds, performing with stylistic and rhythmic cohesiveness, adjusting pitch, and interpreting a conductor’s gesture might well be retitled human interaction skills, as they require the performer to be aware of and sensitive to a continuous stream of aural and visual stimuli present as the music proceeds”.138

An examination of the recent literature on small ensemble collaboration and interaction will inform an analysis on how small ensembles such as the string quartet and piano duo effectively manage interaction through musical, verbal, and visual cues, in order to more fully realize musical intent. Highlighting the unique challenges imposed by these small ensembles will facilitate a comparison and discussion on the idiosyncrasies inherent to the guitar duo ensemble.

This will promote a deeper understanding of how the collaborative process of shared music making functions for the guitar duo, in both rehearsal and performance.

In order to clearly examine how different small ensembles manage interaction through verbal and non-verbal gesture, this paper has been organized into subcategories that are supported by the literature as fundamental components of ensemble participation. This

138 Byo, James L., and Leigh-Ann Lethco. 2001. Student musicians' eye contact with the conductor: An exploratory investigation. Contributions to Music Education 28 (2), 21.

49 breakdown will allow for a direct examination on how these parameters relate to interaction within the guitar duo. These subcategories are:

- Hierarchy of Group

- Verbal Communication

- Notation / Group Interpretation

- Non-Verbal Communication, Visual Cues / Gesture

- Musical Communication

2.2 Hierarchy of Group

The literature surrounding non-verbal communication within a music ensemble generally accepts that socio-cultural factors play a large role in influencing communication.139 Since the guitar duo is made up of only two members, the organizational hierarchy of the duo is not as strict as ensembles such as the string quartet. Regardless, whenever a group of musicians come together, organizational aspects of the group must be considered. In order to understand how hierarchy and power structures are managed within an ensemble, we must first examine the relationships and roles assumed by each musician. Analyses on how these roles are assigned,

139 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 167.

50 how they interact, and how the control of influence is managed within the group will help define these relationships. Brinner describes this process as the ‘interactive network’.140

The role which each musician assumes will have direct influence on the relationships with other members of the ensemble. A study undertaken by Murninghan and Conlon on string quartets identified that the first violinist assumed the role of leader, both in performance and administrative decision making.141 It has been established that within different ensembles there often exists a dominant personality who guides or shapes the group. Similar research by

Waterman enforces this notion, “The simplest approach is for the one dominant personality

(often the first violinist) to take, or to be given, the role of interpreter as if he were the all- powerful conductor of an orchestra”.142 Compositions for string quartet typically assign the second violinist a subordinate role, however relationships between members of the ensemble are often in constant flux, dictated by the immediate content and demands of the music. The musical domains controlled or influenced by each musician, such as rhythm, color, melodic contour, phrase direction often overlap. Understanding the musical domains that each individual musician inhabits and how these domains interact, allows the interactive network to be seen in its entirety, rather than just the individual’s place within ensemble.143

140 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 167. 141 Murnighan, J. K., and Donald E. Conlon. 1991. The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: A Study of British String Quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2): 165-86. 142 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 99. 143 Ibid.

The interactive network constitutes a complex system of ever-changing roles which can require specific management strategies. Murnighan and Conlon define a list of paradox- management tactics which can be applied to intense work groups, stating, “We observed three basic paradoxes: leadership versus democracy, the paradox of the second violinist, and confrontation versus compromise. The central findings indicate that the more successful quartets recognized but did not openly discuss the paradoxes”.144 Their research shows that, upholding a democratic philosophy allows each member the sense that they have a voice and therefore have the potential to contribute and to and influence the creative direction of the ensemble.

Highlighting the ubiquitous presence of the potential for conflict and the diversity of views in shared music making shows how similar issues are present in a variety of different small ensemble configurations. Whenever individuals come together to participate in a work group dynamic, diversity can often serve as a catalyst to conflict.145 This amplifies the importance of managing opposing views on how to present the music through open communication, in an atmosphere in which each musician feels comfortable to contribute.

Waterman argues that the trend in the latter part of the twentieth century has been one which leans away from leader dominated ensembles. “The rejection of dictatorial, controlling personalities in small groups is no doubt a result of liberal emancipations throughout society; and even if it were musically desirable, it is hard to imagine today three highly trained and skilled musicians being able to tolerate absolute power in a ‘leader’ through their long years of

144 Murnighan, J. K., and Donald E. Conlon. 1991. The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: A Study of British String Quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2): 165. 145 Ibid.

52 existence”.146 Murnighan and Conlon’s study on string quartets showed that the most successful ensembles were comprised of the most similar members. Quartets that were of similar age, similar background and ability, same sex, were more likely to be able to negotiate a stable partnership.147 This is consistent with Brinner’s view that ideally, each musician should be equally as competent, ensuring that musical input can be matched and or complemented between members of the ensemble.148

In the case of the guitar duo, the distinction of how these power structures are managed is not as evident. Both guitarists will often share and operate within the same musical domain, not only because they play the same instrument, but also to the extent that the composition allows them to share musical material. Brinner describes these types of linked relationships as

‘interlocking’.149 This is a form of mutual dependence in which both guitarists use their collective energy to ensure a composite melody or rhythm. The degree to which details such as timbre, sustain, attack and release are managed will determine how successfully the musical outcome will be perceived.150

Modern compositions for the guitar duo often feature parts that are balanced. Good compositional technique is reflected in the composer’s ability to ensure musical parity, distributing textures evenly. However, if 19th century works are examined we see a clearer

146 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 100. 147 Murnighan, J. K., and Donald E. Conlon. 1991. The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: A Study of British String Quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2): 165-86. 148 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction., 167. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 149 Ibid. 150 Ibid.

53 distinction of hierarchy of part assignment. Typically, guitar one will be solely responsible for most of the melodic material while guitar two assumes the subordinate role, providing accompaniment. This practice may have been utilized for several reasons, one being that guitar duo music was often historically employed for pedagogical purposes facilitating a student teacher collaboration, another could have been for ease of publication. Keeping melodic and accompaniment material separate would enable amateur musicians to more clearly see how the music is organized. Despite this tradition, modern performances of 19th century duo works frequently feature rearrangements of parts, allowing a more unified performance in which the duo shares both melodic and accompaniment material. The allocation of musical material between duo partners ensures a more interesting performance of the work.

The hierarchy which is established within an ensemble is also affected by the interactive system, which Brinner defines as, “the means by which performers communicate, coordinate, and orient themselves. It includes a variety of acts – cues, responses, prompts, signals, and markers”.151 All communication, whether verbal or through physical gesture, constitutes transmission through the interactive system. He defines the most obvious interactive device as a cue. It is essentially used to initiate an interaction between ensemble members and is the fundamental means of communication between musicians. The method by which the cue is produced and interpreted will define how effective its message is conveyed between fellow musicians. Ensemble members must be aware of “an ambiguous cue’s range of meanings and the appropriate contextual factors that pare away irrelevant meanings, leaving a single, unambiguous

151 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 183.

54 message”.152 The cue is unique in the way that it conveys a message in order to invoke a response or reaction from another ensemble member. There are other types of communication which are utilized by ensembles that do not require a direct response or musical translation. For example, Brinner describes the term ‘prompt’ as a specific gesture used to put derailed musicians back on track, also a ‘marker’ which acts more like a signal rather than an open line of communication.153

Williamon and Davidson define three types of communication within the interactive system: verbal, musical, and non-verbal (visual). They state that verbal communication is the fundamental mode of interaction used during rehearsal; however, it has been established that much of the communication during rehearsal is also nonverbal. Typically, the more familiar ensemble members are, the less they need to verbalize musical ideas, instead opting for more gestural based communication through the actual rehearsal of the music.154

2.3 Verbal Communication

Although it has been shown that the use of non-verbal communication increases as members of an ensemble become more familiar with each other and the music being rehearsed, studies regarding co-performer communication declare verbal communication as one of the

152 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 185. 153 Ibid. 154 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1): 53-72.

55 initial, central means of communication.155 Typically, discussions regarding musical outcome help solidify a group’s shared vision on what the music should communicate and promotes a more coherent interpretation. Keller and Appel state, “One consideration that may affect ensemble coordination is the degree to which ensemble members share a common performance goal, i.e., a unified conception of the ideal integrated sound”.156 In order to successfully contribute to a common performance goal, familiarity with each other’s parts is a pre-requisite.

Williamon and Davidson found that once important locations in the music were discovered, the ensemble members spoke of “The significance of a shared emotional state and conception of each piece’s narrative”.157 In accordance with these findings, Bayley’s analyses on string quartet rehearsal showed that the core discussion between ensemble members concerned sound quality and co-ordination.158 She categories these two issues as ‘questions of management’. The fact that the composer was present during the rehearsals in this study had an influence on the amount of discussion as well as the topics discussed. Bayley states, “It tends to be questions surrounding the interpretation of the notation that trigger discussions and negotiations in rehearsal and subsequently determine its direction”.159 The overall quality of communication within an ensemble is influenced by a, “Variety of social factors – such as personality, interpersonal relationships, and verbal and nonverbal communication styles”.160

155 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 98-124. 156 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1): 27-46. 157 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1), 63. 158 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 98-124. 159 Ibid, 114. 160 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 27.

Within the guitar duo ensemble, both individuals must feel comfortable discussing musical details related to the interpretation of a piece of music. Each guitar duo will have their own unique set of value judgments based on their converging stocks of knowledge. The ability to make decisions and reach conclusions in a constructive manner will be contingent on a diverse number of social factors related to the individuals within the duo.161

2.4 Notation / Group Interpretation

The notated score serves as the central source from which each musician conceives their musical interpretation. Bayley’s research on the collaborative relationships formed by a string quartet showed that questions involving notation and its interpretation often defined and determined interaction between the ensemble members during rehearsal. “Overall, what emerges from the culmination of these different aspects of rehearsal discussions is a model for developing interpretative processes that follows a path from notation to performance which is heavily focused on language and technique”.162 The score can also designate roles and dictate the musical domains in which each musician can participate. A score that is, “Relatively fixed will tend to cement players into particular roles and relationships, unless complex mechanisms such

161 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 27. 162 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 117.

57 as detailed orchestration are brought into play”.163 In many instances, musicians must rely on their historical knowledge of the work, the composer, general stylistic trends, and performance practice, supplemented with information stipulated by the score. Davidson and Good reinforce the idea that the score acts as common ground for musicians to derive an interpretation. The content contained in the score is decoded through a musician’s musical knowledge and tradition, i.e. “music-making is built on common ground … provided by the musical score, the coordination of whose content requires the use of stocks of musical knowledge”.164

The evolution of the western art music tradition into being as ‘true to score’ as possible can be problematic.165 Ideally, every musician should strive to produce a clear reading of the language and structures presented in the music, however we must consider the restrictive nature of notation.166 Waterman argues that each choice a musician makes is, “neither purely technical nor purely interpretive but lie at the intersection between the two, the point of integration where a musical intention becomes realized physically”.167 An examination on how this process is negotiated serves as the central thesis in Bayley’s research. She states, “His or her starting point would always depend upon the players ‘prior knowledge of the composer, piece or musical style, and their level of engagement and commitment to it”.168 Each time a piece of music is prepared,

163 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 175. 164 Davidson, Jane W., and James M. M. Good. 2002. Social and musical co-ordination between members of a string quartet: An exploratory study. Psychology of Music 30 (2) (October 01): 189. 165 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 98-124. 166 Ibid. 167 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 98. 168 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 109.

58 musicians face the challenge of deciphering the score in a way which reveals the, “soul of the work with conviction and freshness”.169 Waterman argues that this challenge is amplified when considering ensembles since the group must reach their interpretation collectively. This decision- making process forces ensembles to navigate questions of management which often arise directly from the score.170

More demanding and complex twentieth-century works for guitar duo often require duo members to be extremely familiar with each other’s parts. The ability to identify the most important voice or features in the music will facilitate a clearer performance of the work. Guitar duo repertoire by popular twentieth-century composers such as Leo Brouwer or Dušan

Bogdanović often feature more obscure treatment of voice hierarchy, with the guitarists roles in constant flux, exhibiting the overlapping of shared musical domains. Waterman states, “The primary voice is simply the one that draws the ear most readily to itself, usually because it carries the most compelling motivic or melodic material”.171 To achieve maximum clarity in performance, often in-depth score study is necessary to highlight the more cryptic nuances obscured in the music. Waterman states that the musician must, “Reinforce his interpretations with evidence from analysis (harmonic, motivic etc.) of the score, together with a historical understanding of its meaning, and an informed empathy with the poetic imagination of the composer”.172 Not until the late 19th century did composers try to balance instruments within an ensemble by providing unique dynamic indications in the score between parts. Even when

169 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 97. 170 Ibid, 97. 171 Ibid, 103. 172 Ibid, 99.

59 considering modern works, it is often left up to the ensemble to manage balancing issues of dynamics and presence.173

The guitar duo has a number of practical tools that can be utilized to ensure a more coherent performance of piece, one of which is the use of common fingering. The chosen location of notes on the fretboard has a considerable effect on the color and intonation of a passage, directly influencing musical intention. This is a great example of what Seeger previously described as a technical choice which can help solve an interpretive issue.174 The use of optimal fingering for any given excerpt is key in constructing and maintaining clear musical intent. The same passage played in different positions on the fretboard will produce a divergent musical result, effecting not only articulation and intonation, but also the potential use of more expressive devices such as vibrato and tone color. Fingering coordination for the guitar duo should be done as a collective, with both guitarists striving for a logical and unified interpretation reinforced by the information derived from score analysis. This is especially true when performing pieces that are rich with imitation, such as fugues or canons. Castelnuovo-Tedesco’s

Prelude and Fugues Op. 199 for two guitars are a great study in how the coordination of fingerings can lead to a more unified interpretation. Stating the fugue themes in a similar fashion, matching fingering and articulation between both guitars can guarantee a more consolidated, clear interpretation. Communicating and coordinating these technical details is one of the key ways a guitar duo can promote a unified interpretation. Questions surrounding technical aspects of a piece will often arise directly from the score, and as Bayley’s research has shown, the score

173 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 174 Seeger, Charles. 1958. Prescriptive and descriptive music-writing. The Musical Quarterly 44 (2): 184-95.

60 functions as the foundation from which a group of musicians converge and can dictate the nature of interaction.175

From this common ground the ensemble begins the formation of their collective interpretation. Waterman notes that ensembles face a balancing issue of unity and diversity when developing an interpretation.176 This concept is unique to each guitar duo and must be managed depending on what repertoire is considered. The modern trend favors a duo sound that aims for homogeny, presented as if both guitar parts were produced by one brain with four hands. It is now common for duos to play matching instruments, resulting in each guitarist producing an analogous sound pallet. Professional duos such as the Assad duo, Soloduo, and the Brasil Guitar

Duo, often commission identical instruments, matching building materials and specific woods.

This tendency toward maximum homogeny enables duos to present clear musical ideas, supported by a more unified totality of sound production. Although there have been successful duos who present a more individual approach to sound production when playing together, the resulting contrast can be met with skepticism as it often results in sounding as if two soloists happen to be playing together. This approach presents the danger of obscuring musical clarity, presenting a less coherent reading of a work. This is exemplified when a guitar duo presents transcriptions or arrangements of music from another solo instrument such as the keyboard.

Hearing this solo music performed by two musicians is much more effective when the duo strives for unified blend of sound, which ultimately allows for clearer communication of larger scale musical ideas to an audience. “Effective groups achieve the best balance of diversity and

175 Bayley, Amanda. 2014. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. In The Ethnomusicology of Western Art Music., ed. Laudan Nooshin, London: Routledge, 98-124. 176 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

61 similarity so that members are familiar and sympathetic with each other’s points of view yet different enough to be fresh”.177 Cultivating unity within the ensemble allows for a more confluent sonority. Many successful ensembles opt to, “submerge individuality of sound into one

(often very rich) collective sonority”.178

2.5 Nonverbal Communication, Visual Cues/Gesture

Throughout the twentieth century, interest in understanding the utilization and interpretation of nonverbal communication increased significantly.179 Stemming from resources dating back thousands of years, we see that humans in a variety of cultures understood the implications nonverbal gesture had on communication. This ultimately developed into what we refer to today as the field of kinesics, which is considered the, “study of nonverbal communication behaviors”.180 Walburga von Raffler-Engel describe kinesics as being related to,

“message-related movements of the eye and parts of the body as they relate to an interactional exchange of message, either in regulating that exchange or in supplying information about its message”.181 Ford argues that gestures are not simply embellishments for speech, but are more

177 Murnighan, J. K., and Donald E. Conlon. 1991. The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: A Study of British String Quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2), 170. 178 Waterman, David. 2003. Playing quartets: A view from the inside. The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet., ed. Robin Stowell, 95-126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 107. 179 Ford, Joseph Kevin. 2001. Implications for non-verbal communication and conducting gesture. The Choral Journal 42 (1): 17-23. 180 Ibid, 18. 181 Raffler-Engel, Walburga von. 1980. Developmental kinesics: The Acqusition of conversational nonverbal behavior. In Aspects of nonverbal communication., ed. Walburga von Raffler-Engel, Lisse, Holland: Swetx and Leitlinger, 133.

“closely tied into the thought process”.182 This is critical for music ensembles, as nonverbal modes of communication serve as the primary means by which they can communicate during a performance.

During an ensemble performance, musicians must rely on several different modes of non- verbal communication through which information is relayed to fellow ensemble members. One of the most fundamental is eye contact. A musician must not only be visually aware of the score, but also the musically sympathetic movements and gestures of co-performers. A direct line of eye contact with each member of the ensemble is crucial in facilitating clear communication during rehearsal and performance. “Though a plethora of musical information is accessible through the visual sensory mode, the acts of playing an instrument and singing, negotiating music notation, and listening to ongoing sounds while trying to interact with visual stimuli can be a daunting challenge…”.183

As a general rule, the type and nature of gesture utilized at any specific musical moment should inherently reflect the character of the music. This allows the gesture or movement to be more easily decoded by other ensemble members and helps avoid confusing, mixed messages.

Ford states that, “This kind of mixed message sending is referred to in communication as interference. Interference is the communicative difficulty that occurs when two people do not

(completely or partially) understand the other’s system of communication”.184 In practice,

182 Ford, Joseph Kevin. 2001. Implications for non-verbal communication and conducting gesture. The Choral Journal 42 (1), 20. 183 Byo, James L., and Leigh-Ann Lethco. 2001. Student musicians' eye contact with the conductor: An exploratory investigation. Contributions to Music Education 28 (2), 22. 184 Ford, Joseph Kevin. 2001. Implications for non-verbal communication and conducting gesture. The Choral Journal 42 (1), 21.

63 gesture should always reinforce the message being communicated. Ensemble members who have been performing together for long periods of time come to understand each other’s subtle physical gestures without the need for additional clarification. Ford’s concept of ‘interference’ is something that young ensembles or relatively new musical partners will have to negotiate, until they are comfortable sending and decoding specific physical gestures. Once ensemble members are familiar with their partners’ nonverbal dialect, potential rehearsal time can be spent actually playing the music, allowing for the open flow of communication during performance. Ford further states, “Most likely, verbalization will need to occur over the course of several repetitions, until the ensemble learns to ignore the mixed message. However, the conductor can choose to employ conducting gestures that reflect standard nonverbal communication ideas similar to the musical result he or she desires from the group”.185

Overholt has organized physical gestures into three main categories: Performance,

Communicative, and Ancillary. He states, “Performative gestures produce sound, and communicative gestures (nods, eye contact, and similar cues) direct other performers. Ancillary gestures – intuitive body movements of the performer while playing – are expressive or emotive gestures that communicate musical meaning to the observer”.186 This classification enables a clearer distinction of how each type of gesture can be used to convey disparate information. The effectiveness of each will depend on how well ensemble members know each other’s movement styles, and how comfortable they are performing with each other.

185 Ford, Joseph Kevin. 2001. Implications for non-verbal communication and conducting gesture. The Choral Journal 42 (1), 22. 186 Overholt, Dan, John Thompson, Lance Putnam, Bo Bell, Jim Kleban, Bob Sturm, and JoAnn Kuchera-Morin. 2009. A multimodal system for gesture recognition in interactive music performance. Computer Music Journal 33 (4), 72.

The use of communicative gestures such as the visual cue enables clear communication between ensemble members, allowing musical intention to be shared between the ensemble.

Williamon and Davidson state, “Co-performers often rely on visual information – such as direct eye contact, facial expressions, specific physical gestures and continuous swaying movements – for communication amongst themselves”.187 Ideally, each type of visual gesture utilized should be implicit regarding the performer’s intention. The data analyzed in the Williamon and

Davidson study on a piano duo showed that throughout rehearsal time, the number of important gestures increased significantly at certain critical points in the music.188 These gestures include eye-contact, swaying and other communicative gestures. This suggests that once the duo members became comfortable with each other, and the music became more familiar, their interpretation could be more easily reinforced through communication. “In the performance, simultaneous eye-contact was even greater than in the rehearsals, organized heavily around

‘important’ locations such as phrase boundaries. This seems to be strongly connected with the communication of intense musical moments in the performance, but also, it seems to reflect a relaxed familiarity between the players…”.189 Identifying important locations in the music not only helps characterize a potential interpretation, but also allows for the duo to connect, ensuring specific moments are treated with maximum unity. These moments could include phrase beginning and endings, cadential points, fermata or breath marks, or even a particularly technically difficult point in the music where communication through physical gesture could help ensure the clearer execution of a passage. We must also consider that during this study, the two

187 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1), 54. 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid, 62.

65 pianists were performing with the score present. Once they became familiar enough with their own parts, they were no longer as visually tied to the score but more freely available to send and receive information between each other.190

Contrary to popular assumption, through their study on a piano duo, Keller and Appel found that visual contact did not have a great effect on ensemble coordination. Through several recorded trials, pianists performed both with and without a barrier restricting visual contact.

They explain that when visual contact was allowed, the only noticeable difference was the presence of higher variability of asynchronies.191 They explain these unexpected results,

“pianists may have been encouraged to indulge in greater expressive timing variation when visual information was available about their partner’s intentions concerning the future course of the music”.192 Although visual contact may not be essential in guaranteeing basic temporal coordination in a piece which is rich with auditory cues, much research has emphasized the important role visual cues have in displaying expressive intentions.193 “Visual contact is apparently not necessary for achieving such optimal relations. Vivid anticipatory auditory imagery, however, may assist this process by enhancing the operation of internal models that simulate one’s own and others’ actions during interpersonal coordination”.194

Physically producing sound on any instrument requires the manipulation and control of the body to execute certain mechanical motor movements. “Musical production is not solely an

190 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1). 191 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1): 27-46. 192 Ibid, 41. 193 Ibid. 194 Ibid, 42.

66 internal construction of tonal-rhythmic patterns, it is the external process of thought and movement in time and space through which one simultaneously creates and perceives both sonic and movement patterns”.195 These movements are intrinsically coded with information that is conveyed to both co-performers and observers, and as such, can be classified as both communicative and ancillary depending on the context of the music. Although ancillary gestures do not have an effect on the sound production of an instrument, they can influence how the sound is heard and interpreted, or perceived by co-performers and observers.196 Much of the recent research on the perception of expressiveness during musical performance reinforces the belief that, “visual stimuli significantly affect both the cognitive and the affective music perception process”.197 Through research on the impact of visual and aural stimuli on perceived expressiveness, Lucas and Teachout concluded that “visual aspects of performance (alone and in combination with the aural aspects of performance) allow for more discrimination in audience judgement of the expressiveness or performance than aural aspects alone”.198 Given the reality of ensemble performance and the collaboration through communication that takes place on stage, this conclusion further strengthens the argument that ensemble performances have the potential to be perceived as more expressive than solo performances, simply due to the presence of more visual stimuli influencing the audience. “Better training for musicians in creating more musical

195 Walker, Margaret E. 2000. Movement and metaphor: Towards an embodied theory of music cognition and hermeneutics. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (145), 28. 196 Overholt, Dan, John Thompson, Lance Putnam, Bo Bell, Jim Kleban, Bob Sturm, and JoAnn Kuchera-Morin. 2009. A multimodal system for gesture recognition in interactive music performance. Computer Music Journal 33 (4): 69-82. 197 Lucas, Keitha V., and David J. Teachout. 1998. Identifying expressiveness in small ensemble performances. Contributions to Music Education 25 (1), 63. 198 Ibid, 60.

67 performances, both visually and aurally, may allow for clearer communication of musical intent from the performer to the audience”.199

Keller and Appel’s research on piano duos exhibited that the degree of synchrony between the duo members was in fact related to the coordination of body sway. The coordination of anterior-posterior movement depended on the relationship between the pianists, and how melodic and accompaniment parts were assigned, ie. assumed roles of leader and follower.

Keller and Appel state, “Achieving the desired temporal relations in the auditory domain thus depends upon the group’s collective ability to control interpersonal spatiotemporal relations in motor activity”.200 They also suggest that the direction of movement between the leader and follower has influence on overall ensemble synchrony. It was found that synchrony between members of the piano duo was highest when the movements of the pianist assigned part one, preceded those of the pianist assigned the second part.201 Shaffer shares a similar view, explaining that timing control should be considered hierarchic, while allowing the dynamic relationship between ensemble members to dictate who takes the lead and who follows depending on the music.202 Coordination also depends on the fluency of physical movement produced by each musician. Shaffer states, “In general, movements have to be initiated in advance of note production; to achieve fluence and accuracy, they must be prepared still earlier; and if they are to produce a note sequence with fluent phrasing, they must be programmed even

199 Lucas, Keitha V., and David J. Teachout. 1998. Identifying expressiveness in small ensemble performances. Contributions to Music Education 25 (1), 71. 200 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 27. 201 Ibid. 202 Shaffer, L. Henry. 1984. Timing in solo and duet piano performances. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36 (4), 577-95.

68 further in advance”.203 Information regarding timing being exchanged between ensemble members must be sent and managed well in advance of its intended action.

An analysis on how the guitar is mechanically managed, how sound is produced, as well as the seating arrangement of the duo, is necessary to successfully codify specific non-verbal gestures during musical rehearsal and performance. Traditionally classical guitarists perform in a seated position with the left leg raised on a footstool. This allows for movement of the head, arms, hands, and torso. Williamson and Davidson state, “The body is fixed to the piano stool; therefore, it is likely that a center of movement would be related to sitting position and would not involve the lower limbs”.204 Members of a guitar duo normally sit angled inward facing each other, toward the audience. This allows for a direct line of sight between guitarists and enhances the ability to openly communicate through non-verbal visual cues. Brinner states, “The positioning of performers is directly implicated in an analysis of interaction, as it limits or favors particular media and lines of communication, especially in relation to the acoustics of the performance space. A group of performers may be positioned to provide unobstructed lines of sight and equal audibility… ”.205 This seating arrangement allows for the open flow of communicative gestures that not only provide the performers with a means of relaying information on stage, but also have an affect on the audience’s perception of the music as well.

Williamon and Davidson found that “Final performances were judged by audiences to be far less

203 Shaffer, L. Henry. 1984. Timing in solo and duet piano performances. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36 (4), 578. 204 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1), 55. 205 Brinner, Benjamin. 1995. Chapter seven: Toward a theory of musical interaction. In Knowing music, making music: Javanese gamelan and the theory of musical competence and interaction., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 184.

69 musically expressive than those where the performers had been allowed to use their torsos freely”.206 Although there are many different types of movement executed by co-performers,

Williamon and Davidson only analyzed swaying and hand lifts of the piano duo. They suggest further study in this area with the recommendation of the 12 analytical categories identified by

Delalande in his analysis of Glenn Gould’s movements.207 Guitar duos often follow the traditional model of the string quartet, with the guitarist playing the first part sitting to the right of the second guitarist, although this is not followed as strictly, as guitar duos often split the first and second parts depending on the repertoire. Regardless of who is performing which part, the seating arrangement should remain consistent.

The results of Williamon and Davidson’s study show similar findings to Bayley in that there was a surprising lack of verbal communication during rehearsal. Instead, duo members opted to solve musical issues through modes of non-verbal communication. Both pianists were accomplished soloists, accompanists, and experienced sight-readers who chose to abstain from individual practice of their parts, stating that, “The peculiar physical and musical constraints of playing piano duos and duets were best addressed in the ensemble environment”.208 During the rehearsal time, the two pianists “largely depended on an explicit use of musical communication”.209 As expected, the longer the pianists rehearsed together, the more synchronization developed between their physical gestures. The swaying movement exhibited by both pianists not only helped establish tempo but was also used to generate and manage rubato at

206 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1), 55. 207 Ibid. 208 Ibid, 58. 209 Ibid, 59.

70 critical points in the music.210 “The observed swaying could represent the global level in hierarchy of expressive gestural information, with the hands providing a local indicator”.211 This is similar to Keller and Appel’s findings that, “Body sway may fulfill a dual function by facilitating both the temporal regulation of (individual and joint) actions and the communication of performers’ expressive intentions”.212 The data was analyzed and gestures were classified as

‘important’ or ‘less important’. Certain gestures were considered important only if they,

1. Coincided with the music’s structure (thematic material, phrases or entrances)

2. Coincided with rehearsal letters

3. New entrances of one or both performers after an extended rest

2.6 Musical Communication

During rehearsal, Williamon and Davidson found that interpretation and expression was ‘set’, and ‘re-activated’ during performance, while specific important gestures were paired with key structural moments in the music. Ideas were shared and communicated not only through auditory exchange but allied with physical gestures such as eye contact and specific movements of the body. They state, “Rehearsals, therefore, appear to be occasions for co-performers to learn the score, coordinate general expressive features of the music and establish a network for social

210 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1). 211 Ibid, 64. 212 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 40.

71 support”.213 When comparing performance and rehearsal, they found that the amount of eye contact was greater during the performance, coinciding with these specific important locations identified in the music. Determining these important locations in the music was an integral part of rehearsal and enabled the duo to plan and execute specific points of communication during the performance.214

The use of physical gestures should be rehearsed, and as Williamon and Davidson have established, pairing these gestures with specific points in the music allows the duo to outline their interpretation more easily. The repetition and familiarity of certain gestures enables duo members to understand the messages being conveyed more clearly, allowing for explicit communication during the performance. Movement is critical in, “both the learning of a piece and the coordination of musical intention”.215 Shaffer also reinforces the idea that a set interpretation serves as a, “compact coding of expressive forms. A corollary of this assumption is that a player does not need to remember the details of expression from one performance to another but can generate them from the coded interpretation”.216 If ensemble members are representing the agreed upon model of interpretation set during rehearsal, they are able to more successfully obtain synchrony while making use of expressive timing, featuring freer tempo modulations at specific points in the music. Assuming ensemble members have, “agreed on an interpretation of the music, the players can generate similar expressive parameters affecting the

213 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1), 55. 214 Ibid. 215 Ibid, 65. 216 Shaffer, L. Henry. 1984. Timing in solo and duet piano performances. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36 (4), 580.

72 modulations of the beat”.217 Davidson and Good also support this notion, explaining that musicians use rehearsal time to maximize coordination, which in turn allows for more spontaneous variation during performance.218

Seddon and Biasutti discuss the use of musical communication in their case study on creativity and communication in a string quartet. Utilizing this unique form of communication allowed members of the quartet to go beyond cohesive modes of communication, and into more creative modes of communication.219 Specifically, they discuss how members of the string quartet can become empathetically attuned during performance, allowing for moments of spontaneous musical variation. “Empathetic musicians are sensitive to attunement to signal attention and mirroring to affirm and modulate musical responses. Empathetic attunement between musicians goes beyond mere concentration and aesthetically pleasing self-absorption to cognitive distancing coupled with self-engagement and aesthetic judgement”.220 Through empathetic attunement, an ensemble is able to adapt to the dynamism of moments of spontaneous creativity that can happened during performance. Salazar explains that in the state between order and chaos, a new equilibrium can be reached. “Furthermore, a cascade of bifurcation acting on a group produces a complex state of dynamic behavior, which can provide the conditions for the emergence of creativity”.221 A well-rehearsed ensemble will potentially have more capacity for risk taking during performance, which can be exciting for an audience.

217 Shaffer, L. Henry. 1984. Timing in solo and duet piano performances. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36 (4), 585. 218 Davidson, Jane W. 2012. Bodily movement and facial actions in expressive musical performance by solo and duo instrumentalists: Two distinctive case studies. Psychology of Music 40 (5): 595-633. 219 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2), 115-37. 220 Ibid, 119. 221 Ibid, 117.

The high degree of synchrony achieved by professional guitar duos is a result of each musicians’ perception and continuous adjustment of process, “based on anticipation (and expectation) and reaction mechanism”.222

During expressive music performance, musicians rely on empathy (the capacity to adopt the psychological point of view of another person) to mediate synchrony.223 Babiloni and colleagues speculate, “Playing music in ensemble induces remarkable empathetic feelings in musicians due to several inductors including music sounds and observation of own and other body in action, as well as the need for the realization of a common representation and interpretation of the music piece performed”.224 Through their study on three saxophone quartets, they found a statistical correlation between the subject’s global empathy trait score and activity in the ventral-lateral frontal regions of the brain while the musicians were observing their own performances.225

During moments of empathetic attunement, musicians rely on motor simulation as one of the central mechanisms to simulate and predict the actions of others. Novembre and colleagues found that interfering with the motor simulation mechanism in pianists by delivering a dTMS

(double-pulse transcranial magnetic simulation) negatively affected their ability to synchronize and adapt to tempo modulations of a recording. This affect was increased in individuals who scored higher on an empathy questionnaire. Their results show that motor simulation is not only

222 Boyle, Caitlin McCaffery. 2015. The influence of nonverbal communication processes in string quartet performance. DMA, University of Toronto, 135. 223 Babiloni, Claudio, Paola Buffo, Fabrizio Vecchio, Nicola Marzano, Claudio Percio, Danilo Spada, Simone Rossi, Ivo Bruni, Paolo Rossini, and Daniela Perani. 2011. Brains "in concert": Frontal oscillatory alpha rhythms and empathy in professional musicians. Neuroimage 60 (12/13), 106. 224 Ibid, 106. 225 Ibid, 113.

74 utilized when observing and simulating the actions of others but is also a mechanism that can be used when coordinating goal directed behavior with others, a key element of musical ensemble performance.226

Overy and Molanr-Szakacs reinforce this concept stating, “mirror neurons establish a link between individuals via a simulation mechanism, whereby one uses the same neural resources to represent and understand the actions of others as to perform one’s own actions”.227 Similarly, they suggest that the same mechanisms responsible for generating emotions is also responsible for our perception of emotion, allowing for a direct connection to the feelings and intentions of others. They propose a model called the Shared Affective Motion Experience (SAME), which proposes that music is not only perceived as an auditory signal, but “also in terms of the intentional, hierarchically organized sequences of expressive motor acts behind the signal”.228

This model suggests that depending on a listener’s musical training, more information behind the auditory signal will be accessible, allowing for a more accurate reconstruction of the music in their own mind.229 Professional duos that have been performing together over a long period of time will be extremely familiar with their partners movement styles and musical tendencies. This will allow them access to more information regarding the musical intentions of their partners, which can promote synchrony while communicating through empathetic attunement.

226 Novembre, Giacomo, Luca F. Ticini, Simone Schütz-Bosbach, and Peter E. Keller. 2014. Motor simulation and the coordination of self and other in real-time joint action. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9 (8) (08): 1062-8. 227 Overy, Katie, and Istvan Molnar-Szakacs. 2009. Being together in time. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 26 (5) (/6), 491. 228 Ibid, 492. 229 Ibid, 493.

Recent research by Keller and Appel examined the importance of anticipatory auditory imagery and the role it plays in coordination within a small musical ensemble, specifically a piano duo. In earlier trials conducted by Keller, Knoblich and Repp, it was shown that pianists were able to synchronize more successfully with their own recordings, rather than with another duo partner.230 Pianists were also able to identify their own recordings several months after the trials. It was found that over all synchronization and recognition were related, and pianists who synchronized most successfully with the recording, had more success identifying their own playing. They hypothesized that in order to, “recognize an earlier action as self-generated, or to predict action-related effects accurately, individuals access their action knowledge by internally simulating the action. This process of simulation involves imaging – in anticipation – the movements and effects that characterize the event, and it is triggered when an action is observed”.231 Research in the field of neuroscience has identified an area in the pre-motor cortex of the brain called ‘mirror neurons’. These areas not only become active when performing an action, but also when simply observing another individual perform an action. Repp and Knoblich achieved similar results, stating that pianists’ own performances exhibit a “stronger resonance in their action system than other performances do; this stronger resonance implies that there is a closer match between anticipated and perceived action effects”.232 Keller and Appel explain that this could be “explained by assuming that the match between simulated event timing and actual event timing in the complementary part is best when both are products of the same

230 Keller, P., G. Knoblich, and B. Repp. 2007. Pianists duet better when they play with themselves: On the possible role of action simulation in synchronization. Consciousness and Cognition 16 (1), 103. 231 Ibid, 103. 232 Repp, Bruno H., and Günther Knoblich. 2004. Perceiving action identity. Psychological Science 15 (9), 605.

76 cognitive/motor system”.233 They further hypothesis that that the “simulation of co-performers’ actions may involve a combination of auditory and motor imagery”.234

In a homogeneous duo such as the guitar duo, partners have the potential to not only form

“vivid anticipatory auditory images for their own sounds (but also) potentially form vivid images for others’ sounds due to overlap in the neural machinery that drives both forms of action simulation”.235 The use of action simulation could be the underlying mechanic used by music ensembles to achieve highly synchronized playing. The imaging and prediction in anticipation of an action enables musicians to make temporal predictions regarding mechanic execution in order to guarantee maximum synchrony.236 “Here, we propose that this good fit between simulated and observed actions both (1) ensured that the temporal predictions underlying synchronization were more accurate when playing along with one’s own recordings than with others’ recording and (2) allowed pianists to recognize their own performances. Thus, the same process of action simulation seems to underlie both synchronization and the recognition of self-generated actions”.237

233 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 28. 234 Ibid, 28. 235 Keller, Peter E., and Mirjam Appel. 2010. Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 28 (1), 29. 236 Keller, P., G. Knoblich, and B. Repp. 2007. Pianists duet better when they play with themselves: On the possible role of action simulation in synchronization. Consciousness and Cognition 16 (1): 102-11. 237 Ibid, 109.

2.7 Concluding Remarks

Although relaying meaning through physical gesture is one of the most natural skills humans rely on to communicate, the management of the many different modes of communication utilized by small music ensembles is a skill which is learned and rehearsed.

Interpreting non-verbal physical gesture is one of the many challenges faced by musicians who choose to participate in shared music making. Typically, over time, each ensemble member naturally develops the ability to decode their fellow musicians’ gestures, also movement styles converge and a shared physical vocabulary develops within the ensemble.238 Davidson and Good state, “co-performers may need to work together for a fairly substantial period of time in order to develop a familiarity with and understanding of some of the gestures used”.239 The act of movement and sound production cannot be considered dualistic, as the act of producing music is intrinsically connected with the manipulation of the body. It has been demonstrated that the idiosyncrasies of the specific instruments also play a large role in dictating how musicians can communicate effectively. Simones states, “gestures are involved in the acquisition of practical knowledge in relation to the motor aspects of playing a musical instrument, conceptual musical knowledge needed to perform and interpret the musical material, and communicational aspects required for learning how to communicate music”.240

238 Davidson, Jane W. 2012. Bodily movement and facial actions in expressive musical performance by solo and duo instrumentalists: Two distinctive case studies. Psychology of Music 40 (5): 595-633. 239 Davidson, Jane W., and James M. M. Good. 2002. Social and musical co-ordination between members of a string quartet: An exploratory study. Psychology of Music 30 (2) (October 01), 190. 240 Simones, Lilian Lima, Matthew Rodger, and Franziska Schroeder. 2015. Communicating musical knowledge through gesture: Piano teachers’ gestural behaviours across different levels of student proficiency. Psychology of Music 43 (5), 2.

The role that each musician assumes within the ensemble will also have impact on synchrony. Having the ability to assume a flexible position in regard to the character of the music will lend to more coordinated performances. Goebl and Palmer state, “the performer playing an accompaniment often has to adapt to the performer playing the melodic line. In absence of a conductor, ensemble performers must pay attention to (by listening and watching) each other’s performance in order to adjust their performance accordingly”.241 Guitarists can utilize a number of methods to successfully relay information and guarantee synchrony, including the manipulation of the upper torso and shoulders, movement of the head, as well as direct eye contact with ensemble members.

Interaction within the guitar duo is managed through both verbal and non-verbal modes of communication. Management of the moment by moment flow of interaction and communication can allow duo partners to take risks during performance, resulting in moments of group creativity.242 Boyle states, “Once the actions and interaction necessary to present the group’s interpretation of the work have become second nature or a more inherent competence, however, the group can start to deviate from the norm with purpose, as a matter of making the most of spontaneity”.243 These spontaneous creative moments can be exciting, as it often can feel as if the musicians are in the moment, discovering the music along with the audience. A duo

241 Goebl, Werner, and Caroline Palmer. 2009. Synchronization of timing and motion among performing musicians. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 26 (5), 427. 242 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2), 115-37. 243 Boyle, Caitlin McCaffery. 2015. The influence of nonverbal communication processes in string quartet performance. DMA, University of Toronto, 137.

79 that is able to comfortably generate and manage these spontaneous moments during performance has achieved what Seddon and Biasutti refer to as the performance ideal.244

In an effort to understand how guitar duos achieve this performance ideal, in chapter 3 I examine the relationship between communication and creativity within the context of the guitar duo ensemble through an observational study of a professional duo in both rehearsal and performance.

244 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2), 115-37.

Chapter 3 Communication and creativity in guitar duo rehearsal and performance

3.1 Introduction

The aim of this study was to reveal how professional guitar duos manage communication and to suggest how effective rehearsal strategies could be developed from an analysis of how certain repertoire can dictate specific forms of interaction during rehearsal and performance. The relationship between communication and creativity during guitar duo rehearsal and performance was also a central theme of this research.

The following study was divided into two components, an observational study of a professional guitar duo, namely, the Henderson-Kolk duo, along with a questionnaire forwarded to four other professional guitar duos to further substantiate the observational findings. These methods were employed to reveal qualitative data regarding the forms of communication utilized by professional guitar duos in both rehearsal and performance. I was specifically interested in identifying points of empathetic attunement, a deep communicative connection between the two duo members which can lead to moments of group creativity that are manifested as spontaneous musical variations. Seddon and Biasutti state, “When communicating employing nonverbal cooperation, the musicians became empathetically attuned, which facilitated the emergence of

81 more creative outcomes in performances”.245 My goal was not only to identify the creative moments that occur within the intense collaborative relationship between members of a guitar duo but also to shed light on how professional guitar duos optimize rehearsal strategies that promote empathetic attunement and risk-taking during performance.

Based on my own personal experience performing in a guitar duo and my thorough review of Seddon and Biasutti’s string quartet research that revealed that specific modes of communication emerged during rehearsal and performance of a string quartet, I approached this study with several predictions and expectations. I anticipated that identifying creative moments would be challenging. Like many classical musicians, guitarists train strenuously to minimize excess movements, refining their physical technique with the ultimate goal of precision and economy of movement. In a similar fashion, communication related to musical cohesion such as cueing is typically executed inconspicuously, so as to not distract from the music. Since the

Henderson-Kolk duo had been performing together for many years, I expected that their communication style would be somewhat intrinsic, an incessant, internal sense of awareness of each other during performance. In contrast to the string quartet as examined by Seddon and

Biasutti, when observing the guitar duo there are fewer visual stimuli. Because I am only observing a group of two musicians, I expected that there may be fewer moments of creativity, or at least the physical indicators of creativity would be more subdued. Also, I expected that the physical act of playing the guitar would have an impact on how communication could be relayed between duo members. Unlike the violin or viola, guitarists sit with their instruments on their lap. The hands must be free to move while the body should remain relatively still. When a

245 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 115-37

82 violinist moves the upper body, the instrument moves synchronously, allowing for greater mobility that can serve as a means of communication.

3.2 Methodology

To quantify communication and its impact on creativity in the guitar duo, I adopted a methodological strategy previously employed by Seddon and Biasutti. Observational methods have been employed in a number of studies of different music ensembles. Bayley states,

“...methodologies from ethnomusicology can advance our understanding of rehearsal and performance…Research findings resulting from observations of musicians’ interactions during rehearsal can directly inform the practice of other composers and performers”.246 For the purposes of this study, the observational methodology consisted of conducting a video and audio recording of the Henderson-Kolk guitar duo in rehearsal, along with obtaining videos of a recorded performance. Once the recordings were completed, they were thoroughly reviewed and subjected to a thematic analysis, through a constant comparative method.247 This involved documenting all verbal and non-verbal communication in a five-stage process, as utilized by

Seddon and Biasutti during their study on creativity within a string quartet. The five stages are:

246 Bayley, Amanda. 2011. Ethnographic research into contemporary string quartet rehearsal. Paper presented at Ethnomusicology Forum. 247 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 115-37.

83 immersion, categorization, phenomenological reduction, triangulation, and interpretation,248 and are described in detail below.

Immersion involved reviewing both the collected recordings in detail, ensuring maximum familiarity with the collected data. This included repeated viewings of the rehearsal and performance recordings prior to deriving any qualitative data. The information gathered from the recordings was then transcribed and organized into specific categories based on subject and content of the interaction (technique, dynamics, fingering, style, interpretive details). The phenomenological aspect involved grouping these categories into more broad thematic groups, where verbal units were subjected to judgment based on its applicability to a propositional statement derived from the initial categories. Analogous to Seddon and Biassutti’s study on the string quartet, these broader categories included, coordination, cooperation and instruction. An explanation of these categories, along with examples of instances of non-verbal communication was then presented to the participating guitar duo, through the process of member checks.

Seddon states, “This procedure is known as member checks where participants are asked to tell researchers if they have accurately described their experience and produced a recognizable reality”.249 Specific examples of communication was presented to the two participating guitarists in order to obtain their own interpretations of the data. The participants were asked if they agree with the researcher’s interpretations of the data and if they have any further reflections regarding the nature and outcome of the analysis. The process of member checks served to substantiate the

248 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 115-37. 249 Ibid, 115-37.

84 findings of the observational study. Follow up questions were also directed to each member of the duo, allowing for a more detailed discussion regarding the results of the study.

Since I am exploring creativity within the duo, communication was split into verbal/non- verbal sympathetic and empathetic levels of attunement. In their observational study of a string quartet, Seddon and Biasutti found that empathetic attunement was only possible when nonverbal modes of collaboration are utilized. This encourages an atmosphere in which musicians are more prone to take risks and challenge each other. They also propose that moments of empathetic attunement are a pre-requisite for group creativity and are evident through the way in which musicians interact during performance.250 Seddon states, “Empathetic attunement was visually evident in expressions of interest (e.g., smiles, collective affirmative nodding, and animated body movements). Empathetic attunement was musically evident in the production of a more animated performance of the piece…this more animated, risk-taking performance could result in the production of unpredictable musical variations to interpretation when participants engaged each other in challenging musical interaction”.251

A questionnaire was also sent to four other professional guitar duos in an effort to expound the findings of this research. The participants’ responses promoted an in-depth discussion regarding communication and creativity within the context of the guitar duo.

Questions were derived from several existing observational studies/surveys on different small music ensembles such as the string quartet and piano duo and were divided into thematic

250 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 120. 251 Ibid, 128.

85 categories based on research conducted by Tovstiga, Odenthal, and Goerner.252 These include:

Sense-making and learning/knowledge exchange, Organizational culture and the nature of interaction, and innovation and organizational renewal. The specific questions included in the questionnaire and member check interviews were constructed in accordance with the guide,

‘Strategies for Qualitative Interviews’ from the Harvard School.

Prior to the commencement of this research, ethics approval was sought and obtained from the University of Toronto ethics board for both the observational and questionnaire components of this research. The goal and nature of the research was described to all participants, who were given the opportunity to withdraw from the study at any time. Given the nature of the research and the reality of working with professional, established guitar duos, anonymity was not necessary. The members of the Henderson-Kolk duo will be referred to as

(Michael) Kolk and (Drew) Henderson when referencing their specific reflections provided during the member check process that followed the observational study.

The Toronto based, Henderson-Kolk guitar duo were selected as participants in the observational component of this research due to their professional profile and experience performing together. They have successfully managed their ensemble for about 12 years and have had the opportunity to study and perform an array of contrasting repertoire for the guitar duo, including both original works for two guitars as well as their own arrangements. Although they both occasionally perform as soloists and with other musicians, the guitar duo serves as their principal mode of performance and constitutes the majority of their professional music

252 Tovstiga, George, Stefan Odenthal, and Stephan Goerner. 2004. Sense-making and learning in complex organizations: The string quartet revisited. Paper presented at The Fifth European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, Innsbruck, Austria.

86 making endeavors. The observational recordings were comprised of an hour and thirty-minute rehearsal, as well as a performance of three works, two of which were included in the rehearsal footage. All pieces consisted of original arrangements created by the Henderson-Kolk duo. The pieces rehearsed were, Beethoven’s Symphony no 7 in A major Op. 92 mvt, II, Schubert’s

Impromptu Op. 90 no. 3, and Brahms’s Intermezzo in E major, Op. 116, No. 4. The Brahms piece was a brand-new arrangement and had not been previously rehearsed. The performance footage included both the Beethoven and Schubert pieces, in addition to their own arrangement of Mozart’s Symphony no. 40 mvt, I.

3.3 Observational study results

As outlined in the initial study conducted by Seddon and Biasutti, the categories that emerged from repeated viewings of the recorded rehearsals and performance included both verbal and non-verbal forms of communication that were broken into the three sub-categories; instruction, cooperation, and collaboration,253 examples of which are detailed below.

Communication was classified as verbal instruction if members of the duo were verifying technical details in the score. This included checking notes, rhythms, and instructing one another on how specific details should be performed. This also included moments when one member of the duo confirmed or suggested which bar to start playing from after a break from playing.

Verbal and non-verbal instruction would often overlap, as the discussion or instruction on how to

253 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 115-37.

87 play something was frequently followed by a musical demonstration on the guitar. For example, a short point of clarification during the Beethoven rehearsal,

Drew: “I think this is the most delicate part (plays section), I should get out of your way for that bass line, right?”

Michael: “Yeah”.

Communication was classified as verbal cooperation if it was related to organizational aspects of the piece, such as discussing matching articulations at a specific point in the music, or clarification on what the other guitarist is doing interpretatively. For instance, during the

Schubert rehearsal, Drew clarifies details at a specific point in the music that features a new phrase entry, “I was totally missing your last entry there, sorry I was playing over it before”.

Non-verbal cooperation included moments of communication that were related to the overall cohesion of the music. Specifically, this included nods of the head at musical entrances, eye contact or visual connectedness during a ritardando at a cadence point, or a short breath or sniff to promote togetherness during the rolling of a chord. Any gesture that served to promote synchrony could be classified as non-verbal cooperative communication.

Finally, communication was categorized as verbal collaboration if the discussion was concerned with elements of musical interpretation and style. This type of communication is often manifested in the form of self-evaluation, as well as open discussion between the two guitarists on how to best approach forming their communal interpretation. Verbal collaborative communication occurs when musicians get creative and offer new ideas that can inform the interpretation of the music. For example, a verbal exchange which occurred during the

Beethoven rehearsal,

Drew: “The swells could work, especially at the end of every two measures”.

Michael: “Yeah, I think it could work as long as it’s not too frequent”.

Drew: “You mean repetitive”?

Michael: “Yeah, because there’s kind of a cool quality to it as well, if it’s even and steady … but some shaping could be good too”.

Drew: “Ok, let’s just choose a couple of spots then, so we can be absolutely sure”.

Non-verbal collaborative modes of communication facilitated moments where the

connection between the two guitarists exceeded sympathetic levels of attunement. This allowed a

deeper communicative connection of empathetic attunement to foster, which promoted moments

of risk taking and creative exchanges while playing.

3.3.1 Rehearsal and performance communication results

Despite elucidating the role of verbal and non-verbal communication during rehearsal

and performance, Seddon and Biasutti did not include the total number of counts for each

category of communication in their study or the proportion of each category utilized. To provide

the clearest depiction of communication utilized by the duo, I have included this data to facilitate

a more in-depth discussion and comparison on how specific modes of communication develop

between rehearsal and performance.

Rehearsal Communication

Figure 12: Pie charts depicting rehearsal time spent discussing versus playing of the three pieces. Beethoven - Symphony no 7 in A major Op. 92 mvt, II, Schubert - Impromptu Op. 90 no. 3, Brahms - Intermezzo in E major, Op. 116, No. 4.

As depicted in figure 12, the majority of rehersal time was spent actually playing music.

During the rehearsals of the Beethoven and Schubert, two pieces the duo had been playing for several years, more time was spent playing than discussing. In the case of the Brahms piece, a work the duo had just begun rehearsing, the opposite was true. They actually spent more time verbally discussing part details than playing the piece.

Figure 13: Bar plots depicting the proportion of verbal and non-verbal communication

categories during rehearsal.

As shown in figure 13, for the Beethoven and Schubert pieces, the duo utilized much more non-verbal communication than verbal, which is consistent with the data shown in figure

12. The main mode of communication during all three rehearsals was non-verbal cooperative.

Compared to the Beethoven and Schubert, during the Brahms rehearsal there was much less non- verbal communication utilized. Despite finding instances of creativity in the Schubert and

Brahms, the duo did not exhibit any moments of creativity during the Beethoven rehearsal.

Performance Communication

Figure 14: Bar plots depicting the proportion of non-verbal communication categories during

performance. Verbal communication was not utilized during the performances. Beethoven -

Symphony no 7 in A major Op. 92 mvt, II, Schubert - Impromptu Op. 90 no. 3, Mozart -

Symphony no. 40 mvt, I.

As displayed in figure 14, the main mode of communication during performance was non-verbal collaborative. This was a contrast to the rehearsal data shown in figure 13, where non-verbal cooperative modes of communication were the highest category across all three pieces. During performance, the duo added the Mozart piece, which they had also previously performed on several occasions.

3.4 Discussion

During the rehearsal I was able to capture the duo working on three of their own arrangements, Beethoven’s Symphony no 7 in A major Op. 92 mvt, II, Schubert’s Impromptu Op.

90 no. 3, and Brahms’s Intermezzo in E major, Op. 116, No. 4. Both the Beethoven and Schubert had been in the duo’s repertoire for several years and had been previously included on their concert programs. The captured rehearsal of the Brahms was the first time they had worked on it together. This provided a unique opportunity to examine the differences in communication between a brand-new work, and familiar repertoire.

As predicted and evidenced in previous studies, figure 12 shows that the duo spent more time playing the music than verbally communicating during the rehearsal of these two works. As displayed in figure 13, the overall main mode of communication utilized during rehearsal of the two pieces that the duo was familiar with (Beethoven and Schubert) was non-verbal cooperative.

Non-verbal cooperative communication was primarily manifested as a simple cue, enabling both musicians to sense the rhythmic intention at phrase beginnings and endings. They would also often check in with each other at specific moments to ensure they were synchronized. One way this was manifested during the rehearsal was through their collective awareness of each other’s movements. I noticed that at several points, Michael would watch the right hand of Drew. When discussing this during the member check interview, Michael explicated, “One of the main things is cueing, as well as kind of getting used to the person's body language, the overall movement and the timing of a cue. Now it's intuitive, it's just second nature but I remember actually learning how to cue properly because it's kind of difficult if you haven't done it before. Moving your head in sync with the other person, and they don't know exactly when it's going to sound, so

93 your cueing must be very consistent. The other thing I learned was to watch his right hand …

You could sort of project how he wants to end a phrase to a ritardando, or the speed of a rolled chord. Really subtle things, but you just get used to that person's playing and then it's less thinking about it and more just listening and reacting”.

During the rehearsal of the Brahms piece, the communication data revealed some notable differences. In contrast to the two other pieces, figure 12 shows that the duo spent most of the rehearsal time in discussion. Since it was the first rehearsal of the piece, verbal instruction was the main mode of communication, as evidenced in figure 13. During rehearsal the two often discussed musical intention, as well as clarifying score details. For example,

Michael: “I think the goal with this is going to be so that your part sounds kind of like it’s filling things out”.

Drew: “Like a beautiful pedal harmony?”

Michael: “Yeah, and I have two lines of counterpoint that I’m trying to deal with here”.

One interesting observation during the Brahms rehearsal was how the duo’s movements were exaggerated. Since the music was somewhat unfamiliar, their communication was more extroverted. This allowed them to signal musical intention more clearly, as well as keep things synchronized during initial playing of the piece. Michael explained, “The movement would communicate our musical ideas about it. Once the interpretation is set you don't need to move as much, it scales back”. The concept that the character of communication abates as a piece becomes more familiar was affirmed by Drew, “I sway or bob my head just to keep the beat. The longer I play a piece the less I move, I think”.

During the member check process, I inquired about the duo’s use of sheet music during performance, specifically what impact they may perceive it has on overall communication.

Michael stated, “If I’m reading, there’s peripheral vison. I can see him out of the corner of my eye. It’s probably not quite as tight if I was looking at his right hand through the whole performance … there’s probably a slight drop off in the quality of communication during performance, but at the same time, if we prepared well, a lot of the cues are not really visual, you’re just listening”. Drew also asserted that many of the subtle cues they exchange on stage are not visual, “We actually don't have a lot of eye contact, it's mainly listening and watching for the breath”. Based on my own personal experience performing in a guitar duo, I was surprised by the overall lack of obvious visual communication between the two guitarists.

As anticipated at the outset the study, finding moments of overt communication proved challenging. The Henderson-Kolk duo have a refined style and are not at all extroverted during performance, instead they aim for a tight sophistication with their playing. This is also exhibited in their repertoire choices, which mainly consist of music from the 18th and 19th centuries. For one of their previous tours, it had been requested that the duo add a contemporary Tango work by the French-Canadian composer, Patrick Roux. The nature and character of this music allowed them to be freer on stage with their interpretation. Drew stated, “In the Roux Tango piece that we played we might actually take a different approach. The music warrants that it's looser, and we’ll embrace that. But in general, when we play Classical or Baroque repertoire we want to be as coordinated and clean and clear as possible”.

As displayed in figure 13, during the rehearsal of the Beethoven piece there were no observable moments of creativity. This outcome could have been a result of several factors. First, it was the very first piece the duo worked on during the rehearsal, perhaps they were still settling

95 in and were not totally immersed or engaged with the music. The initial run through of the piece was executed directly after the duo had been socializing about issues unrelated to music. Second, as previously mentioned, the nature of the music does play an impact on communication and creativity. Overall, the piece features a uniform rhythm and melody that is slowly developed over many repetitions, intensity is gradually increased to an eventual climax over the course of the eight-minute runtime. Considering the uniform texture that Beethoven utilizes in this piece, there are fewer moments in the music that the duo has to manage that may inspire or generate instances of spontaneous musical variations.

3.5 Creativity

Creativity during performance is predicated on the duo’s capacity to ensure that communication is rendered instinctively, allowing the duo to utilize collective group synergy to generate more creative ideas.254 This phenomenon has often been described as a ‘flow state’, a state in which the performers self-actualize and move from cooperative to collaborative modes of communication. As the performance data shows, in contrast to the rehearsals, the main mode of communication was non-verbal collaborative. There was a notable increase in overall moments of creativity or spontaneous variations from rehearsal to performance. As shown in figure 13, the two pieces that the duo both rehearsed and performed (Beethoven and Schubert) exhibited more moments of creativity during the performance. When describing the flow state of performance,

254 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2), 133.

Keay states, “… Special moments that performances create are difficult to replicate anywhere except in that exact moment. This unique, peak experience presents ample opportunities for flow to occur, provided that the performer has balanced the skills needed to execute the task at hand”.255 Once the duo is comfortable communicating cooperatively, the potential for creativity is heightened through empathetic attunement and collaborative communication. The presence of the audience also affects the energy that the duo share, and how they communicate. Mike stated,

“How comfortable you feel on stage … is related to the energy from the audience … I think it's a little bit more interesting to see someone who has some motion in their performance than someone who's completely motionless”.

When inquiring about their own perception of when and how moments of creativity manifest during performance, Drew explained, “Somebody hears something new that they want to do with the music, they try it and the other guy’s like, oh that's good. That's a sort of risk- taking we do, we don't do anything just for the sake of doing it … We kind of have a sense of what we think sounds best, like the general character of the music. It's much more subtle, lots of little fine things instead of more of a general character change or something like that”. Mike stated, “I mean a lot of things that we do we're not really conscious of … it becomes second nature, intuitive. I'm trying to think back to performances where we felt really good and yeah there has been an element of freedom to them but … I'll say this. we pick our spots. There are places where in rehearsal we will have more freedom with push and pull, during performance you come to expect it. He could do this, or you could do that, then there are other places where,

255 Keay, Lindsey. 2018. A content analysis of flow and music: Teaching, performance, and consumption. Doctor of Philosophy., The University of Southern Mississippi, 46.

97 for coordination, it always has to be the same. I think maybe that's getting to the heart of it, we pick our spots where we're going to be free and then in other places it has to be the same”.

The creative moments which occurred during rehearsal and performance were characterized by both guitarists exhibiting exaggerated movements of the body. Facial expressions were also an indicator. As the musicians embodied the emotional content of the music, their physical reaction served as a signifier of a moment of spontaneous variation.

Specifically, during the performance of the Schubert piece, Drew ended one of the climax sections with a ritardando that lead directly into a recap of the main theme. During this passage, visually both guitarists were much more active, notably Drew, who constantly moved and swayed to the music. His facial expression also matched the character of the music. This exemplified one of the moments Michael referred to as having more freedom for push and pull, an instance where the duo was prepared to take liberties with the tempo and expression. Another moment of creativity that occurred during the Mozart performance was evident by Michael’s body sway during a descending melodic passage. Drew also began to sway in sync with Michael after a couple of repetitions of the motive during this passage. Although they performed with sheet music and were more visually locked into the score, it was clear that they were utilizing empathetic communication, intensely listening and responding to each other’s musical intentions.

Over the many years rehearsing together, the duo has developed the ability to interpret each other’s musical intentions. The energy that each member brings to each performance has a great effect on how free or strict they will be in the moment. Mike explains, “I can sort of feel if he is a little bit tense, or if he's relaxed and playing well. I've learned to tune into that but I'm sure he's got the same for me. He can feel if I'm not really comfortable on stage. I can feel if he's not totally feeling it and then I know we're not going to do anything crazy... it's going to be like

98 we're just playing in time and it's exactly what we planned. Then there are other times I can feel that he's more relaxed and really comfortable and it's flowing. Those are the times where we can branch out and try different things”.

3.6 Questionnaire responses

The questionnaire revealed insight into how professional duos perceive the freedom they feel during performance and rehearsal. Questions were forwarded to several professional duos and responses were received from João Luiz of Brasil Guitar Duo, Rob Macdonald of

ChromaDuo, Cristiano Poli Cappelli of Duo Pace Poli Cappelli, and Lorenzo Micheli of

SoloDuo.

When asked about the degree of freedom duos can experience during performance, João

Luiz stated, “Intuition is crucial in our work when we deal with sound and phrasing, as we want to give an impression that certain things are not overly rehearsed but created at the moment. That is what we call improvisation, which in our case has to do with more freedom to change color, articulation, and rhythmic flexibility, not in the same sense as jazz musicians improvise”. This sense of improvisation is an example of collaborative communication, experienced by many professional guitar duos. Lorenzo Micheli states, “This sense of ease and spontaneity has always been the most typical feature in our experience as a duo”.

During performance, duo members have a certain degree of freedom to approach the music in novel ways. If they are empathetically attuned, then this sense of freedom can elevate the performance and give the impression that the music contains an element of spontaneity. Rob

Macdonald stated, “We thrive on this very aspect. The more chances my partner takes, the more comfortable I feel doing the same. And we have an unspoken but very clear rule that in performance we need to feel free to do this. This is what makes for really special performances”.

The feedback loop of presenting a musical idea and having your duo partner respond in the moment can only happen during states of empathetic attunement. Lorenzo Micheli states, “There is, unquestionably, a sense of spontaneity and uniqueness due to the fact that the performance is affected by an incredible number of always-changing factors. The hall, the acoustics. Noises.

Lights. The mood and the mental/physical state of the performers. The audience ... If everything is in the right place, then you can establish a much more free - and somehow completely spontaneous - connection with your duo partner. Which eventually means that you take more risks, but also that your expressive potential is much higher”.

One finding that resulted from the observational study on the Henderson-Kolk duo was the change in modes of communication from rehearsal to performance. I wanted to gain insight on how other professional duos perceived the differences between rehearsal and performance and received some interesting responses. João Luiz stated, “We are very strict with our practice, which allows us to communicate non-verbally on stage in a convincing way. Having a solid structure (what you call rehearsal) helps when you need to be creative … there is a huge difference between rehearsal and performance as the latter is the unknown, while the former prepares you to deal with the fact that as performers, we may not be in control one hundred percent of the time”. Ensuring that cooperative communication is executed instinctively during rehearsal enables more collaborative states of communication during performance. Cristiano Poli

Cappelli stated, “We perceive a great spontaneity during performance. It depends on how much we are ready”. The concept of preparing for moments of spontaneity may seem paradoxical, but

100 as evidenced by the observational study, establishing a solid foundational interpretation during rehearsal allows for moments of creativity to occur during performance. A strict rehearsal regime can actually facilitate more freedom during performance. Boyle states, “Spontaneity only makes sense in the context of pre-existing expectations that are somehow exceeded. I believe that these musical expectations are directly related to familiarity and in particular, co-performers expressive and technical musical tendencies, the piece being played, and each player’s responsibility for different roles and ability to switch between them quickly. Such expectations initially develop during rehearsal …”.256 The more well-rehearsed a duo is, the more comfortable they will feel to deviate from the model interpretation set during rehearsal. Once communication is rendered instinctively and a resolute interpretation is developed and understood by both members, unknown variables that can emerge during performance can be managed with purpose, generating moments of creativity.

One of my main research goals was to highlight rehearsal strategies utilized by professional guitar duos that can help facilitate states of empathetic attunement and creativity during performance. The main goal of rehearsal is to set an interpretation and be familiar enough with a piece that you have a sense of what your duo partner’s musical intention is at any specific moment. When inquiring about rehearsal methods, one of the main strategies emphasized was recording. Michael stated, “It's the listening back part of it, but also the preparation for recording and knowing that everything is going to be exposed. Striving to get a perfect take has really made us more aware of all the little details to being tight as an ensemble”. The importance of recording and self-evaluation was accentuated by João Luiz, “Our method has been the same

256 Boyle, Caitlin McCaffery. 2015. The influence of nonverbal communication processes in string quartet performance. DMA, University of Toronto, 137.

101 since the very beginning of our duo — metronome to make sure the ensemble is tight and nothing is being missed regarding the text (score, dynamics, articulation). Once we feel comfortable with the piece on that stage, we record ourselves to look for places where we can improve and to get some musical ideas”.

When working on a new arrangement, the Henderson-Kolk duo make an effort to create equal opportunities for both guitarists to spend time playing melodic and accompaniment material. This enables more of a musical ‘conversation’ on stage, with material shifting between both guitarists. Drew stated, “We try to split it as much as possible … That's the beauty of playing parts, if you are just playing melodic material then you can put everything you have into it, then you can sort of relax and compose yourself when playing the accompaniment”. The process of exchanging musical material during performance is executed through specific modes of non-verbal communication, requiring an active, persistent focus of attention on how the other duo member is playing. This deep level of listening can promote the emergence of empathetic states during performance, which can lead to moments of creativity. João Luiz stated, “We are more interested in the body language as a whole and being focused on each other’s part more than on our own”.

As a duo begins to learn a new piece, their interpretive ideas become crystalized after details such as fingerings, articulations, and technical details are worked out. It is imperative to prevent repertoire which has been performed for many years to grow stale. The challenge of

‘discovering’ a piece of music with each performance is a task that can enable duo members to empathetically connect with each other, and the music. The need to present a sense of ingenuity during the performance of a familiar piece is something many professional duos consider. João

Luiz stated, “We are very consistent with our practice method being that an (of) old piece, or

102 something that we are just learning. What changes is our expectations regarding what we want from the piece, and that is what we are most interested in”. Learning new repertoire or taking a break playing overly familiar pieces is one method duos can renew a sense of dynamism in rehearsal and performances. Lorenzo Micheli stated, “With the pieces that we have performed for a long time, we constantly try to re-discuss the reasons that led to certain interpretative choices, and we make lots of changes”. This re-examination of motives and past musical choices allows each member of the duo a fresh perspective on tried and tested repertoire, promoting a novel connection with well-known music. Approaching older repertoire with updated stocks of knowledge will lead to more innovative performances.

3.7 Concluding remarks

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between creativity and communication in the context of the guitar duo. The observational methodology model employed revealed details regarding how professional guitar duos manage communication during rehearsal and performance. The results showed that the main mode of communication utilized by the

Henderson-Kolk duo changed from cooperative to collaborative when comparing rehearsal and performance. It was discovered that moments of empathetic creativity were more likely to occur during performance than in rehearsal. A duo’s ability to manage these states of creativity during performance is both contingent on how well they prepare the music, and their ability to manage external factors, such as the presence of the audience, sound of the hall, temperature, and their overall mental and physical states. Once a duo has the capacity to effectively communicate

103 cooperatively, then the potential for empathetic states of collaborative communication during performance is expanded.

It was also revealed that repertoire can play a major role in dictating freedom that musicians experience. Different styles of music offer different degrees of freedom to the performers. The Henderson-Kolk duo prefer to perform Baroque, Classical, and Romantic works. During the member-check interview, Drew recalled an experience in which the duo had to play a contemporary, tango influenced work. He stated that this allowed them to be ‘looser’ with their playing and interpretation. This sense of looseness may lead to more moments of spontaneous variation during performance, allowing for more diverse interpretations between each performance.

The questionnaire that was forwarded to four members of other professional guitar duos revealed insights into each individual’s own perception of the experience of empathetic attunement and how moments of empathetic creativity are cultivated. One recurring theme detailed throughout the responses was the concept that the duo is the total integration of both personalities, an equal partnership in which both members come together and make decisions communally. João Luiz stated, “what each one brings to the duo is not fifty-fifty but one hundred. Once all of that is established, only then we can start talking about taking risks and feeling more connected to the music”. The unification of stocks of knowledge, paired with shared musical intention, allows for collective group synergy, in which the duo can generate moments of creativity during performance.257 Lorenzo Micheli stated, “There are definitely two

257 Seddon, Frederick A., and Michele Biasutti. 2009. Modes of communication between members of a string quartet. Small Group Research 40 (2): 115-37.

104 very different personalities at work, but our goal is to mix them in a blend that is entirely functional to the music making process ... two solo players that decided to give up their individual personality to blend together into one musical entity”.

3.8 Future directions

Future research on creativity and collaboration within the guitar duo ensemble could expand upon this study by utilizing different guitar duo ensembles through a similar observational methodology. As discussed, different ensembles have distinct perceptions on the phenomenon of creativity and utilize different rehearsal methods to achieve these moments during performance. A more substantial study including multiple rehearsals and performances of contrasting repertoire could further illuminate how specific repertoire can dictate the freedom musicians perceive during rehearsal and performance. Employing contrasting duos from different musical backgrounds would also provide a more thorough view on how empathetic states of communication are shared between different individuals.

Considering the guitar duo ensemble as a complex learning organization enables the results and findings of this study to be extrapolated to non-music related fields. Examining how intense work groups manage creative collaboration is still relatively novel research. The guitar duo serves as a fundamental model of a complex collaborative system, due to the intense work relationship fostered between just two individuals. Understanding how individuals in such a close professional relationship reconcile each other’s needs in service of a collective outcome

105 could provide a framework of collaboration which could potentially be applied to similar intense small work groups in different fields.

Another consideration is how young musicians develop the skills to communicate while performing in an ensemble. Due to the solitary nature of the guitar, students often end up being introduced to the instrument through solo music and are trained through programs that predominantly focus on the act of solo performance. As a result, guitarists often do not learn collaborative music making skills until well into their studies at an academic institution. An examination could be done on how young guitar duos manage interaction and how that process evolves as their stocks of musical knowledge converge.

The literature has shown that ensembles employ a variety of modes of communication during rehearsal and performance. A future consideration could include a study on how audiences perceive the expressiveness of the different modes of communicative body language utilized by small ensembles. Williamon and Davidson have already hinted at the dual function that physical gestures can serve, “musicians’ continuous swaying movements can provide audiences with constant expressive information about performance intention”.258 Non-verbal communication not only serves the fundamental tool musicians use to coordinate, but also provides the audience with information regarding performance intention and overall musical expressiveness. Any physical manipulation of the body during performance will have some impact on how the performance is perceived.

258 Williamon, Aaron, and W. Jane Davidson. 2002. Exploring co-performer communication. Musicae Scientiae VI (1): 53-72.

106

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Young, Doug. 2009. Sergio Assad interview. Acoustic Guitar Magazine. November.

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Appendices

Appendix A: Consent Forms

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Appendix B: Member check interview transcripts

Transcript of member check interview with Michael Kolk of the Henderson-Kolk Guitar Duo.

Adam: Thanks for participating in this research. I’m curious, what made you decide to arrange the Brahms piece?

Michael: I don't know, I love Brahms, I was listening to Glenn Gould … his recording of it the piece jumped out at me as being really beautiful. As you know, when you're arranging guitar music from piano there's a lot of limitations. If there's very fast playing or very high or low registers, there's a lot of things we can't do. I heard that piece and I thought we could probably do it, it's not too fast nice and melodically it's not using crazy high or low registers. I thought it would probably work.

Adam: Have you ever tried to arrange a piece and it hasn't worked out?

Michael: Yeah, not too many but usually you can tell if it's probably going to work. The Shostakovich Prelude from the Prelude and fugues that I arranged was kind of on a whim. I wanted to see if we could make it work. It was the a minor Prelude number 1 or 2 which has this really fast arpeggio texture. I arranged it for us partly just for fun to see if we could blend the arpeggio. The arrangement has four really fast notes ascending on each part to create a full arpeggio but the coordination was just too much to play at the tempo it should go at so we dropped it from our repertoire. We rehearsed it and parts of it were sounding really cool but we felt it wasn't going to be reliable to pull off in performance with the right degree of coordination.

Adam: Do you each select your own pieces and arrange them separately and then bring them to rehearsal? Or do you work through it together?

Michael: Both actually, but lately it's been a bit more that we will each work on something on our own and bring it in … some of our arrangements are just done by me or just done by Drew. The Mozart symphony we did was more collaborative, that was a little bit of sitting down and going through it together … sending scores back and forth by email and then getting together and playing through them to see if something needed to be changed. For example, if there was a really difficult passage, we had a discussion to make sure the parts were balanced.

Adam: How do you decide on what repertoire to play?

Michael: I guess a little bit of it is planning for recordings. Our latest recording was the Mozart, that started with the idea to try and do the 40th Symphony and then turned into the concept of recording a full album of Mozart. It's really project-based. For recitals we try and have more variety, so we're thinking of representing a little bit of a range of styles and time periods.

Adam: You've had to play repertoire in the past that was requested right?

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Michael: Yeah actually the Patrick Roux piece we played was because we needed a Canadian piece on our program.

Adam: Did you feel that you could connect less with the music?

Michael: We grew to like that piece. After performing in concerts a few times, we started to find that audiences really liked it. We realized that people need variety in their programs, I think for the audience appreciated having that piece on the program. The majority of the repertoire we play is Classical, Romantic, and Baroque … so having a contemporary piece was effective. We recognized that it provided contrast and we thought it was a good idea to kind of keep that piece around for a little while.

Adam: Yeah, it’s always important to include music that you think your general audience may appreciate.

Michael: You’re right, it's a balance. Luckily most of the stuff that we like to play is pretty accessible, it's pretty tuneful music and neither of us are into hardcore contemporary music. You do have to keep in mind what will be effective for a wide range of listeners. You're never going to please everyone but if you have something in your program for almost everyone that's a good start.

Adam: Yeah, you also might be able to sell them on a piece that they might not have listened to before, based on the way you're interpreting it.

Michael: Exactly, you have to convince yourself that you like it to a certain extent. Part of the trick is selling it, convincing yourself and the audience that you love this music even if you don't totally love it. Often what happens afterwards is you just dropped the piece can you go on to something else but sometimes certain pieces really grow on me and I’ve learned to love them.

Adam: When did you guys start playing together as a duo?

Michael: I think it was 2004, we were both at the University of Toronto. I was a fourth your undergrad and Drew was in the master’s program, first or second year.

Adam: Whose idea was it that you guys should get together and play

Michael: It was Drews idea, he asked me. He had been playing in a duo with someone else but for whatever reason that didn't really work out. He then approached me, and we ended up getting a chamber music credit and having lessons with Professor Jeffrey Mcfadden.

Adam: What kind of repertoire did you learn when you just started playing together?

Michael: Right from the beginning it actually started arrangements. Drew brought in a Chopin Mazurka, along with another piece by Brahms. Right from the beginning we played a lot of romantic piano music … Another early piece was another of Drew's Arrangements of a Vivaldi string concerto. As we progressed, we added some original guitar duo repertoire such as the Tonadilla by Rodrigo and Piazolla’s Tango suite.

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Adam: Great. Did you have any experience performing with anyone else before you two got together?

Michael: Yeah, a little bit before I came to University, I played briefly with a violinist at the music school that I took lessons at in Vancouver. Also, well not in the classical field but I did play in rock bands and jazz bands doing kind of like pseudo jazz. So yeah, I played in groups before but not a whole lot in the classical music setting.

Adam: Did you find it challenging playing with Drew at first? Did you two have a connection?

Michael: The connection came pretty quickly. It was a little challenging, but we coordinated quickly. Drew is a good communicator, he kind of guided it at the very beginning, probably because he had previous experience playing in a guitar duo. Yeah, Drew kind of knew the importance of coordinating notes because it's such a percussive instrument. You have to really be on top of coordinating the attack when you're playing together … so early on he guided the process with that, but it came pretty quickly, it was pretty easy to play with him.

Adam: That sounds similar to my own experience starting a guitar duo, although I do remember specific instances when we would have to try something like 10 times in a row in order to coordinate properly. We had to talk about the size of the gestures we were using and how certain movements were being interpreted.

Michael: Yeah, it was a long time ago, but also your standard for tightness gets higher and higher as you go along. Probably at the beginning we thought we were pretty tight, but it may have not been. We weren't that together, and then as you play more and more you start to look how the two of you are coordinating and then it becomes like you're very tuned into almost every note … it took time to get used to that type of listening

Adam: For sure. I imagine getting used to Drew's playing style seeing how you can fit in.

Michael: Yeah exactly. One of the main things is cueing, as well as kind of getting used to the person's body language, the overall movement and the timing of a que. Now it's intuitive, it's just second nature but I remember actually learning how to cue properly because it's kind of difficult if you haven't done it before. Moving your head in sync with the other person, and they don't know exactly when it's going to sound, so your cueing must be very consistent. The other thing I learned was to watch his right hand…

Adam: Yeah, I noticed that at several moments in the footage you’re actually watching Drew’s right hand. So, you feel like overtime you guys grew to understand each other's communication better?

Michael: Yeah, definitely. The body language, the movements, the playing style. I can sort of project how he wants to end a phrase to a ritardando, or the speed of a rolled chord. All really subtle things but you just get used to that person's playing, and then it's less thinking about it and more just listening and reacting.

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Adam: Yeah exactly, one study I read surveyed several different chamber ensembles and found that over time, the musicians adopted similar movement styles to their ensemble members.

Michael: Yeah, I can see that. Initially we talked about it, like, I'm going to cue here you’re going to cue there, but eventually, it became more organic.

Adam: That leads to my next question, when you first learn a piece together, do you write in details such as, I’m going to cue here, you’re going to cue there?

Michael: I never write that stuff in and I don't think Drew does either. We remember and usually it's pretty clear who should be queuing. It's usually the guy with the melody. If it's a ritardando it's whoever has the faster note values. It kind of happens organically, we don't write it in and sometimes we don't even talk about it.

Adam: I'm curious, how has recording affected your sound? Has it made you tighter?

Michael: Yeah, absolutely. It's the listening back part of it, but also the preparation for recording and knowing that everything is going to be exposed. Striving to get a perfect take has really made us more aware of all the little details to being tight as an ensemble.

Adam: Do you prepare differently for recording versus concert?

Michael: Yeah, the recording is more like making sure that every little thing can be executed cleanly and getting rid of extraneous noises. You might have a part with a big string squeak that needs to be removed.

Adam: Yeah, it may not be such a big deal if it happens on stage.

Michael: The recording of it is managing micro details. It's not that you don't worry about those things in live performance, but a concert is more … can you get through the whole piece? You have to be able to get all the way through and present the shape of the piece through your interpretation. Of course, when recording you need to shape the entire piece as well but you can go section by section, so you don't have to worry about stamina in the same way.

Adam: I'm curious, who is has the more dominant personality in the duo?

Michael: I think Drew is more of the leader. It was kind of his idea to start the duo in the first place and more of the repertoire decisions and ideas about repertoire are probably his. There is a balance though, he always wants my opinion on things.

Adam: Have you ever had to shut down one of his ideas?

Michael: I think so. He's pretty sensitive to that. I can't think of a specific example but a couple of years ago he wanted to play a piece that I wasn’t so enthusiastic about. We've had disagreements obviously, arguing over different things but it's always diplomatic. Even just deciding on the Mozart recording, we were throwing around all sorts of different ideas and he wanted to include a variety of romantic repertoire. I said, I think we should really stick the initial

129 idea and make it all Mozart … Yeah, there's a back and forth. We both have to agree on what we're doing and feel good about it. Even though he usually is putting forward more ideas about repertoire we both have to agree. He never forces anything.

Adam: I know Drew often plays the 8-string guitar. Do you play more melodic material than he does? Or is it shared?

Michael: When he's playing 8-string it works out a little bit better for the arrangement that I take the melody, since he has extra bass notes. This was specifically the case with our arrangements of Mozart’s 40th Symphony.

Adam: Is that typical though across your repertoire?

Michael: No, we try to spread the melodies and melodic parts as evenly as possible. Our goal is to make everything concertante, so there's never one guy playing the rhythm part all the way through the piece. It's more interesting for us, and I also think it's more interesting for the audience as well to see the melody getting bounced back and forth. It's just the nature of the eight string that sometimes he has to take more of an accompaniment role, but we look for places in the arrangements we do where he can take the melody to even things out. Adam: Do you perform with music on stage? What's the percentage of time you perform with music vs. without?

Michael: 95% of the time we play with music, it's safer. We played a couple of concerts without any music and for a soloist it's one thing if you have a memory lapse and you have to pause or skip a bar or whatever … If it happens to a duo it could be a disaster.

Adam: For sure, I've experienced that before. We had to stop mid piece and find our place.

Michael: Yes, I think it's pretty accepted that chamber groups use music on stage. I totally respect any duos or chamber groups that play without music. When they play without music it's amazing. It's very serious and takes so much confidence and trust to be able to do that. It's another level of preparation to play a whole recital without music because not only are you worried about all the musical stuff and the tightness of the ensemble, you also have to make sure that the focus and concentration is unbroken for the whole recital. If it drops it can be really bad. I think that's happened only once to us, where there was a pretty significant memory slip in one of our parts and it kind of fell apart in the middle of a piece. We had to stop and restart. You never want that to happen so it's just safer with the music onstage.

Adam: I’ve always felt that playing without music was a little more exciting, it's riskier like you said.

Michael: Yeah it is. We had one really good concert where we played without music. I remember preparing so hard for that. We felt really good about that show. I think it was also very musical because we had learned the repertoire so thoroughly. I find it also takes a lot of rehearsals without the music to become confident to do it on stage. Sometimes if we're busy we don't have time for that many full rehearsals.

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Adam: How do you think having a music on stage affect how you guys can communicate? I mean, visually you’re kind of locked into the score.

Michael: Yeah, that’s a good question. I think it probably does affect communication and tightness to a certain extent. Especially say, if you’re playing a three-page piece. I sit on the right... Page 3 is way over here, Drew is on the other side. If I’m reading… there’s peripheral vison yeah, I can see him out of the corner of my eye... It’s probably not quite as tight if I was looking at his right hand through the whole performance. There’s probably a slight drop off in the quality of communication during performance, but, at the same time, if we prepared well then, a lot of the cues are not even really visual, you’re just listening.

Adam: That’s kind of what I wanted to get at with my research, the really fine level communication where you guys are really connected and listening to every detail.

Michael: When we are really on and have rehearsed a piece a lot and are very clear on the interpretation, then we don’t need to look at each other very much.

Adam: Yes, I noticed that. I was surprised how little visual eye contact you two actually make...very little, but overall the playing is super coordinated.

Michael: Yeah, we don’t need eye contact. It’s more about planning things out. Not even really planning but playing things through a bunch and getting the sense of what the other player is going to do.

Adam: Right, so do you ever discuss interpretation? Like, what feeling is this piece trying to convey? Do you have those conversations? I’m curious how you get on the same page emotionally for a piece, so that an audience will also feel what you are trying to communicate.

Michael: For me, it comes from playing the piece. I think Drew likes to talk through things a little bit more in general. He likes to really clarify what the intention is and even if we're already doing it he likes to verbalize it. He says that it's probably just for himself so that he remembers it and it's very clear for me. But for me, it's more that I just like to play it through it and feel it out, and if it feels like we're on the same page then I don't need to say anything. If I feel like we're not coordinating the emotional or musical content together then I'll say something, like, maybe we could go for something more like this here or there…

Adam: Yeah, you did that a few times in the footage, so that totally makes sense. How has playing in the guitar duo affected your solo playing?

Michael: Good question. We've been playing together for so long. From Drew I've learned a lot about being super picky about little things like sound quality and nail shape. Just having another guitarist that you're tight with and you can discuss the really fine points of the instrument with. When I play solo I'm often looking for music that it's a little bit of a different style than what we usually play as a duo.

Adam: So, it's like a different outlet for you. Yeah that totally makes sense. How do you and Drew tune on stage?

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Michael: We've been using headstock tuners. Sometimes only one of us has the tuner so then we will do a check, but ideally, we both just tune quietly… It's just easier and quicker that way. It keeps us both at 440hz.

Adam: During Performance who talks more to the audience?

Michael: Drew does, for sure. It has kind of evolved a bit over time. I prefer not to talk to the audience, I'll do it when I play solo, but I have to prepare it in advance. If I'm not really prepared with what I'm going to say I don't feel super comfortable just winging it on stage. I think Drew just feels more comfortable coming up with stuff and he says he doesn't mind doing it. I'm happy to let him talk to the audience on stage. I might say something before one or two pieces, so the audience knows I'm not mute, but not much. It's nice not to not have to worry about it.

Adam: Same for us. Before we would play a concert, we would decide who would introduce each piece.

Mike: We used to do that more and play it up, but recently it's just been Drew talking, if I want to interject, I'll just speak up on stage.

Adam: The main point of my research was to try to find how duos cultivate the super deep connection with each other, or as researchers have described, a state of Empathetic Attunement. A state where you feel connected with a fellow musician while playing, you don't need to look at them to communicate, you can anticipate where they are going musically respond to it directly in the moment. I believe the ultimate Duo that does this on stage are the Assad Brothers. They're so connected, you hear stories how one will play something and the other one will just be right on.

Michael: Yeah, they're incredible.

Adam: So, has this connection between you two changed over time? If so, how did it evolve?

Mike: Yeah, I think it takes time. At first you have to talk about it more, plan more, and then as you play more and more together, and get to know the person more, it begins to happen naturally. In the last few years we've gotten to know each other's tendencies so much that it happens pretty naturally … but yeah it takes time. You have to just put in the time. We are kind of taking a break right now because each of us are busy with different things but usually we rehearse every week.

Adam: When you started playing together, you were already friends?

Michael: Yeah, you don't want to be in a professional relationship with someone you hate. Maybe you could get through it but you have to enjoy spending time with the other person and enjoy their company at least to a certain extent because you're going to be working a lot with them. It's not just the playing, you’re going to be hanging out with them as well.

Adam: Yeah, one of the papers I read in my research stated that the most successful ensembles were composed of members that were the most similar, which makes sense.

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Michael: Yeah, that's like the Assad Brothers, as well as the Katonah twins, another brother duo.

Adam: Yeah, the Assads started playing guitar together at a young aged... And they were able to naturally foster this style of communication.

Mike: Exactly. Just having so much time, so many hours, they've gotten to know each other.

Adam: So, using the Assads as a model, I got the sense when I saw them perform that it was kind of like they're improvising on stage. Of course, they weren't literally improvising, they were playing from a written score, but also kind of always taking risks, cultivating a deep level of communication that was extremely interesting to watch. Do you feel like you and Drew achieve that sense during performance? How much risk taking do you perceive?

Mike: Not nearly as much as the Assads I would guess. I wonder how much their performances change from one night to the next because, you're right, it does seem very free. Is that an illusion, or is it pretty much similar from performance to performance?

Adam: It could be but I think even within those moments, there's going to be spontaneous variation every night depending on the sound the hall, the audience … all those factors could cause you to play slightly differently and that's going to affect what the other person is hearing you and how they respond. That's what I call spontaneous musical variations.

Michael: Yeah, we are obviously not at the level of the Assads, but that's maybe not one of our strengths, being spontaneous on stage. Most of the time it's pretty much as we rehearsed it.

Adam: So, you set an interpretation during rehearsal and try to reactivate that during performance?

Michael: Yeah, pretty much. Going back to what you were saying about solo playing, that's actually something I really enjoy about playing solo. Having the freedom to do something different on stage, where you don’t have to worry if the other guy is going to follow, you can just do whatever you want. Not that I go crazy when I am playing solo, but I do definitely change things in the moment much more than when I'm playing in the duo.

Adam: When you play solo you're playing for memory, right? I'm curious if there's a correlation there. You get more ideas as you’re going along due to not being attached to the score.

Mike: Maybe, but don't think so. If I'm playing solo from a score I can still have freedom with it. Maybe there's something there though, you could be right.

Adam: Why do you think there are less moments of spontaneous variations when you play with the duo?

Mike: Well, if you want to do something that's much different than you done before, the other person might not react. I think Drew is probably a little bit more concerned than I am with really being tight all the time. I think that's where our personalities may be different little bit. He is very

133 focused on really polished tightness in performance. Sometimes I would like to be a bit freer on stage, however, I do recognize the need for being tight with the other person.

Adam: Yeah, I’ve seen the duo, Soloduo, in concert several times and each time their playing is super tight, but I also felt an element of spontaneity in the performances, like they're making decisions in the moment. I'm sure they set the interpretation during rehearsal but when you're on stage it's a different thing … the presence of the audience, anything could happen. You have to be connected to be successful.

Michael: There's a little bit of that with our Duo, maybe not as much as I would like sometimes, though. It's something that we play around with a little bit in rehearsal, but I think it's another level to be able to do that on stage and really know that it's going to work. I’m not sure we're quite at that level.

Adam: I think you two have a really refined style, that was my take away from the videos. Even your gestures were really small, more subtle than many other duos. I think you guys are doing it, it's just less extroverted. That doesn't mean it's not happening.

Michael: I think you're right. We're doing it, but on a smaller scale because when you start to expand that scale, if you are really not on the same page, things can get sloppy. A lot of things that we do we're not really conscious of, they become second nature, intuitive. I'm trying to think back performances where we felt really good, and yeah, there has been an element of freedom to them. I'll say this, we pick our spots. There are places where, in rehearsal, we will have more freedom with push and pull. Then, in a performance you come to expect it. He could do this, or you could do that, then there are other places where for coordination, it's always has to be the same. I think maybe that's getting to the heart of it, we pick our spots where we're going to be free, and then in other places, it has to be the same.

Adam: So, you’re sort of prepared for those moments?

Michael: Yeah, we're prepared if something different happens. Certain passages, we expected they may change a little bit.

Adam: Yeah, that's one of the things I was thinking about. For example, in a Jazz Ensemble where they improvise different solos every night. They don't know what they're going to do until they start playing, in contrast with a classical ensemble, where the score dictates what happens every time. You decide on an interpretation and that's the baseline, it’s what you try to reach during performance, but yeah, even the energy from the audience will affect how risky you want to be.

Michael: Yeah and how comfortable you feel on stage, which is related to the energy from the audience.

Adam: I’ve had recitals where it was easy to get into it, but several when it was more difficult.

Michael: An interesting thing that I’ve experienced when playing the Drew, I can sort of feel if he is a little bit tense, or if he's relaxed and playing well. I've learned to tune into that but I'm

134 sure he's got the same for me. He can feel if I'm not really comfortable on stage. I can feel if he's not totally feeling it and then I know we're not going to do anything crazy... it's going to be like we're just playing in time and it's exactly what we planned. Then there are other times I can feel that he's more relaxed and really comfortable and it's flowing. Those are the times where we can Branch out and try different things.

Adam: I went through all the rehearsal footage and categorized all the communication. I was specifically looking for moments where you guys were taking risks. A previous study I used as a model showed that these moments of spontaneous musical variation happened during the rehearsal and performance of a string quartet. These moments were evident when the musicians became more animated on stage. You two play in a super refined style, even your gestures are very subtle, so there are a couple of moments where I thought maybe you were trying something different. Maybe you were more into it or something, so I just want to play a couple of those moments and get your take, to see if you agree on my interpretation of the data. (Plays communication examples). One thing I noticed was that you move a lot more than Drew does. You also check in a lot more than he does. Drew will go the entire piece and not look over once, but sometimes he's moving his right hand to the rhythm and you're looking at his right hand to sync the plucking of the strings.

Mike: Yeah, I find it kind of relaxes me to move on stage. I find that if I'm too rigid I start to tense up. The movement helps with any nerves that I have, it just helps me relax and get into the music.

Adam: I agree it feels better to move and breathe, to try and not to control too much.

Mike: Yeah, it’s not only for show, but part of it is for the audience. I think it's a little bit more interesting to see someone who has some motion in their performance than someone who's completely motionless, just their fingers are moving. It can sound great if you're listening with your eyes closed, like a music connoisseur, they probably don't mind as much … but someone who's less of an educated listener, I think a lot of it is visual in a performance.

Adam: I totally agree. That's something I used to think about with my old duo partner. Even if we didn't need to connect with each other, we would sometimes do it anyways because it helps the audience enter into the piece. If an important moment happens in the music we would try and use our communication to reinforce that signal to the audience, that something important is happening. Of course, you don’t want to overdo it, there has to be a balance.

Michael: Yeah, we are a subtle ensemble…

Adam: Here’s another clip. Do you think that this could be an example of you two empathetically listening to each other?

Michael: Definitely. I think we're working on a musical gesture there, yeah for sure. I didn't notice I was looking at him or not, but I was listening. We try to do that everywhere. That’s the goal for everything are there certain passages where you have to lock in a little more.

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Adam: Lets jump to Shubert in the performance. I think a lot of these moments coincide with specific gestures in the music.

Michael: There... and here. In these two examples we are doing something with the timing. That’s something that we discussed, that we didn’t want to do ritardandos at the end of every phrase, but we wanted to pick our spots where we were going to do them, those two examples, we decided that something different would happen, that's why I really have to listen and coordinate together. Adam: So, you picked specific moments where you knew you would have to be more hyper aware and listening during performance.

Michael: Yeah, it was because of Drew's part. He's sort of shaping every phrase to go with his arpeggios, so sometimes he was slowing down and my part dictated or suggested that there needed to be more forward motion. It’s something that I brought up and said, let's not slow down at the end of every phrase because my melody needs to have one direction, moving forward. There are two places where we decided to keep it, that's where we would be more empathetically attuned. In those cases, Drew has the moving part, he has the arpeggio that kind of sets the tempo. He’s really controlling the ritardandos there, however, I like to think at least I'm having something to do with it by how I'm sort of pushing or pulling the melody over top. There's not much I can do if he decides to slow down like crazy on his triplets, I have to follow him, so really, he has the final say there because he has the moving part.

Adam: Last question, during the Brahms I noticed you two were a lot more animated. Do you think this could be related to the fact that it was the first rehearsal of the piece?

Michael: Interesting. That would make sense, the movement would communicate our musical ideas about it. Once the interpretation is set you don't need to movement in as much… it scales back.

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Transcript of member check interview with Drew Henderson of the Henderson-Kolk Guitar Duo.

Adam: How do you and Mike make your Arrangements? Do you arrange an individually or do you work out your parts together?

Drew: Usually one guy will discover a piece and then take it upon himself to arrange the whole thing, usually it's me. That's mostly how it's gone although sometimes we'll do it together, like the Mozart was totally collaborative.

Adam: Have you ever tried to arrange a piece where you were into the process of and realized it wasn’t going to work?

Drew: Yeah, I have a few duds, not many though. I don't choose super ambitious pieces to arrange, except for the Mozart. There's been a couple of instances where I just lost interest in the piece, not because of any technical things.

Adam: What original repertoire where you guys learning when you first formed as a duo?

Drew: We started with arrangements right off the bat because I was playing with another guy before I joined with Mike. I had a Vivaldi Concerto and a Chopin Waltz ready to go. I'd be hard- pressed to tell you the first original guitar piece we played, it might have been Lhoyer or Rodrgio … I mean our whole first album is just arrangements.

Adam: When did you first start incorporating the 8-string into your arrangements?

Drew: I got that in 2010 or 2011. At first, I got a cheap one just to see how it would work and it kind of naturally found its way into our repertoire. I guess those extra bass notes make life a lot easier although I'm still on the fence about it. They're a little bit more difficult to play and it’s difficult to make one that sounds really amazing.

Adam: When you guys first started playing as a duo how much of rehearsal was spent on coordinating queues and making sure the music was together? how difficult was communication at first? Did you have an initial connection?

Drew: Yeah, we had an easy time following one another. I think when we first started playing together it was under Jeff's guidance, so I have trouble remembering exactly what we did. Jeff basically told us what to do. We always had good eye contact … how much time spent on those sorts of details? It's hard to quantify, but we were conscious of it, like who's doing what, and of course in the beginning, it was sort of like we were just feeling it out.

Adam: That was similar for me as well. During the initial rehearsals of my duo we had we would write details in the score, like, I’m cueing here, watch for a que there.

Drew: For us, whoever has the melody cues. We like to keep it simple.

Adam: How is preparing for a recording different than concerts?

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Drew: With recording your forced to address all the little things, which can take forever, it's under a microscope. Preparing for concerts is a lot easier than recording. If we're preparing for a concert it'll be a lot more loose … Recordings are more about tightness. You really focus on getting tight when it comes down to recording. In a concert you can get away with way more stuff … we're trying to live up to an unrealistic expectation when we record. It's way more difficult.

Adam: Who is the leader of the duo? Is there a more dominant personality? did you guys talk about that when you started playing together?

Drew: I chose almost all the repertoire and it’s been that way for a long time. That sort of set the precedent, I’ve been sort of pushing things. It’s not like I try and dominate the artistic image of the duo and have veto power or anything, I just kind of take it upon myself to do a lot of the arrangements.

Adam: Were you pursuing a solo career while playing with the duo?

Drew: I have been doing mostly duo stuff, but inadvertently YouTube videos of my playing have propelled my solo career. I guess I kind of was working on a solo career, I was definitely putting myself out there.

Adam: When the duo is in concert who talks more to the audience? Is this decided upon beforehand?

Drew: I do. Yeah, Mike doesn't want to talk. I actually like talking to groups of people, I enjoy it more than playing, cracking jokes and things like that … it's very natural to me, so I just do it.

Adam: When you started playing in the duo, did you have an idea about the kind of music you wanted to play? I know you already had some arrangements set, and that you don’t typically include modern music in your programs.

Drew: I'm sure Mike would want to play a bit more modern stuff, but I guess he knows that I'm not into so into it. It's kind of my preference, I mean we don’t only play super old music, just not cutting edge, no avant-garde stuff, mainly because I find it difficult to find really high-quality compositions. We have dabbled somewhat with modern pieces, recently we played a cool piece by Patrick Roux which everybody loves, but I personally have a hard time finding a modern piece that I really enjoy. I wish ponce wrote duos.

Adam: Yeah for sure, I guess he was mainly writing for Segoiva at the time, so… no duos

Drew: I also find that there's just so much amazing music by Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven, the greatest composers in history. It's so irresistible to play that sort of stuff, especially if you find it works on guitar and nobody has done it before. That's what's really kind of gets me excited.

Adam: For sure, so even if you're not playing new music, you're still doing something original with the arrangements.

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Drew: Yeah

Adam: Do you guys have musical roles like accompaniment and melodic, or is it split evenly?

Drew: We try to split it as much as possible. We have done some arrangements where one guy is taking the melody more often but these days, we're sort of doing retroactive arrangements. I'm making pieces more even. That's the beauty of playing parts, if you are just playing melodic material then can put everything you have into it, then you can sort of relax and compose yourself when playing the accompaniment. In terms of stamina, during a concert it really helps a lot and it's more interesting to have the parts bounce back and forth. Only on rare occasions we will keep it more separate, like the Schubert.

Adam: Yeah, I noticed that in the video you sent me. I think you're mostly play the accompaniment because you're playing on the extended range guitar?

Drew: Yeah, the Beethoven's a bit more concertante. Mike took the melody and maybe I'm on the bottom of little bit more, but we try hard to bounce about as much as possible. So, for example, in the new Mozart it’s mainly Mike on top with the melody in the symphony and top part for this duo for violin or viola. We kind of divvy it up.

Adam: Yeah, I think it's more interesting for the audience as well when you guys are balancing the parts back and forth.

Drew: Yeah, that's another reason I'm not so into playing the 8 string, you kind of got pushed into play more accompaniment.

Adam: Do you mostly perform with or without music on stage?

Drew: Usually with music. We have played for memory before but it's so risky, and the repertoire we're playing is very long and complicated, so we use music now. It’s obviously less exciting, but we don't have an active enough concert schedule to warrant all the extra work. We're both kind of busy with other things too.

Adam: Do you think having the music on stage effects how you guys can communicate? Visually you’re kind of locked into the score a little bit more.

Drew: Maybe, a little but we actually don't have a lot of eye contact anyways, it's mainly listening and watching for the breath.

Adam: When you first started rehearsing, was there more eye contact?

Drew: I don't think so, no.

Adam: So, the main goal of my research was to look at fine level communication between guitar duos, so for you guys what I did was went through all the rehearsal footage and categorized each instance of communication into different categories to see what modes of communication you are using most, and to see how most of the rehearsal time is spent. I went through the videos

139 categorized verbal and non-verbal communication, each instance of communication was either instructive, cooperative, and collaborative. I was most interested in identifying moments of collaborative communication, where you're playing and you're listening to each other on a deep level, responding to each other in the moment. This mode of communication allows for instances of creativity, especially during performance.

(I play video examples of different modes of communication)

Drew: So, collaborative is more spontaneous?

Adam: Exactly, I was going to use the word spontaneous musical variations, it doesn't happen the same way every time.

Drew: Yeah, that sounds good. I have to really think about it for a while to give you more information.

Adam: I'm claiming that if you utilize collaborative communication during performance you are able to take more risks, because you're listening on a finer level, responding to the energy from your duo partner. Do you feel like you take risks during performance with interpretation? How much of the interpretation is set during rehearsal and then reactivated during performance?

Drew: I'd say it’s pretty much set, yeah. There might be a little extra here and there, but it's pretty much set by the time we get onto stage.

Adam: Are their moments of risk taking?

Drew: Yes, some. I mean it might not be risk-taking … as somebody hears something new that they want to do with the music, they try it and the other guys like, oh that's good. That's a sort of risk taking we do; we don't do anything just for the sake of doing it.

Adam: I always think about the Assad Brothers and how they are pretty much always utilizing collaborative communication. They are very free on stage, or at least they seem to be. The music is just kind of coming alive as they play it. I think that's the most extreme case, whereas you guys seem to be more subtle, everything is more subtle.

Drew: Yeah, we kind of have a sense of what we think sounds best, like the general character of the music. Yeah, it's much more subtle, lots of little fine details instead of more of a general character change or something like that.

Adam: It seems like you have a super refined sense of playing together, super connected and always communicating, but again, it's not that extroverted. Like you said, there is no, or very little eye contact. When I watch the rehearsal videos, I was actually surprised to see that you don't look at Mike very much at all while you're playing.

Drew: Yeah sure, we just listen, that's really the main thing.

Adam: I see that Mike checks in with you at several points and watches your right hand a lot.

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Drew: Yes, to line things up. If I have the music memorized though I tend to stare at his left hand, it kind of freaks him out.

Adam: So, I would like to play you a couple of moments of spontaneous musical variation. These clips are taken from the performance footage.

Drew: (Referring to the video example) Yeah, we were talking about playing with the time there, we were shaping it a bit more.

Adam: Do you think that could be considered a moment where you two might be a little bit more free on stage?

Drew: Well, we'll plan it, we plan how much we want to do, then we'll do it. Maybe in the moment one of us could decide to do even more, but overall, we don’t do a lot of risk taking.

Adam: How long have you been playing the Beethoven and Schubert pieces?

Drew: Beethoven is new piece although we played it on a recent tour. We’ve been playing it for around two years. The Shubert we’ve been playing a little longer, it maybe three years something like that.

Adam: Ok, here’s another clip of a spontaneous variation during performance

Drew: (In response to video example) Oh we were holding that down beat more than normal, I think. I mean, we know where we're taking time, the amount of time we take might change a little bit here and there, but we know we're taking it, it's all planned out for sure.

Adam: While reviewing the Brahms rehearsal footage, I noticed that you guys were much more animated, moving more and swaying with the music. Overall, bigger gestures. I'm curious if you were aware of that?

Drew: No, I wasn’t.

Adam: I wonder if that's because it's the first time you've ever rehearsed it. So, for coordination purposes you’re moving a little bit more, trying to figure out what’s going on.

Drew: Yeah, I think I’m bobbing my head just to keep the beat. The longer I play a piece the less I move, I think.

Adam: That's what Mike said as well. Okay I think that's it I guess one last question so I'm trying to think of how to frame this so… Is risk-taking an important factor in performance on stage.

Drew: I'd say, maybe we'll take risks in the sense that we will play a little bit dirtier to be more musical, but we're not taking risks like messing around with the character of a certain passage or something like that.

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Adam: So, it's a smaller scale kind of thing.

Drew: Yeah, we have all the big picture details already sorted out. We don't really mess around like that … maybe actually in the Patrick Roux tango piece that we played, we might actually take a different approach. The music warrants that it's more loose and we’ll embrace that, but in general when we play Classical or Baroque repertoire, we want to be as coordinated and as clean and clear as possible.

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Appendix C: Responses to questionnaire

The Guitar Duo. Interaction and Group Creativity, Questionnaire. Rob Macdonald, ChromaDuo.

1. How long has the duo existed? Not sure exactly, about 12 years, I think.

2. Prior to the formation of the duo, how long were you familiar with your duo partner? Around 10-12 years.

3. Does the duo perform on instruments built by the same luthier, or do you strive for more individual sound production? Originally, we played on different instruments, then ended up playing guitars by the same builder later. We like having similar sound but with subtle differences, usually based on individual technique/approach.

4. Is there a dominant personality or leader within the duo? If so, how is this displayed publicly? We try to present ourselves fairly equally.

5. How is repertoire selected? Is it a communal process? Back and forth and back and forth. Lots of discussion, lots of research, digging around, and then some more discussion. It’s a really long process for us.

6. Was there an initial conversation regarding the artistic direction of the duo? How has the duo’s identity evolved over time? Absolutely. We wanted to commission new music that we care about deeply and play it really well. We also aim to present some younger composers alongside more established ones. We’ll see about over time: our next project may have nothing at all to do with contemporary music. Perhaps most important for us is that we have a concert program that we’re really proud of and excited by.

7. How often do you rehearse as a duo? Often. Initially, we lived in different countries, so it was challenging. Now, we live close so can rehearse more. Ideally, a couple of rehearsals per week. And more closer to concerts or recordings.

8. At the outset of the duo, was interpreting non-verbal communication while playing challenging? If so, how long did it take for it to feel intuitive? Not long, really. I think this is something we really rehearsed and considered even at the outset

143 because we both like to play quite freely/expressively – so it was a necessity and big part of rehearsing. We both also had quite a bit of chamber music experience already which helped in this regard.

9. Compared to the initial rehearsals of a new piece, does the character of non-verbal communication change once you have performed it for a long period of time? Sure. I think everything about a piece gets easier and more comfortable over time and with multiple performances – including non-verbal communication. In our repertoire, there are often rhythmical challenges – these especially become clearer over time. You can start to rely a little less on visual cues because of this clarity of anticipation and just listen with a little more focus. Also, there are generally fewer surprises after multiple performances.

11. During performance, how much of your non-verbal communication is visual? I watch my partner’s right hand as much as possible for rhythmic precision, especially in more free/rubato passages/moments.

12. Do you perceive a difference in how you communicate non-verbally between rehearsal and performance? I’m certain everything is amplified in performance. In concerts, I think we definitely take extra care in communication – perhaps with slightly larger physical gestures to cue significant musical moments, for example.

13. Do you perceive a sense of spontaneity during performance? How does the energy from your duo partner affect how free you feel to take risks or connect with the music? Absolutely. We thrive on this very aspect. The more chances my partner takes, the more comfortable I feel doing the same. And we have an unspoken but very clear rule that in performance we need to feel free to do this. This is what makes for really special performances.

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The Guitar Duo. Interaction and Group Creativity, Questionnaire. João Luiz, Brasil Guitar Duo

1. How long has the duo existed? Douglas and I have been playing together for 22 years.

2. Prior to the formation of the duo, how long were you familiar with your duo partner? Three or four months.

3. Does the duo perform on instruments built by the same luthier, or do you strive for more individual sound production? The duo has always played on instruments made by the Brazilian luthier Sérgio Abreu.

4. Is there a dominant personality within the duo? If so, how is this displayed publicly? No, there is not. Our understanding is that the music has the last word, not our egos.

5. How is repertoire selected? Is it a communal process? We both decide on what pieces to play or what projects to work on. As we both compose, we try to bring that to our duo as well. I tend to suggest a lot of what is part of our repertoire as I am the one responsible for the arrangements in our duo.

6. Was there an initial conversation regarding the artistic direction of the duo? How has the duo’s identity evolved over time? We never thought about having a career as a duo. We started playing together because we liked, and our teacher encouraged us a lot since the very beginning. Things started to get more serious and professional as we got better as a duo, but we never expected fame or to become rich playing classical guitar. Another thing that played an important role in our development as a professional guitar duo was the fact that we had (and still have) as our references the Abreu Brothers and the Assad Brothers. They are two of the greatest duos ever and both are Brazilians.

7. How often do you rehearse as a duo? In the beginning all we did was practice. Until this day we don’t like to use the word rehearsal, we prefer study, as we always studied our repertoire together. At all stages, from deciding what to play and how to put fingerings, phrasing, so on and so forth, we did all of that together. We learn the pieces together so to speak. We lived in the same city for the first ten years of our duo, and that is how we developed most of the ensemble skills, approach to sound and other musical aspects that we still use. Also, the core repertoire of guitar duos with works by Sor, Renaissance music, Scarlatti, Bach, and the Spanish composers such as Albéniz and Granados we learned in our first ten years as a duo. Today our identity as a duo that plays Brazilian Music could not be possible without our devotion to the standard repertoire during our formative years.

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8. At the outset of the duo, was interpreting non-verbal communication while playing challenging? If so, how long did it take for it to feel intuitive? We never suffered from that problem, as once we find what is best for the music, we have an idea. With a clear idea in mind it is just a matter of how you make that work as a duo. Another thing that helps is that although we are very different as players, we complement each other a lot, and musically we think alike. Intuition is crucial in our work when we deal with sound and phrasing, as we want to give an impression that certain things are not overly rehearsed but created at the moment. That is what we call improvisation, which in our case has to do with more freedom to change color, articulation, and rhythmic flexibility, not in the same sense as jazz musicians improvise.

9. Compared to the initial rehearsals of a new piece, how does the character of communication change once you have performed it for a long period of time? Our method has been the same since the very beginning of our duo — metronome to make sure the ensemble is tight and nothing is being missed regarding the text (score, dynamics, articulation). Once we feel comfortable with the piece on that stage, we record ourselves to look for places where we can improve and to get some musical ideas. I would not call character of communication but integrity of practice. We don’t fall on traps that usually happen when a piece is part of one’s repertoire for years. We are very consistent with our practice method being that an old piece or something that we are just learning. What changes is our expectations regarding what we want from the piece, and that is what we are most interested in.

10. Do you most often perform with sheet music on stage or from memory? If you have experience performing both ways, do you perceive that having sheet music on stage affects non-verbal communication between you and your duo partner? Our duo performs by memory, except when there are last minute projects or new pieces with deadlines and there is not enough time to memorize. When we collaborate with other musicians, we tend to use music and we do feel that that alters the communication between us on the subjective level.

11. During performance, how much of the communication between you and your duo partner is visual? Very little. We rarely look at each other because we developed our own system of cueing and breathing that does not always involve eye contact as most chamber groups do. Of course, this topic for us is a constant work in progress, and we did a lot of visual communication in the beginning. We are more interested in the body language as a whole and being focused on each other’s part more than on our own.

12. Do you perceive a difference in how you communicate non-verbally between rehearsal and performance? Yes, I do, a lot actually. We are very strict with our practice, which allows us to communicate non-verbally on stage in a convincing way. Having a solid structure (what you call rehearsal) helps when you need to be creative. To be more clear, there is a huge difference between rehearsal and performance as the latter is the unknown, while the former prepares you to deal with the fact that as performers we may not be in control one hundred percent of the time (performance).

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13. Do you perceive a sense of spontaneity during performance? How does the energy from your duo partner affect how free you feel to take risks or connect with the music? I do sometimes, but more and more I am aware that unlike I thought in the past, the music is in charge of whatever spontaneity that may happen. Our job is not to get in the way and let it happen (real spontaneity), otherwise we get this feeling of “rehearsed’’ spontaneity which to me is a lie. That is something that I don’t feel comfortable elaborating further as I only experienced very feel times as a player. I do experience that a lot as a listener when I listen to musicians like Keith Jarret, Egberto Gismonti. On the guitar, only once with the Assad Brothers. Now to your second question, that involves a lot of things — First, trust which only comes with time. Second, connection on a deeper level, as we cannot put into words or even measure a person’s energy. Third, understanding that what each one brings to the duo is not fifty-fifty but one hundred. Once all of that is established, only then we can start talking about taking risks and feeling more connected to the music.

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The Guitar Duo. Interaction and Group Creativity, Questionnaire. Cristiano Poli Cappelli, Duo Pace Poli Cappelli.

1. How long has the duo existed? I and Andrea created the Duo Pace Poli Cappelli in 2012

2. Prior to the formation of the duo, how long were you familiar with your duo partner? We both played in different musical ensemble (violon and guitar, flute and guitar, etc)

3. Does the duo perform on instruments built by the same luthier, or do you strive for more individual sound production? We have two guitars built by the Italian luthier Leonardo De Gregorio: very similar sound, same woods, same project. We need to have the ‘same as possibile’ sound.

4. Is there a dominant personality within the duo? If so, how is this displayed publicly? No, we have different skills but a very similar approach to music and very similar musical ideas.

5. How is repertoire selected? Is it a communal process? We decide together what kind of repertoire we like to play. Sometimes composers propose to us or dedicate to us their works.

6. Was there an initial conversation regarding the artistic direction of the duo? How has the duo’s identity evolved over time? The duo has grown little by little. We have a particular love for 900 music and modern pieces.

7. How often do you rehearse as a duo? We normally rehearse 2 times per week.

8. At the outset of the duo, was interpreting non-verbal communication while playing challenging? If so, how long did it take for it to feel intuitive? We have a great non-verbal communication. We don’t need to verbally say when we need to do rallentando or accelerando etc. We developed this kind of skills during the years, playing together but I think that friendship and human links are very important.

9. Compared to the initial rehearsals of a new piece, how does the character of communication change once you have performed it for a long period of time? I have to say that we have at the beginning a very clear idea of the pieces. We analyze the pieces and we start reading and play a new piece with security. So, there aren’t big changes after a long time, only more security in our interpretation.

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10. Do you most often perform with sheet music on stage or from memory? If you have experience performing both ways, do you perceive that having sheet music on stage affects non-verbal communication between you and your duo partner? We play with sheet music, but pieces are almost completely memorized. Sheet music gives us more security and I think that it doesn’t affect at all non-verbal communication.

11. During performance, how much of the communication between you and your duo partner is visual? Actually, I don’t know how our external image is. I think that Andrea is more ‘active’, and I am a little more reflexive.

12. Do you perceive a difference in how you communicate non-verbally between rehearsal and performance? When we perform during a concert we are in the middle of the performance and very concentrated and more communicative. During rehearsal we are more ironic and relaxed: it’s a very different condition with more verbal interaction. We speak a lot, During the performance non-verbal communication is prevalent.

13. Do you perceive a sense of spontaneity during performance? How does the energy from your duo partner affect how free you feel to take risks or connect with the music? We perceive a great spontaneity during performance. It depends on how much we are ready. Normally we don’t fear technical mistakes. We are concentrated on musical effect and ensemble perfections: same sound, same articulation, same musical ideas. We aren’t so interested in mistakes or memory lapses.

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The Guitar Duo. Interaction and Group Creativity, Questionnaire Lorenzo Micheli, SoloDuo.

1. How long has the duo existed? “SoloDuo” has been formed in 2002.

2. Prior to the formation of the duo, how long were you familiar with your duo partner? Although our paths had crossed long before that, I started working with Matteo Mela in a series of projects such as the organization of the Cervo Guitar Festival shortly after we were formally introduced to each other, in the fall of 2000.

3. Does the duo perform on instruments built by the same luthier, or do you strive for more individual sound production? We often perform on instruments made by the same guitar maker (Roberto De Miranda, from Milan), but more frequently we enjoy the wider array of colors provided by different instruments (and even different woods) combined together.

4. Is there a dominant personality within the duo? If so, how is this displayed publicly? I like to think that there is no dominant personality, or - at least - that’s our perception from the “inside”. There are definitely two very different personalities at work, but our goal is to mix them in a blend that is entirely functional to the music making process.

5. How is repertoire selected? Is it a communal process? That is definitely a communal process. Each of us makes suggestions (original repertoire, arrangements), and then - little by little, without hurry - we let the idea “grow” and blossom in our imagination. It often happens that we end up dropping certain pieces even before we start working on them. But most of the time, when we agree, that piece becomes steadily part of our repertoire.

6. Was there an initial conversation regarding the artistic direction of the duo? How has the duo’s identity evolved over time? We’ve always tried to share the “artistic direction” of the duo. Of course, each of us over the years has developed his own areas of competence and knowledge, so one of us in turn naturally takes the lead whenever it is the case. Under this respect, the duo’s identity hasn’t changed much since the beginning, 17 years ago: two solo players that decide to give up their individual personality to blend together into one musical entity.

7. How often do you rehearse as a duo? For many years we would rehearse as regularly as once a week. However, over the past years our lives have become busier and busier, and we had to reduce the rehearsal time (the fact that we live in two different countries - Italy and Switzerland - doesn’t help). This has turned out to be a

150 good thing, in a certain way, because it has taught us how to get the most out of a more limited rehearsal time, and how work separately in the most efficient possible way.

8. At the outset of the duo, was interpreting non-verbal communication while playing challenging? If so, how long did it take for it to feel intuitive? At the beginning things are usually a bit challenging. I have to say, though, that since the very first time we read a page of music together, we had a feeling we’d never experienced before: the feeling that a common idea of phrasing and musical direction made the interaction between us incredibly easy. And this sense of ease and spontaneity has always been the most typical feature in our experience as a duo.

9. Compared to the initial rehearsals of a new piece, how does the character of communication change once you have performed it for a long period of time? It does change substantially. You achieve self-confidence, assurance, emotional stability. The need for communication decreases, as if you were going on autopilot. Which is a huge risk: because it means that you tend to indulge in repeating the same ideas and schemes over and over. This is why, especially with the pieces that we have performed for a long time, we constantly try to re-discuss the reasons that led to certain interpretative choices, and we make lots of changes.

10. Do you most often perform with sheet music on stage or from memory? If you have experience performing both ways, do you perceive that having sheet music on stage affects non-verbal communication between you and your duo partner? Most of our performances are from memory, but there are occasions when we use sheet music: new works, contemporary music, Concertos, chamber music performances. Having sheet music on stage certainly does affect non-verbal communication, because it obliges you to look in one direction and limits freedom of movements. We don’t like it, and we try to perform by heart as much as we can. However, reading from the score in certain circumstances can become part of the “musical theatre” and can achieve some sort of dramatic function. The challenge is preventing the scores and the stands from breaking the “magic” of the musical fiction.

11. During performance, how much of the communication between you and your duo partner is visual? A very small part of it, I think. Once you are able to learn how to breathe together, you don’t need much visual communication.

12. Do you perceive a difference in how you communicate non-verbally between rehearsal and performance? I would not say so. My impression is that, if you rehearse in a proper way, then the “vocabulary” used in a rehearsal and in a live performance is essentially the same; including the vocabulary of gestures and all that stream of non-verbal communication that flows during a performance.

13. Do you perceive a sense of spontaneity during performance? How does the energy from your duo partner affect how free you feel to take risks or connect with the music? There is, unquestionably, a sense of spontaneity and uniqueness due to the fact that the performance is affected by an incredible number of always-changing factors. The hall, the acoustics. Noises. Lights. The mood and the mental/physical state of the performers. The audience, no need to say. If everything is in the right place, then you can establish a much more

151 free - and somehow completely spontaneous - connection with your duo partner. Which eventually means that you take more risks, but also that your expressive potential is much higher.

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