SOCIAL EDUCATION Current Problems and Perspectives

SOCIAL EDUCATION Current problems and perspectives

EDITOR – IN – CHIEF Leta Dromantienė Mariusz Jędrzejko

EDITORIAL BOARD Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Valdonė Indrašienė, Linda Daniela, Rita Nordström-Lytz

Vilnius 2014 UDK 37.035

So-15

EDITOR – IN – CHIEF Prof. Dr. Mariusz Jędrzejko, (1) Center of Social Prevention, Poland; (2) University of Social Scienses, Poland Prof. Dr. Leta Dromantienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania

EDITORIAL BOARD: Prof. Dr. Małgorzata Przybysz Zaremba, Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland Prof. Dr. Valdonė Indrašienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania Assoc. Prof. Dr. Linda Daniela, University of Latvija, Latvia Dr. Rita Nordström-Lytz, Åbo Akademi University, Finland

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY Agata Katkonienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania MA Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Poland

REVIEWERS Prof. Dr. Irena Žemaitaitytė Assoc. Prof. Dr. Živilė Vilma Jonynienė

THE PROJECT COVERS by Zbigniew Pindor – Center of Social Prevention (www.cps.edu.pl)

ISBN 978-9955-19-656-3 (online) ISBN 978-9955-19-658-7 (print) Mykolas Romeris University, 2014 Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 9

Parts I Perspectives and Dilemmas of Socio-Educational Activities Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psy- chological Perspective (Part I) ...... 17 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) ...... 33 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives ...... 45 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy ...... 55 Odeta Merfeldaite, Jolanta Pivoriene, Valdonė Indrašienė Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case...... 63 Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė Monitoring as a Part of Management Process ...... 71 Roman Solecki The anthropology of risky behaviours in the cyberspace ...... 79

Part II Challenges and Opportunities of Socio-Educational Activities Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy – Chosen Contexts and Theoretical Implications . . . . 97 6 Table of Contents Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family ...... 109 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity ...... 121 Jolita Dudaitė Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes. . . 131 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person ...... 143 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary Music Education ...... 163 Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Inﬂ uences of Family Environment ...... 177

Part III Socio-Educational Problems in the 21st Century

Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) ...... 189 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak Wawrzała The “troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations in the Young Generation ...... 203 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue?...... 225 Anna Prusik Aggression as Exempliﬁ cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth ...... 235 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors ...... 245 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities ...... 255 Table of Contents 7 Wojciech Piestrzyński Family in Human Sickness and in Health ...... 267 Tomasz Safjański Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century...... 275 Tomasz Safjański, Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts ...... 287 Silvia Dončevová The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome ...... 303 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienė Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour ...... 313 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko, Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving for Peacekeeping Missions ...... 329

Introduction

21st century is an era of numerous paradoxes – although we possess widening knowledge, we introduce more and more problems into our lives, though we develop technologies and economy, economic disproportions grow, though we have greater access to modern medicine, still more people fall ill, though we spend more on education and prevention, still more people suffer from addictions. Thus, though we do not want it, the modern world is full of risk, which makes education prevention and upbringing face new goals and new challenges. Those issues have been the concern of social education, sociology and psychology looking for effi cient research tools, diagnostic methods, effective prevention and therapeutic programs. Therefore, we have been living in the world which, on one hand is characterized by globalization, new digital technologies development, especially these referring to information, visible climate changes, on the other, by diversity of educational systems and social welfare, accumulation of social inequality areas and poverty (in some parts of the world). This world presents science and scientists with crucial questions: explain why this is happening that way, give a hint how to solve it, show effective ways of solving complex socio-economic problems. One of the important methods of limiting the risk, reducing tensions, eliminating threats is educating young generation in such a way to allow better differentiation of what favors development and what can constitute hazard both in local, national and international dimensions. According to the authors of this book, young people need a wider range of competences as well in interpersonal relations as in professional activities. If such competences are acquired at school, while studying or in family it will be easier for them to get around in the real world and in cyber-space, at the same time being less vulnerable to such modern problems as: drugs, cyber-crime, cyber-bullying, exclusion and social marginalization. What do young people need? Certainly knowledge, ability of dealing with diffi cult situations, empathy skills, interpersonal communication 10 Introduction competences, knowledge of languages, understanding other cultures. Only equipped with such knowledge will they be able to cope with new challenges. Here we should add that the above mentioned issues have been known for years – they were described, among others in OUN Convention on Children’s Rights (art. 29), and in spite of that, their dissemination has been far from expectations. To make changes happen, further developments in children and youth education are necessary because they need comprehensive development which will be possible if culture of contemporary school and education programs will integrate and promote the newest tendencies and demands. Hence, education faces an important task of continuous responding to social reality – as it seems - many people representing education do not fully understand this goal. References to these issues can be found in numerous places in this publication – in form of theses about necessity of educating for democracy, educating for balanced development, educating for limiting risky behaviors and enhancing protective factors, developmental education, health education, legal education, entrepreneurial education, media education and many others, present in the 21st century. Why do we raise questions that should be obvious – yet in the world developing in such a pace, where every month new digital technologies appear and an average smart phone can take advantage of two million applications (!) the educational progress is a key condition for balanced development. And the point is not that a contemporary human should be everywhere, know everything, use everything, on the contrary, that he/she should be able to use the goods of this world in a balanced way. In such a world, social education has exceptional tasks, as it obligation steers towards explaining relations between dynamic development, education and such social functioning of an individual to allow him/ her to develop in a healthy way. To fulfi ll this aim we need competent social educators, insightful researchers, equipped with knowledge and determination in exploring and explaining still more complex reality. It is also essential to constantly remind all of the people who manage great economic processes and economic and social mechanisms that development is benefi cial only on the condition that it serves human wellbeing. The fact of multi-cultural societies development is also not without meaning (and we are of the opinion that this process will be accelerating), which will create areas of different cultures interactions, different attitudes towards family and family relations, what even more visibly stresses the need of educating competent, open, active, strongly motivated and creative social educators. Introduction 11 We present this publication as a voice of social educators in the issues which, in our opinion, are important for the future of young generation and all the societies. *** The monograph submitted to the reader is the result of co-operation of educators, psychologists and sociologists representing research centers from Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Poland and Slovakia. It contains monograph articles from the fi elds of social education, psychology and related sciences based on various research methods – from monograph to empirical research results. The articles character and contents prompted the editors to organize it into three parts – Perspectives for socio-educational activity; Challenges and chances for socio-educational activities; Contemporary socio-educational issues. The fi rst part “Perspectives for socio-educational activity” presents articles describing various contexts in socio-educational activity and challenges facing social education. The essential common point of the presented articles by Polish and Lithuanian researchers is similarity of problems dealt with by educational practices. It testifi es strong infl uence of globalization processes on young people’s behaviors, risk areas and threats. Hence, the problems of risky behaviors in young people are discussed in context of wider social changes. In this part, also the problems of social educators professional development and their professional qualifi cations are discussed. The issue is of great importance for success of social prevention, phenomena diagnosis and designing effective measures. That is why such questions as: position of educators at schools, social educators professional development specifi city, interpersonal relations are debated. The fi rst chapter also contains articles referring to quality of university education in the fi eld of social education, describing alternative and innovative methods, namely monitoring as a part of management process used in science of education. The second part of the publication “Challenges and chances for socio- educational activities” contains articles referring to essential contemporary social problems which are: poverty and social exclusion (the authors present, among others, activities which can be undertaken by social educators), education in a family, where parents belong to different cultural environments and in multilingual families (this phenomenon gains in popularity both in Poland and in Lithuania). This part of the book refers also to positive and negative aspects of foster care. Questions of social skills are also discussed giving concern to disabled people (their higher social competences facilitate functioning in society). A short overview of music therapy research in the fi eld of education was also presented. Here, the positive infl uence of therapy taking advantage of music on positive thoughts development among pupils 12 Introduction is emphasized, infl uence on improving motivation among students and on development of healthy personality. The third part, entitled: “Contemporary socio-educational issues” contains articles referring to a wide spectrum of problems dealt with by social education including essential problems of social education, their sources and infl uence on individual, group and economic behaviors. Questions of growing social aggression, domestic violence, teenagers’ aggressive behaviors were analyzed. The important fragment of this part is discussion about stress and drug issues – the problem of increasing background complexity and consequences. Undertaking drug and designer drug issue is not accidental – as well as in Lithuania as in Poland and Finland, the organized crime connected with drugs increases and every year, the illicit market is being “enriched” with dozens or tens new psychoactive substances. This phenomenon is one of the most important educational challenges for social prevention. The topic which is less widely known for a reader is the phenomenon of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a disease attacking soldiers taking part in peacekeeping missions. This problem is an essential educational and psychological challenge and is more and more often analyzed in the armies of Finland, Slovakia, Lithuania and Poland. The publication recognizes also the importance and signifi cance of self suffi ciency skills, and analytic skills for the future life and it provides analyses of importance of coherence sense and styles of life management among young adults serving in the military. We hope that readers will fi nd in this publication are other interesting topics.

Linda Daniela University of Latvija, Latvia Leta Dromantienė Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania Valdonė Indrašienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania Mariusz Jędrzejko Center of Social Prevention, Poland Agata Katkonienė Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania Rita Nordström-Lytz, Åbo Akademi University, Finland Małgorzata Przybysz Zaremba Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland Introduction 13 *** The publication presented to the reader is the fi rst scientifi c description created thanks to scientifi c co-operation of social educators, sociologists and psychologists representing Finnish, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian and Polish academies. The representatives of the following academies and research centers took part in the project: • Åbo Akademi University (Finland) • Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland) • Center of Social Prevention (Poland) • Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (Lithuania) • Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland) • Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) • School of Law and Public Administration in Rzeszów (Poland) • University fd Social Sciences (Poland) • University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland) • University of Latvija (Latvia) • University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius (Slovakia) • University of Social Studies and Economics in Gdansk (Poland) • University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn (Po- land) • University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Poland) • University of Social Scienses (Poland).

Part I

Perspectives and Dilemmas of Socio-Educational Activities

Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective

Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland) Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland)

Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective (Part I)

Abstract: The authors analyze the development of risky behaviour and pathology among young people. They point to their sources and new considerations for social change in Poland. The article presents the sources of these problems and their impact in individual, social and economic aspect.

Keywords: Youth, addictions, risky types of behaviour, preventive measures

Introduction Each epoch introduces into human life many new elements which, in the short or long term revolutionize its social functioning. Such solutions include, among others the printed word, electricity, the cinema, airplane, television, mobile phone and the Internet. It is more than less likely that in the coming decades our lives will be changed by subsequent inventions and most of them will be made in the world of new digital technologies. Modern times more and more clearly highlight the interesting features of these changes, which could be expressed in the following way: − technological and organizational changes are faster – from invention to implementation and popularization there is a short period (up to several years); 18 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz − prices of inventions implemented for mass production make them accessible for the majority of inhabitants of the lands (in industrialized countries); − new technologies are introduced simultaneously in many areas of life, which further promotes the dissemination; − an increasingly common mechanisms is ‘forcing’ consumers to use new technologies such as personal banking, bill payments, communication with institutions and companies- this process will be rapidly advancing; − advertising – having increasingly coercive nature – it is aimed primarily at the younger generation of customers. These features are the reason for which in sociological and pedagogical literature the latest decades are deﬁ ned as the cyber age, cyber technique, advertising, consumerism, prosumption, and the language is extended by entirely new terms such as nanotechnologies, interfaces, smartphones, cyberspace, cyber shops, e-shopping. The train discussed in the Introduction part causes an afterthought that by revolutionizing human life we get the basis to simplify it, to make it more humane and equal. Yet, the real picture of the changes implemented is quite different, as we are trying to show graphically.

Picture 1. Great changes versus real picture of human life

Capitalistic resolution Greed markets- junk – Job market develop- contracts, usury ment

Cyberdisorders Tchnological revolution Cybercrimes

Dichotomous social and Promoting equality material developmemt

Elimination of totali- Anti-humanist tarianism ideologies

Source: Own elaboration Picture: http://martensdesign.pl/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/281107reklama4.jpg (15th April 2013) Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 19 According to the recent report of the World Health Organization, on the one hand the length of human life is increasing (developed countries), on the other hand, we are witnessing a continuous deterioration of mental and somatic health. As many as 450 million people worldwide each year suffer from mental disorders, 70 million are addicted to alcohol, 24 million suffer from schizophrenia, annually 10-20 million people are trying to commit suicide, and one million takes their own life (Brzezińska, 2008, p.34). More than 800 million people live in such extreme poverty that it poses a real threat to their health and life- several thousands die every day. When it comes to the Polish reports, about 220 thousand Poles are addicted to alcohol; 800 thousand abusing it, there are 50-60 thousand drug addicts, another 100-120 thousand using them periodically. As it seems, the last number will multiply quickly, for example as a result of a massive promotion of marihuana. The recent analysis of drug problem in Europe included in the annual report by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, indicate the persistence of a high percentage of people who have declared marihuana use – on this continent there are over 80 million people, of which 23 million over the last year (ECMDDA 2013). Important information and data is provided to us by ESPAD reports, which noted an increase in the spread of marihuana and hashish in Poland - every fourth of the age group 15-64 (24 per cent) had contact with cannabis products (in 2006 it was 16 per cent) 2.The last analysis of GATS1 talk about the resurgence of smoking among teenagers and an alarming level of regular smoking women, including those being pregnant. Numerous studies prove risky sexual behaviour of young generation. The analysis of information and reports of scientiﬁ c institutions or research institutions shows us a picture of human life in which we see more and more risky and compulsive behaviour threatening biological, mental and social life. This article is an attempt to show this phenomenon in pedagogical and sociological perspective. Disorders and pathology versus developmental inequalities Analysis of pro-developmental factors and risks indicate that in Poland for several years there has been a dichotomous process -on the one hand, there is an increase in educational level of Poles,2 access to health care, the quality of education is improving, and communication and access to new technologies are signiﬁ cantly improving. On the other hand, there are a growing number

1 The tests by Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) are carried out on behalf of the World Health Organization – a recent study comes from 2011. 2 Between 2002-2011 the number of Poles with higher education rose from 9,5 per cent to 17,5 per cent of the entire population, and those with secondary education from 66,9 per cent to 78,7 per cent (CSO, Census 2011). 20 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz of health problems (not just the older generation), the number of perpetrators of crimes and offenses is increasing and the same goes to the number of non-prescription drugs and those ordered by physicians, the percentage of obese people and those experimenting with dangerous substances is also increasing. The statement ‘inplus’ versus ‘downward’ can be multiplied, which will even strengthen the argument for the accumulation of differences in the development of Polish people with the rapid development of poverty and wealth.

Picture 2. Dichotomous models of social development in Poland

Approximately 100,000 Poles have in 15% of households live below the their account over one million dollars. poverty level (income poverty) – 24% More than 2 million Poles have assets rural, 11% urban. in excess of one million Polish zloty. 4.6% families are affected AT the same In 2011, over 1570 new millionaires time – with income poverty, living appeared in Poland (an increase of 13% conditions and a balanced budget.

Source: Own elaboration based on data from Central Statistical Ofﬁ ce (Poland)

According to the authors, these disparities become a huge social and moral challenge as they are not only a source of increasing material inequalities, but also a source of many dysfunctions and pathologies. The result of this process and the result of the developmental stop of middle class is the development according to the model 4xB - the poor get poorer, the rich get richer (see: Melosik 2000). While the development of the sphere of wealth may have important growth- oriented meaning, experience shows that these are ‘closed developments’, which rarely generate job position growth, support workers or invest in skilled people and educational patronage. At the same time we get more and more evidence that it is the spheres of poverty and extreme wealth that are clearly stronger ‘saturated’ with types of deviant behaviour. What in groups of wealthy people should favour the pro-health attitudes, greater social culture, the respect for the environment or the support for the weak, it often turns into extreme forms of consumerism. Thus, the damages associated with the development of ‘in plus’ are reaching higher level: − the drive to career success generates extreme forms of workaholism or work overload (young corporate workers, sales representatives work 12-13 hours a day, the number of young mothers, of workers in the trade and services- working steadily 10-12 hours a day - is growing); Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 21 − the occurrence of economic migration of one of the family members, and commuting long distances, which often takes more than 3-4 hours per day, is expanding; − a large number of young employees work on the so-called junk contracts, one of the reasons being the high labor costs for employers (this is already related to 1.3 million workers – according to General Inspectorate of Labour, 2013); there is a sustained increase in unemployment among workers up to the age of 25. By introducing these numbers, we point out to the complexity of the factors generating multi- type risk behaviour, disorders and addictions, because their etiology often has the sources of economic, social, environmental, cultural nature. Economic factors are the ones that develop problem situations the fastest. Let us indicate, therefore, that in many sciences (including anthropology, pedagogy, neurology, sociology, psychology) one looks for the answers to question about key risk and protective factors, situations reinforcing addictions or compulsive behaviour risk. Although more and more complex responses appear, for example, in the form of prevention programmes, awareness campaigns, support programmes, we can observe the growing number of new problems: − growing number of families with serious internal problems, such as aggression, violence towards children; − growing problem of disintegration of young married couples and households burdened with aggression and violence3 − increasing proportion of young people experimenting with drugs and any substances with similar effects; − rising costs of curing diseases included in the ICD-10 and DSM-IV, as disorders and addictions; growing number of specialists dealing with these problems; − increasing government spending (public) on the functioning of various institutions involved in antisocial pathologies and addictions;

3 According to the Report SMG/KRC Diagnosis in the fi eld of perpetrators of domestic violence: domestic violence form the perspective of the adult population of Poland commissioned by the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy ‘20% of all respondents accepts arguments, fi sti- cuffs and verbal abuse as normal behaviour occurring in almost every home and sees no signs of abnormalities in them. People who have used physical violence in the family, more often (21%) than the other two analyzed groups believe that a strong frustration justifi es the use of abusive, humiliating verbal abuse against a family member’. The same Report noted that ‘16% of the population admit to have ever used physical violence against a family member. Nearly half of the people (47%) who used psychological violence in the family, at least once also used physical violence towards their family. People who have committed physical violence in the family a dozen times or more, accounted for 6% of people in the group who used physical violence in the family’. (Millward Brown SMG/KRC, Warszawa 2011, p.16). 22 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz − growing public expectation to increase the potential of institutions responsible for security and public order; − various authorities increase the level of social surveillance (e.g. by monitoring system that is installed not only in public, but also in schools and workplaces); − local councils and central institutions increase the number of funds spent on various types of prevention and prophylactic programmes (see Table 1); − one of the fastest developing forms of economic activity are security companies; − decreasing age of the perpetrators of risky behaviour (Jędrzejko, Janusz, Walancik, 2013, p.43).

Table 1. The growing need for preventive measures on the example of the programmes co-produced by the Pedagogium Foundation and Mazowieckie Centre for Prevention and Addiction to local governments and educational institutions (2010-2013) Initiatives 2010 2011 2012 2013 (I quarter) Multithreaded programs implemented in 2492 the municialities and local governments Educational activities (class groups) 114 276 917 288 Educational Boards of Teachers 23 57 125 43 Prophylactic meetings with students’ 35 68 73 41 parents

The above ﬁ gures show a real need for preventive measures, as a result of emergence of real problems and threats, too. What is characteristic of the last two decades is also the development of the so-called new disorders, which include cyberholism, shopoholism, gambling, sexoholism or workaholism4. In the opinion of many scholars, only at the appropriate stage of socio-economic development, with the necessary skill for moral reﬂ ection, there will appear studies on these types of problems of social and health nature. If so, the number of publications on this and related topics is a response to the scale of the problems that actually occur: − according to a study by Bogdan Woronowicz from the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology in Warsaw, the problem of workaholism affects about 5 per cent of adult workers;

4 Workaholism live to see scientifi c testing Work Addiction Risk Test, which in 1995 was developed by Bryan E. Robinson and Bruce Philips. Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 23 − according to the WHO, Poland is in a small group of countries, where alcohol consumption per capita is growing – at the world average of 6.3 litres of pure alcohol consumed, in our country it is 13.3 litres per year; − The ESPAD (2011) studies show that the most common illegal substances young people resort to are marihuana and hashish. 24.3 per cent of young people aged 15 -16 admitted to have used them at least once in the lives, which constitutes a signifi cant increase compared to the results from 2007 when the use of cannabis products at least once in a lifetime was declared by nearly 16 per cent of the respondents; − Over 2 million Poles buy drug every day - Poland is the sixth-largest drug market in Europe (collected sources); − Jacek Kurzępa’s study shows that pornographic fi lms were watched by 19% girls and 27% boys. More popular turned out to be sex chat rooms (56% of the respondents), sadomasochistic chat rooms (54%) and chats related to homosexuality ( about lesbians – 43%, about gays – 33%) (Kurzępa, 2007, p. 209). The above examples do not close the list of threats and areas of risky behaviour, and to some of them we will come back later in the article. After all, it is not Polish peculiarity, as the increasing numbers of educational problems among young people are indicated by Russian pedagogy, German and British psychology. It should be emphasized, for example, that in some highly liberalized societies – vide Holland and the Czech Republic- even the awareness of the great costs of addictions does not change the decision to legalize drugs or limit the legalization of prostitution. It can therefore be assumed that the problems within the concepts of disorder and addiction will grow, as the ‘social climate’ and popularization of social life models, in which the category of unlimited freedom is ahead of all the other models and the solutions, are favourable.

Picture 3. The fastest growing disorders and addictions in the Polish society

Experiments with drugs and legal highs Risky sexual behaviour Alcohol abuse Medicines abuse Divorces and aggression in families Workaholism and work pathology Compulsive use of digital technology Sugar abuse Cyber addiction Overuse of chemicals in food Source: Own elaboration 24 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz As readers may have noticed, in the language of public debate, as well as in the literature more and more often terms such as alcoholism, addiction, deviant behaviour, social dysfunction, workaholism, gambling or pharmacomania are used. It is undoubtedly a response to real visible social problems, often having a ‘shape’ of speciﬁ c victims, part of whom being young people (what is characteristic of recent years is the increase in addicted teenagers and under-aged experimenting with drugs [see: ESPAD 2010,2011]). In the light of available data the most common addictions include: − use of chemicals such as alcohol, drugs, nicotine, medicines, which affects mental states and causes numerous health damages- both, physical and mental; − compulsive use of new digital technologies – especially the Internet, computer, game consoles and mobile phones. Development of problems being a consequence of the use of the above substances and occurrence of disorders- behavioural addictions is a consequence of their mass spread and their massive promotion among young people.

‘New’ times and their features It is likely that disorders and addictions, as well as risk situations are an immanent feature of modern times, great acceleration, constant change, constant movement, the pressure of part of the media and huge infl uences of consumption market, especially pervasive advertising as well – what should be strongly emphasized- a clear defi cit of axiological education. Times, in which fi nancial markets and generated by them, the main goal – profi t- is placed in front of personal human dimension, the environmental protection, health and the refl ection on his single dimension. The key features of modern decades, strongly affecting the appearance of various fi elds of risk are: − departing from the ethics of interpersonal, employment, trade and services relations, for the strong pressure based on constant movement and change; − encouraging recipients- consumers towards causing various compulsive types of behaviour (resorting to further loans, consumption beyond actual human needs, the emphasis on the continual change of clothes, of household appliances, cosmetics and many everyday products); − targeting offensive adds to more and more younger customers. An important factor is also building a model of social functioning based Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 25 on the thesis ‘success – success at any cost’, which caused the mechanisms defi ned in sociology as a ‘rat race’, ‘pressure to succeed’. The side effects of these changes are such occurrences vas celebritism, disrobing – exhibitionism, extravagant behaviour, contempt for traditional solutions, existence through excitement. On the new market of consumption and pop culture its recipient, who very often refers to children and the youth, functions in the space of constant pressure of the market and under the huge information overload, making it impossible to analyze, refl ect and act steadily. The latter process favors the model of new digital media, which are nothing else but a continuous avalanche of new-often useless- information. It should be emphasized at this point that it is not new technologies but the man himself who generates the key problems resulting in diseases, disorders and addictions – he makes it more and more intensively and effectively. In this perspective, we should evaluate the following phenomena: − mass promotion of non-prescription drugs; − expanding markets of strengthening and stimulating medications, especially during high school examination, matriculation and academic sessions; − pressure on the visualization model of public perception and evaluation of a man (clothes, gadgets, appearance); − various ways of circumventing the ban on advertising tobacco or alcohol; − promotion of the so-called light alcohol at mass sport and cultural events, such as offensive beer concerns entering into great football and musical events; − promoting quasi-sexual behaviour and sexualization of content targeted at a young audience. Yet another problem is taking up by some of the socio-political forces campaigns for moral revolution in Poland that, with its content, includes: the legalization of some drugs, the recognition of homosexual relationships as equal to heterosexual ones, ‘awakening teen sexual activity as well as redefi ning the tradition as the foundation for Polish culture. Are the above trends, events, facts related to risky behaviour of a man stated in the title? According to the authors, yes; for many of them they play a causative, stimulating and encouraging role. What needs to be also stressed is that modern times are characterized by distinct developmental disparities, particularly material ones, they generate other victims of various types of exclusion: technological exclusion- growing technological disproportions between young well-to- to fi nancially people and those 26 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz coming from the areas of poverty; there are increasing disparities in terms of quality of education and training at a higher level- the status of the master’s degree is often a fi ction, as it does not guarantee employability, which increases the discomfort and individual disruption. The labor market being out of adjustment, especially the one with strongly infl uenced politics and local government, is rolled by the sickness of nepotism and informal links networks. Let us note here that a part of young people as a result of growing up in communities stricken by social pathology (often multigenerational) enter into life with strongly entrenched codes of risky behaviour: drinking, smoking, early sexual contact, verbal and physical aggression, lack of emphatic skills and conciliation. According to Andrzej Bałandynowicz: “persons requiring specialized rehabilitation treatment are individuals who suffer mostly from the state of being unnecessary to the world due to various social factors responsible for their disintegration process” (Bałandynowicz, 2012, p. 27). Since the number of disintegration factors and their power effect on the young generation is increasing, the costs which young people bear in the process of disintegration are getting higher. Theses on this issue can be also found in the studies of Krystyna Chałas who highlights that the victims of these processes ‘are characterized by a sense of helplessness because of the loss of control over their daily environment, and because of the following two factors – lack of feeling of being useful and loss of the sense of life leads a person to an individual depression as well as group depression’ (Chałas, 2003, p.176).

Defi ciencies of knowledge and prevention In the context of many studies relating to dangerous, risky, compulsive behaviour of young people it is indicated that its victims (also often culprits) have a very faint knowledge of human health, in particular that of creating conditions of its homeostasis. Short-sightedness of the way young people think about the aspects such as mental and physical health, health as a human capital, a single dimension of human life shows a huge gap in the education of young generation. Meanwhile, the value of health, which so clearly emphasizes Mirosław Kowalski, ‘activates the modes of knowing oneself and others, as well as evaluating the surrounding reality’ (Kowalski, Gaweł, 2006, p. 61; see Przybysz-Zaremba, 2014), “being at the same time the value serving to achieve goals in life, the condition of life quality, the value closely related to the entire axiological area of an Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 27 individual. The importance of the value of health is the basic element in the areas related to creating opportunities to make responsible choices. The issue of human health awareness does relate directly to relationships with other human, often affecting his activities in the fi eld of health” (Kowalski, Drożdż, 2008, p. 89). This thesis is a fi eld of great activities of education and prevention, but in practice, health promotion, healthy lifestyle is only a marginal part of the impact on the young generation. As it is clear from the survey research conducted by the authors, in cooperation with the employees of Department of Education of Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza, only 32 per cent of junior high school students accept the idea that ‘smoking in young age will cause signifi cant health effects in older age, and less than 28 per cent agrees with the scientifi cally proven theory that marihuana is addictive’5. Some authors who diagnose the problem of dangerous behaviour in the young generation simply say about a disordered and addicted personality of our time6 – once it is the drugs distributed and returned to the Polish market of afterburners, sometimes it is gambling, compulsive gambling in the web, shopping, work, sex, body visualization, exhibitionist behaviour on social networks or improving muscular body. If, in this perspective, we look at the phenomenon of disorganizing individual and social life, we will see that some of these processes are specifi cally planned, as part of a big market, where a young customer is being constantly astounded with new legal or illegal offers. Thus, the key factors generating certain types of behaviour cause even stronger pressure on young people. These are: increasing supply of psycho-active, stimulating and energizing substances; strong infl uence of environmental and media standards (such as those created by well-known fi gures in the world of culture, show business and the media); narrowing of educational process, especially based on moral criteria. As a result of these processes, there is a ‘child on a skateboard’- coasted, excited, stimulated and excited (Jampolsky, 2011, p. 19).

5 Preliminary studies in the diagnosis of the phenomenal forms of social pathology in Silesia and Zagłębie- unpublished text, M. Jędrzejko, M. Walancik, D. Morańska, Dąbrowa Górnicza 2013. 6 Lee Jampolsky in a very interesting way discusses one of the aspects of these risks in the work Leczenie uzależnionej osobowości. The author, looking for sources of self- destructive human behaviour, writes among others: ‘Discontent, a sense of hopelessness, frustration and depression seem to sneak into our lives through the back door (…). And although most often we are not able to determine why this is happening, the fact is that we are unhappy. Then we try to look at different ways of happiness outside ourselves’. 28 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz Picture 4. ‘The child on a skateboard’ – faster ‘growing up’ of teenagers

Young age of alcohol exposure + massive beer drinking by the young

Easy access to drugs and medications + recurrence of the problem of smart drugs

Loss of axiological education at home

Information overload as a result of excessive contact with the media

Lowering the age of sexual initiation

Excessive intake of sugar and food chemistry Source: Own elaboration

The 21st century the Age of addictions The problems discussed in the article are of great importance from the socio-economic and health perspective, primarily due to generated damages and other disorders caused by them. Therefore, it should be emphasized that a feature of modern times is: • the occurrence of more and more complex disorders in terms of both, physical and mental character (politoxycomanic models of addiction to drugs or other substances; the total presence of disorders resulting from misuse of digital media and disorders of an ADHD); • signifi cant impact of chemical addictions on the family destruction and the relationships between parents and children often deepened by a problem of codependency; • the casuative nature of drug addiction for the purpose of going into other social pathologies and disorders. What we think, together with Marek Walancik in the monograph ‘Zachowania Ryzykowne i Uzależnienia’, the importance of the problem discussed here is mainly due to the strength of the addictive mechanism that ‘turns off’ almost all the protective mechanisms (Jędrzejko, Janusz, Walancik, 2013, p. 43) making the person helpless. We also know from the studies of addicts about the existence of a signifi cant relationship: the younger the age of addiction the greater destructive force. Famous scholars of such problems Jerzy Mellibruda and Zofi a Sobolewska-Mellibruda indicate that what is specifi c of an addiction is remaining in it regardless of the side effects and the desire to abstain form the use of harmful substances or behavoiur often Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 29 results in failure. However, interruption of substance use or discontinuation of compulsive behaviour affects mental and physical disorders (Mellibruda, Z. Sobolewska-Mellibruda, 2006, p. 28). Having been created for several years, analysis of the problem of chemical and behavioural addictions point to the existence of new features of ‘addictive market’, which can be summarized in the following points: supply of new chemical substances with strong addictive potential is growing – in 2010 there were over 40 on the Polish market, in 2011 over 40 as well, and in 2012 more than 30 (see the table below);

Table 2. The most popular psychoactive substances distributed in the Internet distribution network (2012)7 Group Name of the substance Botanical agents cannabis indica seeds hallucinigenic mushroom spores Medicines and pharmaceutical abortifacient agents products anabolic steroids drugs with pseudoephedrine Other substances and boosters Precursors for drugs manufacturing Modiﬁ ed mephedrone Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine pantedrom bufedron methoxetamina 4-MEC 3-MMC GHB GHB Boosters with speciﬁ c names(e.g. Oriental Rosa, Turbo Bolt, Rock Crystal, Fetorini)

− after two years of peace dynamically developing market of boosters, whose offers occur mainly on the Internet, which in turn facilitates criminal groups an unlimited popularization; − toxicological practice has a lot of problems with diagnosing the long- term effects of the use of new psychoactive substances, and some of them cannot be veriﬁ ed with widely available tests.

7 Elaborated on the basis of the following Internet websites: www.shamanshop.pl, www.kannabis.info, www.thc-thc.com, www.hyperreal.info, www.magicmushrooms. org, www.mrcacashop.org, www.trawka.org, www.taniejaranie.pl, www.ganjafarmer.pl, www.taniesianie.pl, www.holenderskiskun.pl, www.magicznemuchomory.pl (January – March 2013). 30 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz The above facts have an important impact on the practice on drug and booster prevention, as well as on the content of preventive measures. On the one hand, they generate increasing costs of this type of crime; on the other hand, they greatly increase the costs of prevention, diagnosis and therapy. As a result of a growing promotion of various products and types of behaviour, increasing their accessibility, modeling behaviour, e.g. by behaviour of celebrities, entry of many new illegal distributors (drugs, legal highs, substances increasing muscle mass), the number of risky situations, disorders is continuously growing generating needs of: organizational nature (number and availability of diagnostic, therapeutic and curative centres, training specialists in addiction); − research (analysis of new substances, training analytical personnel; conducting long-term research and monitoring the victims of these addictions); − ﬁ nancial nature (costs of preventive and medicinal system maintenance; costs of prosecution and penalization of drug offenders; costs of developing the research potential; socio-economic costs of the grey market). *** Problems discussed above are only part of the phenomena observed in Poland.

Bibliography: 1. Bałandynowicz A., Pedagogiczne aspekty komunikowania w świecie wirtualnym, w: S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek (red.), Komunikacja w cy- berświecie, Wydawnictwo WSH. 2. Brzezińska M., Psychika w kryzysie, „Charaktery. Magazyn psychologiczny” 2008, nr 1, s. 34-37. 3. Cedzyńska M., GATS – porównania międzynarodowe, prezentacja mul- timedialna, Warszawa 2012. Materiał nie publikowany. 4. Cekiera Cz. Toksykomanie. Narkomania – lekomania – alkoholizm – ni- kotynizm, PZWL, Warszawa 2005. 5. Chałas K., Wychowanie ku wartościom. Elementy teorii i praktyki. God- ność, wolność, odpowiedzialność, tolerancja, Wydawnictwo Jedność, Lublin-Kielce 2003. 6. ECMDDA Annual Report 2013, Lisbon 2014. Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective 31 7. Jampolsky L., Leczenie uzależnionej osobowości, przeł. A. Wolnicka, Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca, Warszawa 2011. 8. Jędrzejko M., Janusz M., Walancik M., Zachowania ryzykowne i uzależ- nienia, Ofi cyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa-Dąbrowa Górnicza 2013. 9. Kowalski M., Drożdż M., Przemoc i zdrowie w obrazach telewizyjnych. Edukacja przez codzienność telewizyjną, Ofi cyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2008. 10. Kowalski M., Gaweł A., Zdrowie – wartość – edukacja, Ofi cyna Wy- dawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2006. 11. Kurzępa J., Zagrożona niewinność. Zakłócenia rozwoju seksualności współczesnej młodzieży, Ofi cyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2007. 12. Mellibruda J., Sobolewska-Mellibruda Z., Integracyjna terapia uzależ- nień. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii Zdrowia, Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne, Warszawa 2006. 13. Melosik Z., Tożsamość młodzieży współczesnej (czyli jak żyć w kultu- rze typu „instant”, „Teraźniejszość. Człowiek. Edukacja” 2000, numer specjalny, s. 37-49. 14. Przybysz-Zaremba M. (2014), Health as a value - review of selected research explorations (Zdrowie jako wartość – przegląd wybranych ek- sploracji badawczych „University Review, Health Care”. Trenčín: Alex- ander Dubček University of Trenčín, 2014. 15. Raport ESPAD 2011, Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2012.

Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II)

Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Scienses (Poland) Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland)

Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II)

In the network of a multiform risk Searching for specifi c features of the previous and the present decade, it is justifi ed to say that we are living in times of a growing multi-form risk. Its specifi city can be summarized as follows: there is a growing number of kinds- types of risk an average person can face; risks change their character into a multi-form- a multi-faceted; the introduction of protective factors against these risks is more and more diffi cult, as they entered all the spaces and social strata. They have, therefore, the form of drug addiction, polytoxicomania, alcohol abuse, aggression and violence; compulsive use of digital technologies, compulsive use of automotive means, pornography, pedophilia and prostitution, risky sexual behaviour, workaholism, falling into shopaholism, gambling or addiction to a man or ideas. While, however, for many decades, pathological behavior was attributed mainly to areas of social exclusion, extreme poverty or being marked by multigenerational contact with pathologies (pathology inheritance), nowadays similar risks appear in materially affl uent social groups, in families structurally complete. Pedagogy and psychology seek to answer the questions- why are not relatively good economic and material conditions, education of parents, full families expected protective factors? It seems that the key reason for the rise of risky behaviour is the change of upbringing model, which has been replaced by parental ‘presence- strangeness’ and deprived of the moral and axiological aspect. To prove the accepted thesis, there are the following empirically verifi able facts: 34 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz Picture 1. Key factors infl uencing the growth of risky behaviour among the youth

Ineffective upbringing in the family home

Pathological patterns in the family home and in the area of socialization

Poor quality of school prevention and health education

Massive promotion of marihuana and new drugs

The increase in risky behaviour models (idols, celebrities)

Source: Own elaboration.

− classical family patterns based on models of family functioning (including performing multiply tasks together or joint participation in the rituals of culture) have been replaced by the culture of consumerism, in which each family member has more and more their own closed uni- directional worlds (TV channels for the father; series for the mother; digital networks for children. As a result, a family function in a strong physical connection but in a far emotional distance; − content of the worlds of adults and children, also as a result of entering the latter into the world of Digital Natives, is constantly mowing away (parents as ‘digital immigrants’ completely do not know and do not understand the digital world of the child). At the same time, we do not know and do not understand the dangers of cyberspace; − a new model of working parents that prefers occupations related to shopping and service and also present in a large scale economic migration lead to longer working hours in the afternoons and evenings, as well as it increases the amount of time that employees spend on commuting. The result is self-raising and educating of the child; − being under pressure from increasingly neoliberal environments, all forms of axiological education are controlled or eliminated, and the cultural foundation of Poland based on Christian civilization is constantly questioned. In its place, the model of moral revolution is introduced, as well as that of the ‘new ideology’ that has no axiological criterion but only ‘picture technologies’. The issues described here have their origins in many phenomena of social, economic and cultural nature. The researchers of the problem point Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) 35 out that what is specifi c about the last two or three decades is the constant liquidity leading to changes in the system of values, but not as a replacement for something better, rather more constructive and meaningful but leading to the removal of values hitherto recognized as essentials, without giving any explanation and constructive counterproposals. While- as emphasized by Teresa Sołtysiak- the risk is included in the genotype of a human who, in the world of risk, became a Man, replacing norms and standard ‘fl oating reality’ offers ‘norms liquidity’ and ‘minor offers’, as well as the phenomenon of a ‘stirred mass culture’. Thus, the chance to meet the risk is disproportionately higher than it was in 20-25 years ago (Sołtysiak, 2012, p.65). According to one of the greatest contemporary Polish teachers, the expert on the issue of Stanisław Kawula’s family, the risk has become trite, it is multi-imaged, multi-factored and multi-faceted, and protecting from it is more and more diffi cult. What used to be a factor reducing the possibility of falling into problematic situation- the full family, a good fi nancial situation of parents, high social conditions- no longer guarantees security and the proper level of children and the youth protection. The same author, in search for ways to solve the problem, points to the need for the development of pedagogy corresponding to specifi c forms of work on the most diffi cult challenges of modern times (Kawula, 2012, p. 73-87.) In the world, where – as previously quoted Andrzej Bałandynowicz people must be strongly reminded of the need to respect the rules, norms and regulations, and not of the trifl es, grow up more and more people (Bałandynowicz, 2012, p. 27). They go from childhood into adolescence and adulthood, in the socio- economic reality devoid of clear rules, dynamic – but unpredictable, global – but without moral boundaries, colourful- but demanding a dramatically high price for participating in the ‘beautiful offerings’. We should add that on our eyes (or maybe heads and bodies) the phenomenon - the process of departing from the anthropological and axiological recognition of life of a Human, in which he is constantly ‘persuaded’ to turn various disputes with nature, is taking place. We live in a social reality (perhaps more media one) where all, even the most extravagant, violating any aesthetic, extreme and deviant signs and manifestations of evil reach customers faster than even the most ethical and moral manifestations of human good. In this case, it seems reasonable to say that at the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-fi rst century, the risk of meeting uncomfortable situations, hard ones, threats to health and safety, assault or stigmatization, exclusion, delay or mismatch to new rules, is incomparably higher than it was two, three decades ago. The risk is all the greater because today, without the propel moral signposts, it is easy to confuse ‘the path of happiness’ with 36 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz the proverbial ‘by-ways’. Therefore, the risk of meeting deviant behaviour, and consequently falling into social pathologies, of becoming a victim or an addict’s relative concerns almost everyone of us- but we do not know when, who, how. What is more, in the state of increasing risk many classical protective factors lose its power. Another important aspect is the economic cost of old and new risks, which are presented below in relation to the drug problem.

Table 1. The cost for treatment for drug addiction borne by the National Health Fund (2004-2010) Year The cost expenditures 2004 54 017 159,78 PLN (~13.000.000 Euro) 2005 60 089 521,57 PLN 2006 62 199 614,84 PLN 2007 64 047 046,10 PLN 2008 79 121 702,12 PLN 2009 111 125 110 PLN 2010 111 281 201 PLN (~28.000.000 Euro) Source: National Health Fund

The risk is present everywhere, and this fact also applies to the real world and cyberspace. In these areas there are constantly born ‘shadows’, which not only escalate the threat, but also more effectively they limit the ability of people to determine clearly what is good and what is bad. ‘Shadows’ are becoming part of our culture and have the following form: • building consent to different types of deviant and off-specifi cation behaviour (e.g. creation of the myth of the ‘light marihuana’); • postmodern distinctions and a different defi nition and evaluation of non-normative acts committed by an ordinary citizen (reprehensible) and by people from the world of celebrities (acceptable); • expanding fi elds of discussions on morality and values towards their reduction and redefi nition. It is also reasonable to say that in modern times which are given the term ‘raging markets’, the man is crammed not only into the culture of mass consumption but even more in the culture of presumption; constantly stimulated with new models and designs; surprised at being constantly late (with a one-year old phone, using an outdated model of a two-year old iPad, having a one-year old dress, bag or a sweatshirt with now unfashionable Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) 37 colour or logo). This is a man living in short intervals of change (a 12-15- year old person does more activities per day than his or her adult parents), sends daily dozens of emails, texts messages and information on the network, he or she receives the same amount, spends on the network over four hours a day (in extreme- more and more numerous cases even 7-8 hours a day), does a few activities at a time, is convinced by tabloid and fl ashy media to enjoy life to the full (he or she is involved in almost everything that his or her adult parents), by which begins to get used to more and more ‘shades of grey’- to what used to be forbidden and today becomes common, what was considered to be medically harmful, and today ‘is used for greater effi ciency and effectiveness’. These problems, having a great impact on the future health of today’s children and young people, are often underestimated. Let us add to that a new space, which reveals more and more compulsive behaviour of children and young people- cyberspace. Polish and foreign research provide the basis for a thesis that the role of digital media in the formation of various types of risk is not about having access to them by young people, but it is about the superfi cial digital media education; the lack of effective learning programmes of netiquette; development of information overload as a result of a continuous functioning of nervous system under the infl uence of digital technology. More and more often young people collect the content to which they are not prepared intellectually (knowledge) and emotionally, and their parents have very low informative skills, and that is why in only few houses one can fi nd modeling for the new technologies. Yet, another problem is the strong stimulation by the content (and their form) administered by digital technologies (such as online games, computer games). The Internet is constantly expanding the boundaries of knowledge and these in turn, as a result of pedagogical and educational mistakes, are limitless. In such set traps fall more and more people, especially young people, not because they are bad, but because we, adults, lack the courage to speak the truth about the need to live in harmony with nature, the natural abilities of the body and the consequent reminder that freedom is not boundless space, but it works with close connection with the law- obligation (duty). 38 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz The youth in the disturbed world1 It is therefore reasonable to say that in the above model of socio-economic functioning. a larger group of people: • learns new technologies without understanding their power; • meets new spaces for which it is not prepared emotionally; • becomes a victim of ‘being late’, for example not having money for new iconic device or clothing; • is focused on the external characteristics (visual), and not the inner core values; • can be excluded or marked by the effect of new divisions and short- comings; • becomes a victim of different types of violence. As noted by Jan Papież, the danger of becoming the victim of one of the forms of violence has become so great that it is experienced not only by young people during adolescence, but also more and more by young children (Papież, Płukis [ed.], 1998, p. 112). What is more, apart form being victims, they become aggressors duplicating patterns from home, sometimes from computer games, fi lm idols or celebrities’ behaviour seen in the web. Hence, the problem grows into one of the most important challenges of teaching and education, and the question – how to stop children and youth aggression – is one of the key ones. In such a perspective, is it not reasonable to claim that this state is a result of bad parenting, however more and more of lack of education? This state- actually, this reality- induces one to seek answers to questions concerning the leading risk factors, as well as those protecting from them, especially if we think about young people who – as statistics show- are the most important group of ‘consumers’ of different type of risk and problems. Among the most current issues that we believe should raise the greatest refl ections of educational, medical, psychological, and above all moral nature there are already several problems, and a few took on the character of socially swollen.

1 The author’s views on the issue of risk in the modern world the Reader can ﬁ nd in the work Młodzież w zaburzonym świecie – etiologia i konsekwencje zjawiska, Dąbrowa Górnicza – Warszawa 2013. Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) 39 Picture 2. The fastest growing disorders - addictions among Polish youth

Reccurence of smoking among adolescents

A high proportion of Young pe ople regularly drinking alcohol

A high percentage of experimentation with marihuana

A nightlife of juveniles

Overuse of digital technologies- cyberdisorders

Overuse of contrast enhancers

Decreasing age of sexual initiation, sexual activity and contact with pornography

Source: Own elaboration based on the subject literature and medical sources

Let us also indicate that the above risks are refl ected in the medical and police statistics as well as social studies, and their number (percentage of population) exceeded the most popular until recently disorder – neurosis. In numerous Polish and foreign studies we can fi nd many other thesis – verifi able by empirical data – related to other groups of risky and problematic behaviour and family de-encapsulation (including the works of Polish Scienses Lucyna Hurło, Jan Śledzianowski, Roman B. Sieroń, Sylwester Bębas, Andrzej Gołębiowski, Marek Dziewiecki, Tadeusz Sakowicz, Mirosław Kowalski, Czesław Cekiera) (see: Hurło 2012; Kałdon, Kurlak, 2002; Dziewiecki 2009; Śledzianowski 1991, 1992; Pierzchała, Cekiera 2009), and also the problems which young people in the process of education and socialization. We must therefore wonder why young people having incomparable more educational opportunities than before, better social and material conditions, being involved in various activities of prevention, having school psychologists and educators, with such a great power of hatred they attack different views, why teenagers are capable of torturing their peers, why in protest against other beliefs they are ready to burn TV cars and beat reporters, why they go to matches of their favourite football team with machetes with their hands… The number of such questions: where from, why, in the name of what, what for – is growing. 40 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz Researchers of this issues point out to the new conditioning for criminal offences and problematic behaviour, among which we should mention: brutalization of public behaviour, including political discourse widely presented in the media; turning up social emotions by negative information transfer, in which a particularly shameful role is played by the tabloids; strong emotions and impulses to stimulate teenagers; fostering consumer way of life, especially the desire to possess goods constantly changing; changing the functioning model of Polish families as a result of changes in the economic model (reducing time with parent and children spent together - see: Kowalska 2010); processes related to a family disorganization, especially the rapid growth in divorces. There is no doubt that such types of risky behaviour, like addictions, are a consequence of a particular condition, the result of complex occurrences and processes that develop in a more or less evident way causing implications with long-term (often lifelong) consequences. Their origins often lie in the methods used by parents or relatives, the widespread presence of alcohol in the ‘party’ life of a Polish family, exciting descriptions of extravagant behaviour of celebrities and idols. Some of them can be predicted, diagnosed and they have visible symptoms, others are surprising.

Conclusions Numerous studies and publications are looking for an answer to the question what are the primary circumstances for children and young people resorting to psychoactive substances or making risky activities? What follows the problem formed in this way is that there appear more questions – about the causes and the course of the process of addiction (interference), the key determinants of addictions, relationship between adolescence and an increased risk of falling into problematic situations. Researchers and practitioners point to environmental, biological and psychological factors variously placing the key incentives for this type of behaviour. However, there is substantial agreement on the fact that there is one key factor causing such behaviour, as it would be diffi cult to create a common path ‘for addictions’. Nevertheless, it is necessary to indicate that all theoretical approaches to these issues are absolutely applicable only in respect to the study area – often limited to a city, a neighbourhood, a small region. Therefore, a clear impact on the common features of the initiation and intensifi cation of threats will be attributed to local cultural factors, legal and organizational changes, an access to dangerous substances or activities. Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) 41 Otherwise, the risk will grow in a Mazovian village, the nouveau riche enclaves surrounding the capital or in the housing projects of great Silesia. This diversity – with many common characteristics- is growing, and its image is found in the practice of teaching: • in wealthy, affl uent urban families and in the territories of material poverty surrounded by large metropolitan areas there is a growing presence of growing risky sexual behaviour among children; • in families where parents are involved in alcoholism and chase of money we record more problems in relationship child – modern electronic multimedia; • there is a stronger effect of taking after parents in terms of pathological and risky behaviour, especially in the areas of economic exclusion, in pathological families; • overly strict and freedom upbringing promotes drug and alcohol experimentation. At the same time the occurrences observed in some regions of Poland become for them unique and distinctive, fi nding representation in the generation of children as a form of social behaviour patterns. We stress this specifi city, as, observed with some surprise, attempts to uncritically devolve into Polish ground full prevention diagnosis models from other countries, without understanding the young people from there, with many similarities, are profoundly different from ours. The obvious differences can be seen already in a close perspective of Poland and Slovakia, Poland and the Czech Republic, Poland and Russia, and in further perspective - Poland and France. It seems that learning from the experience of other countries is justifi ed but when taking into account the obvious cultural differences, religious and social systems of law. The issues raised by the authors do not close the discussion on indicated problems- they are rather a contribution opening them, Important thesis, explanations, theoretical approaches on the issue we can fi nd among sociologists, for example in the works of Robert Merton, J. Coleman, L. Hendry, Howard Becker, Czesław Cekiera, Maria Jarosz, as well as among the researchers representing other fi elds or multidisciplinary research – Krystyna Chałas, Ewa Wysocka, Iwona Niewiadomska, Bronisław Urban, Marek Dziewiecki, Zbigniew Gaś. Also, it is non- accidental that in contemporary research on the etiology and the course of risky behaviour one seeks their sources and interactions emerging between them and the economic conditions, social and living units (mainly poverty, as a stimulator of deviant behaviour, especially addictions to psychoactive substances), cultural determinants (e.g. genuine religiosity as a protective factor against the use of drugs and alcohol), models 42 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz of subculture activity (it has been proved that some subcultures can be the stimulator of the fi rst drug experiments, due to their subculture acceptance, and often affi rmation, the condition of the family and its structure, the level of healthiness and health culture of the family and social environment, the quality and the level of social life2. In conclusion, it should be pointed that young people during the period of adolescence have a high tendency to follow the patterns and behaviour of people important to them, and mechanism of modeling and social learning are basic models of copying certain social patterns. As part of this process interiorization and internalization of norms and rules of conduct take place, including those that may threaten mentally and/or physically. This also raises an important conclusion that what is characteristic of the last 2-3 decades is the increase in the scope and the impact force on young people’s popular patterns with low aesthetic and cultural standards, that we can assign the following features: • a signifi cant part of young generation functions in the strong infl uence of pop culture icons, icons generally inaccessible, often different form the actual behaviour of these people. A distorted image of the idol is uncritically reproduced, and some of these patterns are simply obscu- rantist, vulgar, intellectually primitive; • role models of celebrities and idols are characterized by taking extreme attitudes, risky, exciting and extravagant; • number of simple (often coarse) patterns of pop culture is growing and is very variable (icons of pop culture, which is the result of the powerful role of entertainment media, are constantly changing, and the market promotes more and more eccentric characters).

2 A broader analysis of the problem that lead to deviant behaviour reﬂ ecting the social maladjustment or being socially harmful the Reader can ﬁ nd in the works such as: H. Machel, K. Wszeborowski (red.), Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania zjawisk dewia- cyjnych wśród młodzieży w okresie transformacji ustrojowej w Polsce, Gdańsk 1999; L. Pytka, Pedagogika resocjalizacyjna, Warszawa 2005; T. Wach, Resocjalizacja nieletnich sprawców gwałtownych czynów zabronionych, Lublin 2006; K. Pierzchała, Cz. Cekiera, Człowiek a patologie społeczne, Toruń, 2009. Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) 43 Picture 3. Potential risks in the next decade

(1) The increase in the number of teenagers diagnosed with cyberdisorders

(2) The growing number of people addicted to drugs and substitute substances

(3) Legalization of marihuana on other drugs and increase the supply of new drugs

(4) Health disorders as a result of the abuse of sugar and chemicals in food

(5) The growing phenomenon of pathological behaviour taken after parents

(6) The increase in the number of children growing up in single-parent families

(7) Transferring the effects of economic and ﬁ nancial crisis to the children

(8) New addictions – cyber addiction

Bibliography: 1. Bałandynowicz A., Pedagogiczne aspekty komunikowania w świecie wirtualnym, [in:] S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek (red.), Komunikacja w cyberświecie, Wydawnictwo WSH. 2. Becker H.S., Outsiderzy. Studia z socjologii dewiacji, przeł. O. Siara, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2009. 3. Cekiera Cz., Ryzyko uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin 1985. 4. Cekiera Cz., Toksykomanie. Narkomania – lekomania – alkoholizm – ni- kotynizm, PZWL, Warszawa 2005. 5. Chałas K., Wychowanie ku wartościom. Elementy teorii i praktyki. God- ność, wolność, odpowiedzialność, tolerancja, Wydawnictwo Jedność, Lublin-Kielce 2003. 6. Coleman J., Hendry L.,The Nature of Adolescence, Routledge, London 1999. 7. Dziewiecki M., Kształtowanie postaw, Wydawnictwo AVE, Radom 1997. 8. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profi laktyka uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Jed- ność, Kielce 2009. 9. Dziewiecki M., Pedagogika integralna, Wydawnictwo Sióstr Loretanek, Warszawa 2010. 44 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz 10. Hurło L., Przybysz-Zaremba M. (red.), Społeczno-pedagogiczne aspekty życia rodziny, Wydawnictwo Prospekt PR, Olsztyn 2012. 11. Jarosz M., Transformacja tu i teraz, [in:] M. Jarosz (ed.), Wygrani i prze- grani polskiej transformacji, Ofi cyna Naukowa, Instytut Studiów Poli- tycznych PAN, Warszawa 2005. 12. Kałdon B., Kurlak I. (ed.), Człowiek w obliczu trudnej sytuacji życiowej, Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, Warszawa – Sandomierz 2010. 13. Kawula S., Pedagogika społeczna. Dziś i jutro, Wydawnictwo Edukacyj- ne AKAPIT, Toruń 2012. 14. Kowalska E., Dziecko a „autorytet” w reklamie telewizyjnej, [in:] E. Ko- walska, M. Kowalski (ed.), Reklama w społeczeństwie informacyjnym. Konteksty społeczno-edukacyjne, Wydawnictwo Maternus Media, Tychy 2010. 15. Papież J., Płukis A. (ed.), Przemoc dzieci i młodzieży w perspektywie polskiej transformacji ustrojowej, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, To- ruń 1998. 16. Pierzchała K., Cekiera Cz., Człowiek a patologie społeczne, Wydawni- ctwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2009. 17. Sołtysiak T., Resocjalizować, ale jak? W społeczeństwie ryzyka i nie- ustającego konsumeryzmu, wystąpienie na konferencji „Resocjalizacja w środowisku otwartym – mit czy rzeczywistość?, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń, 22 listopada 2012 r. 18. Sołtysiak T., Sudar-Malukiewicz J. (ed.), Zjawiskowe formy patologii społecznej oraz profi laktyka i resocjalizacja młodzieży, Akademia Byd- goska, Bydgoszcz 2003. 19. Śledzianowski J., Alkoholizm i inne zjawiska patologii społecznej, Wy- dawnictwo Michalineum, Warszawa 1991. 20. Śledzianowski J. (ed.), Forum trzeźwościowe – o młodych, dla młodych, Wydawnictwo Rubikon, Kielce 1992. 21. Urban B. (ed.), Dewiacje wśród młodzieży, Wydawnictwo UJ, Kraków 2000. 22. Urban B., Zachowania dewiacyjne w założeniach symbolicznego inter- akcjonizmu. Implikacje dla praktyki resocjalizacyjnej, [in:] B. Urban, J.M. Stanik (ed.), Resocjalizacja, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2007. 23. Wysocka E., Dzieciństwo i młodość jako kategorie rozwojowe i społecz- ne, [in:] E. Wysocka, Dzieci i młodzież w niegościnnej rzeczywistości, Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak, Warszawa 2012. The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives

Algimantas ŠIMAITIS, M.Ed. Ministry of Education and Science, Klaipėdos University (Lithuania) Sandra VALANTIEJIENĖ, M.S. Sc. National Centre for Special Needs Education and Psychology (Lithuania)

The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives

Abstract: The object of this article is the profession of social pedagogue in Lithuania and its development after introduction of social pedagogues in Lithuanian educational institutions since 1991’s. The objectives of the research is as following: 1) to analyze changes of social pedagogue position in Lithuanian schools from its appearance to the present day; 2) to overview provisions of national legislation which regulates the work of social pedagogues in educational institutions; 3) to provide and survey the demographic data of Lithuanian social pedagogues who works in comprehensive educational institutions. The research was based on both theoretical (analysis and synthesis, systematic, comparative, historical methods) and empirical (generalization of professional practice, analysis of statistical data) research methods: The article consists of introduction, three chapters and conclusions. Importance of the research article which is provided in this article is justiﬁ ed by the fact that while various authors have analyzed the practical work peculiarities of social pedagogues in Lithuania, no detail analysis was given about transformations in legal regulation of this profession and the statistical data which describes numbers of social pedagogues and their socio-demographic characteristics. The completed analysis leads to the conclusions that from 1990 to 1999, the social pedagogue’s position was not fully integrated into the common educational system. However the demand of social pedagogues is increasing and this 46 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė position is increasingly stated to gain ground in the educational system of Lithuania, especially when the relevant legal basis for the operation of social pedagogues was created (since yrs. 1999 – 2001).

Keywords: social pedagogue, the comprehensive educational institution, social pedagogical assistance.

Introduction The political, economic and social changes in Lithuania after the declaration of independence in 1990s were followed by the complicated transition period, which caused a wide variety of social problems. New forms of addiction, increased crime, social violence, new forms of abuse, neglect has also emerged in recent years. The republic of Lithuania tried to solve these social problems and strived to promote positive socialization of the child, to ensure the proper conditions at each school and to provide social assistance in schools. In this context the fi rst positions of social pedagogues have appeared in early in 1990’s. Their goal was to provide social and educational assistance to the members of school community, to ensure a successful and effective process of child education and to help eliminate the causes that interfere with a student’s education (learning) process. The fi rst positions of social pedagogues were set up only at schools. However, over the past two decades, the employment opportunities expanded. Today, the positions of social pedagogues are being established not only at schools, but also in the institutions of special education and care, various centers that provide rehabilitation and resocialization for children, child protection institutions, social welfare centers, and institutions of educational management, orphanages, pedagogical psychological institutions, recreation centers, colleges and higher schools. The positions of social pedagogues are needed to carry out the following main activities: assistance of social and educational help, organization of social services, working with pupils that have learning and behavioral diffi culties, organization of preventive and project work, the classifi cation and spread of relevant information among school communities, pupils and their parents. The work peculiarities of social pedagogues in Lithuania were deeply and widely described by such authors as G. Kvieskienė, V. Indrašienė, I. Leliūgienė, S. Jonušaitė, V. Kučinskas, R Kučinskienė, O. Merfeldaitė The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives 47 I. Klanienė and others. The process of solving social problems at school and the role of social pedagogue in this process are also being analyzed by foreign authors, for example, E. Anderson, K. Oxtoby, C. Cameron, J. Kornbeck, W.A.C Stewart and others. This article is based on the assessment of legislation regarding the regulation of work of social pedagogues from 1999 to 2014. The statistical data analysis was made according to the information system of the Ministry of Education and Information Technology Centre of Education Management of the Republic of Lithuania (http://svis.emokykla.lt/) for the period from 2009 to 2014. Also based on scientifi c articles and publications the assumptions were examined regarding the appearance and formation of social pedagogue positions and the trends of the training of these specialists in Lithuania.

The status of the positions of social pedagogues in Lithuania until 2001 The concept of social pedagogy dates back to the days of German educationists in the mid-1900s, such as Karl Mager and Adolph Diesterweg. In the early decades of the 20th century, but especially since the 1920s, the German educationist Herman Nohl interpreted social pedagogy in terms of a theoretical framework for professional social work on the basis of the hermeneutic philosophy of science (Hämäläinen, 2003, p. 69-70). So in some European countries, especially in Germany, ideas of social pedagogy had already been actively adopted in practice even before the Second World War. In the interwar period in Lithuania (1918-1940), the conception of social pedagogy as a science branch was also formed, as well as its basic concepts. Lithuanian educators Šliupas, Šernas, Geniušas, Laužikas and others theoretically and practically studied issues of pedagogy and social education. A valuable contribution to the development of the theory of social development can be attributed to Professor Šalkauskis, who spoke for the integration into society on an equal basis. He suggested that the entire educational system of pedagogy has to be based on social theory, called social pedagogy. His ideas about human and social relations and interactions of public education and human integration into the society are still valid today (Leliugienė, 2002, p. 22.). Lithuanian universities, where social workers were trained in, had a lot of infl uence on the development of social pedagogy in Lithuania (Kvieskienė, 2002, p. 23). However the occupation and incorporation of Lithuania into the USSR in 1940’s has ruined the development of the national traditions of social 48 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė pedagogy. The revival of social pedagogy both in theory and in practice has started only after the restoration of independence in 1990’s. In 1991, while implementing the scientifi c experiment “School - residential district”, the position of social pedagogue (social educator) was established for the fi rst time in two secondary schools in Lithuania. The aim of the project was to take over the experience of social work and social pedagogy from Western Europe, the U.S., Russia and practice of other countries, and also to establish the institution of social pedagogue in Lithuania, which could integrate all human resources and organizations the district for successful socialization of children. In 1991, along with this experiment Lithuanian universities, started to train social pedagogues (educators) and social workers (Leliugienė, 2002, p. 29). First positions of social pedagogues were established in Lithuania while implementing the Order No.198, May 29, 1990 of the Minister of Education and Culture of Lithuania. The positions of social pedagogues were established in Kėdainiai district Dotnuva Academy and Kaunas Palemonas comprehensive schools. This was the basis for the further development of social pedagogues in Lithuania. Since 1990 til 1999 the position of the social pedagogue was not properly integrated into the mainstream education system because of the novelty of the position, and also because there were no specifi cally approved documents for the preparation and regulation of work of social educators as well as social pedagogues in the educational institutions. Only in 1999, the Minister of Education approved the fi rst temporary requirements for the social educator’s qualifi cation – “The sample description of the position of social educator” as well as “A pilot project regarding the establishment of the position of social pedagogues” which was approved and was carried out with the aim to prepare for the establishment of a position of social pedagogue in various types of educational institutions, and to evaluate the operating effi ciency of the social pedagogues. In the same year, a working group was created to prepare normative documents and training standards of social educators in different types of educational institutions. In 1999, 79 social workers (pedagogues) worked in Lithuanian schools. The research, which was conducted in 2000 by Pedagogical - psychological center of Lithuania proved the fact that social pedagogues were needed to a great extent in Lithuanian schools. The data showed that after the social educators have started to work in educational institutions, the educational and organizational work became systematic and a person appeared able to consistently solve student’s problems appeared. The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives 49 The positions of social pedagogues Lithuania in 2001–2005 The public policy had a signifi cant impact on the further appearance of position of social pedagogues – this was due to the fact that youth socialization programs and various prevention programs were widely organized after 2001. Many other factors contributed to this process as well. The positions of social pedagogues in educational institutions were established in accordance with the Resolution No. 471 of April 24, 2001, adopted by the Government of Lithuania, where the Program (2001-2005) of establishment of positions of certifi ed social pedagogues in educational institutions was approved (Offi cial Gazette, 2001, No. 36-1220). This program became the component of Lithuanian educational reform while preparing and implementing the wider Government’s activity program (including the education policy program) of the Republic of Lithuania for 2000-2004 (). The current situation, strategy, funding requirements and expected results, measures of program performance based social needs for teachers in educational institutions have been clearly set out in this program. The working group set by the Order No. 46 of Minister of Education in 2001, January 16, began to coordinate systematically the activities regarding the establishment social pedagogue positions. In order to guarantee children’s right to receive timely and effective social assistance, support and protection, the Lithuanian Ministry of Education on December 14, 2001, confi rmed an Instruction for the position of social educator, which provides the establishment of position of social pedagogues in educational institutions and specifi es their functions (Order No. 1667 of the Minister of Education; Offi cial Gazette, 2002, No. 24-896). According to this Regulation, social educators (pedagogues) carry out the functions of education, socialization, early prevention, emergency prevention and rehabilitation programs. On this basis, the positions of social pedagogues have been established in not only the institutions of comprehensive education but also in special, boarding, youth, vocational schools, day care centers and other institutions that provide social services and carry out the education functions. On 4 October, 2001, by the Order No. 1687 of the Minister of Education “The standard of professional training of social educator” (Offi cial Gazette, 2002, No. 101-4524) was also approved. Eventually, work and functions of social pedagogues were detailed in other legislation related to the activities of social education. For example, “The provisions of general pedagogic aid” approved by the Order of the 50 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė Minister of Education of the Republic of Lithuania; June 15, 2004; No. ISAK -941 (Offi cial Gazette; 2004, No. 100-3729). These Provisions states that the social educator provides socio-pedagogical support at school together with class teacher, other teachers, administrators and other staff. The positions of social pedagogues were especially actively established and their number in educational institutions began to grow rapidly from September 1, 2001. The aim was to strengthen the prevention of abuse of psychoactive substances in the country and to organize preventive work at schools with children, parents and institutions that ensure the rights of children and social security guarantees, especially in the informal school activities (see Figure 1).

Picture 1. The number of social pedagogue positions in Lithuania

In 2001, 169 positions of social pedagogues were fi nanced from the state budget. In 2002, the number was 371. At the same year, the need for social pedagogues was investigated. The research showed that 80 percent of schools would like to have social pedagogues. In 2003, 460 positions of social pedagogues already were fi nanced. In addition, the municipalities established the positions of social pedagogues in their subordinate educational institutions according to their fi nancial capabilities and the current need for the establishment of social pedagogues. For example, in 2001 - 2003 additional 200 positions were established from the municipal funds. In 2004 Lithuanian schools employed 597 social pedagogues. At the same time it should be noted that since 2004, the funds needed for social pedagogues positions were included in the pupil’s basket (education voucher) as a special form of education funding, and the costs for the establishment of social pedagogue positions was completely taken over by municipalities from the state. Due The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives 51 to these reforms, since 2005 the number of social pedagogues in Lithuanian comprehensive education institutions increased to 900. During this period (2001 - 2005) mainly women worked as school social pedagogues, men accounted for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of social pedagogues. Most social pedagogues in 2001-2005 worked in secondary schools - 64 percent, 15 percent - in vocational schools, 6 percent – in lower secondary schools, 5 percent – in high schools and special schools, 4 percent - in youth schools. It should be noted that according to the Order No. A1-291 (November 24, 2005) of Minister of Social Security and Labor “Regarding the approval of measures that improve the work organization in orphanages”, the measures were set up to alleviate the establishment new social pedagogue positions in foster homes as well as retrain existing staff. Positions of social pedagogues Lithuania from 2005 until present days Since 2006, the number of social pedagogues stabilized and changed very slightly. In 2006, the number of social workers was 1007, 60 of them worked in professional schools. In 2010 the number of social educators decreased slightly - schools employed 988 social workers, vocational training institutions – 66, orphanages – 286. Since 2009, the social pedagogue position was established in pedagogical and psychological institutions. In 2010, 17 social workers worked in these institutions, in 2014 the number increased to 29. Since 2008, two or more social educators worked in some Lithuanian schools. In 2014, 33 percent of social educators working at schools had between 4 and 9 years of work experience in these positions, 29 percent had between 9 and 14 years of experience. 24 percent of the social educators accounted for two groups of teachers - working in this position for up to 4 years and 15 years and over. Since 2005, most of school social teachers were women, while men accounted for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of teachers. Thus, this trend continued throughout the period of establishment of social pedagogues Lithuania. According to the annually renewed data of Information Technology Centre of Education Management of the Republic of Lithuania (http://svis. emokykla.lt/) from 2011 to 2014, the number of social pedagogues with expert qualifi cation category doubled – and made 7 percent of all social pedagogues, 16 percent of pedagogues had a qualifi cation of methodologist 52 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė Table 1. Change of social pedagogues Top of Form Top The number of schools Bottom of Form number of Total social pedagogues 1 Social pedagogue 2 Social pedagogues 3 Social pedagogues 4 Social pedagogues 2008/2009 1415 973 442 86 7 3 academic year 2009/2010 1364 988 376 93 8 2 academic year 2010/2011 1321 1008 313 102 9 1 academic year 2011/2012 1309 1016 293 85 13 2 academic year 2012/2013 1242 1001 241 98 9 3 academic year 2013/2014 1208 1148 59 109 9 1 academic year

and 39 percent had a senior social pedagogue qualifi cation category. However, 27 per cent of all social educators in 2014 were not certifi ed (did not increase qualifi cation in their career and remained the pedagogical staff with the lowest qualifi cation). To summarize the facts, which are mentioned above, it can be stated that the demand of social pedagogues is increasing, and this position is increasingly gaining ground in the educational system of Lithuania. Therefore, in the near future, it is likely the position of social pedagogue will be established in every educational institution and large educational institutions will have at least two positions of social pedagogues.

Conclusions 1. Social pedagogues in Lithuania were prepared from the last decade of the 20th Century; however, their intense practical work at schools began only the 21st century (since 2001). The legal regulatory framework of their activities was started to be formed in a more consistent way only from 1999. 2 At present, the position of the social pedagogue is successfully established at schools. It should be noted that when social pedagogues have started to work at educational institutions, education and organizational work took on The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives 53 a systematic character: an employee appeared able to consistently absorb social problems of the students and help solve them. 3. In Lithuanian schools, mostly women work as social educators (pedagogues), men account for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of social educators. This trend has remained unchanged over the examined period, in which the establishment of the position of social pedagogues Lithuania was surveyed. 4. From 1990 to 1999, the social educator position was not fully integrated into the common educational system. The consistent tendency for an increasing number of social pedagogues could be observed only since 2001 when legal documents regulating their activities were adopted, as well as fi nancing model of the position was changed (it is not directly fi nanced from the budget, but from pupil’s basket (using the system of education vouchers)). However, since 2006 the number of social teachers in Lithuania changed insignifi cantly. 5. From 2011 to 2014 a trend of increasing qualifi cation of social pedagogues can be observed - the number of social educators with expert qualifi cation category has doubled, 16 percent of social pedagogues in 2014 had a qualifi cation of a methodologist, and 39 percent had a category and qualifi cation of senior social pedagogue.

Bibliography: 1. Leliugienė I., Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija, 2002. 2. Kvieskienė G., Socializacija ir vaiko gerovė. Vilnius: Vilniaus Pedagog- inis Universitetas, 2003. 3. Hämäläinen J., The Concept of Social Pedagogy in the Field of Social Work. Journal of Social Work 3(1): 69–80. London: Sage Publications, 2003. 4. ITC Švietimo valdymo informacinė sistema/Detalioji statistika regis- truotiems vartotojams < http://svis.emokykla.lt/>. 5. Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo 2000 m. lapkričio 9 d. nutarimas Nr. IX- 20 “Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2000-2004 metų programos” . 6. Socialinių pedagogų etatų steigimo švietimo įstaigose 2001–2005 metų programa, patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2001 m. balandžio 24 d. nutarimu Nr. 471 (Žin., 2001, Nr. 36-1220). 7. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir kultūros ministro 1990 m. gegužės 28 d. įsakymas Nr. 198. 54 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė 8. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 1999 m. vasario 18 d. įsakymu Nr. 180 patvirtinti Socialinio pedagogo laikinieji kvalifi kaciniai reikalavimai ir Pavyzdinės socialinio pedagogo pareiginės instrukcijos. 9. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2001 m. sausio 16 d. įsakymas Nr. 46. 10. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2001 m. gruodžio 14 d. įsakymas Nr. 1667 “Dėl socialinio pedagogo kvalifi kacinių reikalavimų ir pareiginių instrukcijų patvirtinimo” (Žin., 2002, Nr. 24- 896). 11. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2002 m. spalio 4 d. įsakymas Nr. 1687„Dėl socialinio pedagogo rengimo standarto patvirtinimo“ (Žin., 2002, Nr. 101-4524). 12. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2004 m. birželio 15 d. įsakymas Nr. ISAK-941 “Dėl bendrųjų socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos teikimo nuostatų patvirtinimo” (Žin., 2003, Nr. 116-5290). 13. Lietuvos Respublikos socialinės apsaugos ir darbo ministro 2005 m. lap- kričio 24 d. įsakymu Nr. A1-291 patvirtinti Vaikų globos namų darbo organizavimo gerinimo priemonių planas ir Darbuotojų kvalifi kacijos priemonės. Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy

Gintautė ŽIBĖNIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Rita VIRBALIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy

Abstract: The article presents the social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies. Students’ conception of the quality of studies is revealed by analysing students’ opinions and is classifi ed according to the excluded categories: the study process, the study results, the study structure, the study environment, material and methodological resources, teachers, prestigious and popular institutions, studies and personal observations. Students usually associate the quality of studies with the study process, the study results. The research was organized in the fall of 2012 and 2013 with 71 fi rst-year social pedagogy students: 37 from Mykolas Romeris University, 20 from Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, 14 from Vilnius College. Students’ conception of the quality of studies is revealed by analysing students’ opinions which is classifi ed according to the excluded categories: the study process, the study results, study structure, study environment, material and methodological resources, teachers, prestigious and popular institutions, studies and personal observations. Students usually associate the qualitative studies with the study process, the study results.

Key words: students, conception of the qualitative studies. 56 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė Introduction Since 1999 during Bologna process changes in the quality of studies assurance fi eld have started and it has been agreed to monitor systematically the quality of higher education status. At European level it is recommended to conduct a systematic research concerning the opinion about the quality of studies provided by the participants of the quality of studies assurance system (including students) (Bologna beyond 2010). This European attitude is refl ected in the Law on the education and study of the Republic of Lithuania, 2009, 41, p 2. Not only education policy makers, but also scientists agree that it is important to fi nd out the opinion about the quality of studies provided by the participants of the quality of studies assurance system (as it facilitates the quality of studies improvement). In unison it is noted the research signifi cance on the students’ opinions about studies. A number of Lithuanian and foreign scientists published a series of studies for students’ evaluation on the quality of studies in higher schools. However, these researchesmostly focused on the quality of studies assessment based on the questionnaire when students estimate the proposed features and scale (like, really like, etc.). A number of researches related to social pedagogy students’ opinion on the quality of studies is limited. R. Saveljeva et al. (2011) studied the social pedagogues’ the training quality improvement by developing students’ professional mission and career vision. D. Alifanovienė D. Jankauskaitė (2009) researched the social pedagogy and social work students’ attitude on abilities training, scope of study and subjects. G. Žibėnienė and J. Dudaitė (2012) studied social pedagogy and social work students’ attitude on the motives for the study choice, the importance of various parts of the quality of studies for the students and the quality of studies in general. There is a lack of data concerning the defi nition of the quality of studies by various students who determine it in their own words and it is important to clarify it by asking the fi rst-year students what their associations original expectations are, and what their associations with the quality of studies are. Therefore, the issue is that there is no a clear view on fi rst-year social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies. The object of the research is the fi rst-year social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies. The aim is to expose the fi rst-year social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies.

The research organization and ethics The research was organized in the fall of 2012 and 2013 with 71 fi rst-year social pedagogy students: 37 from Mykolas Romeris University, 20 from Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy 57 Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, 14 from Vilnius College. There searchers applied conveniences amp ling techniques: selected students were attending their lectures, i.e. fi rst-year students studying social pedagogy for the fi rst 3 months. The research methods applied were following: literature and document analysis, a survey of the fi rst-year students with open and semi- open questions. The article presents open question responses which revealed the students’ conception of a quality of studies. The method of data analysis used was the qualitative content analysis. Determining the quality of studies is analysed on the basis of traditional qualitative content analysis, carried out multiple reading of students’ texts, systemisation, exclusion of categories. The ethical aspect of the research to be mentioned is that there search was carried out in accordance with the principle of voluntariness, in the students’ learning environment. The consent and authorization were received from the researched students; the opportunity was given not to participate in the survey.

The fi rst-year social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies Based on the students’ conceptions of the quality of studies, eight categories were determined (see table 1). During the research period it was revealed that most of the students associate the quality of studies with the study process (68) and results (53). Only a few students (3) said that important methodological and material resources are important. Students’ conception of the quality of studies interfaces with study process and results show the important aspects of recognizing the quality of studies. For example, on the evaluation of the new study program, or on the evaluation of the carried out study program strong focus is on the program objectives, study outcomes clarity, matching a given qualifi cation, study cycle, the labour market needs and mutual harmony (Order No. V-23 on the methodological requirements of the study program, 2013). 58 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė Table 1. Students‘conception of the quality of studies highlighted by the categories and subcategories. Category Subcategory Study process (68) Teaching (21) Organization of study process (33) Study process “beyond higher education school“ (9) Study methods (5) Study results (53) Acquired knowledge and skills (14) Acquired professional knowledge (9) Acquired relevant new knowledge (9) Prepared a competent professional (7) Acquired knowledge and / or skills related to the adaptability for future activities (6) Acquired skills (6) General skills (2) Study structure (5) Job-related subjects(4) Useful subjects (1) Study environment (16) Psychologically comfortable environment (15) Promoting cooperation (1) Material and Material resources (2) methodological Methodological material (1) resources (3) Teachers (19) Competent (10) Tend to improve (2) Loving their job (1) Practitioners (1) Responsible (1) Communicating and cooperating (2) Intellectuals (2) Prestigiuos and popular Prestige of institution(5) institutions and studies Study popularity (4) (12) Prestigious study (3) Personal observations Personal interests (11) (15) Personal comfort (3) Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy 59 • Students’ conception of the quality of studies in association with the study process and study results. The Analysis for the conception of the qualitative studiesshowed that most of them (65) associate it with the study process. By analysing the answers where four subcategories were defi ned, where many of these students have mentioned the organization of study process (42) and teaching (21). Associating the concept of quality studies with the organization of study process, a lot of students (11) distinguish the importance of practical training, relations of task content to the future work context (... when the practical training is dominating... “, “ ... the tasks associated with the future job... “). More mature students (8) relate the quality of studies to the ability to grow (“... allows the improvement... “, “... the study encourage for development...”). Also it is important for them to participate in an interesting study process (5) that focuses on creativity training (3) - “ ... interestingly organizes seminars ...”, “... is organized to foster creativity ... “. This link with the encouragement to pursue an interesting learning process is referred to in scientifi c literature, in such a process practical tasks associated with future professional activity are implemented. Students talk about the importance of theoretical and practical training harmony (4), well- planned activities during the study process (2) - “... the theory and practice activities are associated ... “, “... a well -planned activities ...”, which correspond to the general provisions of the teaching process. By naming teaching, the students emphasized the clarity (8) and interest (8) - “...when teaching is clear ...”, “... interesting teaching ...”,as well as visualization and quality of teaching. Also, students in defi ning the concept of the quality of studies mention the study process “beyond higher school” (9) highlighting an opportunity to study abroad, the organisation of study process in the various environments. Fresh students (5) prelate study methods to the quality of studies, mentioning interesting, effective, non-traditional methods. Students (14), defi ning a qualitative study mention both knowledge and skills, therefore it can be assumed that these students have already acquired a fair competence concept (table 2). Some students (7) relate the quality of studies to the study results:”... prepared a good professional ...” “... a competent professional ...”. However, the number of students underline knowledge emphasizing its applicability, relevance, novelty (18):”... the latest news ...”, “... relevant knowledge for labour market ...”, “... knowledge adapted to work …”.Also students associate the quality of studies with the knowledge and /or skills adaptability to practice, acquired skills. 60 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė Table 2. Students’ conception of the qualitative studies in association with the study results Category Subcategory Supporting statements Study Acquired knowledge and „... not only theoretical knowledge but results skills also practice, experience ...”, „... relevant knowledge and skills ...” Acquired professional „.... knowledge and information that is knowledge necessary for the work ...”, „... knowledge adaptable to work ...” Acquired relevant new „... the latest news ...”, „... the latest knowledge information ...”, „... relevant to the labour market knowledge ...” Preparation of „... prepared a good professional ...” „... a competent professional a competent professional ...” Acquired knowledge and „... knowledge needed for future work ...”, „... / or skills related to the when knowledge adaptability for future can be tried and adapted to the work ... „ activities Acquired skills „... acquired skills ...”, „... the practical skills ...”, „... gaining practical skills, because without it is diffi cult to fi nd a job ...” General skills “…when we gain universal skills…”

• Students’ conception of the quality studies in association with different aspects Besides, students besides associated their conception of the quality of studies with teachers (19), learning environment (16), avariety of personal observations (15), the institution’s and study prestige (12). Only a few students associate the quality of studies with study structure (5). Students frequently mention study process, but much more seldom the study structure, thus it can be said that there are such results because many of them relate the quality of studies to the study results. The quality of studies is associated with material and methodological resources by the least number of students (3), although the outside evaluators of the quality of studies pay great attention to this attribute. Teachers’ competence is an important part for the quality of studies evaluation, as well as an important aspect of the quality of studies for the students. Many students (10), referred to the competence of the teacher:”... professional ...”, “... competent teachers ...”, “… when you can see that really knows ...”.The study environment is an important condition for the quality of studies (16), but it is associated with psychologically comfortable environment (15), which is developed by the studies participants in the Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy 61 process:”... a good teacher-student relationship ...”, “... a friendly relationship ...”, ... a good feeling, pleasant environment ...”, “.... when opinion is taking into account...”, “... a friendly environment ...”. According to scientists’ observations „teachers‘ professionalism and authority help to create the educational environment“. Some students (12) think that the quality of studies is related to prestigious, popular institutions and study: “...good name ...”, “... the famous program ...”, “... known university …”... the popular studies...”. Whether the popularity of the study means the quality, is a discussable question. However, the education quality management methodological literature identiﬁ es the prestige, public recognition as the quality of education features. Also by naming the conception of the quality of studies students (15) provided various personal observations related to personal interests (11) and personal comfort (3). Personal interests of the students are subjective, for some “... new connections...” are important, while others are in“... interesting after-school activity ...”, “... meet the individual needs ...”, etc. Comfort related to the quality of studies was described by the students as “...a ﬂ exible schedule and study...”, “...close to home...”. Although often it is discussed that high demand of graduates in the labour market could be a disclosure for the quality of studies only one student associates the quality of studies with this aspect (“...employment after graduation ...”).

Conclusions Students’ opinion as a whole (including all students’ views) reveals the full study quality concept. From all student’s summarized point of view the quality of studies are associated with (under the categories) the study process, the study results, the study structure, the study environment, material and methodological resources, teachers, prestigious and popular institutions, studies, personal observations. Under the categories the students mostly link the quality of studies with the study process and the study results. However, only a small number of students correctly perceive the content of the study results, as part of the student focus on the knowledge’s and other focus on skills only. Under subcategories there are the organisation of the study process, teaching and psychologically comfortable environment. The emphasis on teaching students, teaching description, not mentioning the active role of student as an active participant in the process of learning can be related with insufﬁ cient experience of studying the ideas of humanistic education paradigm and reveals the importance of teaching students to learn through constructivist ideas. 62 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė Suggestions (1). For the Institutions of higher education in the internal evaluation of the quality of studies it is recommended to focus on the monitoring of the environment of the studies, on the investigation of this environment providing additional quality assessment criteria as for ﬁ rst-year students of social pedagogy is especially important psychologically comfortably environment, which they associate with quality of studies. (2). In the preparation of social pedagogues it is recommended to organise more frequently the study process „beyond higher school” because the relevance of this as the feature of high-quality studies have distinguished the students themselves. Also learning process not only in the traditional environment enables a better understanding of professional features and con- forms to the EU recommendations in improving the quality of studies. It is also important to encourage students to apply in the process of studies the ideas of constructivism and humanistic education.

Bibliography: 1. Alifanovienė, D., Jankauskaitė, D., The peculiarities of designing socio- educational study programmes at university type higher educational institutions: students’ attitude. Teacher Education, 2009, vol. 12 Issue 1. 2. BOLOGNA beyond 2010. Report on the development of the European Higher Education Area, 2010. [accessed 2013-03-01]. . 3. Order No. V-23 of study programme methodic requirements, Quality Assessment Director of the Centre in 22 of April, 2013 (Ofﬁ cial Gazette, 2013, No. 49-2469); 4. Republic of Lithuania law on Higher education and research, 30 April 2009, No. XI-242, 5. Saveljeva, R. et. al., Socialinių pedagogų rengimo kokybės gerinimas plėtojant studijuojančiųjų profesinį pašaukimą ir karjeros viziją. Tiltai, 2011, vol. 56, issue 3. 6. Žibėnienė, G.; Dudaitė, J., Study quality concept: the ﬁ rst course student approach, Societal innovations for global growth: research papers. Vilnius, 2012, No. 1(1). Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case

Odeta MERFELDAITĖ Assoc. prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Jolanta PIVORIENĖ Assoc. prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Valdonė INDRAŠIENĖ Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case

Abstract: The article presents qualitative research data the goal of which was to investigate peculiarities of social pedagogues’ professional self- development. Three specifi c objectives were defi ned: to fi nd out what the main aims of professional development of social pedagogues are; to investigate methods of professional development of social pedagogues; and to analyse the results of professional development of social pedagogues. Qualitative research using semi-structured interviewing was done at schools. Using non-random sampling, 29 social pedagogues were selected and participated in the research. The main selection criteria were based on supposition that a social pedagogue should have more than fi ve years’ professional experience. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed using the method of content analysis by forming categories and subcategories. The research data shows that discovering professional meaning and development of professional skills are the most important aims of professional development. Most often, the mentioned self-development methods are reading scientifi c literature, qualifi cation seminars, surfi ng the Internet, and communication with colleagues. Research participants claimed that self-development helps to improve personal and professional relations and increase work motivation, and provides self-assuredness in diffi cult situations. 64 Odeta Merfeldaitė, Jolanta Pivorienė, Valdonė Indrašienė Key words: professional self-development; aims, methods and results of self- development.

Introduction Education is a process during which uniqueness of every person is revealed and highly valued characteristics like responsibility, creativity, solidity are stimulated (Mackevičius, Subačienė, 2008). In other words, education promotes positive development of personality. In modern knowledge society, education, learning and self-development become important factors. Constant changes in society require lifelong learning. Social pedagogy is an integral profession which requires diverse abilities, skills and competences, which could be achieved by self-development – a constant perfection of personal and professional life. According to Kuzminkiene (2005), self-development is one of the most important prerequisites for a social pedagogue who wants to integrate and stay in labour market (see Przybysz-Zaremba, 2011, pp. 263-273). Only the social pedagogues who are in constant development and leaning and who know themselves well can support people in solving their problems. According to Lifelong learning memorandum (2001), everyone should learn how to learn, to adjust to changes, and to use information (see Przybysz-Zaremba, 2006, pp. 383-389). The EU in its Strategy EU2020 raised a goal to implement lifelong learning and mobility. In the Lithuanian National Strategy of Education 2013-2022, the development for lifelong learning is emphasised, more specifi cally, it states, that it is important: to assess person’s creative abilities and, based on that, to help her/him to acquire competences or qualifi cations which correspond to the cultural and technological level of society and to integrate and compete successfully in the changing labour market; to create environment for satisfying learning needs and lifelong development. The future vision of the society is defi ned in Strategy “Lithuania 2030”– it is an active, cohesive and learning society. Learning society is a society in which every person learns during all his/her life: constantly updates knowledge and skills which correspond to changing circumstances and future challenges. Learning is the main value and activity of such society. Not only persons, but also organizations are learning. Learning and qualifi cation development is useful both to individual and to organization. On the organizational level, it promotes rising of motivation, increases fl exibility, and ensures the required level of employers qualifi cation. On the individual level, it helps Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case 65 to fi nd different ways of problem solutions, increases value of the work and labour productivity, supports self-confi dence of the worker, provides better career perspectives and forms a better organizational climate (Baršauskienė, Guščinskienė, 2003). In the paradigm, when education is a priority, big attention is paid to organizing of adult learning. In the paradigm, when learner’s responsibility in learning is a priority, the person, his/her motivation, the ability to search for learning possibilities and their using is emphasised (Linkaitytė, Žilinskaitė, Lapėnienė, 2011). Zuzevičiūtė (2006) defi nes three sources of learning needs: personal, social and socioeconomic. During economic changes the importance of knowledge and information for managing these changes was understood and education was related with economy (Edwards, Usher, 2001). According to Linkaitytė, Žilinskaitė, Lapėnienė (2011), the economic sector plays the main role in development and implementation of lifelong learning strategies and in defi ning what competences and skills the education system should develop. It means that not only an individual should adjust to educational institutions, but educational institutions should adjust to individual as well. On the other hand, it means that education and social welfare is responsibility of both – state and individual. Psychosocial, cultural, political challenges are an inseparable part of everyday life. Therefore, opportunities for adults’ education, learning motivation, rising challenges should be investigated and analysed in order to provide quality educational services corresponding to labour market and society’s needs (Trakšelis, 2012). The fi rst Lithuanian authors who investigated the self-development phenomenon are Jovaiša (2003), Bitinas (2004), Spurga (1998, 1999). They wrote about schoolchildren’s self-development and also researched the phenomenon from pedagogical point of view. Baublienė (2003), Kardelis (2005) analysed peculiarities of physical self-development. Possibilities for self-development in lifelong learning were researched by Zuzevičiūtė (2008), Teresevičienė (2008). Self-development of volunteers was analysed by Jonutytė, Rekis (2009). Some research was done on self-development of pedagogues by Vaivada, Blinstrubas, Mockevičienė (2012), Survutaitė, Žalytė (2006), Šliogerienė, Burkšaitienė (2010), Aleksandravičius, Žukovskis (2012), Indrašienė, Kolbergytė (2013). However, this topic lacks researchers’ attention, comprehensive research and an in-depth analysis which would reveal possibilities for self-development and its importance to the process of social educational support. Therefore, it is relevant to formulate the research question as what are social pedagogues’ aims, methods and results of professional self-development? 66 Odeta Merfeldaitė, Jolanta Pivorienė, Valdonė Indrašienė The research object is self-development of social pedagogues. The research goal is to investigate peculiarities of social pedagogues’ professional self-development. The research aims: (1) To fi nd out what the main aims of professional development of social pedagogues are. (2) To investigate methods of professional development of social pedagogues. (3) To analyse the results of professional development of social pedagogues. (4) The research method. Qualitative research using semi structured interviewing was done at schools. Using non-random sampling, 29 social pedagogues were selected and participated in the research. The main selection criterion was based on the premise that a social pedagogue should have more than fi ve years’ professional experience. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed using content analysis by forming categories and subcategories.

The aims of professional self-development Based on research data such aims of professional self-development could be defi ned: • Discovering of professional meaning: “I want somehow to understand better society’s need for my professional activity, its benefi t”; “I have a strange aim, it is more like a wish – to disseminate more widely the importance of social pedagogy”. • Development of specifi c skills: “I would like to learn working well with documentation (…). I have to learn organizing and leading”; “My aim is to know as much as possible what is related directly with my job, to know legal acts and documentation well, to deepen psychological knowledge, that I could feel more confi dent, strong and expert in my work”. • Individual consulting: “I am always interested and want to improve in individual consulting”; “I just need to learn consulting”. In summary, research participants raise different aims of self-development. There is no one prevailing aim; however, the most often mentioned aims of professional development are discovering professional meaning and developing professional skills. Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case 67 Methods of professional self-development Research data shows that social pedagogues use different methods for self-development. One of the most often mentioned method is communication with colleagues. Research participants emphasised good relations with colleagues, received support from them. “The best way in professional sphere is colleagues’ help and experience, it is an invaluable gift that you can openly discuss with them, and they are real support. When I want to learn something in this work, I ask colleagues, who always generously help me”. “I learn a lot from my colleagues, and from my organization, and from others. I could say that cooperation with colleagues is the most strengthening thing”. Another method of self-development is conferences and courses. There is a contradiction in participants’ opinions: some claim that it is obligatory, others believe that it is a pleasant activity. “(…) there are such methods at work like different conferences, lectures, courses. They are more kind of obligatory”. “If there is a possibility I always participate in seminars, trainings, for example on confl ict management or consultancy”. The Internet becomes a common way to develop professional competences. Research participants say that they search for answers in it more and more often. “I look for information connected to work on Internet. And when a client asks for something or for support, the Internet helps, you can’t know everything”. “I search the Internet most often”. Research participants emphasised that most knowledge and skills are acquired through practice. “You learn the most while working”. “Every day work with people improves your skills”. Reading of professional literature (“I constantly try to focus novelties – to read professional books”), self-refl ection (“Self-refl ection helps to improve professional skills, I understand what characteristics I lack as a professional, what I need to learn”) and inter-visions (“I have inter-visions at work, we discuss cases. It helps me very much in confl ict situations; I fi nd new ways of its solving”) were mentioned rarely, but when mentioned they were referred to as very effective methods helping to recognise appropriate or inappropriate behaviours at work, to receive new necessary information. 68 Odeta Merfeldaitė, Jolanta Pivorienė, Valdonė Indrašienė In summary, research participants named various methods of self- development; however, only few from these which are defi ned in scientifi c literature. It could be assumed that the understanding of self-development methods is narrow; participants lack information about them. The most common methods include reading scientifi c literatures, qualifi cation seminars, surfi ng the Internet, and communication with colleagues.Other methods, like auto-suggestion, self-critique, self-regulation, self-discipline and others which are defi ned in scientifi c literature are unknown for interviewed social pedagogues.

Results of professional self-development Self-development brings positive changes in all spheres of life. The research data shows these results of self-development: • Fullness of life: “Shortly, it helps to live fully, to enjoy the life. This is the most important what you can get from self-development”; “It is needed for meaningful, valuable life. A personality either moves forward, grows, develops, or degrades, becomes part of the grey mass”. • Better relation with others and self: “The relations with others became easier, because self-development helps to understand yourself better, to accept yourself, then it becomes easier with others”; “it helps to accept yourself, and that helps to communicate with others, it helps to understand that there are things which you don’t like but you couldn’t change. It helps to accept other as s/he is”. • Self- awareness: “For me it is a possibility to know myself, to discover my needs; self- development directs where to go. It helps to understand self and the life, helps to answer many questions”; “Self-development helped me to know myself and to accept as I am. It is easier to live when you are friend with yourself, because you can’t run away from yourself”. • Calmness: “It gives me calm, self-understanding and this diminishes stress”; “It helps to calm down, to look at everything calmer”. • Motivation to work: “It helps to discover your work anew, to work with new passion”; “In general self-development increases motivation to work”. In summary, it could be said that self-development is valuable in professional life. According to the research data, it brings fullness and calmness in life, makes better relations with others and self, raises self- awareness and motivates to work. Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case 69 Conclusions (1) Social pedagogues raise different aims of self-development which help them to develop as professionals. Discovering professional meaning and development of professional skills are the most important aims according to research data. (2) Understanding of self-development methods is narrow, research participants lack information about them. Most often the methods include reading scientifi c literature, participation in qualifi cation seminars, surfi ng the Internet, communication with colleagues. Other methods, like auto- suggestion, self-critique, self-regulation, self-discipline and others named out till forty?? in scientifi c literature are unknown for social pedagogues. (3) All research participants agree that self-development is an important process in their life. They agree that self-development helps to improve personal and professional relations, increase motivation to work, provides calmness in diffi cult situations.

Bibliography: 1. Aleksandravičiaus A., Žukovskis J., Kaimo bendruomenių raida ir jų veiklos tikslai: siekiant darnumo visuomenėje, < www.vadyba.asu.lt>, 2012. 2. Baršauskienė V., Guščinskienė J., Nuolatinio mokymosi vaidmuo kintančioje visuomenėje, Vilnius, 2003. 3. Baublienė R., Asmenybės raida ir nuolatinė saviugda: metodinė priemonė, Kaunas, 2003. 4. Bitinas B., Hodegetika: auklėjimo teorija ir technologija, Vilnius, 2004. 5. Edwards R., Usher R., Lifelong learning: a postmodern condition of education, Adult education quarterly, Vol. 51 (4), 2001. 6. Indrašienė V., Kolbergytė A., Saviugdos formavimosi kontekstas, Socialinis darbas, 2013, 12(1). 7. Jonutytė I., Rekis D., 14-18 metų savanorių saviugdos galimybės nevyriausybinėse organizacijose, Socialinis ugdymas, 2009. 8. Jovaiša L., Hodegetika: auklėjimo mokslas, Vilnius, 2003. 9. Kardelis K., Mokslinių tyrimų metodologija ir metodai, Šiauliai, 2005. 10. Kuzminskienė K. (2005), Pradinių klasių mokytojų pedagoginės saviugdos ypatumai: magistro baigiamasis darbas, Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija, Vilnius: VPU, 2005. 11. Linkaitytė G. M., Žilinskaitė L., Lapėnienė A., Andragogikos studija: teorijos ir praktikos dermės paieškos, Klaipėda, 2011. 70 Odeta Merfeldaitė, Jolanta Pivorienė, Valdonė Indrašienė 12. Mackevičius J., Subačienė R., Darbuotojų profesinio ugdymo sąnaudos ir jų valdymas, Informacijos mokslai, Vilnius, 2008. 13. Mokymosi visą gyvenimą memorandumas, , [2012.02.28] 14. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Praca oraz edukacja – najważniejsze wartości współczesnego człowieka. Rozważania teoretyczne, [in:] Płaszczyzny współpracy szkoły ze środowiskiem lokalnym, (red.) L. Hurło, Wydawnictwo Magnus, Łódź 2011. 15. Przybysz-Zaremba M., E-learning – nowa forma edukacji, [in:] Deﬁ niowanie McLuhana. Media a perspektywy rozwoju rzeczywistości wirtualnej (red.) M. Sokołowski, Wydawnictwo „ALGRAF”, Olsztyn, 2006. 16. Šliogerienė J., Burkšaitienė N., Neformaliojo ir savaiminio mokymosi pasiekimų vertinimas ir pripažinimas universitete. Vilnius, 2010. 17. Spurga V., Saviugdos metodai, Vilnius, 1998 18. Spurga V., Saviugdos pagrindai, Vilnius: Lietuvos etinės kultūros draugija “Ethos”, 1999. 19. Survutaitė D., Žalytė A., Pradinį ugdymą studijuojančių pedagoginė saviugda, Pedagogika, T 84, Vilnius, 2006 20. The EU 2020 strategy: analysis and perspectives, < http://www. europe2020.org/> 21. Trakšelis K., Suaugusiųjų švietimo kaitos tendencijos Lietuvoje (Sociologinis aspektas), Klaipėda, 2012, , [213 – 10 – 20]. 22. Vaivada S., Blinstrubas A., Mockevičienė D., Skirtingų lygių asmeninių žinių fenomenai asmenybės dimensijose: asmenybės saviugdos kontekstas. Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai 3 (1), Vilnius, 2012, p. 255-266 23. Valstybės pažangos strategija „Lietuva 2030“, Valstybės žinios, 2012- 05-30, Nr. 61-3050. 24. Valstybinė švietimo 2013–2022 metų strategija: tikslai, problemos, tobulinimo kryptys, 2012, , [2013 – 10 – 20]. 25. Zuzevičiūtė V., Teresevičienė M. Suaugusiųjų mokymasis. Andragoginės veiklos perspekyva. Scientiﬁ c study, Kaunas, 2008 Monitoring as a Part of Management Process

Romas PRAKAPAS Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Leta DROMANTIENĖ Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Dalia PRAKAPIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania (Lithuania)

Monitoring as a Part of Management Process

Abstract: This article presents the results of the study organized on the basis of STEBIS methodology which reveal the interdisciplinary possibilities of monitoring as a part of management process while working on behavior modiﬁ cation of social pedagogical nature. In the article the monitoring as a part of management process is presented in the context of the science of education: as a component of social education and a means of behavioral diagnosis.

Keywords: monitoring, behavior modiﬁ cation,children of risk group.

Introduction Monitoring in the scientifi c literature is presented as atypical part of management process. Representatives of management science claim that in order to justify managerial decisions, evaluate the results, changes, etc. monitoring should be carried out (Chlivickas, 2010). In the twenty-fi rst century the inter-disciplinarity of research (Vilnius Declaration, 2013) provides an opportunity to take a look at expertise of different sciences in order to be more effi cient and in this particular case, to take a look at social pedagogy in terms of educational goals for behavior modifi cation. 72 Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė Pedagogical correction presupposes monitoring system as personalization of social education. Monitoring is seen as a system of social, educational, psychological, legal, medical measures in order to forestall children and adolescents from committing offenses, and to show a special concern for those who are already violating the law. This is primarily related to prevention in a narrow sense, i.e. individual work with children who are already violating the norms of behavior. The goal of such prevention is to stop the child or adolescent from developing a tendency to violate behavior and law norms, to ensure that his/her behavior would not become delinquent. Research shows that single measures have never given positive results (Prakapas, 2003); thus, monitoring as a part of behavior modifi cation allows not only to evaluate, but also to predict the potential behavior. This in turn creates preconditions to fi nd more effective opportunities to prevent law violations and crimes. Adequate, timely and objective information allows analyzing the current situation in detail, making reasonable assumptions; there is less subjectivity. Information about violations and crimes by children should be received in time. However, data collectionis notan end in itself; it is used to assess, analyze, predict, and identifythe changes of the effect. Even preliminary assessment of information helps to differentiate educational work with minors, who tend to commit offenses, more operatively, and to foresee appropriate risk factors. A more thorough analysis of the data is especially needed to start individual educational work with the child of risk group while planning and organizing the preventive work with him/her at the educational institution. The problem is the application of monitoring while working on behavior modifi cation of social pedagogical nature. The object is the education of childrenof risk group. The aim-to describe the possibilities the application of monitoring have in behavior modifi cation. The methods: monitoring the behavior of children of risk group.The study was conducted in 2012-2013 in four counties of Lithuania (Alytus, Panevėžys, Utena and Vilnius) in 10 educational institutions of different types and in two sub-districts. In these institutions the monitoring of negative child behavior was carried out according to STEBIS methodology (Bitinas, Prakapas, Satkauskas, 2007) during two weeks’ time. Informationis compiled on the basis of the following principles: continuity, suffi cient minimum, complexity, individualization, expediency. Monitoring as a Part of Management Process 73 Monitoring as a Component of Social Education Monitoring is seen as a specifi cally and purposefully organized cognitive process which allows improving organization of social pedagogical work with children and collection of relevant information. Monitoring can be used to improve specifi c individual educational activity. It can also help to pursue two major objectives: • to obtain statistical data on children’s and adolescents’ offenses; to pinpoint the most pressing behavioral problems of children and adolescents; • To draw attention to the so-called “diffi cult” children and adolescents whose behavior demonstrates that there is a risk that they may become law offenders. Pursuing the above mentioned objectives is directly related to the appropriate and purposeful joint activities by a teacher and the children and is meant to develop and improve personality. Education is an active, purposefully organized formation of person’s individuality. It is, to some extent, determined by the social environment. Personalization of social education gets an important role in this process which is facilitated by systematically gathering information. Itis one of the means to optimize social education. It is known that effective social education is possible only when the immediate social environment, where a particular child or adolescent educates and is educated, is thoroughly analyzed; that is where real possibilities of measures are specifi ed (see: Leliūgienė, 2003). Only knowing person’s immediate social environment, which directly affects his/her development, is possible to predict theformativeprocess.

Children’s Behavioral Diagnosis Monitoring makes fundamental assumptions of systemic and individual psycho-pedagogical and socio-pedagogical work with children of risk group.This work is done by gathering important information, noting the key objectives, methods, measures, results of individual psycho-pedagogical and socio-pedagogical work. Various studies (see: Malinauskaitė, 2010; Nasvytienė, Lazdauskas, Leonavičienė 2012, etc.) confi rm the main opinion of different professionals, who work with children of risk group, that prevention is effective in most cases when there are three steps, i.e.: • when adequate measuresare used to solve social problems, a constant analysis of their occurrence is carried out and there is timely prevention; 74 Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė • when solving primary problems of emotional, spiritual, physical, social andhealth nature is of great importance; • When the help among professionals of various fi elds of science and practice is coordinated in order to solve urgent and important issues. Analyzing and applying the above mentioned steps, the gathered information becomes of great help, especially dealing with the daily work and solving issues of confi dence, improving the ability to develop meaningful relationships with peers and adults, introducing them to the idea of fi nding acceptable and individual lifestyle, taking care of them overcoming social problems and rejecting dubious values. While doing psycho-pedagogical work with children of risk group through monitoring, attention must be paid to the following three groups of behavior: (1) children who violate the norms of behavior episodically; (2) children who violate the norms systematically; (3) delinquent children. This grouping is presupposed by one of the aims of preventive work with children of risk group, i.e. to work individually with them, particularly with those children who tend to offend and commit crimes, constantly monitoring the effi ciency of work. Therefore, while individually working with such children, there are two possible strategies of preventive work: precautionary and rehabilitative. Monitoring allows an objective assessment of the learners’ behavior dynamics. This in turn allows the educator to examine more closely concerning situations, distinguishing behavioral trends and predicting their expression.

The Prospects of Children’s Behavior Modifi cation through Monitoring In order to get quality research, it is necessary to draw attention to the improvement of psycho pedagogical correction of the above mentioned groups when the children’s goals of personalized learning are taken into consideration. To achieve these goals individually working with children of risk group through monitoring, particular circumstances and psycho pedagogical assumptions (e.g. the educational potential of social environment, good will, fostering success situations, learning, etc.) are of great importance. In scientifi c literature (see: Prakapas, 2003; Bitinas, Prakapas, Satkauskas, 2007 and others) it is stated that the aspirations of pedagogical correction are determined by a better understanding the child’s behavior and his/her life story and actions; the perception of psychological age, life stages, characteristics of gender, child’s personality as a whole; the cognition of the development Monitoring as a Part of Management Process 75 of his/her social competence; taking into account the specifi city of the child’s situation, his/her social status in the family, at school and in the society; the respect of the child’s dignity and honor, etc. In the light of these theoretical assumptions, the study was carried out on the basis of STEBIS methodology. During the two weeks of monitoring, a total of 327 instances of negative behavior were recorded, which were put into groups related to: (1) substance dependence (16%), (2) aggression (13%), (3) delinquency (7%), (4) egression (38%), and (5) other kinds of behavior (26%). The above mentioned acts were perpetrated by 141 children (107 boys and 34 girls), 60.28% of them lived in families of social risk (according to the assessment by social educators and social workers of researched institutions). The largest group (39%) consisted of children studying in 7-8th grades at secondary schools whereas the smallest (8%) - students of primary schools. Fixating children’s negative acts, specialists not only recorded them, but also tried to choose proper measures of pedagogical approach (activation of the family, micro-social environment and learners’ community; activation of personal resources; psychosocial rehabilitation; training socially signifi cant behavior; organization of activities alternative to delinquent one; penalties and prohibitions; medical assistance; promotion of healthy lifestyle). This individualization of socio-pedagogical activity allowed to relatively grouping all the children of risk group, to analyze and optimize the measures of their pedagogical approach. The data of the study shows that measures most often selected by the specialists are activation of the family (43%), activation of personal resources (23%) and penalties and prohibitions (19%). It was later found out in the study that special and constant attention to the face-to-face conversations with the child or his/her family does not produce any results. As social educators and social workers later said that only during monitoring they realized that they often use some measures without thinking about their effectiveness. Analyzing the data of the study, all children were divided into three groups (those who violate the norms of behavior episodically, those who violate them systematically and delinquents). It was found that those children who violate the norms of behavior episodically often do not realize that when they commit offenses this might lead to them having serious problems. Their offenses often depend on the situation and are barely noticeable. Offenses are often a result of particular circumstances, the inadequate response to children’s behavior, its expression, and the differences between educational and child’s goals. The moral position of children from this group is not fi rmly formed yet. They are not affected yet by antisocial activities or neglected in terms 76 Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė of education. Children who violate the norms of behavior episodically often only need a sincere and impressive conversation with him/her, the parents or legal guardians, peers (i.e., the traditional pedagogical measures applied working with children) so that they themselves would decide to behave well, to control their behavior. Transgressions of children who violate the norms of behavior systematically are not always associated with offenses, but they very easily and quickly can become crimes (without considering the physical, mental or other harm to himself/herself, being drunk the teenager can attack and injure others; not having any or enough money he/she can decide to steal, etc). The analysis of the data shows that children who systematically violate the norms of behavior usually: do not do their homework, interaction with adults is insolent, they smoke, use physical force, abuse weaker children, and avoid attending school. In most cases, they ignore what adults demand from them. Their behavior is characterized by instability because many researched children have no acceptable interests and spiritual expectations. In the scientifi c literature, it is mentioned that working with children from this group attention should be paid to the interactive educational activities (e.g. games, simulations, etc.) or to specialized activities which are often used working with delinquents (e.g. therapies of art and behavior, logo therapy, psychodrama). A more complicated situation is with delinquent children because they have already violated the law or committed crimes. Remedial work with delinquents is particularly challenging because often it results in solving problems of a particular child with the help from police and child protection workers. The complexity of this work is due to many external and internal psychological reasons of child’s development. Individual work with delinquents is limiting when it is impossible to reconcile the objectives and actions. Remedial work with children from this group is not limited to the measures of direct effect. This work becomes more personalized and individual, infl uencing education more when it is received in the family and class and at the same time specialists work not only with the child of risk group, but also with his family and his/her teachers, i.e. social environment in an attempt to overcome the psychological and social barriers that hinder social activities of the child.

Conclusion Summarizing the potential of improving psycho pedagogical work with children of risk group, it could be stated that their behavior can be understood only when the process of its formation is clear, after familiarizing with what Monitoring as a Part of Management Process 77 the children’s life and education are like, analyzing the history of the change of their behavior. Individual work seeks that the child would not be exposed to stress which could lead to unnecessary anxiety, hatred, wish to prove his/ her righteousness. Although children violating norms constantly because problems, they should not feel offended humiliated, rejected. It is necessary that people around them became more pleasant and nicer. This is an essential prerequisite for the learners to restore inner balance and feel happy.

Bibliography: 1. Bitinas B., Prakapas R., Satkauskas V., Vaikų elgsenos stebėsenos programa STEBIS. Vilnius: Lietuvos demokratiškumo ugdymo kolegija, 2007. 2. Chlivickas E., Valdymo sistemos modernizavimas: žmogiškųjų išteklių potencialo plėtra. Public Administration, 1/2(25/26), 2010. 3. Leliūgienė I., Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija, 2010. 4. Malinauskaitė A., Elgesio sutrikimų prevencija skatinant socialines ir emocines kompetencijas priešmokykliniame amžiuje: vokiškoji patirtis. Special Education, (1), 149-159. 5. Nasvytienė, D., Lazdauskas, T., Leonavičienė, T., Child’s resilience in face of maltreatment: a meta-analysis of empirical studies. Psychology, 467-26/2012. 6. Prakapas, R., Individualus priėjimas mokyklinio monitoring sąlygomis. Pedagogika, 68, 2013. 7. Vilnius declaration. Retrieved March 22, 2014, from http://erc.europa. eu/sites/default/ﬁ les/content/pages/pdf/Vilnius_SSH_declaration_2013. pdf

The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace

Roman SOLECKI Dr. Pedagogical University in Cracow (Poland)

The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace

Abstract: The article concerns the issues connected to the place of man in the cyberspace and the dangers that exist there. It shows the concepts of understanding the causes of risky behaviours from the perspective of different areas of development, analysing the need for silence and the meaning of life. It presents the assumptions of effective prevention and the ways of counteracting being lost in the Web.

Key words: Prevention of media dangers, needs, risk factors and guarding factors, the meaning of life, silence.

Introduction The mankind have continuously searched for the answers to the most important questions which every person asks themselves. The way of discovering them may surprise even more with every step taken. Seeing the contemporary homo viator (a traveller or a pilgrim – a mediaeval symbol of human lot)1, a large number of directions and possibilities of choice which are offered by the society striving for being called informational seems to be something normal. However, a rising feeling of self-sufﬁ ciency weakens the will of searching for the deeper meaning which loses the battle with a competitive pleasure of the moment. How can we understand the contemporary digital resident of the Earth who got lost on his/her way in the big Web?

1 http://sjp.pwn.pl/slownik/2560779/homo_viator. Printed on June 24, 2013 80 Roman Solecki Media dangers Excessive commitment to the cyberspace may result from the possibility of fulfi lling one’s needs in the Web. Hall and Parson’s IBD concept (Internet Behaviour Dependence), in which the problems connected to using the web result from the mechanism of compensating the defi cits which are felt by an individual in other spheres of their functioning (Majchrzak, Ogińska-Bulik, 2012, p. 49) which they cannot realise in the world outside the Web, says about this. As Tomasz Kocowski states: “ (…) the description of the needs depends on the discipline which deals with it” (Kocowski 1982, pp. 40-41). but also: “it cannot rely on the research of only one discipline, so it is not a biological, sociological, psychological or economical problem, but a typical interdisciplinary problem, which can only be solved thanks to the co-operation of many fi elds of human studies. A wide-ranging and systemic approach directed at the man as an integrated unity is needed here” (Kocowski, 1982, p. 44). In his hierarchy of the needs which are essential to normal human functioning, Abraham Maslow consecutively lists: the physiological needs, the needs of security, belonging and love, dignity and respect, self-updating (Obuchowski, 1995, pp. 62-63). Taking an example, a lack of appropriate standards and rules of behaviour, as well as not drawing consequences after these rules are broken, reduce the sense of security, leading to uncertainty and looking for the places, like a computer game or social network, where full control is possible. The research shows that mainly the young fulfi l their social needs in the cyberspace2. In a systemic concept of human needs Tomasz Kocowski classifi es among them: the needs of belonging, connection, organization, emotional bonds, conformism, communization, social usefulness, social gratifi cation, social acceptance, co-participation, protection and autonomy of an individual (Kocowski, 1982, pp. 188-194). In contrast, an American psychologist and researcher J. Suler has named 6 main needs which, according to him, are fulfi lled in the Internet: the sexual needs, a need of different states of consciousness, a need of achievements and mastery, a need of belonging, a need of union/relationship, a need of self-updating and transcendence (Majchrzak, Ogińska-Bulik, 2010, pp. 73- 76). Therefore, it is not a surprise that more and more people search for their fulfi lment in the Internet, because then one does not have to go out since the life in the web is enough. Whereas we are able to modify our intellectual,

2 See: Raport K. Szafraniec, Młodzi 2011. Source: http://kprm.gov.pl/Mlodzi_2011_ alfa.pdf (access: June 6, 2012); K. Makaruk, Sz. Wójcik, EU NET ADB. Badanie nadużywania Internetu przez młodzież w Polsce. Source: http://fdn.pl/eu-net-adb (dostęp: 6.02.2013). The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 81 emotional or social development with digital substitutes, we are not able to do the same with our physical and spiritual development. Models of understanding man The reduced anthropology of understanding man may lead to unimaginable effects which will become permanently connected to his conduct and functioning. Over the years, the process of addicting and the potential causes which may initiate it have been described in different ways. M. Dziewiecki made their short profi le (see: M. Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 123-137): • A moralizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result of moral immaturity, a weak willpower, naivety, a mis-formed conscience. The responsibility and the blame is on an individual who is aware of their misconduct, who does it in a free purposeful way. The way to counteract in this model is appealing to the will, forming the conscience, handing over moral principles, making an individual aware what is good and what is wrong, scaring them with the consequences. The modes of operation are moralizing lectures whose purpose is to in- voke the fear of using psychoactive means. As it turns out, also people with the morality formed in the right way, who are aware of their acts and their negative results, get addicted, too. Admittedly, moral sensitivity, a mature conscience and a strong willpower are all signifi cant factors which help in prevention, but they are not the only ones; • An intellectualizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result of a lack of suffi cient knowledge of how they work. In this model the aim is to hand over professional information on the essence of addictions, mechanisms, substances composition and their effect on an organism and a spiritual and social life. The methods that are used are lectures, discussions, statistics, activating technics, contests. As it turns out, also people who have rich knowledge of psychoactive substances and the negative after-effects of using them reach for them too. A man can manipulate his/her thinking, especially while in a life crisis. An additional risk in this model is a desire to verify the knowledge one got in practice, which has often become a characteristic training in thanks to which one can be made dizzy to get the desired effects; • A biologizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result of the organic factors and genetic determinism. However, a research has shown that the innate alcoholism does not exist, but there is only an inherited natural defensive capability of an organism against harmful chemical substances. Yet, it is not the cause of getting addicted, 82 Roman Solecki though it can quicken its process. On the other hand, the knowledge of one’s own organism’s weak tolerance of a given substance itself cannot protect one against trying to dose their organism with this substance. It is common knowledge that there is a connection between the age of initiation and the risk of addiction. The younger the age is, the faster the development’s pace is, and, as a consequence, the organic and psychosocial harms are bigger, and the risk of getting addicted is intensifi ed; • A psychologizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result of their emotional attractiveness, in other words, the ability to regulate one’s mood and frame of mind. Thanks to the psychoactive substances a man can change his/her emotional experiences without having to change anything in the behaviour. It is a chance to soothe the harmful experiences which we can forget about thanks to the addictive substances, which come back anyway. The aim of this model is shaping the skills to deal with the diffi cult and unpleasant emotions. The methods used are working in groups, brainstorm, role-play and dialogues, discussions. Time and again, however, the competences which are important for the sake of the attitude towards the dangerous substances (assertiveness or the right experiencing negative emotions training) are promoted. Coaxing into living a decent life in happiness, they touch upon these issues in a superfi cial way, being limited to the biological- psychological sphere only. That is why the psychologizing model does not give a full answer to the dangers of addictions, because, showing the ways of dealing with the unpleasant emotions, it does not present where they come from.

The condition of human spirituality In the whole ineffective prevention of addictions the most important question is omitted – the question about the origin of painful emotional states, from which a person tries to free themselves using the addictive substances or actions. It is sure that they are a symptom of the existential functioning of a person, a bit of information about the crises being experienced. Whereas it is easy to deceive our intellect by convincing ourselves about different things and using such defensive mechanisms as rationalization, we are not able to hide our painful mood, like a fear or depression, unless, to get this aim, we make use of a momentary blockade which addictive substances are. Limiting the prevention actions to the sphere of the intellect, biology, psyche The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 83 or emotions is being stuck in one place and making the achievement of the planned goals impossible. The yearning to experience a relief, an escape from harmful reality and to reach a meaningful life is so strong, that a person is ready to pay every price, even if they are aware of the threat to their health, to their and other people’s life (Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 123-137). V. E. Fankl, a psychiatrist and the creator of logotherapy from Vienna, introduced a number of terms to the therapy which can be helpful in understanding the spiritual dimension of the prevention and upbringing. Firstly, it is the will of meaning, which is possessed by every man, and which is the elementary motivation in life to fi nd and realize this unique meaning, and one can do it only independently. Not accomplishing this task leads to existential frustration, and this, in turn, leads to neurosis. Frankl says about noogenic neuroses which are the consequence of existential problems. They entail suffering, cause despair, fear and the pain of existence. Most often on this stage the mechanism of compensation and addictive regulation of feelings is activated in order not to let happen the personality destruction. In the book “To rescue from the Web”, K. Young presents fi ve stages of addiction in the form of a spiral in which particular phases depend on one another and lead a person down, namely, into increasingly deeper addiction. These stages are: discovering, experimenting, intensifi cation, inner extortion and a state of hopelessness. The fi rst stage – discovering that thanks to the Internet it is possible to relax after a hard day at school or work using different means which are available in the cyberspace – is the key. That continuous desire to learn the new possibilities that the Web gives turns the spiral on, leading to experimenting which is accompanied by a feeling of freedom and latitude, as well as social acceptance. The moral acceptance and the awareness of the fact that, after all, nothing bad is happening, one has a normal life, and the virtual life is only a game, also escalates the whole process (See: Young, Klausing, 2009, p. 70).

An information chaos Living in a permanent state of information overload in which the human brain cannot cope with processing an excessive amount of the incoming data, it is diffi cult to fi nd the attitude of constructive criticism or taking refl ection over the surrounding reality. “Technostress – being overload with the overfl ow of information which evokes a feeling of anxiety or even panic, leads to the indifference caused by the inability to absorb new content. Despite this, a person suffering from technostress seeks the meaning of their 84 Roman Solecki life in a virtual reality, in which, in an attractive and safe way, they can fi nd the substitutes of interpersonal relationships, as well as the experiences of religious nature (Young, Klausing, 2009, p. 31). A person gets an impression that one will never be on time, that they must catch up, that the overfl ow of information will never allow them to experience a full cognition, hence, only a fast and cursory selection of “the truth” learned is possible. There is a lack of the adequate media education and the conception of social development which would be orientated not only towards teaching the skills of using the new technologies to counteract “the digital exclusion”, but, most of all, towards correct and constructive teaching people attitudes towards the media, including all the levels of human development. As a consequence, the information society “instead of becoming more refl ective, is becoming more and more algorithmic, so it «likens itself» more and more to a computer, in a degree which is useless taking into account the actual needs (…) It leads to «programming» and objectifying a man” (Babik, 2010, p. 24). A machine is not refl ective, it accomplishes the tasks which are planned in advance according to the algorithms written by the programmers. In the times of the cyberspace the development of man is not keeping pace with the development of technology, and that is why it cannot prepare itself, neither intellectually nor emotionally, for the continuous changes which are taking place too quickly. The everlasting chaos and the absence of silence, the inner one as well as the outer one, often causes uncritical surrender to social movements, schemes of functioning and the consumptional vision of the world. “A so-called information depression may be the effect of the overfl ow of information, which has a relating to illness nature. This depression is a false conviction that a piece of information is worth nothing, as well as a feeling of being information «overwhelmed», and connected to this disorders in evaluation system” (Babik, 2010, p. 24). This everlasting rush of incentives and thoughts gives rise to the fact that the increasing relativism introduces an anxiety and takes away the sense of security, which leads to despair. A chance of overcoming it is the silence, in which: “a refl ection takes place, there is the act of getting to know oneself and an internal change. It helps in the composure, ruling «managing» of «myself», thanks to which one gets internal balance” (Olearczyk 2010, p. 26). It is connected to the internal life, which means: “the whole psychoemotional, cognitive and depending on the will human activity, which, though it always entails a person’s external activity, it constitutes a personal centre” (Chmielewski, 1999, p. 11). Hence, it involves everything that people do throughout their lives – the attitude towards the surrounding world and oneself depends on this. From The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 85 this fact a conclusion can be drawn that an individual’s feeling of being lost in everyday chaos is a consequence of the internal chaos, where there is no place for the silence in which a refl ection over oneself, another person and the surroundings can be born, in a micro and macrosocial scale. The skill of the active share in the Web itself (often declarative only) does not refl ect information competence, which is, in the process of learning throughout the whole life, the skill of searching for and making use of a bit of information in the effective, critical and creative way, depending on the needs, in order to solve the encountered problems3. If a person is not able to gain control over a bit of information, then how can one gain control over oneself? All the more, that: “The cyberspace has an effect on the attitudes, especially on the attitudes of a young man, and it has a more powerful effect than the patterns and models which are handed over in a traditional way by the parents, educators and teachers. For the cyberspace attracts one in a «permanent» way, talking with a total language, using the word, sound, picture, movement, infl uencing the mind, imagination, feelings” (Sarzała, 2010, p. 221).

The loneliness in silence The digital world more and more often becomes the place of experiencing existential loneliness. On the one hand someone can spend hours on surﬁ ng the net, watching videos on YouTube, browsing or publishing posts on Facebook’s wall, chatting with friends, listening to music, and, when the opportunity occurs, getting points in a favourite game. This multitasking gives an impression of being in the centre, controlling everything, caring for relations. However, on the other side of the screen there is only a bundle of cables and, most often, a wall or (that is the best option) a window with a view of the real world, in which it is “so hard to live” that only the personal, autonomous space of one’s room, or even a desk or a bed, in which, apart from us there is nobody, is everything that is left. “Although we are alone, the possibility of an almost immediate contact is reassuring. We have an impression that someone is almost with us (…) Alone with our thoughts, yet in the contact with an almost tangible fantasy of something different, we feel that we can freely start the game. We have a chance of «writing» someone whom we would like to be, we can imagine the others in the way we would like to see them – to construct them, as it were, according to our own needs” (Turkle, 2013, p. 234). Silence can “kill”, becoming a place of escape to

3 See: http://www.sbp.pl/repository/SBP/sekcje_komisje/komisja_ds_edukacji_in- formacyjnej/Wytyczne.pdf 86 Roman Solecki (or perhaps even a return from) a toxic, but giving an illusion of security, structure, the feeling of rejection, being unnoticed, sadness, emptiness, which a person desires to experience alone, being as though “there”, but really suffering “here”. As S. Turkle states „it is not diffi cult to notice that a virtual reality of a computer is an ideal embodiment of the simulacrum metaphor. So the question is if all these dot-com smiles, kisses, hugs and other virtual signs of tenderness are the expression of «authentic» feelings, or perhaps they are rather a mass trial to mask the loneliness and alienation” (Turkle, 2013, p. 251). The silence asks questions about the place in the world, the identity, the truth, that people are so afraid of. That fear, which is, among others, a consequence of the unrealised need of the feeling of security, unleashes the mechanism of reducing the stress felt with the help of isolating oneself from the world of relations in which one should be “here and now”, engaging the whole self for “You”, both in time and space. On the emotional level the mechanism of the addictive regulation of feelings is a symptom of addiction. The cyberspace, because of its omnipresence and the easiness of access, may intensify this phenomenon, becoming the place of seeking life substitutes. “There is something tellingly ironic in the fact that our thoughts go to the achievements of technology when we are thinking about the methods of softening tensions which, as we think, we have been exposed to by the technology progress” (Turkle, 2013, p. 251). The silence as a dispatch may get a negative form, being an attitude of indifference towards another man or a fear of expressing oneself, expressing one’s thoughts, feelings, views, behaviours, which can be met with a lack of affi rmation and, as a consequence, with rejection. It does not mean, however, the internal peace or a lack of interest in another person because of emotional emptiness which accompanies the relation, but it is rather a communication of not verbalized and uncovered experiences. Therefore the indifference or an emotional distance is a defensive mechanism so that someone does not discover our harms (See: Olearczyk, 2010, p. 27). That is why “we hide ourselves from one another. In text messages, e-mails and the messages sent via different communicators we show as much as we hide. We can be alone and introduce ourselves the way we want to be seen. We can also «arrange» contacts with people at our own pace. Listening only slows down this process” (Turkle, 2013, p. 257). There is something contradictory in the placement of silence in the life of information society. Its presence while using the Internet and a computer should, as in everyday life, constitute the space for refl ection, peace and rest. In the case of the new technologies, however, it becomes the place of both active engagement in the Web and postponed experiencing emotions, and what is a paradox, these two roles The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 87 interpenetrate. “The Internet has introduced pragmatism in the transfer of information, which has eclipsed meditation thinking which is characteristic for traditional communication. This space has a dynamic character which helps to reassert the culture of the present time, only the thing that comes about in a given moment counts” (Siemieniecki, 2010, p. 261). On the other hand, the asynchronous communication is believed to be better than a real talk because during such a “face to face” meeting a person has less “bordering” – there is a lack of proper borders, one can say not what they want, too quickly, too much, without control and a longer consideration. There comes a fear of being suspended in the vacuum, and a dialogue partner gets an impression that his/her interlocutor wants him/her to maintain and continue the conversation. Its end is thought to be a rejection. It is caused by the multitasking and a repeatedly accelerated pace of life where the wasted time is treated as something unacceptable, so the communication should be precise and shortened because there is no time for analyses. Where does such a state of affairs originate? “In the macro scale the shortening of the time that passes between new inventions, their practical results, introduction and spread is ascertained. The dynamics of human behaviours is also changed. Undertaking a bigger and bigger number of tasks in, after all, unchangeable units of time, which has been noted down for decades, means shorter time of their existence. Shortening the course of social things – interpersonal meetings, conversations, meals, dialogues performed with oneself – gives many negative effects (Ledzińska, 2010, p.169). For the internal silence to come about, some time and the adequate preparation to it, which is hushing up, is needed. In a way, the technologies shorten the time of performing some tasks, but actually they take even more of it to use it in the other forms of digital activity. In the age of dot-com information-communication technologies there appears a new defi nition of stress, as pressure exerted and experienced in real time. People cannot conduct social life in the way they used to do it in the past, they lack enough strength even for a telephone contact. While logging into Facebook they feel less lonely, even if nobody of their friends is logged in at the moment they feel their presence. Browsing their activity in the Internet, looking at their posted photos and reading their comments, they feel they are up-to-date, that they keep on being in touch with the world. Everlasting tiredness causes the fact that they are not ready for another person and face to face meetings. An aversion to telephones appears because using them one can only talk in real time, and this is becoming more and more tiresome. It is better to stay at home without the necessity of daring to get into personal contact, no commitments, it is better to be alone, it is calm, safe, one does 88 Roman Solecki not have to dedicate all attention to another person, one can distance oneself from his/her feelings, experience them at one’s own pace. The progress of technology has not only contributed to this state of human condition, but it has also created proper tools thanks to which we can deal with the effects of the digital revolution, wading even further into its consequences. “The electronic mail gives people an occasion to have a greater control over the time and their emotions (…) Portable devices which serve to communicate with the world (e.g. short-text-messages, Facebook, Twitter) have made it possible that we can inform our friends about our experiences at such a pace at which we almost live them, but such a system takes its revenge on us. We express ourselves in clipped, off-hand messages, nevertheless, we write a lot and not infrequently our messages reach many people. Therefore, we get more and more answers – the material is so broad that we feel exhausted at a simple thought of the contacts which would not be in a written form” (Turkle, 2013, p. 257). From the research carried out by A. Chrzanowska a conclusion can be drawn that what has been worked out by a man thoughtfully may have an effect on their automatic reaction. As she states in the conclusion: “A characteristic for modern times ambivalence related to the broadening of the range of possibilities is experienced strongly by the young people who are at the threshold of the adult life. On the one hand – a conviction about the freedom of choice, a desire of shaping one’s life according to self-defi ned aims and favourable conditions for it; yet, on the other hand – a feeling of being lost, the diffi culties with the full commitment, the uncertainty resulting from the lack of evident road signs indicating how to live (…) The values chosen by a man change his/her functioning in a real way – they direct the future activity, constrict the infl uence of the automatic processes of regulation, favour shaping of one’s life in a conscious and considered way. While creating educational and pedagogical programmes the motif of values cannot be omitted – independently from the level of technological development, they always constitute a foundation owing to which the knowledge and the skills are used with a profi t for the development of an individual and their surroundings” (Chrzanowska, 2010, p. 70). Knowing that in the world of the cyberspace we never leave our station, and that is why we try to defend ourselves against the rigour of affairs happening in the real time, it is worth searching for the solutions which will help us to function in the world of computers and the Internet in a better way. The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 89 Guarding factors and risk factors The chance of the overall infl uence on a person lost in the Web is the integration of prevention which should be carried out on three levels. The fi rst one is the so-called environmental prevention which connects the actions of individual institutions and educational environments, which support one another, into one unity. The second level means the infl uence on both the recipient of a given prevention programme and the people who have some infl uence on the recipient and who are related to him/her (parents, educators, teachers). The third aspect of the integration depends on connecting the assumptions of different areas and domains of prevention, departing from the programmes which have a narrow range of infl uence and concern only one substance or threat (Grzelak 2009, pp. 326-327). It seems to be a necessary measure because the educational diffi culties, which are experienced by parents or teachers in regard to their charges, often result from the adults not being well-organized, the lack of integrity and the sense of meaningfulness, the emotional and spiritual immaturity. That is why all the prevention infl uence should not be limited only to children and the youth, but, as it is with the continuous education throughout the whole life, also the prevention should be an inseparable constituent of the social functioning of an individual and a group. Perhaps here the effects of the prevention programmes and the assumptions fail to meet the most, as they engage the parents and the teachers in a minimal degree. We know that the problem of addiction is not the question of a substance or a thing alone, but, to tell the truth, it is the question of a man in a life crisis. For that reason Sz. Grzelak has proposed a concept of the integrated prevention which does not limit itself to counteracting just one substance or an addictive action only, but it takes into account a broad fi eld of infl uence: “The integrated prevention is such prevention whose aim is to effectively stop a possibly broad spectrum of the youth’s risky behaviours and problems (e.g. nicotine, alcohol, drugs, violence, depression, teenage pregnancies, HIV/ AIDS and other STI) and it uses the methodology which gives the biggest chance of achieving a good proportion of the expenditure in regard to the effects (cost-effectiveness)” (Grzelak 2009, p. 328). Making the anthropological analysis of risky behaviours undertaken in the cyberspace, it is worth having a closer look at the risk factors and the guarding factors whose infl uence is a key constituent that correlates with the pathological usage of the Internet. 90 Roman Solecki

Risk factors Guarding factors features, situations, conditions which features, situations, conditions which favour undertaking risky behaviours, increase the resistance to risk factors, which are rooted in an individual or the which are rooted in an individual or the surroundings surroundings - cultural norms which provoke or - constructive family environment promote problematic behaviours - strong bond with parents - local environment which promotes - positive and supportive social problematic behaviours surroundings - modelling risky behaviour at school and - good personal relations with teachers home - constructive peer group - indifference to or acceptance of stimulants and risky behaviours from - respect for social norms and values family’s side - success and interest in learning - addiction or overuse in family (engagement in one’s own future and development) - aggressive behaviours and symptoms of hyperactivity present in childhood - regular religious practice - confl icts and experience of being lonely, - skill of dealing with diffi cult emotions, isolation, rejection in childhood naming and expressing them - dysfunctional peer group - presence of authorities, positive meaningful people in life - easy access to psychoactive substances - fashion for development - weak learning results, lack of interests and goals in life - refl ective approach to life - early initiation of risky behaviours Source: Miłkowska 2012, p. 231 and Hawkins, Catalano, Miller 1992, pp. 64-105.

In contrast, M. Dziewiecki divides all the factors and circumstances that favour addictions into two groups: “The ﬁ rst group concerns the internal factors, so the factors related to the personal situation and the way of conduct of a given boy or a girl. The second group concerns the external factors, so the factors mainly related to the closes environment in which the young live and the dominating social and cultural trends in our civilisation” (Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 141-142).

The factors belonging to the internal threats: • problems with emotions, • desire to cheering oneself up, • search for easy happiness, • states of fear, anxiety, bitterness, depression, • complexes, The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 91 • internal emptiness, • disturbed relations, • lack of deepened desires and aspirations, • incapacity to use freedom, • lack of spiritual and religious maturity, • lack of taking responsibility for life and conduct, • search for interim pleasure and relief, • uncritical adoption of social tendencies, • lack of resistance to frustration, • search for strong emotions and sensations.

On the other hand, the external threats are: • a family that does not function correctly (a lack of mature hierarchy of values, conduct models and relations based on love, life consumerism); • an unfavourable social context (a lack of positive educational values, showing the real meaning of life, chasing easy proﬁ ts, presenting youth as the fullness of life and not as a difﬁ cult phase of development); • a bad cultural context (a warped concept of democracy and the free market, fashionable educational systems – stress-free and liberal); • mass media (promoting an irresponsible philosophy of life, pushing for misunderstood tolerance shown as a ban on distinguishing the good and the truth from the evil and the lie (Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 142-144). Sustaining the guarding factors and the elimination of the risk factors can cause the decrease of the amount of the occurring threats, both the internal and external ones.

How to counteract? A man who is developed totally, integrally and spiritually is internally well-organized, thanks to which he/she is resistant to the external. Hence, this is the best way for the prevention of all the risky behaviours. An interesting practical solution that integrates our previous analyses can be the pedagogy of experiences, which: “is a method orientated towards action, which, through the characteristic process of learning when young people face physical, psychological and social challenges, wants to support their personality development and enable them to shape their life environment responsibly” (Werner, 2011, p. 14). The key element here is individually working out and changing life happenings and sensations (nature, sport, other people, special challenges) 92 Roman Solecki into events over which a reﬂ ection is carried out, and, as a consequence, an experience is created. Then, from these experiences which are enriched by a pedagogical instruction (the authority of a master-guide) knowledge and cognition is built which is transferred into everyday life (Michl, 2011, pp. 12-13). A measure that is necessary as well, at least once in a while, is a technological detox, which is coming back to the roots, in order to search for such a place where there are no new technologies and media, where one can stop, rest, hush, in beautiful nature surroundings, where one can take a trip into the deep of oneself, talk to oneself, learn to talk to another person, appreciate the value of that which exists without the digital civilisation and is enough for a man to get the fullness of happiness, in order to take a proper attitude towards the cyberspace and the information-communication tools which are here only to make some elements of our every-day reality more efﬁ cient and which are not here to substitute the real life.

Bibliography: 1. Babik W. , O natłoku informacji i związanym z nim przeciążeniu informacyjnym [in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010. 2. Chmielewski M., Sto jeden pytań o życie duchowe, Lublin 1999. 3. Chrzanowska A., Jak odnajdywać drogowskazy w społeczeństwie informacyjnym? O znaczeniu osobistych standardów wartościowania [in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010. 4. Dziewiecki M., Kochać i wymagać, Wyd. ESPE, Kraków 2006. 5. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profi laktyka uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Jedność, Kielce 2009. 6. Frankl V. E., Człowiek w poszukiwaniu sensu , Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca, Warszawa 2009. 7. Grzelak Sz., Profi laktyka ryzykownych zachowań seksualnych młodzieży. Aktualny stan badań na świecie i w Polsce, Wydawnictwo Rubikon, Kraków 2009. 8. Hawkins J. D., Catalano R. F., Miller J. Y., Risk and Protective Fac- tors for Alcohol and other Drugs Problems in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: Implications for Substance Abuse Prevetion, “Psychological Bulletin”, 1992, vol. 112, no. 1 [in:]: K. A. Wojcieszek, Na początku była rozpacz. Antropologiczne podstawy profi laktyki, Rubikon, Kraków 2005. The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace 93 9. Kocowski T., Potrzeby człowieka. Koncepcja systemowa, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1982. 10. Ledzińska M., Człowiek wobec czasu i techniki – refl eksje psychologiczne [in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny, Kraków 2010. 11. Majchrzak P., Ogińska-Bulik N., Uzależnienie od Internetu, Wydawnict- wo Akademii Humanistyczno-Ekonomicznej w Łodzi, Łódź 2010. 12. Michl W., Pedagogika przeżyć, WAM, Kraków 2011. 13. Miłkowska G., Działania profi laktyczne w pracy szkoły, [in:] Nowosad I, Mortag I, Ondrakova J (red.), Jakość życia i jakość szkoły, Zielona Góra 2012. 14. Obuchowski K., Przez galaktykę potrzeb. Psychologia dążeń ludzkich, Zysk i S-ka Wydawnictwo, Poznań 1995. 15. Olearczyk T., Pedagogika ciszy, WAM, Kraków 2010. 16. Oleś P. K.., Wprowadzenie do psychologii osobowości, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2011. 17. Sarzała D., Cyberprzestrzeń jako źródło zagrożeń procesu socjalizacji i wychowania, [in:] B. Chrostowska, E. Kantowicz, C. Kurowski (red.), Pedagogika społeczna wobec problemów współczesnej młodzieży. Pol- ska pedagogika społeczna na początku XXI wieku, Toruń 2010. 18. Siemieniecki B., Odbiór informacji a działanie w Internecie [in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010. 19. Turkle S., Samotni razem, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2013. 20. Young K., Klausing P., Uwolnić się z sieci. Uzależnienie od Internetu, Księgarnia św. Jacka, Katowice 2009.

Netnography: 1. Makaruk K., Wójcik Sz., EU-NET ADB Badanie nadużywania Internetu przez młodzież w Polsce. Źródło: http://fdn.pl/eu-net-adb (dostęp: 6.02.2013). 2. Szafraniec K., Młodzi 2011. Źródło: http://kprm.gov.pl/Mlodzi_2011_ alfa.pdf (dostęp: 4.06.2012). 3. http://www.sbp.pl/repository/SBP/sekcje_komisje/komisja_ds_ edukacji_informacyjnej/Wytyczne.pdf

Part II

Challenges and Opportunities of Socio-Educational Activities

Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy...

Małgorzata PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Prof. Dr. Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland) Justinas SADAUSKAS Assoc. Prof. Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social Technologies, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work (Lithuania) Agata KATKONIENĖ, M.Ed. Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social Technologies, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work (Lithuania)

Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy – Chosen Contexts and Theoretical Implications

Abstract: The paper presents issues related to notions of poverty and social exclusion. The authors show the scale of this problem, redeﬁ ne notions of poverty and social exclusion pointing at differences and similarities between them. The key issue, which is not frequently discussed in the literature, is presentation of selected actions undertaken by the social pedagogy within the scope of ﬁ ghting against poverty and social exclusion.

Key words: poverty, social exclusion, education.

Introduction The issues of poverty and social exclusion are more and more often discussed by the Researchers in literature nowadays. George Simmel and Max Weber are thought to be the precursors of the deliberation on these issues. 98 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė Further deliberations on these issues were undertaken by Mancur Olson and James Buchanan. The authors in their theories referred to groups which were sharing some goods and at the same time were excluding others from using them (see: Szarfenberg, 2005). Nowadays, the issues of poverty and social exclusion begin to be of civilization character. It cannot be compared with the phenomenon of poverty in such countries as: Haiti, Nepal, Swaziland, Liberia, Chad, Madagascar, Mozambique or Zambia, in which, as the report of the World Bank shows – more than 50% of population lives for less than 1.25 USD a day (Małuszyńska, Gruchman 2010, p. 279). At the level of the European Union countries poverty refers mainly to an unemployed or low-income individual or a family, which hinders leading a normal life and social functions. Such individuals or families tend to live in poor housing, have hindered access to medical care and experiences barriers and all kinds of obstacles in access to education and widely understood recreation. Social exclusion threatens functioning of an individual limiting possibility of expressing views and also active participation in the social life (Małuszyńska, Gruchman 2010, p. 279). Economically well-developed countries are becoming more and more concerned about the problem of poverty. According to Eurostat (2012) 24,8% of population (corressponding to 125 million persons) was at risk of poverty or social exclusion, compared with 24.3% in 2011 and 23.7% in 2008. In 2012, the highest shares of persons being at risk of poverty or social exclusion were recorded in Bulgaria (49%), Romania (42%), Latvia (37%) and Greece (35%), and the lowest in the Netherlands and the Czech Republic (both 15%), Finland (17%), Sweden and Luxembourg (both 18%) (Eurostat News Release, 2013). Continual globalization of the world leads to conjectures and forecasts that the level of poverty in the world will increase and priorities and guidelines in the ﬁ ght against poverty and social exclusion worked out by the European Union prove these speculations. Therefore, according to the authors of the paper it is crucial to familiarize with these issues and present chosen propositions of actions aiming at ﬁ ghting against poverty and exclusion as challenges for contemporary social pedagogy.

Poverty and social exclusion. Attempt to redefi ne the notions It is impossible to defi ne poverty explicitly and precisely at the same time. However, as the literature shows this notion is of a multidimensional Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy... 99 nature – it is defi ned not only by the experts and Researchers of this issue but more and more often the poor themselves undertake attempts to do it. The international project Voices of the Poor,1 which was commenced by the World Bank, shows that poverty can be referred to different dimensions and different ways of reasoning.

Picture 1. Chosen redeﬁ nitions of poverty formulated by the poor

Source: own research on the basis of: R. Szarfenberg, Social-economic status in the context of anti-discriminatory and social policy2.

General outline of presented deﬁ nitions of poverty according to the poor, who experience it themselves, presents subjective image of experienced poverty, which excludes the person from the society. Life in poverty often forces (adults) parents to lie their children, who while being hungry demand food from their parents. One of the poor, who participated in the above mentioned project gave a “heart-breaking” account of poverty: ”My children were hungry and I was telling them that rice is being cooked, so that they could fall asleep out of being hungry”- and old man from Egypt recalled. Poverty formulated by the poor determines the image of deep subjectivity resulting from experienced poverty, famine, humiliation and constant dependency from others. Researchers deﬁ ne poverty in broader extent referring it to deprivation of possibilities and choices,

1 Project Voices of the Poor consisted in collecting information about understanding of poverty by women and men from different 60 countries from all over the world. 60,000 people took part in the project. Quotation after: R. Szarfenberg, Social-economic status in the context of anti-discriminatory and social policy. Material comes from the project: Net for promoting equality and diversity in actions of the public administration ”Equality and Diversity – in praxis” carried out by the Fund of Cooperation and The Anti-discrimination Education Association. 2 Material comes from the project: Net for promoting equality and diversity in actions of the public administration ”Equality and Diversity – in praxis” carried out by the Fund of Cooperation and The Anti-discrimination Education Association, p. 7. 100 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė which are fundamental for the human development, for healthy and creative life, freedom, dignity and respect to oneself and caring for being respected by others (Szarfenberg, 2005, p. 7-8). The review of scientifi c literature devoted to problem of poverty indicated that defi nitions of this notion, which are made by researches, refer to lack of satisfying of basic and socially recognized needs. The authors identify poverty, as the issue of contextual nature – it differs depending on the territory and often changes along with the time. Continuous evaluation and development of societies causes broadening of the scope of needs which are recognized as the basic ones (Wójcicka-Żołądek, 2012, p. 1). Therefore the scope and depth of poverty are established on the basis of different indexes. Poverty can be recognized in an absolute and relative way. In the absolute approach it includes individuals, families, or households, which are not able to fulfi l their basic needs. The level of life of these people is established irrespective of level of life of different members of the society. In turn, poverty of individuals in the relative approach is referred to the level of fulfi lment of needs of other members of society (Wójcicka-Żołądek, 2012, p.1-2). Experiencing of poverty is very often bound with social exclusion, which in literature is understood widely. People who are not able to satisfy their basic needs themselves, because of their life situation - face poverty and that is how the process of social exclusion is defi ned. These are people who e.g. do not possess their own income, do not obtain unemployment benefi t, pre-retirement benefi t, or any other fi nancial benefi ts (structural pension, pre-retirement pension, social pension etc.). Homeless, alcohol and drug addicts, mentally sick, handicapped, people leaving prison and refugees are the most exposed to poverty and social exclusion (Siudem, 2008, p. 11-12). Concept of social exclusion includes social aspects - quality of social relationships in everyday networks (family, relatives, friends, coworkers) and problem of stigmatization (when people from socially excluded groups, in order to reintegrate into society, must overcome contempt and isolation (see: Sadauskas, 2008). Other views on social exclusion redefi ned as process are presented in picture no. 2. As it results from the material presented in Diagram 2, social exclusion as a process is effect of not only lack of resources, or refusal of social works, but also refers to total, or partial ”cut off”, limitation of access to different systems leading at the same time to widely understood deprivation. According to the French Researchers (Robert Castel, Alain Touraine, Didier Lapeyronnie) social exclusion is: ”a new process of disqualifi cation resulting from increase of risk of social problems because of crisis of employment and processes, which weaken social bonds; transition from vertical society, where people were either on the top, or at the bottom, to the horizontal one, where Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy... 101 Picture 2. Social exclusion, as a process – selected redefi nitions

Source: own research on the basis of: I. Siudem, Selected issues concerning social exclusion (Siudem, 2008, s. 9-12) the problem is not whether one is on the top, or at the bottom, but whether one is inside, or outside; formulation of ”excessive” population, useless subclass, which will probably be permanently not adapted, and with which nobody knows what to do” (quotation of: Siudem, 2008, p. 12-13). The above presented selected redefi nitions of the notion of social exclusion include explanation of poverty; therefore one can say that sometimes these notions are identical. According to K.W. Frieske, relation between poverty and social exclusion can be described in the following way: ”poverty [...] is such peculiar circumstances, which do not let people participate in collective life [...], in substantial way it decreases their possibilities in participation in basic social institutions starting from family and ending on the judiciary” (quotation of: Szarfenberg 2006). Ryszard Szarfenberg (2006, p. 25-26) connects relations between poverty and social exclusion with ways of conceptualization of poverty, as multidimensional process, social standards and differentiation of the population of the poor. Social exclusion may substitute poverty as a description of unfavourable situation of an individual, be a crucial element in counting the poverty line taking into consideration such elements as individual’s (family) income, or consumption. It can also be reason and consequence of the material poverty. The author points out that “social exclusion is a normative notion basing on the idea of social justice, which differs from this which dominates in utilitarianism which is basis of the most of (but not all) ways of thinking about the poverty” (Szarfenberg 2006, p. 26). Distinct differences in redefi nitions of notions of poverty and social exclusion are presented in Diagram 3, which was worked out on the basis of propositions of Peter Abrahamson and Ryszard Szarfenberg. 102 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė Picture 3. Poverty and social exclusion. Differences in defi ning notions

Source: own on the basis of: R. Szarfenberg (2006, p. 26), Marginalization and social exclusion.

Graham Room, quoted by R. Szarfenberg (2005, p. 26) also points at differentiating poverty from social exclusion. According to him poverty has nature of fi nancial defi cit, which for some time worsens fi nancial-living conditions of an individual and/or family. There is lack of money for basic needs connected with life and social functioning (i.e. paying rent, buying basic food etc.). Poverty is the low part of the scale of inequality. Social exclusion in turn is of multi-dimensional and interactive nature; it is long- lasting and can be passed on by generations (dynamics of the process). There is lack of social involvement, integration, power, social relationships. There is total break of bonds with society (Szarfenberg, 2006, p. 27). Ryszard Szarfenberg analysed differences prepared by Graham Room in defi ning poverty and social exclusion and indicated that these notions have similar meaning (notion of poverty, especially the relative one in reference to functioning in society). According to Szarfenberg, undertaken efforts within the scope of distinguishing differences between these notions can lead to considerable oversimplifying or limitation of issues connected with poverty Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy... 103 (e.g. only income aspects and states) or social exclusion (e.g. lack of income aspects and only dynamic aspects (Szarfenberg, 2006, p. 27).

Determinants of poverty and social exclusion. Chosen implications The above mentioned differences in deﬁ ning poverty and social exclusion indicate that the border between these notions is very thin – some authors indicate that these notions have similar meanings. The process of forming social exclusion depends to some extent on poverty which is inﬂ uenced very often by low education (or its lack) which leads to more frequent experiencing of unemployment. The schematism of casual relationships leading to social exclusions is presented in Diagram 4.

Picture 4. Typical patterns of casual relationships concerning social exclusion

Source: own research on the basis of literature.

The causes of poverty leading to social exclusion are of objective and subjective nature according to the report ”Problem of poverty and social exclusion in opinion of social workers from the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship” which was worked out in 2010 within the frames of the European Social Fund. The group of objective determinants includes a set of factors so called external ones and these are economic, sociodemographic, social-political and random factors. Subjective determinants in turn point at differences in individual possibilities, beliefs, and attitudes (passive), behaviours which sometimes make people choose a given lifestyle intentionally (Zespół Obserwatorium Integracji Społecznej, 2010, p. 5). Subjective determinants of experiencing poverty depend on so called external determinants, very often including complex groups of factors which general outline is presented in Diagram 5. The process in which social exclusion comes into being is the effect of poverty, which depends on individual traits of the person and social- demographic factors. Due to this fact it may be shaped in various ways. Individuals, who are unemployed for a long time, much more often face 104 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė Picture 5. Selected causes of poverty

Source: Municipal Centre of Family Support in Zamość, Guide for social workers, Zamość 2008.

poverty and social exclusion, which in consequence has impact on methods of work with them during making the process of inclusion (see: Błeszyński, 2012, p. 139-153). Determinants of poverty and social exclusion are very wide both in the subjective and objective context. However, because of limitations related to volume of the papers, the authors resign from making deeper analyses in this direction consciously. However, one has to indicate that subjective dimension of determinants is very individual and therefore it depends on many factors, Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy... 105 which are stuck in the individual themselves. That is why it would be difﬁ cult to determine full dimension of these determinants.

Propositions of exemplifi cations of social pedagogy actions in fi ght against poverty and social exclusion The results of observations of the social environment, as well as scientifi c research (see: London, Anupindi, Sheth 2010; Gupta 2010) indicate that people experiencing poverty possess valuable “reserves” of intellectual property, which they are not able to use without help. They are not able to participate in a “global knowledge net”. Social exclusion, which is experienced by poor people in contemporary market economy, which is based foremost on the knowledge, should be recognized as ”disability”, because it has negative infl uence on possibilities of promotion to different levels. H. de Soto (2000, p. 6) indicates that there is ”dead capital” in the poor, which because of lack of development possibilities, exclusion, so lack of access to the “global knowledge network” is not used. According to Sridev Shivarajan and Aravind Srinivasan (2013, p. 382-406) it is necessary to provide the poor with access to full education, which is available for rightful participants of the social life, what can contribute to complete use of the “intellectual resources” and decrease of poverty and foremost social exclusion. Possibilities of broadening and using knowledge as the ”market capital” not only improve general physical and mental state of the poor, but fi rst of all human’s value and dignity. Through experiencing social integration the poor become more self-confi dent and open for the needs of the market. Making conditions, which would facilitate access to education and knowledge constituting basis for the globalizing world, is the challenge for the contemporary social pedagogy. The key for fi ght against poverty and social exclusion is facilitating access to numerous subjects of the ”global knowledge net”, shaping bonds in order to build trust for the poor and the ones who are socially excluded and vice versa. The great potential of the poor is the priority element in making the fi rst contact step with non-governmental organizations and international corporations. International actions, which are led as voluntary actions and which make the excluded (poor) people participate in actions undertaken by other members of society such as: learning, work, possibilities of spending free time, are helpful in making such contacts. As Ireneusz Siudem (2008, p. 81-90) indicates, voluntary service ”gives chance of using one’s own abilities and experiences, developing interests, getting 106 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė experience in new disciplines, making friends and being engaged in social life”. Preparation of a reliable diagnose on the areas, where this problem is the most serious, constitutes the crucial issue in fi ght against poverty and social exclusion from the point of view of actions which are undertaken by the social pedagogy. It is proposed that not only adults (parents, supervisors), but also children should be included in the holistic diagnose, as more and more often this problem is transmitted by generations –”children brought up in poor and excluded families inherit it”. European Union (2008) also pays attention to it and in elaborated priorities and guidelines points at “intergenerational transmitting of poverty, and also poverty experienced by children in institutional forms of care”. Therefore all non-governmental institutions, associations, foundations, institutions and centres conducting learning-educational process, so all subjects functioning locally, which possess knowledge about problems of the local society, should be included in the fi ght against poverty. The assumption of actions of these subjects should be elimination in the broad scope of all inequalities in access to education (in reference to adults participation in trainings concerning acquiring of new competences e.g. in the scope of IT skills) and promoting equal access to new information-communication technologies. The age and gender of individuals should be taken into consideration in diagnosing the problem and creating appropriate tools which are indispensable in fi ght against poverty and social exclusion, because they are important factors in undertaken actions. Facilitation of access to cultural institutions and recreation especially on the rural and small-town areas, where despite substantial fi nancial support provided within frames of carried out EU projects, inequalities on this fi eld still can be noticed, constitutes a real challenge for social pedagogy in the fi ght against poverty and social exclusion. Access of the youth to rich and foremost free ”range” of forms of recreation lets fi ll excess of the free time appropriately what at the same time (to some extent) protects it against negative infl uence of the youth subcultures in which alcohol, drugs or different kinds of designer drugs are nearly for the asking (see: Jędrzejko, Netczuk-Gwoździewicz 2013; Jędrzejko 2012, Przybysz-Zaremba 2013, p. 145-164; Dončevová, 2014. p. 77 – 101).

Conclusion Summing up, the above presented selected exempliﬁ cations of actions do not exhaust full possibilities undertaken by the social pedagogy within the scope of poverty and exclusion. They just signal actions, which not always Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy... 107 are noticed, or undertaken by schools and institutions. The priority action within this scope is necessity of diagnose of the ﬁ rst symptoms leading to poverty and social exclusion, which may to some extent prevent from e.g. experiencing intergenerational poverty. It is advisable to promote voluntary service among students, as it is unfortunately rare nowadays.

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Auksė ŠERSTOBOJEVA, M.Ed. Vilnius University (Lithuania) Tomas BUTVILAS, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ph.D., M.Ed. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family

Abstract: Child’s education and its implementation may become a very sensitive issue in a family where both parents are of a different cultural background. As the number of multilingual families has been increasing all over the world, including Lithuania, it is important to fi nd out how multilingual parents deal with child’s education within a family from different perspectives. Only few researches of Lithuanian scientists concentrate on this phenomenon however in the context of emigration. Thus the article is important because of the analysis of the characteristics of children‘s education in ethnically diverse families that live in Lithuania. In this article the term ethnically diverse family is used when considering the parents that are of a different nationality and more than one language is used within a family. The main issue of the article is what characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family can be distinguished from linguistic, social, cultural and value education perspectives? What theoretical-empirical model can be applied for child’s education in an ethnically diverse family? The object of the article is child’s education in an ethnically diverse family from parents’ point of view. The aim of the research is to examine the characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family. Having analyzed questionnaires, distributed to each parent, and qualitative data, gathered from semi-structured interviews, it was revealed that all families apply a strategy of trilingualism and it can be already seen in 1 year old child’s behavior. In order to develop child’s multilingualism parents mostly read books or play songs on CD in different languages. Child’s social 110 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas education takes place within family, in Lithuanian kindergarten, when seeing other families, mostly Lithuanian, constantly communicating with relatives who live abroad by using technologies and regularly visiting the country of foreign-born parent. Children are introduced to both cultures mostly through food variety in daily life and events as well as by incorporating various traditions in calendar celebrations. The values that unite family have an effect on child’s education. Parents in an ethnically diverse family transfer intercultural values, such as respect, tolerance, openness, fl exibility, to children. Although parents encounter issues such as child’s identity problem, they are much more focused on the advantages: openness, multilingualism (related to more possibilities in life), fl exibility, broader world-view, cultural richness, personal maturity and curiosity.

Keywords: education, cultural values, multilingualism, trilingualism, ethnically diverse family.

Introduction It is known that migration of people began thousands of years ago. In recent decades the impact of globalization, communication and transportation has been spreading throughout the whole world. The disjunction between different cultures starts disappearing and the number of bilingual (when two languages are used in a family) and multilingual (when two or more languages are used in a family) families increases every year in Lithuania and other countries. Statistics shows the increase of ethnically diverse families: 2.2 million couples get married every year in European Union, 16% of them are ethnically diverse. In such families cultural differences become very distinct. Statistics of Lithuania also reveals the growth of ethnically diverse families: 9 years ago 2 400 Lithuanians got married to foreigners, 3 100 of them got married in 2010 year, 3 300 (16%) Lithuanians got married to foreigners 3 years ago. The attitude towards ethnically diverse family was negative in the 20th century in Lithuania. It was caused by the occupation of Lithuania and Global Wars. Research of ethnically diverse families conducted in the middle of the 20th century (according to Darcy, Smith, Carrow, McDermott, Fukunaga) revealed the domination of one of the parents cultural values and the neglection of other parent’s values: “Mixed marriages lead into death” (Girnius, 1969, p. Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family 111 49). During the last decades of the 20th century more and more advantages of child’s education in ethnically diverse family were revealed. Thus the attitude towards such families started to change. Unfortunately, even nowadays many people are intolerant to other cultures, afraid of cultural interactions in order to prevent their own culture. Only few Lithuanian researchers (Norvilas, 1981; Aleksandravičius and Kuzmickaitė, 2008; Jasilionienė, 2010; Mazolevskienė, 2010; Bobinienė, 2012) have examined child‘s education in ethnically diverse and transnational families from various perspectives. The aspect of multilingualism has been studied mostly during the last few decade (Innis, 1973; Harding & Riley, 1997; Grosjean, 1999; Tokuhama- Espinosa, 2001; Baker, 2006; King, Mackey, 2007; Auer, Wei, 2009), other aspects of child‘s education in an ethnically diverse family have been conducted not so often (Innis, 1973; Grosjean, 1983; Locke, 1992; Greenfi eld, & Cocking, 1994; Cummins, 2000; Adler, 2002; Tamis-Lemonda, 2004; Leeds-Hurwitz, 2005; Hong, Wan, No & Chiu, 2006; Crippen & Brew, 2007; Romano, 2008; Choudry, 2010. Values play a very important role in ethnically diverse families. The cultural heritage can be transmitted through traditions, religion, languages, communication with the people outside the family and a very important aspect – children‘s education. When two different cultures overlap, it can cause many confl icts. That is why parents have to decide what languages have to be chosen and how they will be used, what edutainment devices will be picked in order to educate children, what values and cultures to engraft, and how to construct and build child’s multicultural identity (see Przybysz- Zaremba, 2011, 2011a). Thus this article is important because of the analysis of the characteristics of children‘s education in ethnically diverse families that live in Lithuania. The term ethnically diverse family is used when considering the parents that are of a different nationality and more than one language is used within a family. Having analyzed the corresponding literature on this topic, the scientifi c research problem was formulated: what characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family can be distinguished from linguistic, social, cultural and value education perspectives? What theoretical-empirical model can be applied for child’s education in an ethnically diverse family? The object of the research is child’s education in an ethnically diverse family from parents’ point of view. The aim of the research is to examine the characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family. In order to achieve the aim of the research, the following objectives have been set: 112 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas To present linguistic and social education features of a child raised in an ethnically diverse family: (1) To analyze the importance of parents‘ cultures and values from child‘s education perspective. (2) To examine the issues that parents who raise multilingual children, encounter and distinguish parents’ attitude towards the advantages of children who are raised in an ethnically diverse family. Methodology of the research is based on the following theoretical frames: • Don C. Locke (1992) – a model of multicultural understanding. The cultural components (acculturation, concept of poverty, history of oppression, language and the arts, racism and prejudice, socio- political factors, child rearing practices, religious practices, family structure, cultural values and attitudes) that make an effect on the identity of an individual, family and community are distinguished in this model. • W. Leeds-Hurwitz (2005) theory, that connections between culture/ communication, process/product, confl ict/consensus, details/whole, individual/society, tradition/creativity, social interaction/ media, private/public, sacred/secular have an infl uence on child‘s education in an ethnically diverse family. The following research methods have been applied to achieve these objectives: theoretical analysis of scientifi c literature, survey methods, organizing questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with parents of children who are raised in ethnically diverse families, qualitative data analysis. The participants of the research: parents (N=9), who raise their children in an ethnically diverse families (N=5). Research on Child‘s Education in an Ethnically Diverse Family: The Procedures, methods and data collection There were fi ve ethnically diverse families participated in the research: • one of the parent’s native language is Lithuanian; • live in Lithuania at least since the fi rst child was born; • have children 0-6 years old; • use three languages within a family. The target group was parents whose native language differs, that come from different cultural backgrounds, areas and who raise children aged 0-6 years old. Questionnaires were sent to every parent to get key information Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family 113 concerning person’s age, gender, nationality, number of languages a person can communicate in and the circumstances the languages were learnt. The main method was the semi standardized interview that was carried out either in English or in Lithuanian with one or both parents. The questions for the semi standardized interview were prepared in advance and written both in Lithuanian and English. During every interview more questions were given to get specifi c information or to clarify it. The interviewer was guiding interviewees but also let them to discuss freely. 5 families participated in interviews (5 interviews were conducted in total): 3 families were represented by both parents and 2 families by one parent. In total 8 parents. To stay neutral the names of interviewees were not used or changed to numbers (number stands for a particular family) and letters (“a” stands for a woman and “b” for a man). The length of the interview was from 60 to 95 minutes. Parents were given questions, concerning personal information, language education of the children in the family environment, children’s education and linguistic behavior outside the family, issues they come across and advantages of children who are raised in multilingual family. After interviewing parents, all the recorded data was transcribed the way it was recorded. Content analysis was used studying each family case. Analysis of Biographical Data of Parents The dominant age group of research participants was between 31-40 years old: 7 out of 10 parents.

Picture 1. Participants’ age groups (N) 114 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas One of the parents of each family is Lithuanian and another parent is of a different nationality (see ﬁ gure 2).

Picture 2. Participants’ nationality (N)

Speaking about the research participants’ education, it is worth to mention that 9 out of 10 parents received at least Bachelor Degree in Higher Education: one parent, who comes originally from India, has graduated from the Lower Secondary School; 3 parents graduated in the fi eld of philology and one of them has a teacher qualifi cation as well; others (6 parents) fi nished their studies in another fi eld and 4 of them have achieved the qualifi cation of a teacher (1 table).

Table 1. Parents’ obtained education Parents Field of Philology Qualifi cation of a teacher YES NO YES NO 1 Parent 1a x x 2 Parent 1b x x 3 Parent 2a x x 4 Parent 2b x x 5 Parent 3a x x 6 Parent 4a x x 7 Parent 4b x x 8 Parent 5a x x 9 Parent 5b x x Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family 115 There is one case, where both parents are not offi cially qualifi ed as teachers but their jobs have been related to teaching. 9 out of 10 parents were raised in monolingual families. The Danish father was raised in multilingual family. The number of foreign languages parents can speak at various levels (basics to profi ciency) differs. Most of them can speak 2, 3 or 4 languages (4 parents – 2 languages, 4 parents – 3 languages), 2 parents can speak more than 4 languages. An interesting fact is that a parent who can speak 6 languages and understands, but does not speak Lithuanian, comes from multilingual environment himself. Whereas there is one parent who was raised in a monolingual family, learnt two more languages outside home before starting school, and stayed for 4 years in foreign countries, thus can speak 5 languages and understand 3 more languages (see fi gure 3). Picture 3. Parents’ linguistic capabilities (N)

In the beginning of the relationship all the couples were communicating in a foreign language because of a lack of knowledge in partner’s native language. All the families use three languages at home. Table 2. Number of languages within each participant’s family Families Mother’ Father’s Language Good understanding of spouse’s language language used between native language parents Wife Husband 1a-1b Lithuanian Brazilian English No Yes 2a-2b Lithuanian Danish English No No 3a-3b Lithuanian Hindi English No No 4a-4b Lithuanian French German Yes Yes 5a-5b Lithuanian German English No No * The names of interviewees were not used or changed to numbers (number stands for a particular family) and letters (“a” stands for a woman and “b” for a man). 116 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas Most of the parents communicate to one another in English. However parents from only one family have a good understanding of each other’s native language. All the families raise 1 to 2 children, whose age is 7 months to 6 years old.

The Aspect of Language Education of Children who are raised in an ethnically diverse family The data of the research revealed that: • The strategy of trilingualism (when communicating in three languages at home) was chosen before children were born. The main characteristics of the strategy is the use of “one person – one language” method when talking to a child and communication in a foreign language between parents. Thus the main reasons when choosing language learning strategy are following: a) linguistic situation of a family: lack of knowledge in spouse’s native language; b) positive attitude towards multilingualism; c) a wish to transmit each parent’s native language and cultural heritage to a child; d) positive experience of their own, friends and relatives. • Parents, that graduated in the ﬁ eld of philology, has a teacher qualiﬁ cation, read books about multilingual cases or attended special courses on multilingual issues, are very consistent with the strategy (when parents communicate to: a) each other and b) the children). Those parents, who are bad at Lithuanian language and seek to get a job as fast as possible, switches between languages often and experiences issues in the application and implementation of the chosen strategy. • In order to maintain children’s interaction with several cultures and help them to develop good linguistic skills in all used languages within a family, the main edutainment devices are books and songs. • It was revealed by analyzing each family case, except the family where a child is 7 months old, that all children over 1 year old show their understanding by reacting to given instructions in both languages already: a) children, who are around 18 months old, show their understanding by reacting to given instructions in both languages already; b) children, who are older than two, are able to give answers in both languages, translate phrases or sentences; c) the child, who is 6 years old and is a quadralingual, communicates to each parent in their Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family 117 native language (Lithuanian and German), shows her understanding of English, and is a passive speaker of Russian.

Speaking about the aspect of social education of children who are raised in an ethnically diverse family, the data of the research showed that these children are mostly affected by Lithuanian environment because all of them attend or will be attending Lithuanian kindergarten. Most families communicate with Lithuanian monolingual families. All the families speak to their relatives that live far away, regularly by using various technologies and by visiting them from time to time.

The Aspect of Cultural Education of Children who are raised in an ethnically diverse family It was revealed that: • Despite reading books and singing songs in different languages, children are exposed to their parents‘ cultures through family celebrations and food culture: a) if calendar celebrations are important of both parents within an ethnically diverse family, national celebrations are more of a personal celebration and is important only to some parents; b) differences in food culture are obvious in all the families. Food culture, that has been transmited from a spouse, that comes from different culture, plays a very important role within an ethnically diverse family. Also traditional meals of both cultures, especially not Lithuanian, becomes a very important part of many celebrations, meetings, daily life of a family; • The minority of ethnically diverse families attend famous historical places or museums in order to transmit cultural historical heritage to their children. However various that presents both parents‘ cultures, are a part of their home. Thus the introduction of children with the importance of famous historical places and events, also as national celebrations, are considered as the function of kindergarten; • All the parents wish that their children would understand themselves as the part of both cultures. However, 2 out of 5 families the transmition of the culture is considered as each parent‘s separate responsibility, without coworking. Thus it might be assumed that a child will understand himself as a monocultural because of the strong inﬂ uence of the local environment. In other families parents cowork and consider the transmition of both cultures to the children as their both responsibility. 118 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas It might be assumed that these children will identify themselves as multicultural; • Many families are united by the same so called intercultural values that have been transmitted to the children. This unity is mostly caused by the same religion. However religion is mostly understood as cultural heritage thus religious values are not being transmitted in most cases. Most families are united by positive attitude towards other cultures, thus children get acuinted with intercultural values.

Some of the Issues and Advantages of Raising Multilingual Children Scientists (Crohn, 1995; Romano, 2008 et al.) claim that children’s education in an ethnically diverse family is one of the areas where conﬂ icts may appear, especially if parents have never discussed about family’s values and cultural differences. Parents point out issues concerning child‘s language delay and the last, but not least concern is about children‘s identity. Also they distinguish another problem concerning low knowledge of spouse’s native language. Despite the issues parents encounter, all of them think that there are much more advantages of being raised multilingual: openness, multilingualism (related to more possibilities and career), ﬂ exibility, broader world-view, cultural richness, personal maturity, curiosity, intelligence, tolerance.

Conclusions Thus, the research data make it possible to draw the following conclusions: (1) Most families are consistent when applying and implementing the strategy of trilingualism and it can be already seen in 1 year old child‘s linguistic behaviour. Children attend or will attend Lithuanian kindergarten and communicates with not Lithuanian relatives by using various technologies and visiting them regularly. (2) Most parents try to cowork hard when trying to transmit both cultures to their children by reading books, singing songs in different languages, celebrating different calendar celebrations of both cultures, preparing various meals. However national education is considered to be more of a kindergarten‘s function. Families are united by intercultural values that are transmitted to the children. Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family 119 (3) The analysis of the research reveals, that the child‘s, who is raised in an ethnically diverse family, education is closest to Wendy Leeds- Hurwitz theory, that connections between culture/communication, process/product, conﬂ ict/consensus, details/whole, individual/society, tradition/creativity, social interaction/ media, private/public, sacred/ secular, meaning construction have an inﬂ uence on child‘s education in an ethnically diverse family.

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Tomas BUTVILAS, Assoc. Prof. Dr., Ph.D., M.Ed. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Małgorzata PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Prof. Dr. Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland)

Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity

Abstract: Within this paper open adoption as such is discussed with possible both positive and negative effects to those who are adopted or taken under the foster care. On the other hand openness within adoption in most cases is presented through positive side, when it is becoming increasingly common, especially due to a growing recognition of the benefi ts of allowing an adopted child to establish or maintain connections with the birth family. Although many studies have showed a relation between adoption and later diffi culties, there is no clear evidence that adoption could cause behavioral problems in child‘s later development periods. However, many authors would argue that this process has much negative infl uence as well, especially dealing with adoptees‘ self-identity formation, social attachment and communication with others: much of attention is paid to such children abilities to develop their own relations with other friends and mainly with step-parents; especially teenage period is stressed when identifi cation challenges take over other developmental neccessities and social bonds/attachment is developed. Thus the phenomenon of open adoption in the childhood is mainly presented in the context of its infl uence to a child‘s further psychosocial development and growth.

Keywords: adoption, open adoption, child, self-identity, psychosocial development diffi culties. 122 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba Introduction Open adoption, as it is stated in much of the literature, is a type of adoption in which birth and adoptive families have some form of initial and usually ongoing contact; also the open adoption allows adoptive parents (often the adopted child as well), to interact with the child’s birth parents. Besides, the type and the way of openness can vary from family to family and may change over the time. Open adoption is becoming increasingly common, in part due to a growing recognition of the potential benefi ts of allowing an adopted child or youth to establish or maintain connections with his or her birth family (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013). Within past few decades a greater sophistication has emerged in the understanding of the concept of openness and the professional practices related to the concept (Jones, Hackett, 2008). Openness no longer refers simply to open communication between adoptive family members but also relates to the degree to which information passes between birth and adoptive families and to the level of contact and ongoing relationship between these enmeshed families (Jones, Hackett, 2008). Yet, on the other hand, the formation of an adoptive identity is one of the more critical and complicated tasks that adoptees would face (Fall et al., 2012). Having those aspects in mind, all EU Member States have ratifi ed the UNCRC, which provides a key framework to guide programme and policy interventions with and for children deprived of parental care. The preamble of the UNCRC emphasises the role of the family as “the fundamental group of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of all its members and particularly children” (Call For Action On Quality Of Alternative Care For Children Deprived Of Parental Care, Eurochild, March, 2010). Articles within the convention seek to prevent separation of children (Article 9), support family re-unifi cation (Article 10), provide alternative care for children when required (Article 20), provide regular reviews of care plans, ensure attention to individual needs and development of each child (Article 25), and assure the child the right to express his/her own views (Article 12). Taking in account of the key principles of the Eurochild Policy Position On Quality Of Alternative Care For Children Deprived Of Parental Care (March, 2010, UNCRC), care responses must always be made in the child’s best interests (Article 3). Almost all countries in the world admit that every child needs a family, security, and constant feelings (see: Hodgkin, Newell, 2007, Przybysz- Zaremba, 2013, 2014). On the fi rst hand, all neccessary instruments should be taken in action while saving child‘s biological and unifi ed family after some serious problems occur. Only if the best solution is suspending from parents‘ Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity 123 rights or biological parents cannot take care of their own child any longer, the adoption could take a serious part within child‘s wellbeing construction. On the other hand, adoption is rather a complicated psychosocial process even though a pretty frequent phenomenon in today‘s society. Researchers (Rutter et al., 1998) have been stated that adopted children‘s behavior, cognitive abilities as well as physical development in many cases are laden in comparison with non-adopted peers. After the adoption a child needs to adapt to the new environment – get used to some strange smells, cultural differences and all of that undoubtedly differ from his/her previous experiences. In Western cultures adopted children‘s behavior and the variety of their experienced emotions are the focuses of many surveys. Besides, much of attention is paid to such children abilities to develop their own relations with other friends and mainly with step-parents. Especially teenage period is stressed when identifi cation challenges take over other developmental neccessities and social bonds/attachment is developed (Goldman, 2000). It is stated that early adoption factor plays much of the role within formation of self-identity, social attachment and child‘s psychosocial characteristics – better results are expected when child was adopted before 6 months of age (Singer, Krebs, 2008). Open adoption, according to Singer and Krebs (2008), is revealed as child‘s and his/her birthparents participation meaning at the adoption process as a progressive tactic (Neil, 2007 et al.). Open adoption is recommended as the best option for the child by Committee on the Rights of the Child–actually it has been stated as the standard in the Quality4Children Standards for Out-of-Home Child Care in Europe. It is almost taken for granted by adoption services and adoption participants in the USA. Thus the problematic situation in almost all research works is mainly defi ned with the following questions that are much of interest to many academics and practitioners/educators: i) experiences of adolescents adopted from the care system in relation to the themes of grief and loss status; ii) the reasons behind individual differences-why do some adoptive people feel different to others (cultural differences, dependance of adoption type); iii) birth parents and adoptive parents attitudes and values in relation to adoption and openness in adoption; iv) how do self esteem, emotional and behavioral development of adopted adolescents relate to pre-placement risk factors such as length of time in institutions and care system? The object of this observation is the phenomenon of openness within adoption and its impact to the child’s further psychosocial development, especially having in mind self-identity processes. The goal of this paper is to analyze theoretically adoptees psychosocial variables that infl uence their further development in the context of open adoption’s process. Main 124 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba method of this analysis is a meta-analysis and more theoretical observation of previous researches in chosen area.

Approaches to Open Adoption and Its Challenges within Childhood Neil (2007) in her studies on post-adoption contact and openness reveals that adoptive parents and children themselves mostly reported face-to- face contact to be a positive experience and such contact appeared to have a positive effect on the ability of birth relatives to adjust and accept the fact of the child‘s adoption. For instance, in England and Wales, the 2002 Adoption and Children Act obliges agencies to make post-adoption support plans for every child, and gives adoptive parents, adopted children and birth relatives the right to ask for an assessment of their support needs (see more at Neil, 2007). Neil states that providing support for post-adoption contact is an important opportunity for social workers to facilitate communication between children, adoptive parents and birth relatives, as well as helping all three parties understand and manage their own feelings regarding the adoption. Although many studies have showed a relationship between adoption and later difﬁ culties, there is no clear evidence that adoption could cause behavior problems in child‘s later development periods (Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 20091). Indeed, many mechanisms are likely involved in the adoption process, which may interfere with the parent- child relationship and the child’s development and well being. As the matter of fact, fostering and adopting are both means by which children are given new, safe, and supportive homes, because early stress, poor life conditions and separation may constitute potential risk factors regarding the social-emotional development; the period of adolescence, which involves separations and new relationships may be especially sensitive in this regard (Pierrehumbert et al., 2009). However, both fostering and adopting are important in order to remove adoptees from usually unhealthy environments and allow them to move towards a brighter future (www.teenissuses.co.uk). On the other hand, along with the positive intentions of adults to foster or adopt a child some psychological negative outcomes of child‘s adoption/ foster process may be seen as well, especially having in mind the international adoption, that has some effect on emotional and social development in adolescence, speciﬁ cally in regard to attachment and separation processes (Harf et al., 2006 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour

1 Lausanne University Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Dept. (SUPEA), 2009. Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity 125 problems, 2009). Also having been adopted may then constitute a risk factor regarding psychological development, particularly at adolescence (Pierrehumbert et al., 2009). A question raised in the literature is whether or not adopted children exhibit more behavior problems than non adopted peers in later development stages. As Pierrehumbert et al. (2009) stress, there are other important issues related to pre and post adoption processes that could be taken in account within proposed research, such as the effect of early deprivation on the adopted child, i.e. a late adoption frequently means a long time spent in institutions in poor living conditions, without any attachment fi gure. Therefore these factors increase the risk that the child encounters adverse life events with probabilities of long term consequences on his/her psychosocial development (Groza & Ryan, 2002; Pratti, 2005 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). The data suggest that the impact of early deprivation may last long after adoption and that a long stay in institution can hinder the capacities of recovery. The effect of early deprivation on parent-child attachment: that means that poor relationships at pre-adoption phase may negatively infl uence the development of emotional regulation and of later social adaptation. Putting in other words, in case of adoption, child–caregivers bonds may have been disrupted or remained unconstructed, increasing psychological vulnerability (Howe, 1997; Cederbald et al., 1999; Verhulst et al., 1992 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). Thus a late adoption increases the risks of having been exposed to harmful and disruptive life experiences, and to negative models of relationships. Finally, the reactive attachment disorder (RAD) may be observed when diffi culties or impossibilities to create a signifi cant relationship with anyone occur. Among the long term consequences of RAD are the diffi culties to engage emotionally with other people, loneliness, social withdrawal, identity problems, or loss of positive self-esteem. Adopted children with a RAD are then likely to endure diffi culties regarding emotion regulation as they cannot trust the attachment fi gures in stressful situations (Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). Adoptive parents and their representations concerning their children is a signifi cant factor that may infl uence child’s wellbeing while in the new environment. Many authors (Pierrehumbert et al., 2009; Fonagy et al., 2003) have pointed out that parents’ representations towards their children mainly could be described as a consequence of the capacity to understand their own behaviors and those of their children in terms of mental states, intentions and needs, and to refl ect their children’s psychological experiences. Parents of 126 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba children who had been placed relatively late, experience a greater need for support, and report higher levels of children’s aggression, rejection, control behaviors, and overfriendliness; this contrasts with children placed earlier in infancy, whose adoptive mothers report higher levels of joy, competence, confi dence, warmth, happiness, and affection. Lastly, adoptive parents who were themselves insecure or unresolved in relation to attachment seem to be more likely to represent their adoptive children, and the relationship with them, in negative ways (Steele, 2003 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). Thus it is of great importance to understand which–and how–underlying factors may intervene in the pre and post adoption processes, in order to prevent diffi culties and vulnerabilities, and to optimize chances for an optimal child‘s psychosocial development (Neil, 2007 et al.). Secure attachment has been pointed out as a protective factor regarding behavior problems in childhood. Attachment is also infl uenced by several individual and environmental factors such as parental competencies regarding interactions, sensitivity to the child’s demands, and parental representations (mentioned above), as well as characteristics of pre-adoption context (age at adoption, origin, adoption from care, early institutional/environmental experiences etc.). To be more specifi c, the experience of adoption makes the adopted child deal with more rather complex emotional issues, such as rejection and grief at an early age (Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Even though adopted children can grow up joyfully, as stated above, but they grow up differently as well, and both internal and external factors could have an impact for adoptees further development (Smit, 2002). Many believe the increased incidence of referral for adjustment problems is the result of the psychological impact of adoption on children (Brodzinsky, 1993; Brodzinsky & Schechter, 1990; Brodzinsky, Schechter, & Henig, 1992; Kaye, 1990; Melina, 1986, 1989; Smit, 1996; Watkins & Fisher, 1993 cited in Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Therefore the psychological impact of adoption means that adopted children and their both biological and adoptive families face unique challenges: loss, grief, rejection with accompanying feelings of guilt/shame, identity, and intimacy/relationships issues etc. (Neil, 2007 et al.): • Loss is the primary adoption-related matter from which the other issues fl ow. Adoption involves many losses for the child (Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Adopted children have lost the chance to be “normal” like their friends who are growing up in their biological families. Child also may have lost siblings, birth order, and other connections with the biological family. Another unique feature of Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity 127 adoption is that the adopted child must cope with losses that are less obvious, e.g. in the case of death, society provides the rituals of funerals and the gathering of people to support the person who is mourning (Tunncliffe and Briggs, 1997; Grollman, 1990 et al.). However, losses of adoption frequently are not recognized, nor are there established rituals or ceremonies to mourn such losses. For the adopted person, loss in adoption is not a single event but a series of ongoing losses: birthdays, Father’s Day, and Mother’s Day can be viewed as a reminder of the original loss and the ongoing nature of that loss (Smit, 2002). • Adopted children have experienced signifi cant losses, and grieving these losses is rather important for healthy adaptive development (Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Grieving is a natural and necessary response to the adoptive experience as well as to the death of a loving one, parents’ divorce, migration etc. (Goldman, 2000). The losses of adoption may be less obvious and less likely to be acknowledged, thus the adopted child and others may deny the grief being experienced. Behavioral changes seen in elementary school-age adoptees that refl ect grieving include anger, aggression, oppositional behavior, and uncommunicativeness, depression, and self- image problems. Feelings of anger, resentment, and sadness may be projected onto the people available to the child, especially the adoptive parents. Besides grief in adolescence may be expressed with anger and defi ance. • The child’s feelings of loss are heightened by feelings of rejection (Silverstein and Roszia, 1999 see in Smit, 2002). As the child matures, he/she begins to wonder why his/her birthparents or someone from the extended family did not choose to care for him or her. Adopted children may view themselves as responsible for the birth family decision not to parent them. Because of egocentric thinking, they feel they were bad, defective, unlovable, and unworthy (Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). A sense of deserving the loss and rejection may lead them to feel guilty and ashamed. Taking in account those challenges and the models of coping with them, the possible consequences in later child’s development stages could become obvious, i.e. at the moment of expanding social network in adolescence, many adoptees, in regard to their specifi c “internal working model of attachment” may present a diffi culty in establishing selective bonds with others, leading to social withdrawal and feelings of helplessness (Pratti, 2005; Sroufe, 2005 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). 128 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba Conclusions (1) Open adoption is mainly seen as the phenomenon that allows the adopted child freely communicate with both birth and adoptive parents and this process leaves no place for any hidden psychological or even identity obstacles within child’s interaction with his/her closest environment. Openness no longer refers simply to open communication between adoptive family members but also relates to the degree to which information passes between birth and adoptive families and to the level of contact and ongoing relationship between these enmeshed families. (2) Along with the positive intentions of adults to foster or adopt a child some psychological negative outcomes of child‘s adoption/foster process may be seen as well, especially having in mind the international adoption, that has some effect on emotional and social development in adolescence, specifi cally in regard to attachment and separation processes. (3) It becomes also much clear that the psychological impact of adoption in many cases means that adopted children and their both biological and adoptive families face unique challenges: loss, grief, and rejection with accompanying feelings of guilt/shame, identity, and intimacy/ relationships issues. (4) Therefore it is of great importance to understand which and how the underlying factors may intervene in the pre and post adoption processes, in order to prevent diffi culties and vulnerabilities, and to optimize chances for an optimal child‘s psychosocial development. Secure attachment could be as a protective factor regarding behavior problems in childhood and social support along with networking may assure this secure attachement to be fulfi lled.

Bibliography: 1. Child Welfare Information Gateway. Openness in adoption: Building relationships between adoptive and birth families. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau 2013. 2. Fall, K. A. et al., An Existential Approach to Adoptive Identity Development in Adulthood. The Family Journal. Sage Publication, 20/2012. 3. Fonagy, P. et al., The Importance of Shared Environment in Mother–Infant Attachment Security: A Behavioral Genetic Study. Child Development. Vol. 74 (6)/2003. Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity 129 4. Goldman, L., Life & Loss: A Guide To Help Grieving Children. 2nd Ed. Accelerated Development: Taylor & Francis Group, KY 2000. 5. Hodgkin, R., Newell, P., Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. UNICEF House: New York 2007. 6. Jones, C., Hackett, J., Communicative openness within adoptive families: adoptive parents narrative accounts of the challenges of adoption talk and the approaches used to manage these challenges. Adoption Quarterly, 10 (3-4)/2008. 7. Neil, E., Post-Adoption Contact and Openness in Adoptive Parents’ Minds: Consequences for Children’s Development. Oxford University Press 2007. 8. Pierrehumbert, B. et al., Gender and attachment representations in the preschool years: Comparisons between ﬁ ve countries. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology. 40(4)/2009. doi: 10.1177/0022022109335181 9. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Relations between mother and child and parental attitudes analysis, – SOCIALINIS DARBAS „Social Work” 2014, Vol. 13, No. 1. 10. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Selected Forms of Aid to (Non)dysfunctional Family: Polish Aspect, “Journal of Educational Review” 2013, vol. 6, no. 1. 11. Rutter, M. et al., Key Study: Romanian Orphans Investigation. Interactive: http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/romanian_orphans _investigation.html [last check 2013-10-11]. 12. Singer, E., Krebs, M., Assisting adoptive families: children adopted at older ages. Pediatric Nursing. 34(2)/2008. 13. Smit, E. M., Adopted Children: Core Issues and Unique Challenges. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing. Vol. 15 (4)/2002. 14. http://www.teenissues.co.uk/fostering-adopting-teenagers.html [last checked 2013-09-18].

Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes

Jolita DUDAITĖ Dr Mykolas Romeris University, (Lithuania)

Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes

Abstract: The aim of foster homes for children is to ensure care, education, social services and other appropriate conditions to children, as well as to maintain the environment where they could grow, develop and prepare for independent life in the society. Educational activity of foster homes must be focused on developing social competences of children which would help them to be more successful in various social contexts, integrate into society and live active social life. Development of the entrepreneurial competencies is also particularly signifi cant in achieving those goals. The entrepreneurial competencies allow fi nding your place in the society and promoting your social advancement which is particularly important to children who have lost parental care and live in foster homes. So, to what extent are children in institutional care in Lithuania ready for life? The survey tries to fi nd out whether education of children living in foster homes in Lithuania covers entrepreneurship, whether the children consider that they have enough entrepreneurial competencies, and how they understand entrepreneurship. Purpose of the survey is to ascertain the attitude of children living in foster homes towards their entrepreneurial competencies. Persons aged 10 to 19 from 4 foster homes participated in the survey. In the opinion of children who live in foster homes, their entrepreneurial competencies are not suffi cient. It was found out that entrepreneurial competencies are related with education philosophy and living conditions in foster homes, i.e. the more conditions are provided for entrepreneurship education, the better development of entrepreneurial competencies is observed.

Keywords: entrepreneurial competencies, children, foster homes. 132 Jolita Dudaitė Introduction Over the last decades, an increase in the number of studies and scientifi c work on the problems of children who have lost parental care has been observed. This was infl uenced by numerous studies on the negative impact of separation of children from their parents and placement in institutional care to their development and integration into social life (Pringle, 1986, Vorria et al., 1998; Hukkanen et al., 1999). In Lithuania, the number of studies on problems of children who have lost parental care is not large, but lately it has been increasing. The aim of foster homes for children is to ensure care, education, social services and other appropriate conditions to children, as well as to maintain the environment where they could grow, develop and prepare for independent life in the society. Educational activity of foster homes must be focused on developing social competences of children which would help them to be more successful in various social contexts, integrate into society and live active social life. Development of the entrepreneurial competencies is also particularly signifi cant in achieving those goals. The entrepreneurial competencies allow fi nding your place in the society and promoting your social advancement which is particularly important to children who have lost parental care and live in foster homes. To what extent are children in institutional care in Lithuania ready for life? Barkauskaitė (2001) analyzed social skills, peculiarities of communication, and relationship of children living in foster homes, Žukauskienė and Leiputė (2002) – emotional and behavioural diffi culties, Braslauskienė (2000) – education peculiarities, Leliūgienė (2003) and Kvieskienė (2003) – socialization problems, Raudeliūnaitė and Paigozina (2009) – expression of social skills, Samašonok and Gudonis (2008) compared social competencies of teenagers living in foster homes and those living in full families, Justickis and Ramanauskaitė (2006) surveyed whether children living in foster homes in Lithuania know their rights. Meanwhile, research on entrepreneurial competencies of children in institutional care has not yet been carried out in Lithuania. Therefore, it is interesting to fi nd out whether education of children living in foster homes in Lithuania covers entrepreneurship, whether the children consider that they have enough entrepreneurial competencies, and how they understand entrepreneurship. The said questions defi ne the problem of the survey. The purpose of the survey is to ascertain the attitude of children living in foster homes towards their entrepreneurial competencies. The object of the survey is entrepreneurial competencies of children living in foster homes. The Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes 133 objectives: to defi ne the concept of entrepreneurship; to fi nd out what children living in foster homes think about their entrepreneurial competencies; to fi nd out what determine the difference between entrepreneurial competencies of children from different foster homes. The methods of the survey: analysis of scientifi c literature, analysis of documents, questionnaire, descriptive statistics.

Theoretical background Scientifi c literature presents a great variety of defi nitions of entrepreneurship. To summarize various defi nitions of entrepreneurship provided in scientifi c literature, they can be divided into the following three groups (Kaufmann and Dant, 1998; Župerka, 2010): • the defi nitions that highlight traits and qualities characteristic to entre- preneurs, such as the ability to take risks, leadership, motivation, ability to solve problems, creativity, ability to make decisions, etc.; • the defi nitions related to entrepreneurship process and its results, which cover establishment of new enterprises, introduction of new products or their analogues, merger of innovative and valuable resources in the environment of new changes; • the defi nitions focusing on the activity of an entrepreneur, which cover participation in the new markets, overcoming of market defi cit, development and reorganisation of new leadership structures, search for supply sources and market places, initiation, sustaining and development of profi t-oriented business, satisfaction of needs, and organi- sational management control. In terms of the concept of entrepreneurship, Henderson (2002) indicates innovation as an element common for and unifying many defi nitions of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is considered as one of the main factors ensuring innovation, competitiveness and economic growth of the country; it refers to the creation not only of economic but also social value added, a chance for self-realization, quick and effective adaptation to environmental changes, improvement of quality of life. According to Kiškis and Lunevičiūtė (2011), entrepreneurship implies noticing the existing opportunities and using the skills of risk-taking, taking the initiative and bringing the like-minded persons together in order to achieve the set goal of exploiting these opportunities. According to these scholars, people possessing entrepreneurial competencies are responsible, confi dent in their skills and success, they demonstrate personal vitality, organizational 134 Jolita Dudaitė skills, they are future and achievement oriented, take reasonable risks and feel the need for feedback. When defi ning entrepreneurship, Mincienė (2000) pointed out the following key components of entrepreneurship: belief in success and ambition to achieve goals, wish to be independent, creativity, estimated risks, determination. Green (2006) indicates the following traits of people having entrepreneurial competencies: independence, self-confi dence, perseverance, concentration, search for new challenges and high demands on oneself, creativity, prompt decision making. Jasinavičius (2007) describes entrepreneurship as a result of unlimited wishes based on which a person is encouraged to seek new things. Having analysed defi nitions of entrepreneurship provided by various scholars, Župerka states that entrepreneurship is often conceived as an expression of traits and abilities of a person during activity (Župerka, 2010). Vázquez-Burgete et al. (2012) present entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competence as knowledge, skills and attitudes. In summary, it can be concluded that scientifi c literature provides different defi nitions of entrepreneurship, but two key approaches to entrepreneurship can be distinguished: the narrower one emphasizes personal characteristics required for creation of economic value, the wider one, those required for creation of social value. Can entrepreneurship be taught? Scholars agree on this point by stating that it is possible to teach functional abilities of entrepreneurship, to transfer knowledge, but natural abilities of entrepreneurship cannot be taught. People are born with entrepreneurial abilities, but higher level of entrepreneurial competence will be reached if entrepreneurial skills are developed (Strazdienė, Garalis, 2006).

Survey methodology Sample. Persons aged 10–19 from 4 foster homes participated in the survey. 224 persons of the age group live in the foster homes. 173 persons (77.2%) agreed to participate in the survey. The age group was chosen according to the following principle: the lower limit was selected according to the test theory principle whereby it is not recommended to carry out a survey by interviewing children younger than 10 years of age; the upper limit – the age of graduation from secondary school. All foster homes are located in the same region of Lithuania, they are similar in size, comprise households of 10–13 children. Thus, it is true to say that the context of social environment of all 4 foster homes is similar. Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes 135 Data collection tool – questionnaire. The respondents had to answer closed-ended questions. The questions were prepared following the analysis of scientiﬁ c literature. Survey ethics. Participation in the survey was voluntary. 51 persons (22.8%) aged 10–19 refused to participate in the survey.

Survey results The results of the analysis of the answers of the respondents to the question of what entrepreneurial competencies they consider themselves to have are provided in the table below.

Table 1. Self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies Entrepreneurial competencies/components Number of respondents (%) Independence 46.8 Public spirit 45.6 Estimated risk 44.3 Ability to make decisions 44.3 Quick reaction 44.0 Communication skills 41.8 Logical thinking 41.7 Open to innovation 30.4 Planning for the future 30.4 Time management ability 30.2 Intuition 30.0 Being active 1.3 Knowledge on business 0 Practical skills of entrepreneurship 0 Ability to bring people together for common activity 0 Self-realization 0 Self-conﬁ dence 0 Positive thinking 0 Management skills 0 Critical approach 0 Ability to sell yourself 0

The table shows that in case of every entrepreneurial competence (component of entrepreneurial), less than half of the respondents admit having that competence. Most respondents state that they are independent, 136 Jolita Dudaitė public-spirited, take estimated risks, are able to make decisions, know how to react quickly, have communication skills, and are able to think logically. It is surprising that quite a lot of competencies were not indicated at all. After all, positive thinking, self-confi dence, critical approach are important not only to the expression of entrepreneurship but a fully-fl edged life as well. The respondents mostly indicated only 3 or 4 entrepreneurial competencies (27.8 and 25.3% respectively). However, there were respondents who indicated only 1 competence (6.3%). The largest number of the competencies indicated by respondents was 7 (only 2.54 % of respondents), while the list consisted of 21 entrepreneurial competencies. It is obvious that children and young people living in foster homes do not consider themselves to have enough entrepreneurial competencies. How do respondents conceive entrepreneurship itself? What competencies do they relate with entrepreneurship? Comparison between their conception of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competencies they ascribe to themselves showed that the difference is big (see Table 2). The table shows that part of competencies ascribed by the respondents to themselves is not ascribed by the respondents to entrepreneurship itself. Such competencies include the ability to make decisions, quick reaction, public spirit, planning for the future, intuition. However, there are a lot of competencies that are ascribed by the respondents to entrepreneurship but are not ascribed by the respondents to themselves, e.g. being active, knowledge of business, practical skills of entrepreneurship, ability to bring people together for common activity, ability of self-realization, self-confi dence, positive thinking. The respondents consider those competencies important to entrepreneurship but admit that they do not have them. The result of more detailed analysis of the data received and their comparison by various sections was interesting – fi ndings on 4 foster homes show their grouping into pairs (see Figure 1, where A, B, C and D refer to foster homes). Comparison of the average number of competencies ascribed to the conception of entrepreneurship and the average number of entrepreneurial competencies of respondents by foster homes showed that the results of the pair of foster homes A and C and that of foster homes B and D differ (in the chart, the results of these pairs are merged). Conception of entrepreneurship of respondents of both pairs of foster homes is almost similar (confi dence intervals strongly overlap – blue line), while the same thing could not be said in terms of self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies which respondents ascribe to themselves (green line). It is clear that the average number of entrepreneurial competencies of respondents in foster homes A and C is considerably higher than in foster homes B and D. It means that children Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes 137 Table 2. Comparison between self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies and conception of entrepreneurship Self-assessment Conception Entrepreneurial competencies/components (%) (%) Independence 46.8 48.1 Public spirit 45.6 0 Estimated risk 44.3 20.3 Ability to make decisions 44.3 0 Quick reaction 44.0 0 Communication skills 41.8 25.3 Logical thinking 41.7 25.2 Openness to innovation 30.4 44.3 Planning for the future 30.4 0 Time management ability 30.2 40.5 Intuition 30.0 0 Being active 1.3 27.8 Knowledge on business 0 34.2 Practical skills of entrepreneurship 0 34.0 Ability to bring people together for common 0 29.1 activity Self-realization 0 25.3 Self-confi dence 0 20.4 Positive thinking 0 20.1 Management skills 0 0 Critical approach 0 0 Ability to sell yourself 0 0 and young people living in foster homes A and C consider themselves to have more entrepreneurial competencies than those living in foster homes B and D. This difference is statistically signifi cant. The differences between pairs are provided in detail in Table 3 (the competencies which were not marked by respondents are not included in the table). 138 Jolita Dudaitė Picture 1. Comparison between conception of entrepreneurship (blue line) and self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies (green line) by foster homes

Table 3. Self-assessment of competencies in foster homes A and C against foster homes B and D Entrepreneurial Respondents from foster Respondents from foster competencies/components homes A and C (%) homes B and D (%) Independence 50.0 43.9 Public spirit 55.3 36.6 Estimated risk 47.7 41.2 Ability to make decisions 47.4 41.5 Quick reaction 47.3 41.3 Communication skills 39.5 43.9 Logical thinking 60.5 56.1 Openness to innovation 44.7 17.1 Planning for the future 47.4 14.6 Time management ability 52.6 9.8 Intuition 46.7 14.1 Being active 2.6 0 Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes 139 The table shows that as regards most competencies, respondents from foster homes A and C indicated having the competencies. The fi gures in bold show a signifi cant difference between the two pairs of foster homes (independence, public spirit, openness to innovation, the ability to plan for the future, time management ability, and intuition). Therefore, respondents from foster homes A and C consider themselves to have more entrepreneurial competencies than those from foster homes B and D. What determines the difference, if all 4 foster homes were selected from the same region of Lithuania and are of similar size and structure? To fi nd the answer, documents presenting the philosophy – visions, missions, aims and tasks – of all 4 foster homes were analysed. The results are presented in the table below (see Table 4).

Table 4. Main objectives of foster homes Foster home A Foster home B Foster home C Foster home D Focuses on emotional protection, encouragement protection, and spiritual care, of independence, ensuring satisfaction of welfare, projecting of subsistence, needs, education, future, search for care, harmonious provision and effective forms personal personality, development of education, growth, community, of social emotional side of individual future love, services education, application of establishment wellbeing of services in life children What household kitchenette, kitchenette kitchenette, kitchenette has kitchen garden, kitchen garden, garden, garden, fl ower garden, fl ower garden, greenhouse part of pond Responsibilities in the - in the in the of children kitchenette, kitchenette, kitchenette in the kitchen in the kitchen garden, garden, in the garden, in the garden, in the fl ower in the fl ower garden, garden, in the cleaning greenhouse, cleaning

It is apparent that foster homes B and D focus on welfare, care, provision of services, i.e. on giving something, while foster homes A and C focus not on giving but on the satisfaction of emotional needs of children, as well as 140 Jolita Dudaitė community, independence, projecting of future. It is particularly important to note that the objectives of foster homes A and C include projecting of future, establishment in life, and encouragement of independence – these things are closely related with entrepreneurship education. Furthermore, in foster homes A and C, in comparison to B and D, there is clear difference in requirements for the responsibilities of children, as well as different opportunities are provided for those responsibilities (kitchen garden, garden, greenhouse, ﬂ ower garden, kitchen). These differences in objectives and provided conditions may be the answer to the question why children and young people who live in foster homes A and C and those who live in foster homes B and D see their competencies differently, and, in that context, their preparation for independent life differ.

Conclusions (1) In the opinion of children and young people who live in foster homes their entrepreneurial competencies are not sufﬁ cient. (2) Entrepreneurial competencies are related with education philosophy and living conditions in foster home, i.e. the more conditions are provided for entrepreneurship education, the better development of entrepreneurial competencies is observed.

Bibliography: 1. Braslauskienė R., Bešeimių vaikų ugdymo ypatumai globos institucijose (socialinis ir psichopedagoginis aspektas). Daktaro disertacija, Klaipėdos universitetas, 2000. 2. Greene C. L., Entrepreneurship: ideas in action. South-Western/Thom- son, 2006. 3. Henderson, J. R., Building the Rural Economy With High – Growth En- trepreneurs. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Economic Review, 2002. 4. Hukkanen R., Sourander A., Bergroth L., Piha J., Follow-up of children and adolescents in residential care in children‘s homes. Nord Journal of Psychiatry, 1999, 53. 5. Jasinavičius R., Nacionalinio darbdavio ugdymo programa. Vilnius, 2007. 6. Justickis, V., Ramanauskaitė, E., Vaikų namų globotinio teisinio statuso psichologinis įvertinimas. Socialinis darbas, 5(2), 2006. Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes 141 7. Kaufman P., Dant R. P., Franchising and the domain of entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business venturing, 14 (1), 1998. 8. Kiškis M., Lunevičiūtė G., Verslumas elektroninėje erdvėje. Vilnius: MRU, 2011. 9. Mincienė L., Verslumo integravimas į pirminį profesinį rengimą. Peda- gogika, 46, 2000. 10. Pringle M. K., The needs of children. Suffolk: Hutchinison, 1986. 11. Samašonok, K. ir Gudonis, V., Paauglių, gyvenančių globos institucijose ir pilnose šeimose, socialinė kompetencija: lyties ir amžiaus ypatumai. Ugdymo psichologija, 19, 2008. 12. Strazdienė G., Garalis A., Verslumas: ugdymo programos ir jų efekty- vumo raiška. Organizacijų vadyba: sisteminiai tyrimai. 38, 2006. 13. Vázquez-Burgete J. L., Lanero A., Raišienė A. G., García M. P., Entre- preneurship Education in Humanities and Social Sciences: are Students Qualiﬁ ed to Start a Business? Verslas: Teorija ir Praktika, 1(13), 2012. 14. Vorria P., Wolkind S., Rutter M., Pickles A., Hobsbaum A., A Compara- tive Study of Greek Children in Long-term Residential Group Care and in Two-parent Families: Social, Emotional and Behavioural Differenc- es. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39(2), 1998. 15. Žukauskienė, R., Leiputė, O., Vaikų ir jaunimo globos namų auklėtinių ir vaikų, gyvenančių su abiem tėvais, emocinių ir elgesio problemų ypatumai. Socialinis darbas, 2(2), 2002. 16. Župerka A., Studentų verslumo ugdymo plėtra Lietuvoje. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: VDU, 2010.

Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person

Jautrė Ramutė ŠINKŪNIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University, (Lithuania)

Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person

Abstract: The destiny of a disabled person is determined not by his disability by itself but its social consequences. When seeking increased self-reliance for disabled people, improvement of social skills must be considered important, as it helps to have confi dence in yourself, allows for more effi cient communication, provides inner energy, enables the person to persevere through a traumatic experience and helps the general quality of life. Disabled people with higher social skills fi nd it easier to start meaningful relationships with others, are able to gather caring and reassuring people around themselves. This article analyses the particulars of communication with a disabled person, recent qualitative data of research on the topic is presented, revealing the attitude of disabled persons and their friends and families, concerning the communication process.

Key words: communication, disability, Disability etiquette, social skills.

Introduction Self-reliant life of people with disabilities is a whole philosophy of equal opportunities, decisions and self-respect. As Adolf Ratzka (2005) – writer and person with disability said: “Self-reliant life does not mean that we have to do everything ourselves and we do not need any help, or that we have to separate ourselves from others. For us, self-reliant life means asking for the same opportunities of choice in our everyday lives that are taken as granted 144 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė by our brothers and sisters, neighbors and friend. We want to be raised in our own families, attend the local school, use public transport, have a job that matches our education and start a family.” Disabled people are the best authority on their own needs, so it is them who have to show the decisions that need to be made, they themselves have to be responsible for their lives, think and speak for themselves, like everybody else. For this purpose, we have to learn to support each other, to organize ourselves and work for ensuring the protection of disabled people and political change of civil rights. Only by accepting their disability and learning to live with it, people will be able to feel and act right with people surrounding them. How much joy the world around us ignites in our hearts, how good is our life, what we achieve, how much conﬁ dence in ourselves we have – this is what decides our self- image. Everybody knows that you are who you think you are. It is not such a rare thing to see a disabled person living with an expectation of care, i.e. waiting for initiatives targeted at their own quality of life, expecting help from others. This attitude creates the mentality of a closed circle of disabled people, a way of thinking and acting, that results in disappointment, passivity, looking for scape-goats, premature acceptance of failure, fear of change. Learned powerlessness is formed: a disabled person, not experiencing any inﬂ uence his actions have on the environment, loses motivation to initiate changes in his behavior and environment. Purpose of the article – to present two approaches to communication with a disabled person and to reveal the perception of communication.

How to accept and understand a disabled person? “Why do people fi nd it so hard to talk to me? I am sure that everyone can communicate. […] Some people express they thoughts wordlessly. Many believe that if you have a physical disability that also goes hand in hand with mental as well…”; “…It bothers me when people around me stare at me…”, “I need more self-confi dence […], people fi nd it hard to understand me. Despite looking like this, I feel the same as you inside. This is only my exterior”, - these are some of disabled people’s thoughts about their feelings while communicating with strangers. It could be said that it is hard to communicate with and understand the disabled. However, is it really easy for people who can verbalize perfectly to understand each other? Each person, while seeking to understand another person, including his needs, emotional state and ways of communication, is met with various diffi culties. The way a disabled person acts is his way of Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 145 communication, so mastered ways of expressing yourself via the way you act ensure the quality of his ability to communicate and social adaptation, i.e. the way his personality is suited to his social environment. Communication can be successful only if both sides are prepared to use all possible verbal and non-verbal ways of communication. The conversation requires greater concentration and patience from the conversant, however the essential requirement is to acknowledge the person and not his disability (Ruškus, 2002). The philosophy of attitude towards the disabled is most often discussed in the context of the society, however, in situations of communication that are found in everyday life, it is the attitude and efforts to solve the psychological problems of the disabled person by people close to him that mostly infl uence the decisions which can’t be made by the person himself. The book “How to Help Your Child” (1992) by T. J. Weighs, written in the empathic method, it is advised to anyone who desires it to fi nd and develop the ability to immerse himself in a disabled person’s state of being and experiences. In the book there is an example: the relationship between a child with developmental problems and people could be likened to a pianist, playing an off-tune piano and his audience. If we are only interested in the “instrument”, we’re like a tone-deaf audience to this child. Only by getting to know the spiritual state of the child, the deep essence of his special needs, will we begin to allow for the abilities of the disabled child to be revealed, his way of self-expression and communication to be developed (Weighs, 1992). Communication is split into two levels – rational, which consists of the contents of communication and emotional, which is manifested by the ways information is being expressed. The emotional side of communication represents the interpersonal relationship between the parties and is most often expressed by non-verbal means – gestures, postures, facial expressions. It can be very meaningful when, for example, encouraging the disabled to take initiative and teaching them to use means of non-verbal communication for their purposes (Steman, 2000). Research in the subject of problems in communication reinforced the point that verbal communication is only the external coating of what is being said, communication without signs, their meaning and purpose, summaries and defi nitions is impossible. However, it is possible to read the thoughts of others, to express your mood and state without verbalizing. Sometimes, the “language” of silence and gestures is deeper, more meaningful than words (Лоуэн, 1997). Every communication reveals a certain relationship that is very important when seeking understanding of the contents of the communication. When the plane of communication is important, the content of it is almost beside the 146 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė point; it is also possible to agree on content but have a confrontation on the emotional plane. Paradoxical communication occurs when verbal information goes against the information that is being transferred non-verbally (tone of voice, facial expressions, etc.). When the content of text and intonations are confl icted, the disabled person does not understand the point of directions, so it is important to pay attention to both rational and emotional part of information about the appropriateness of his behavior, about the importance of what is being said (Phillipot, Feldman, 1999; Лоуэн, 1997).

Attitude towards communication with the disabled: views of social workers Social work is widely accepted as a multidimensional, diffi cult and emotionally tense activity. Social workers, as representatives of an assisting profession, sometimes work feeling immense psychological and/or emotional pressure from their organization or environment (Collins, 2009). They have to juggle the problems of their clients while adapting themselves to their personal situation and the requirements of the families of the disabled and their organization. Personal values of the social worker infl uence his views on a disabled person, his family, and the communication process itself. Two viewpoints of the disabled are noted – subjective and objective, or positive and negative (Ivoškienė, 2003). Subjective point of view – the disabled person is communicated with by accepting the specifi cs of his way of communication, i.e. personal initiative is expressed by supporting and strengthening the people who need it. Objective point of view – the disabled is thought of as an object with functions that can possibly be understood and infl uenced. It is attempted to change his special behavior without any regard to the fact that his behavior is the person’s way to communicate, express his needs and inner turmoil. The way that a worker consciously or unconsciously chooses when trying to infl uence the client always represents his attitude towards the disabled person. For example, when following the subjective way, activities in the day care center are organized by taking into account the needs and requests by the client group. By the objective way, there is no contact between the worked and the disabled person, there is only orders to be obeyed and commands to be followed. The disabled person can be manipulated, the attitude towards him can be overprotective, stifl ing the client’s initiative (Ivoškienė, 2003). The data of a half-standardized interview “Social work supervision needs analysis of people with disabilities in day care centers“ (Šinkūnienė, Laucytė, Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 147 2009) will be present. The interview was carried out with six social workers, employed at six day centers in Vilnius, catering to the needs of adults with mental disabilities. A social worker places the same importance on the attitude of society as the disabled person or his family because it infl uences his professional self-worth. By participating in public events together with the disabled, he feels the reaction of the public. When analyzing social workers thoughts about other people’s opinions concerning their work, it is apparent that negative or inadequate perception has infl uence on the worker’s satisfaction with his work: • “… the attitude is, how do I say this, quite negative, I think, that a disabled person is somehow a burden on society… he’s not interesting; personally, this dismissal by others bothers me, it makes me feel as if I work with those who are not valuable members of society.” • “Sometimes, when walking down the street, you look at people from head to toes and feel as if you’re like one (disabled) yourself; then I think to myself – that’s okay, you’re no smarter yourself; … there’s this attitude that you’re somehow strange for being able to work with them; most people think like that.” Popular opinion states that social work with mentally handicapped is only a game, a way to spend your free time because they “can’t do anything anyway”. It makes it apparent that in the matter of work with the disabled, both people around them and the social workers themselves must realize that the role of a social worker is necessary and has to be conducted in a qualifi ed and professional manner. Three interviewees said that people often inadequately values their work by saying that it is very hard and then likening the workers to “martyrs” despite the fact that they don’t feel like that at all: • “… and most people look at us like martyrs; I don’t feel like that at all, I like my work, I’m good – I’m not in danger of getting my screws loose or anything.” • “There’s this attitude towards our work… It gets through when people come to visit: “Oh, how can you do this, I would go mad,” they say.” • „Mostly... people are, like, fascinated; „Oh, I don‘t know, you have to get yourself ready spiritually to work with people like that or something“ they say. Okay, it‘s nice to be appreciated but come on, there‘s nothing to be fascinated about, too much credit.“ Social workers desire their work to be appreciated, however “over the top” adulation is not welcome. One social worker noted that the most diffi cult thing about her work is that some clients don’t speak or express their emotions in not quite pleasant ways (by shouting, aggressive behavior): 148 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė “For me, it’s hard to get used to the fact that L. doesn’t speak. I feel like I’m communicating with myself. Despite the fact that he looks at you, you can’t fi gure out if he understands you (…) sometimes, they have different ways to express their emotions, D. for example, can’t speak in level tone, (…) starts screaming… sometimes even gets hysterical…. sometimes screams for the whole day, and it can get very tiring.” Going by these declarations, one could say that work is not being spread between the staff correctly, no attention is being paid to communication with people who do not speak, and organized activities might not suit the needs of their clients (or there are not enough activities being scheduled). When speaking about things that are important when working with mentally disabled people, some social workers stated that it is not just a job, it’s a way of life. The education, knowledge of work methods of the staff is not the only thing that matters, the ability to develop personal relationships is just as important. Analyzing the interviews, two important aspects were realized: the education and values of the worker. Thoughts on the matter by the interviewees: • “I don’t know, I think that you can graduate with the degree but if you don’t have the personal connection with the person, it won’t help. You will never be a good social worker.” • “Education is important, of course, but a lot depends on the person himself.” Two social workers started working at a day center by following a inner calling: • “Oh, I was in “Tikėjimas ir šviesa“(a community for the disabled in Lithuania) for a year or so, liked disabled people very much (…) caught wind of the fact that this center is opening, so I came.” • “… I had some dealings with the mentally disabled, they intrigued me a lot… and I really wanted that experience...” On personal qualities of a social worker, they noted: • „... I think tolerance and empathy are very important.“ • „... Mostly humanity, I think...“ Almost all social workers, speaking about their work, noted that it is important to them to ensure good condition of their clients and to promote communal environment: • “… so that they feel like a family, like a community…” • “… we try so hard to work towards a good atmosphere, to create a feeling of safety, to provide quality, quality of the connection between us.” Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 149 Conclusions The results of the interviews, the opinions of the social workers confi rmed that communication with disabled people requires not only adequate education but also special abilities to establish a relationship, taking into account the client‘s personality. Specifi cs of work and communication emerged: • inadequate views on social work with a disabled person by society; • diffi culties in communication due to the specifi cs of the client’s mental disability (aggressiveness, explosive bursts of emotions, activities with no results); • the importance of empathy, creativity, and personal relationships when solving problems of communication. The system of social readiness should help social workers in raising their communicational competence. This is also a problem of the education of social workers: institutions of higher learning do not pay enough attention to contents, forms and methods of communication, practices of self-education, social ethics, and social psychology. However, such problems does not refl ect the state of institutions where community relationships are developed consciously and methodically.

Social self-reliance of the disabled Self-reliance is a universal personal ability to discover, think and act. Self-reliance is necessary for any person who aspires to meaningfully, cre- atively and socially participate in community life. Progress of self-reliance is tightly connected with the person’s social experience and environment. Self-reliance of the disabled is interwoven with realistic opportunities to participate in social life: to make everyday decisions, to plan future activities, to stand for himself. This is especially important to people with disabilities. Successful socialization of a disabled person is one of the most important tasks in creating a community. One of the disturbances in the process is the focusing of text of communication towards external items instead of people, while ignoring or allowing analysis of self and development of communicational skills to occur naturally, as if these things were not worth learning or even impossible to learn. The community should be the place where the person can learn basic skills that help to live together with others – to communicate and cooperate, to learn to be meaningfully, to help discover and reveal their own capabilities. The community basically develops the disabled person’s abilities to, essentially, live his life. 150 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė Research interviews “Social independence of people with disabilities: skills and environmental assessment“ (Šinkūnienė, Slavinskaitė, 2011), where six social workers, working with mentally handicapped people and develop their social skills, to discovered which social skills, according to social workers, are the most important to their clients (in Bernardine Day Center for the Disabled, J. Matulaitis Social Center’s division for the Integration of the Disabled to Society “Open Community” and Vilnius Children’s and Youth’s Center). It was discovered that these skills are most important: • “<…> they are communication, self-care and behavioral skills. I would say that those are the most important for mentally handicapped and would prioritize them.” • “I think it’s all the social ones, you know, communication, expressing their emotions, knowledge how to act in stressful situations, new situations, how to ask for help.” In all interviews, communication skills were noted as the most important for a mentally handicapped person, no matter if it is a child or an adult, who seeks self-reliance. Disabled people who have good communication skills are able to connect with not only their loved ones but strangers too. These skills inspire courage, self-confi dence, mentally handicapped people learn to establish a connection with other people. This is illustrated by these statements: • ”Also, children know that they have to come up and greet other people, to say goodbye, they are taught politeness, they can use these skills not only in the institution but in other situations too.” • “<…> I think that it’s communication skills, because you can plainly see if the person can have contact, to come up and greet a person he doesn’t know.” • “<…> fi rst of all, I see great progress when a new person comes in, let’s say a volunteer or some other… new person, and they come up by themselves, extend their hand and say “Hello…” It is important to start developing communication skills as early as possible, because that’s the only way they can communicate politely, connect to a person they don’t know or ask for help when they are adults. “It’s also apparent when we leave the center, when they are surrounded by people they don’t know or in some other center, concert hall or theater.” Being able to connect to new people, to communicate with self-confi dence, to start a conversation with someone without fear of greeting him, to ask for something or just chat changes their attitude towards the disabled. Social workers also emphasized the importance of developing good stress management skills, the ability to recognize their emotions (not only good Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 151 or bad emotion, but more concretely – happiness, fear, jealousy, etc.) and to know how to express them properly (double for negative feelings), without self-destructive actions and without putting others in danger, hurting them. According to social workers, the disabled person becomes more self-reliant when he is able to react to other people’s feelings, understanding them and trying to help the one who is experiencing them: • “Children understand that the other person is sad, angry or happy, they feel that very strongly.” • “They try to provide comfort to the sad or lift his mood.” It is important not only to understand your emotions but also to be able to control them, especially fi ts of anger control: • „… that is... a great level of self-awareness to understand and realize that you are angry.“ • „… it‘s an achievement when they don’t express their anger in a group, instead, they walk away, then come back and apologize… You talk to them about it and they calm down.” • “… helping each other out with it… you know, not only yourself but others too. You’re stressing out but you see others too… You support each other, make each other stronger…” Controlling your emotions is an especially important skill because a person who can’t control himself, is hysteric or even aggressive is never welcomed, especially if he’s disabled too. • “You don’t stand out, don’t draw attention to yourself, then other people accept you. If something’s wrong, if you’re angry… or something, everybody’s looking at you, thinking that there’s something wrong with you.” According to social workers, development of these skills allow disabled people wider opportunities to participate in activities, to be understood and accepted: • “It’s just that those skills help you to be human, to show people that you are just like them, and there’s no need to fear you.” • “Skills help them to feel like they’re a part of the world, help them break free from the separation…”

Conclusions The results of the research proved that social skills are the key to self-reliant life, the basis for socialization of a disabled person, which lets him successfully integrate with his community. According to social workers, there is not enough 152 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė methods for adult mentally handicapped clients so they use the methods for development of social skills in children, which are modifi ed according to specifi c needs of each person. The progress is carefully evaluated by observing clients during everyday activities, discussing it in staff meetings and conferences. This research data revealed that behavioral, communicational, emotional awareness and self-control skills in medium diffi culty mentally handicapped clients, no matter their age, do help to involve themselves in the community, positively impact their self-reliance in various situations. Social workers most often mentioned appropriate behavior in public places, polite communication, establishing a connection, emotional control, positive change in attitude towards the disabled from other people.

Self-reliance in people with disabilities The objective of the research paper „The Peculiarities of Communication with People having different disabilities” (Šinkūnienė, Mikulevič, 2012) was to analyze communication from the position of a disabled person: to reveal how people with various disabilities feel while communicating, how they rate their communicational abilities. To understand their disability, the person fi rst has to accept himself as he is, to discover, reveal and get to know his true self, to trust and respect himself. Three categories were concentrated on: 1) personal ability to communicate, 2) frequency of communication and activity, 3) psychological aspects of communication. Six adults (20 to 37 years old) with different disabilities (from day care centre) were interviewed: a male with a hearing disability, 20 y.o. (V1 kl/n); a male with a mobility disability, 27 y.o. (V2 j/n); a male with a mental disease, 33 y.o. (V3 ps/n); a female with a vision disability, 37 y.o. (M1 r/n); a female with a mental disability, 26 y.o. (M2 p/n); a female with a developmental disability, 28 y.o. (M3 rd/n). We asked the respondents about their need to communicate, their social circle, the way the establish new contacts, understanding between people, help that they require while communicating, personal qualities concerning communication and their self-evaluation. All six interviewees feel a desire to communicate, which is confi rmed by these statements: • <…> I can’t hear very well, but I like to communicate with everyone <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> I have to communicate because I don’t like to be alone <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> I have contact with people, of course <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> I like to talk to people <…> (V3 ps/n). Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 153 When trying to determine the environment these people communicate in and who are their most frequent conversational partners, we found that only two people (with hearing and movement disabilities) have friends who do not share their condition but socialize with others as well: • <…> I have friends who can hear fi ne <…> (V1 kl/n). The man with a movement disability said that he has disabled friends who do not visit the social services center and also socializes with his neighbors: • <…> I have friends in wheelchairs and other friends, who live nearby <…> (V2 j/n). However, the other four only socialize with their colleagues or employees in their day center. The woman with a vision disability stated that she does not have any friends, the only people she trusts to understand her are her family members: • <…> don’t have friends, my family is closest to me, especially my parents, sister <…> (M1 r/n). The male (with mental disease) and two females (one with mental, the other developmental disability) stated that their closest friends are visitors of the day center. Also, family members: • <…> all of my friends come to this center, also, mother and sister <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> I have many friends here… don’t know others, also parents and sister… <…> (M2 p/n). It is confi rmed that disabled people limit themselves to their closest environment at the social services center. That allows them to partially experience the sense of safety, trust and love, while avoiding loneliness. However, the lack of relationships with “healthy” people obviously reveals the social divide which hinders the development of social skills and proves the existence of a ”closed wheel of communication”. When asked about new relationships and starting new friendships, three out of six interviewees (having vision, developmental and mental disabilities) stated that new friendships are not reliable and unsafe: • <…> I’m quite careful with people I don’t know, feel too afraid to talk to them <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> I wouldn’t fi nd anything in common with a person I don’t know <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> You can’t talk to strangers, they can be bad <…> (M3 rd/n). The remaining three persons (with movement, hearing disabilities and mental disease) stated that relationships with new friends or strangers could be real and safe, they stated that they could initiate a connection: 154 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė • <…> no problem, I’m not afraid, could come up an greet them <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> I like new people, I can start a conversation, tell them about myself <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> I think I could start a chat fi rst, there’s no need to be afraid <…> (V1 kl/n). To the question – how successful respondents are at expressing and receiving information, three people (with hearing, movement disabilities and mental disease) stated: • <…> If they need somebody to listen, I’m always ready, give advice… when I need to talk my heart out, they listen too <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> I like it when people listen to me, ask me questions <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> I’m good at listening to people, however sometimes… I talk too much <…> (V2 j/n). These people are able to speak and listen to their friends, loved ones, by actively communicating, they have an opportunity to understand and know themselves better, they feel like they are equal participants in a conversation. The other three (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities) were more passive when communicating, however that is not necessarily because of lack of communicational skills, it could be due to their personal qualities: • <…> it’s interesting to listen <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> I like listening more but I can talk too <…> (M2 p/n). When asked, what kind of help do you need when speaking to your friends of family, four out of six persons (with mental disease, hearing, movement and vision disabilities) said that they like everybody else, often need advice, help and lessons on how to act in certain situations, how to solve problems in their life: • <…> friends, workers try to calm me down, if the attack is big, they call the ambulance <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> same as everybody, just need some advice <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> I want them to listen, advise me… Sometimes, I need a travel companion <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> when they need to teach me something… when I fall down… when I need to fi ll out some documents <…> (M1 r/n). The person with a visual disability mentioned that she needs help of others in shops, banks, government institutions – to read labels, prices or fi ll out documents. The person with a mental disease stated that he sometimes needs emergency medical services. The person with a movement disability needs a companion outside the boundaries of the center. The other two persons – one with mental, the other with developmental disability, stated that they do Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 155 not require the help of their friends or family because they are self-reliant (it turns out that they value their self-reliance highly): • <…> I don’t need help, I’m self-reliant <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> I don’t need the help of others<…> (M3 rd/n). However, this evaluation of their self-reliance is not adequate because, according to others and knowing the particulars of mental and developmental disabilities, possibilities for self-reliance are not high. Self-reliance of the people with such disabilities is the object of methodic, diligent development of social and communicational skills. During the course of these conversations, personal qualities and self- evaluation named by the participants themselves were revealed. Three participants (with hearing, mental disabilities and mental disease) stated their positive qualities and proved that their self-image is quite good: • <…> I’m friendly… I can give advice, don’t tell other people’s secrets <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> I have many talents… I like attention, when I’m being praised, I am very active <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> I am self-reliant <…> (M2 p/n). The other three (with movement, vision and developmental disabilities) were more self-critical, said that they are shy, closed-off and not prone to seek attention: • <…> I try to avoid being in the center of attention <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> When I have to speak, I’m quite embarrassed, try to avoid it <…> (M3 rd/n). Seeking to discover frequency of communication and activity, we created four subcategories that represent activities, manners of communication, most visited places and events, and individual activities, when people can socialize and improve their skills. While trying to fi nd out what activities are disabled persons favorite, it was discovered that three out of six people (having hearing, movement and vision disabilities) have more varied communication and leisurely interests outside the bounds of the institution: • <…> we collect some information, chat, discuss, go to the city to have a walk… do a photoshoot <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> we go to the countryside, sit at a café, and joke around, share news <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> I go to the country, we do chores around the house together, go to the shops, and celebrate holidays <…> (M1 r/n). The other three persons (with mental disease, developmental and mental disabilities) most of the time are happy with the activities offered at the center, develop their social skills there: 156 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė • <…> we play “Alias”, “Bingo”; solve crosswords, math problems, go shopping <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> cook… go for a walk… do gymnastics… dance, prepare for con- certs, listen to the music. Go shopping with mother <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> we draw, play ball, sing, we do everything <…> M3 rd/n). Activities, where people (with hearing, movement disabilities and mental disease) acquire personal experience at communication, are: • <...> we take photographs <...> (V1 kl/n) • <…> active, fun ways to spend time, to avoid being at home and sitting at the computer <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> poems, jokes, greeting cards… I like to create <…> (V3 ps/n). The other three interviewees (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities) revealed that they can be found doing something artistic at the center: • <…> handcrafts, coloring mandalas… musical activities <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> embroidery, working with clay… sit at the computer… watch TV, do chores at home, I especially like to clean dust <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> singing <…> (M3 rd/n). When asked, do you visit others, participate in excursions, city events, three out of six persons (with hearing, movement and mental disabilities) answered that they visit their relatives or friends, but only go to excursions or events with the help of their social institution: • <…> I only go to excursions with the rest of the people from center… I visit people on weekends <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> I participate in sports… with my friends… we see each other often <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> to excursions if the center organizes them… <…> (M2 p/n). The other three (with mental disease and developmental as well as visual disability) only visit their relatives: • <…> 1-2 times a month, I visit my mother and sister… on weekends, I call a friend, he comes over for tea <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> on Christmas and Easter, we go to my sister’s <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> we go to visit relatives <…> (M1 r/n). While researching the psychological aspects of communication, the frequency of contacts and meetings, relations with other people, evaluation of their own initiative, their fears and doubts, as well as the society’s indifference towards them as perceived by the themselves, were discovered. When asked, how often do you spend time with friends, three interviewees (with mental disease, developmental and mental disabilities) answered that they meet friends on the days they visit the center: • <…> two times a week, sometimes on weekends too <…> (V3 ps/n) Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 157 • <…> on Monday and Thursday <…> (M3 rd/n) • <…> I see the girls every day, however I always spend Saturday and Sunday at home, with my parents <…> (M2 p/n). Other two persons (with hearing and movement disabilities) stated that they meet their friend 1-2 times a week by setting up a meeting earlier: • <…> during the week, we’re busy with studies, don’t have time, so we use the phone, and then meet on the weekends <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> when the weather is warm, we meet more often… I see some of them 1-2 times a week, the others – more rarely <…> (V2 j/n) It was interesting to know how the disabled person evaluate their bond with friends. These are the responses we got: • <…> very strong, friendly, tested by time… relationship based on trust <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> we have a friendly connection <…> (V2 j/n). All interviewees have a safe, trustful bond of mutual respect with their friends from the social center and their families, they value them greatly. When asked, who initiates and organizes meetings, four people (with hearing, movement, vision disabilities and mental disease) stated that sometimes they take initiative themselves and plan meetings or offer to do something together, thus feed their contacts: • <…> sometimes I do, sometimes my friends… it’s all the same <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> more often, it’s me, I get everybody to meet <…> (V2 j/n). The most popular way of communication between the disabled is the cellphone (both calling and text messaging) – it was named as the main way to communicate by the persons with visual, developmental disabilities and mental disease: • <…> I have a phone. I call or text when I need to… Also have Skype but don’t use it yet, haven’t tried… Haven’t started fi nding contacts on facebook either <…> (M1 r/n) • <…> I call my friends <…> (V3 ps/n). The other three interviewees (with hearing, movement and mental disabilities) use a more varied slate of technology, including the cellphone, Skype, e-mail, social networks (one.lt, facebook). • <…> I text, speak on the phone… Skype, facebook, sign language <…> (V1 kl/n) • <…> Skype, one.lt, facebook, e-mail, telephone… I have everything <…> (V2 j/n) • <…> I know how to text, call… I have Skype and a webcam… a gmail address, use facebook too, sometimes <…> (M2 p/n). 158 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė These answers show that the disabled use the tools that any other person in the world uses, they try to command technology for their purposes – their disability does not infl uence that at all. What fears and doubts do the disabled have to face when communicating? The interviewees (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities) answered, that they are afraid of being rejected and don’t trust people from other environments they don’t know: • <...> you can never know how they might take my honesty <...> (M1 r/n) • <…> you can’t trust them, can’t know what they think, if they tell the truth or lie <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> I’m afraid to go somewhere <…> (M3 rd/n). It’s not a big leap to fi gure that lacking social experience, strangers don’t look trustworthy or safe to talk to. We decide to inquire if they feel and understand other people’s misunderstanding and indifference towards themselves. Answers (from interviewees with mental, developmental disabilities and mental disease) revealed that despite the existence of a circle of close friends, negative thoughts are still experienced sometimes: • <…> they don’t always understand what I’m writing, my thoughts <…> (V3 ps/n) • <…> my sister… has her own life. From school… my friends grew up, got married, we don’t talk anymore <…> (M2 p/n) • <…> they have other friends… I’m not needed <…> (M3 rd/n). The details of communication of different people with different disabilities depend on their character, behavior, communicational skills and abilities.

Conclusions (1) All disabled persons agreed that they feel a desire to communicate, however most (four out of six) only have regular contact with their family, relatives or the visitors of their center for social services because they don’t trust anyone else. Three individuals stated that they would try to seek new relationships if needed, however, when socializing with strangers or their neighbors they fear to be misunderstood or to be met by a wall of indifference, they are afraid to get rejected and don’t trust strangers. So, the negative effect of a “closed circle of communication” is proved in practice. (2) It was revealed that people with disability have a strong motivation to communicate. Four people sometimes take initiative, plan meetings and organize activities. Two interviewees meet their friends 1-2 times a week, Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 159 when their center for social services holds activities that interest them. Three people communicate and sometimes spend time with their friends outside the center. (3) Four people think of themselves as open, friendly, active, partially self-reliant personalities who need help in certain cases (to do their shopping, fi ll out documents, in case of an attack), two of them show signs of lower self-esteem, revealed that they are shy and diffi cult to get close to. (4) The answers show that independently from the disability or the diffi culty of their condition, the disabled can use all tools of communication that are accessible to every person in this day and age: every single interviewees uses a cell phone (three of them also use Skype, e-mail and social networks). Social workers, who work with the disabled are recommend to aspire to create an environment of active communication, organize social activities that encourage contact with each other, according to their mean, include local community into the activities at the day center. Seeking increased self- reliance of these people, it is important to develop their socializing skills and encourage the activeness of the disabled themselves. Skills can be developed in the form of art, sports, play, and professional activity and by teaching to complete simple chores that would need to be done at home.

Ways to increase experience of communicating with disabled J. Cohen, in his book “Disability Etiquette: Tips On Interacting with People With Disabilities” (2003) writes that someone with a disability is fi rst a person, with his own family and relatives, some of them have jobs or studies, their interests, problems and joys. Despite the fact that disability is a part of their lives, it’s not the essence of their self that defi nes who they really are. The author emphasized the mistakes of accepting disabilities and stated: “Do not turn the disabled into heroes or victims, see them as a person fi rst” (Cohen, 2003, pg. 5). The fi rst rule of disability etiquette is to act and communicate in the same way that you wish you were acted towards or communicated with. The main rules of disability etiquette seem simple, however they have to be understood properly. For example, before you help, ask if it is needed (in a TV show, one girl in a wheelchair recalled an anecdote, where two men in a bus stop decided to help her and without asking lifted her into the wrong bus). Speak and communicate with the person himself, not his 160 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė companion, according to the situation, try to be at his eye level, be sensitive during the moments of physical contact – a person with disability thinks of his wheelchair as his personal space. The disabled themselves are the best experts on what they can and what they cannot do – do not decide for them without giving them an opportunity to make the decision themselves. In “Disability Etiquette” (Cohen, 2003), there are many phrases that could involuntarily hurt the self-worth of the disabled person. For example, saying “chained to the wheelchair” could summon the feelings of powerlessness and pity in people around you, however the wheelchair is a compensational tool of mobility, and the person himself views it as a part of his body, which provides him with the freedom of mobility. Some adults with a severe disability can be as old as a baby in terms of their physical development, i.e. their physical functional age can be incredibly different than their biological age. In those cases, while speaking to the person, adults often unconsciously choose a way of acting phrasing themselves as if they were speaking to a child. Such disconnect hurts the disabled person’s identity. You must communicate at the appropriate level for the age of the person. When the evidence of severe disability is readily apparent from the looks of the person, people around him often ignore elementary etiquette, demonstrating “unhealthy” attention, avoidance, ignoring or even being scared of the person. However, seeing the limited physical abilities of the person, you should not forget the fact that often the disabled understands his strangeness and different range of communicational tools, and, even more, in turn evaluates people surrounding him, making up his own mind about them. The only book in Lithuanian “Disability Etiquette: Communicating With People Who Have A Disability” (Muceniekas, Vėliuvienė, Henring, 2004), where rules for acting towards people with different disabilities are provided, was created to act as methodical material for seminars, seeking to introduce various social groups (social workers, teachers, employers, etc.) to the way people with various disabilities communicate. Unfortunately, the book was not very popular, there were no specialists interested in making similar information more public and, also, there was no interest in such training. When communicating with a disabled person, most of the ways of nonverbal communication are not used (facial expressions, symbolic gestures, graphical tools, movement, musical sounds, etc.). A sign, a word or a sound are not the only tools for communication. It could be said that there is too much importance placed on words when communicating, forgetting that there are worlds that cannot be fully expressed by words (music, for one). Understanding of nonverbal communication is important when seeking Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person 161 quality of communication and understanding of each other, so will reveal some relations between interpretation of nonverbal expression, improvisation according to some rules and reciprocity (Šinkūnienė, 2012): - to experience a sense of safety, to create a free, calm atmosphere, - to express in verbal and nonverbal means, trying to establish and keep contact, - to increase activity of communication, initiate communication, providing an opportunity to use emotional means of artistic expression, - to cooperate until the person’s self-expression via facial-expressions, movement and sight turns into social communication, - to encourage the creation of original movements, combinations of sounds (own language), sign system and to use them while communicating, - to try various role-playing scenarios that help develop social skills, - to use visual aids that increase communicational experience. Disability starts the road to acceptance in the family of the child. Parent’s sense of guilt, anger towards destiny, sadness and tears, discomfort in front of strangers, who look at and comment on their child’s disability, understandable unwillingness to visit public places infl uences the child’s psychological state, hinder his social development. Born from great desire to create a safe environment, parents often seek not to encourage their children to live by themselves but to stifl e and control them. The preparation and inner efforts of parents, social workers and teachers to understand what is most important in the lives of a person with a disability infl uences the solutions to their psychosocial problems. The strategy of cooperation – fi nding and developing empathic abilities in yourself to feel another’s troubles, using positive infl uence from the environment, resulting in a nurturing and supporting environment. Credo of communication with disabled people could be: “Don’t do the work for me – let’s work together, don’t live for me – let’s live together, don’t be for me – let’s be together!” (Ratzka, 2005). Every single one of us could name many things he cannot do, does not know or who he is never going to be, in some sense, this is another form of disability. To truly accept a disabled person means to, at fi rst, know yourself, to perfect your own personal existential quality. Of course, it is not easy. However, only after feeling the need to change, people can discover the meaning of life of a person with disability, their right to be not only near us but among us. 162 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė Bibliography: 1. Cascella P. W., McNamara K. M. Empowering Students With Several Disabilities to Actualize Communication Skills. Teaching Exceptional Children, 2005, 37 (3). 2. Cohen, J., Disability Etiquette. Tips on interacting with people with disabilities. New York: United Spinal Association Publications, 2003. 3. Collins S. Effective Communication: A Workbook for Social Care Wor- kers. Jessica Kingsley, 2009. 4. Fromas Ė., Menas mylėti. Vilnius: Valstybinis leidybos centras, 1992. 5. Ivoškienė N., Personalo problemos ir jų etinis aspektas / Socialiniai ne- įgalumo aspektai: žmogui reikia žmogaus. Straipsnių rinkinys. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla, 2003, p. 95–102. 6. Лоуэн A., Язык тeлa. Caнкт-Пeтepбypг: Гуманитарное aгенство „Aкадемический npoeкт“, 1997. 7. Muceniekas G.; Vėliuvienė, V.; Hering, E., Negalės etiketas: bendravi- mas su žmonėmis, turinčiais negalę. Vadovėlis. Vilnius: Baltic Partners for Change Management, 2004. 8. Philippot, P.; Feldman, R. S. The social context of nonverbal behavior. Cambridge University Press, 1999. 9. Ruškus J., Negalės fenomenas. Monografi ja. Šiauliai: ŠU, 2002. 10. Sutton C., Socialinis darbas, bendruomenės veikla ir psichologija. Vil- nius: VU Specialiosios psichologijos laboratorija, 1999. 11. Steman C., Socialinio darbo su proto negalios vaikais pagrindai. Meto- dinė medžiaga: Nyderlandų socialinio darbo ir gerovės tyrimų institutas. Vilnius: Socialinių darbuotojų rengimo centras, 2000. 12. Šinkūnienė J. R., Bendruomeniškumas, komunikacija ir muzika: socio- kultūriniai negalios aspektai/ Monografi ja. Mykolo Romerio universitetas, 2012. 13. Ratzka A., http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/

Research papers: 1. „The Peculiarities of Communication with People having different disabilities” (Šinkūnienė, Mikulevič, 2012). 2. “Social independence of people with disabilities: skills and environmental assessment“ (Šinkūnienė, Slavinskaitė, 2011). 3. “Social work supervision needs analysis of people with disabilities in day care centers“ (Šinkūnienė, Laucytė, 2009). Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary...

Miglė DEVENSON, B.Ed. Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (Lithuania) Rasa KIRLIAUSKIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (Lithuania) Vilmantė ALEKSIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (Lithuania)

Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary Music

Abstract: The article analyses the opportunities for integration of music therapy elements into the programs of formal and non-formal primary music education. A brief overview of the music therapy research in the fi eld of education is presented. A survey exploring the experience and feasibility of the integration of music therapy elements into music lessons carried out in Lithuanian schools is presented, as well as the analysis of the results and fi ndings derived from the data obtained from the students’ questionnaires and teachers’ interviews. According to the fi ndings, the integration of music therapy elements plays a signifi cant role in promoting positive emotions in the classroom, improving student motivation and developing a healthy personality. It has been determined, that the integration of music therapy elements into the programs of formal and non-formal primary music education is signifi cant both for the students, as the proposed classroom activities better correspond with their wishes, and for the teachers, as it helps to improve the psychological climate and discipline in the classroom and enhance involvement and motivation of the students.

Key words: primary music education, music therapy. 164 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė Preface Relevance. The development of a healthy personality is important for each educational process, including the music education of students, therefore, it is essential for teachers of music education to consider strategies for music lessons as well as for non-formal music education. On the basis of music therapy ideas, teachers can solve a number of problems encountered in the classroom. The integration of music therapy elements provide opportunities to deal with such issues as classroom management, organization of activities, enhancement of students’ motivation during the process of learning. Music therapy allows active participation of the children who are not musically gifted, as music therapy is aimed not at the result but rather at the process of learning, including the learning of the children with special needs, timid and indrawn children, by encouraging them to express themselves, to play together, to get to know each other better and to learn to communicate and cooperate. The integration of music therapy into the music curriculum of the general education programs makes the role of the teacher more idiosyncratic as well, because the teacher has to select learning materials which are conducive and attractive to students, and to create a positive emotional and psychological climate in the classroom. The problem. The use of music therapy in educational contexts has been studied by Elefant, 2010; Foulkrod, Davenport, 2010; Goodman, 2011; Hall, 2012; Mcferran, Stephenson, 2010; Pachetti, Mancini, Aglieri, Martignoni, 2000; Pethybridge, Robertson, 2010; Watson, 2012. The above mentioned music therapy researchers revealed the effectiveness of music therapy methods in optimizing education (learning) processes and emphasized the need for research in this area. Although the issues of the use of music therapy in education system is extensively investigated by foreign researchers, it remains an entirely new initiative in the general education schools in Lithuania, and there is no research related to the use of the elements of music therapy in the music lessons of general education classes1. The “Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art and Music Therapy”2 held in

1 In 2013, the application was submitted to the Lithuanian Ministry of Education and Science requesting to provide information on the music education programs which integrate music therapy techniques carried out at general education schools. The reply was that such programs are not implemented. 2 “Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Us- ing Art and Music Therapy”. Agreement No. VPI – 2. 2 – ŠMM – 05 – K – 01 – 085. Funded by the European Social Fund. Available at: http://www.rafaelis.lt/projektai/2- prevenciniu-netradicinio-ugdymo-modeliu-panaudojant-dailes-ir-muzikos-terapija-igyvendinimo-projektas. Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 165 2011-2013 was the ﬁ rst project in Lithuania involving the preparation of music therapy methodology (Implementation of the music therapy model in schools)3, the training of music teachers and the integration of music therapy methods into the formal and non-formal music education. Practical implementation of the latter part of the project constitutes the object of this survey. The aim of the survey. To examine the experience and opportunities of the integration of music therapy elements into the formal and non-formal primary music education programs. Objectives of the survey: (1) To reveal the opportunities for the integration of music therapy into the music education programs on the basis of the scientiﬁ c and methodological literature. (2) To present students’ views on the music therapy elements integrated into music classes. (3) To analyse the opinion of music teachers about the opportunities for music therapy integration into music education programs. The survey methods: (1) Questionnaire-based survey; (2) Interview; (3) Qualitative and quantitative (absolute frequency and percentage frequency counting) analysis of the obtained data.

The existing research on the topic In terms of music therapy in contemporary culture and its application for the educational environment, it would be appropriate to present the following classiﬁ cation of music therapy methods: listening to music, improvisation, performance and creation of music. These are the primary music therapy methods and they may have multitude of variations, however, there are two principal ways to engage in music activities: receptive music therapy (listening to music) and active music therapy (active musicing) (Bruscia, 1998). In modern practice, the therapist not only offers its customer to listen to a music composition, but also provides the opportunity to sing, dance and improvise. While the traditional passive music therapy techniques remain the most popular, more and more attention is paid to the research of the active methods (Evans, 1986). Quite a few active music therapy techniques

3 The publication in Lithuanian language (Muzikos terapijos modelio įgyvendini- mas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė. Vilnius: Justitia, 2013). 166 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė have already been created in Western Europe and the US, and they are being continuously improved (Pacchetti et al, 2000). However, in terms of the educational music therapy, it would be appropriate to mention, that the therapeutic music games are of particular relevance to this area. This is well confi rmed by the survey carried out by A. Pioch and K. Drieschner (2002), during which 30 music therapists with an average work experience of 14 years were interviewed. The authors state that 92% of the surveyed therapists confi rmed that they usually apply music therapy games for interactions with children. Apart from this, it was found by K. Foulkrod and B. Davenport (2010) that therapeutic music games are the most effective for aggressive children. In addition to music games, traditional music activities (playing musical instruments, singing, moving to the music, improvising, composing music, listening to music) are selected and offered, however, the aim is not musical achievements: the activities are aimed at the physical, mental and social health. By the use of music therapy ideas teachers can solve a number of problems encountered in the classroom. Setting health-oriented goals and applying usual methods non-traditionally, can help to solve classroom management and activity organization problems, enhance students’ motivation to engage in activities, help to rally a class or the members of an art group to achieve common goals, and to get timid students or students with special needs involved in activities (Implementation of the music therapy model in schools, 2013). Rudiskaitė R. (2006) states in her article that the use of music therapy elements in music education programs may be a quality tool aimed at promoting communication, moral education as well as understanding and conceptualisation of music, oneself and the world. When overviewing music therapy as a treatment method, Ž. Dubelova and R. Mačiulaitis (2012) observe that the educational nature of the art of music is of particular importance. J. Hall (2012), in respect of her experience as a music pedagogue and a music therapist working at school, notes that, this way, she has achieved signifi cantly better results in the fi eld of training than acting only in one “role”. J. Hall highlights the increased student motivation at music lessons and better results achieved in music. In the book published in 2011, the author K. D. Goodman outlined the theoretical and practical knowledge, based on which she advised on the use of music therapy in pedagogical activities. The benefi ts of the integration of music therapy elements into the music curriculum are supported by the research carried out on the subject by other researchers as well. Katerina McFerren and Jennifer Stephenson (2010) conducted a survey with the purpose to fi nd out the benefi ts of music therapy for children with signifi cant developmental disorders in the context of general education. Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 167 It was hypothesized that the children with signifi cant disorders will show more communicative action through music therapy intervention than they would through other activities while interacting with the same therapist. Four students, ranging in age from 7 years to 10 years, and four music therapists participated in the survey. The music therapy sessions with each student were held once a week and lasted from 20 to 30 minutes. In order to identify the impact of the music selected by the music therapist on the interaction between the adult and the child, the ABAB pattern was used to conduct the survey. During the sessions of the A phase the interaction of the therapist and the student was based on the topics of favourite activities, whereas the likings related to music were not discussed. The interaction of the B phase sessions was based on the use of music therapy techniques and involved familiar songs. The survey results showed that during the B phase sessions, which involved the use of music therapy techniques, the interactions of the surveyed were more articulate, and they tried to express their thoughts and opinions. Emma Pethybridge and James Robertson (2010) conducted a study aimed at fi nding out the possibility of the implementation of the theoretical foundations of educational music therapy into practical context. This study covered fi ve music therapy group work projects of limited time, which took place at two general education schools. The data were collected by the means of direct observation and questionnaires (parents and teachers fi lled in the questionnaires on children’s behaviour before and after the project). Each project group (10 groups in total) was made of 4 to 6 children, the group work took place each week for 30-40 minutes, and the whole project lasted 20 weeks. The results revealed that once the children had learned to positively connect to the development of music environment in the context of the school and to take responsibility for the musical interaction in small groups, it became easier for them to achieve musical and non-musical educational goals. This discovery substantiated the hypothesis that there is the continuum between music therapy and music education. Cochavit Elefant (2010) carried out a survey on “Communication in Children with Severe Developmental Disabilities in Music Therapy”, the participants of which were seven girls aged 5-10 years with retro syndrome. The surveyed were presented 18 pre-selected familiar and unfamiliar children’s songs. The aim of the survey was to assess whether the girls were able to consciously choose, learn, set preferences to songs, etc. The research methodology consisted of multiple testing methods of one case (multiple- assay variation). The results confi rmed that pre-selected children’s songs in music therapy played a special role in detection of the potential of the population which was considered not susceptible to education and did not 168 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė know to consciously communicate. This survey revealed that the songs had caused a meaningful motivation for children, and this enabled them to discover and express their interaction potential. In view of the results of this survey, it is also worth noting that the survey illustrates the effectiveness of music therapy integration into educational environment as well as its suitability for the work with individuals who have developmental disorders. Analysis of the survey data on the experience and feasibility of the integration of music therapy elements into music education programs

Students’ attitude towards music therapy elements integrated into music lessons

Date and location of the survey. The survey was conducted at Vilnius’ Kindergarten-School Dainorėliai on 26 April 2013 – 5 May 2013. The students fi lled in the questionnaires in their classrooms, i.e., their usual surroundings, which made it possible to avoid the negative impact of the surroundings that would infl uence the results of the survey. Data collection method and procedure. Sixty-three students aged from 7 to 10 years participated in the survey. The survey was discussed separately with the teacher of each class. A confi rmation that the parents of the students are not against the questionnaire-based survey was obtained before conducting the survey. Prior to the survey, the students were given instructions, which specifi ed the aim of the survey, the purpose of the received data application, questionnaire fi lling instructions, and confi dentiality guarantee. The time needed for the respondents to fi ll in the questionnaires was about 30 minutes. Selection of participants. The selection method – purposive selection. The schools, music teachers and students who participated in the “Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art and Music Therapy” were selected.

Analysis of the survey data While investigating the feasibility of the integration of music therapy elements into music education programs, it was important to identify the satisfaction / dissatisfaction with music lessons of the students who attended that kind of lessons (Table 1). Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 169

Table 1. Students’ satisfaction with music lessons Options Answers (qty.) Answers (%) Completely satisfi ed 39 62% Sometimes satisfi ed and sometimes not 20 32% Dissatisfi ed 4 6%

The smallest proportion of responses (6%) is made of the negative answers of the students. The largest share (62%) represent positive answers, i.e., students are completely satisﬁ ed with the music lessons. 32% of the students said that they sometimes liked the music lessons, and sometimes not. This indicates that the student satisfaction with music lessons is high, which allows an assumption that the students participate in the classroom activities willingly. Table 2 presents data on students’ emotional state during a music lesson.

Table 2. Students’ feel at music lessons Options Answers (qty.) Answers (%) Interested and active 31 49% Cheerful and relaxed 23 36% Indifferent and bored 5 8% Insecure and tense 4 7%

The results show that almost half (49%) of the respondents indicated that they were interested and active during the music lesson, and more than one- third of the students (36%) indicated that they felt cheerful and relaxed during the music lesson. However, the opposite tendency regarding the emotional state at the music lesson was also revealed: a small proportion of students (15%) indicated that they felt indifferent and bored (8%) or insecure and tense (7%) at the music lesson. Despite this, the results show that the majority of the students (85%) selected the option indicating positive feelings, therefore, the assumption can be made that positive states of mind felt by the students, such as interest, activity, happiness, and relaxation, are more common during the music lessons. The data in Table 3 presents the music activity indicated by the students as the most frequent activity at the music lessons which integrate the elements of music therapy. Thus, the classroom activity most emphasised by the students is playing music games (79%). However, playing musical instruments (68%) makes 170 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė Table 3. The most frequent music activities performed during the lesson Options Answers (qty.) Answers (%) Playing musical instruments 43 68% Singing of the learned songs 27 43% Moving by the music 15 24% Playing of music games 50 79% Improvising, composing music 39 62% Learning new songs 25 40% Listening to music 30 48% Talking about the music 26 41% Drawing while listening to music 16 25% Learning music notation 20 32% Listening to the teacher’s stories 21 33%

another majority of the selected options. The least popular activities are moving by the music (24%) and drawing while listening to music (25%). This allows an assumption that, in terms of the integration of music therapy, the main activities in the context of primary music education are therapeutic music games and playing musical instruments. Once the most frequent activities of the music lessons have been indicated, it is purposeful to review the students’ opinion on the activities in which they would like to engage for a largest part of the lesson time, and in which the shortest time. The students’ choices are presented in Table 4. The largest number of students (41%) would like to allocate the largest part of the lesson time (15 min) for music games or playing musical instruments (33%). None of the students would like to spend the largest part of the lesson time talking about the music, learning music notation or a new song. The review of the results reveals that the students would like to spend less time on the activities of improvisation, composing of music and listening to music, and the students would allocate the shortest time period (1 min) for music notation, listening to the music teacher’s stories or talking about music, as well as quite a large proportion of the students (22%) selected the learning to sing or dance options as the least desirable. The most relevant value of the table is 15 minutes (the largest part of the lesson time), which the students would like to allocate for music games, and this choice corresponds to the music activity which was indicated by the teachers as the music activity carried out most frequently during the classes (Table 3). Thus, the most frequent music activities carried out during the classes and the children’s desirable music activities coincide, therefore, it can Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 171 Table 4. Distribution of the duration of desirable music activities in the lesson Duration (min) 15 10 8 5 3 2 1 Music activities Playing musical instruments 33% 21% 21% 8% 8% 3% 5% Singing of the learned songs 5% 11% 10% 8% 14% 16% 22% Moving by the music 8% 10% 3% 10% 8% 10% 22% Playing of music games 41% 30% 13% 3% 5% 3% 0% Improvising, composing music 5% 8% 13% 20% 6% 3% 8% Learning new songs 0% 5% 8% 10% 5% 11% 10% Listening to music 3% 8% 13% 19% 18% 11% 13% Talking about the music 0% 0% 3% 5% 10% 14% 22% Drawing while listening to music 3% 6% 10% 8% 20% 11% 18% Learning music notation 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 10% 38% Listening to the teacher’s stories 3% 2% 8% 8% 6% 8% 43% be concluded that the students’ experience during the lessons as well as their attitude towards the music lessons which have integrated elements of music therapy is positive. Music teachers’ attitude towards the opportunities for integration of music therapy elements into music education programs Date and location of the survey. The survey was conducted at Vilnius’ Kindergarten-School Dainorėliai and Vilnius’ Balsiai Secondary School on 26-30 April 2013. The interviews with each teacher were carried out individually in the classroom or a separate room. Data collection method and procedure. The interviews were coordinated individually with each respondent. Prior to the survey, each of them individually were explained the aim of the survey and the purpose for which the survey data will be used. Upon consent of the respondents, the interviews were recorded, in order to accurately reproduce the interview so that to avoid the researcher’s personal opinion or inaccurate interpretation of the interview. Average duration of the interviews was from 45 min up to 1 hour. Selection of participants. The target group of respondents was selected: six music teachers who participated in the project-based training and integrated music therapy elements into the formal and non-formal music education programs during the latter academic year. 172 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė Analysis of the survey data While examining the results of the interview, the questions were grouped into four sub-categories: the objectives of the integration of music therapy elements; music therapy methods and tools; the experience of music teachers in integrating the elements of music therapy; the revealed need and opportunities for integration of music therapy elements. Thus, the following analysis of the interview results is presented in accordance with the above sub-categories: The objectives of the integration of music therapy elements. The overview of the survey results revealed the following objectives of music therapy integration: (1) Student’s relationships; (2) Compliance with the rules of the group; (3) Recognition and management of emotions; (4) Improvement of the psychological climate of the class; (5) Children’s self-expression; (6) Communication and cooperation; (7) Music education. The revealed objectives allow an assumption that the aim of the integration of music therapy is not only musical training: the objectives of psychological and social nature are present as well. Methods and tools of integration of music therapy elements. The analysis of the interview data revealed that the teachers usually use music games: it was stressed in the answers of each teacher (“It is also the most effi cient method, because it is what children of such age need, and they learn best through play.”). It was found out that the most commonly used games were those where playing musical instruments was involved. However, the teachers also recognized that the potential of all three main methods of music therapy, i.e., active, receptive and integrative activities, are used in music therapy games. The interview revealed the lack of tools: the teachers acknowledged that they did not have enough musical instruments to work with larger groups. Experience of music teachers in integrating the elements of music therapy. The results of the interview show that the experience of the teachers in integrating music therapy elements into music education programs is favourable and positive as all the respondents pointed out that it answered the purpose. They stated that the integration of music therapy elements made the communication with the students and between the students more effi cient, the children had the opportunity to express their emotions and feelings, and the music education lesson became diverse and enjoyable. Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 173 The unfavourable aspects of the activities were also revealed. Several of them can be distinguished: the students are not used to the discussions which follow the therapeutic music games or improvisations, it is not easy for them to refl ect on the experience and to identify emotions. However, the teachers feel that the progress in these areas is noticeable after each class. The revealed need and opportunities for integration of music therapy elements music therapy helped them to manage the class, improve the psychological climate, and resolve the problems arising between the children. This facilitated the work of the music teacher. The need for prevention activities, which would be of relevance to all school children, was also accentuated. In addition, the teachers would recommend individual music therapy application to several groups of children attending school, i.e., the children with speech disorders and special needs, as well as hyperactive children. The need for integration was viewed differently. The teachers noted that the application of Based on their practice, the respondents stated that they would recommend the integration of music therapy to other music teachers, however, they stressed that it would require at least basic preparation (knowledge of music therapy, psychology). In the broader view of the opportunities for the integration of music therapy into music education programs, it was noticeable that all the respondents identifi ed the lack of methodological material, the importance of training in music therapy, and stressed the willingness to continue to deepen their knowledge in the fi eld. The analysis of the interview results also reveals that each teacher uses music therapy elements in view of the peculiarities of the class, students’ needs and their capabilities. However, for a teacher to be able to apply music therapy methods in general education schools, the theoretical and practical knowledge is required. The respondents of the survey had the opportunity to participate in the training courses organized by the Lithuanian Music Therapy Association4. The teachers stated that it gave them the opportunity to integrate music therapy on the basis of the knowledge gained during the courses and the individual capacities of each teacher, as well as to customize various elements of music therapy and to apply various aspects of them during the lesson in accordance with the needs of the class.

4 United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture was working on “Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art and Music Therapy”, one of the partners of which was Lithuania Music Therapy Associ- ation [accessed 24 02 2013]. Available at: http://www.rafaelis.lt/projektai/2-prevenciniu- netradicinio-ugdymo-modeliu-panaudojant-dailes-ir-muzikos-terapija-igyvendinimo- projektas. 174 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė Conclusions (1) Following the analysis of the methodical, scientifi c literature it can be concluded that the integration of music therapy into music education programs is helpful for children with developmental impairment, children with special needs, and the prevention of child’s behavioural problems. The authors exploring this topic highlight the relevance of the topic and its signifi cance in optimizing music education classes. (2) The results obtained from the children’s questionnaires show that the students’ attitude towards the music lessons with integrated elements of music therapy is positive; the students willingly participate in the classroom activities; they feel interested, active, cheerful and able to relax during the lessons. Analysis of the survey data revealed that the most desirable activity of the children, as well as the music activity most frequently used by the teachers during the lesson, is therapeutic music games aimed to cover a wide range of objectives in music education as well as physical, emotional and social education. Based on the results of the survey, it can be concluded that the integration of music therapy elements is signifi cant in terms of promoting positive emotions in the classroom, improving student motivation and developing a healthy personality. (3) According to the results of music teachers’ interview, it can be stated that the integration of music therapy into music education programs is an effective and useful means aimed at children’s relationships, facilitating compliance with the rules of the group, recognition and management of emotions, improvement of the psychological climate in the classroom, self-expression of the children, communication and cooperation and music education. The analysis of the teachers’ experience in integrating music therapy elements has also revealed that the teachers’ attitude towards the matter is positive as it helps to improve the communication quality in the classroom and make the music education lesson more diverse. Based on their experience, the music teachers recommend other music teachers to integrate music therapy. Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary... 175 Bibliography: 1. Bruscia K., Defi ning Music Therapy. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers 1998. 2. Dubelova Ž., Mačiulaitis R., Meno terapija kaip gydymo metodas asmenims, turintiems specialiųjų poreikių (psichikos sutrikimų), Visuomenės sveikata, 22(4)/2012. 3. Elefant C.,. Unmasking Hidden Resources. Communication in Children with Severe Developmental Disabilities in Music Therapy, In: V. Karkou (ed.), Arts therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2010. 4. Evans J.-R., Clynes M., Rhythm in psychological, linguistic and musical processes. Springfi eld: Charles C. Thomas 1986. 5. Foulkrod K., Davenport B., An examination of empirically informed practice within case reports of play therapy with aggresive and oppositional children, International Journal of Play Therapy 19(3)/2010. 6. Goodman K. D., Music therapy education and training: from theory to practice, book review (reviewed by Phillipe Mauskapf), Psychomusicology: Music, Mind and Brain, 22(1)/2011. 7. Hall J., The School Challenge: Combining the Roles of Music Therapist and Music Teacher, In: Williams F. (ed.), Music Therapy in Schools. London: Philadelphia 2012. 8. Lietuvos muzikos terapijos asociacija. (2013). Muzikos terapijos modelio įgyvendinimas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė. Vilnius: Justitia 11.37/2013. 9. McFerran K., Stephenson J., Facing the challenge. A Music therapy investigation in the evidence-based framework, In: V. Karkou (ed.), Arts therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2010. 10. Muzikos terapijos modelio įgyvendinimas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė. Vilnius: Justitia 2013. 11. Pacchetti C., Mancini F., Aglieri R., Martignoni C. F. E., Nappi G., Active music therapy in Parkinson’s disease: An integrative method for motor and emotional rehabilitation, Psychosomatic Medicine, 62/2000. 12. Pethybridge M., Robertson J., Educational music. Theoretical foundations explored in time-limited group work projects with children, In: V. Karkou (ed.), Arts therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2010. 13. Pioch A., Drieschner K., Therapeutic methods of experienced music therapist as a function of the kind of clients and goals of therapy, Music therapy today, 10/2002. 176 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė 14. Rudinskaitė R., Muzikos terapijos elementų panaudojimo ypatumai ugdant mokinių komunikacinius gebėjimus. Straipsnis pristatytas respublikinėje mokslinėje – praktinėje konferencijoje „Studentų saviraiškos būdai ir galimybės aukštojoje mokykloje“. Panevėžys, Lietuva 2006. 15. Watson T., Music therapy with adults with learning disabilities, book review (reviewed by Ergina Sampathianaki), Music Therapy & Special Music Education, 4(1)/2012. Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Infl uences of Family Environment

Dariusz SARZAŁA Dr. Ph.D. University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Poland) Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr. Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland)

Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Inﬂ uences of Family Environment

Abstract: The study addresses issues concerning the role and importance of family environment in shaping social attitudes. The motives and speciﬁ city of prosocial behaviors and their determinants are presented. The author also showed factors affecting the proper conduct of the process of prosocial upbringing in a family environment, and signaled the problem of a dysfunctional family as a source of antisocial behavior. Prosocial attitudes play important role in human life allowing him to be able to take action accepted and respected by society and simultaneously determining the quality of his relationships with other people. The person presenting this kind of attitude can achieve goals in life in a way, acceptable by both closer and further environment (family, school, group of peers, professional environment, neighborhood, etc.), and fully integrate with the social environment.

Key words: upbringing, family environment, pro-social attitudes.

Specifi city and motives of prosocial behavior The characteristics of prosocial behavior that distinguishes it from many other human acts is the willingness to pursue the not personal objectives designed to meet needs of others and to protect the interests and growth of others (Reykowski, 1980, p. 167). 178 Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko Regardless of the diversity of defi nitional approaches the term prosocial is associated especially with such concepts as altruism, helping in the material or spiritual sphere, sharing with others, social commitment, solidarity, orientation to the common good. The component that connects all these concepts is selfl essness, willingness to take risks or sacrifi ces for individuals, groups, communities, institutions, and other “social objects”. In contrast to the ipsocentric behavior that focuses on personal goals and benefi ts, the reference system of the prosocial behavior are other individuals, groups, institutions, ideas (Reykowski, 1976, p. 806).The purpose of prosocial behavior is primarily to induce positive impact on other people, self-interest is merely a side effect of it. Depending on the subject of social activities, these actions can be divided into allocentric and sociocentric. Allocentric behaviors cover a range of acts directed to a single man, and their main goal is one’s welfare (protection or growth). However, in case the addressee of social activities is a social system such as a group, institution, idea, these activities can be described as sociocentric prosocial behaviors (Reykowski, 1980, 173). Substrates of prosocial behavior may be found in all kinds of themes, selection and gradation of which depend mainly on the personality of a man, his environment, stage in life and biography. The layer of prosocial behavior combines a number of motives, among which the most important is empathic motivation (Tyszkowa, 1984, 94–122; Gołąb, 1980; Reykowski, 1986) concerning self-esteem and identifi cation (related to perceiving similarities between each other and other people) and normative. The fi rst of these motivations - empathic, is most often understood as a complex perceptual ability to notice other people’s emotions and give emotional responses to them or to comprehend the meaning of a situation of second person (Stojanowska, 1996, p. 84). An important role is also played by the motivation concerning self-esteem - in the sense of self-acceptance resulting from positive and at the same time realistic assessment of the one’s self-image. Positive attitude to oneself entails a positive attitude towards other people, thus allowing a good social adaptation. Another factor that plays an signifi cant role in taking prosocial actions is the identifi cation motivation(related to perceiving similarities between oneself and other people). A normative motivation also plays an imperative role in undertaking social activities. In this case, important source of prosocial behavior are moral standards, accepted and striven to achieve in one’s demeanor (Stojanowska, 1996, p. 85). Prosocial behavior is also affected by other motives apart from ones mentioned above. An example would, among others, be so-called selfi sh Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Infl uences of Family Environment 179 motivation (self-centered), which is not accompanied by positive emotional association, but by the human tendency to focus attention on oneself and one’s needs. It affects prosocial motivation, it also occurs in many social situations (i.e. the presence of witnesses and number of them, appearance and outfi t of one asking for help, previous experience of help, experiencing a sense of danger) (see: Szewczyk 1976, p.573 – 583).

Factors determining the proper course of prosocial upbringing in a family environment Shaping social attitudes occurs as a result of infl uences of educational and social environment in which one functions every day (grows and matures). Among many communities that have a signifi cant impact on prosocial attitudes, a family as the fi rst and most signifi cant educational and social environment plays a special role. Family environment is very signifi cant in human life (Sikorska, 2011, p. 529). “In a family one goes through the most important period in life, which shapes his personality, lifestyle, style of preferred values and view of the world. Other environments such as school, peers are already derivative environments and they either strengthen the infl uence of the family, or modify and enhance it” (Wielewska, Sikorska, 2011, p. 303). It should be emphasized; however, that social relationships are stemmed from parents - child relations (Obuchowska, 1996, p. 7). Issues concerning the importance of the family in the education and socialization of a man inspire many scholars who perceive this aspect as a specifi c and unique social environment and defi ne it in many aspects (see: Hurlock, 1985; Earth, 1973; Tyszka, 1974; Adamski, 2003; Rębowski, 1986; Satir, 2002; Smith, 1997; Kawula, 2012). As pointed out by Stanisław Kawula, “whatever one might say about the current dynamics and factors of fl uctuations in the structure and functioning of the modern family, there is no doubt that it is still the basic unit of growth and development of human personality.” In contrast, Wojciech Piestrzyński points out that the family should be seen as a group in which, “multiplied interactions occur between particular members of the group (internal interactions) and as a group, members of which interact with other members of the public (external interactions) representing their own interests, interests of particular family members and of the whole family” (Piestrzyński, 2011, p. 198). It should also be emphasized that next to the family, an important role in shaping social attitudes is also played by the school that equips young people 180 Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko not only with the relevant knowledge, but also the competencies and skills that will allow them to function properly in the society (Piestrzyński, 2012A, p. 360). A number of factors that contribute to the shaping of social attitudes, that should be given special consideration by parents and educators in their efforts to infl uence education, can be pointed out. Among the basic conditions of prosocial development of a child, parents’ care for his nervous system expresses itself not only in reducing the damaging stimulus ( nicotine, alcohol, ionizing radiation ), but also the creation, (already in the prenatal stage of life) positive references to the child. It should be noted that the ways of one enduring the diffi culties i.e. in professional life or other areas of social life are resolved during the prenatal period and the fi rst years of life outside the mother’s body (Piestrzyński, 2012B, p. 102 - 114). First of all, it is vital to demonstrate love toward the child, which is not only the basis for providing him with a sense of security, but it also positively affects the development of child’s friendly attitudes toward other people. In the later years of child’s life, an important role in the prosocial educational process plays the method of “induction”, which relies on identifying the natural consequences of behavior. In this circumstance it is necessary to indicate the child the consequences of his behavior, both positive (joy, contentment) and negative (distress, annoyance) that arise to other people. This method allows to develop the ability to notice others’ needs, feelings and experiences, and thus it shapes the ability to “enter” in the position of another person and it improves so-called learned empathy which constitutes a signifi cant feature in prosocial behavior. In the process of shaping social attitudes it is also essential to entrust the child with the prosocial assignments, so that he can learn taking responsibility for others or for a specifi c “not personal” good. Children, who actively perform certain tasks at home for the family, become more prosocial than those who do not execute these chores. (Reykowski, 1986). The imperative role in the prosocial education plays an adaptive bond between a child and a parent, which is vital source of implementation of the elementary human needs, especially such as: the need for love, belonging and security (Kaźmierczak, Rostowska, 2010, p. 110-111). In a situation when the listed needs have been met one can not only develop his potential in terms of knowledge, abilities, interests and achieving his goals (Rogers, 1961, p. 24), but he may also take transgressive actions (see: Nosal, 2011, p. 7-27 ), characterized by expansiveness, creativity, expressivity, therefore, gaining the ability to continuously overcoming his limitations and imperfections (Kozielecki, 2009, p. 333). Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Infl uences of Family Environment 181 In contrast, pathological and disorganized bond between the child and the parent is a “risk factor for mental disorders, behavioral and personality disorders in childhood, adolescence and adulthood alike” (see: Senator, 2010, 43-62). The long-term effects of this kind of disorganized relationships during the child’s early experiences, in older childhood or adolescence may appear in the form of emotional disorder or criminal behavior, and after the entry into adulthood in the form of psychic disorder. Irregularities in the development of attachment bonds are also linked with depression, phobias, diffi culties in interpersonal relationships, and even tendency of complete social elimination expressed in suicidal ideation (Bowlby, 1989, p. 58-59). In the process of prosocial education the acquisition of psychosocial skills by a child is also of great signifi cance. A person who posses this kind of ability can in fact interact with other people in a social context and behave in such a way which is accepted or socially appreciated and at the same time personally benefi cial, mutually benefi cial or benefi cial primarily to others (see. Argyle, 1994, p. 454 – 481). There are many classifi cations of social skills, among which special attention should be paid to such kinds as self-expression (i.e. displaying affection, expressing opinion, accepting compliments); strengthening others (i.e. agreeing with someone’s opinion, praising others); assertiveness (i.e. asking someone for a favor, disagreeing with opinions of others, refusal in the event of unjustifi ed requests); communication (i.e. having a conversation or solving variety of interpersonal problems); cooperation and concern for others; learning and problem solving, self-presentation (see: Weist, Ollendick, 1991, p. 213-227; Król-Fijewska, 1992; Gilbert, Allan, 1994, p. 295-306). Among the important factors related to the process of education, the prosocial parenting styles and types of educational practices used by parents toward their children should also be mentioned. In the style of prosocial education learning to anticipate the effects of various behaviors should primarily be taken into account, especially the consequences that follow both for oneself and others.

Conclusions Based on the analysis, one can conclude that the family environment is not only a school of prosocial behavior, but also the environment that shapes sensitivity toward other people, which makes it possible to form altruistic motivation that plays a vital role in undertaking social activities. However, it should be noted that the family can play both the role of the most signifi cant environment shaping prosocial attitudes or become a source 182 Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko of destructive antisocial behavior. There are many factors disrupting the process of prosocial family education (Jędrzejko, 2009; Przybysz-Zaremba, 2013). These factors are associated with various irregularities within the process of socialization and education, they are especially caused by improper attitudes and mistakes of parents concerning undertaking activities connected with education and socialization (Sarzała, 2005, 2011; Piestrzyński, 2013a, Przybysz-Zaremba, 2010). The most benefi cial in shaping social attitudes is a well structured educational environment that provides predictability, spontaneity, it is also confi dent and independent (Vasta, Haith, Miller, 1995). It should be also emphasized that in the sphere shaping social attitudes coherence of activities of the family and the school is necessary. (Piestrzyński, 2012C, 2013b, 108). These institutions as they play imperative role in human development must mutually enrich and support in every sphere of educational activity.

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PART III

Socio-Educational Problems in the 21st Century

Andrzej RADZIEWICZ-WINNICKI Prof. University of Zielona Góra Acedemy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland) Marek WALANCIK Prof. Dr. Acedemy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza Poland (Poland)

The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective)

Abstract: Social pedagogy – treated very wide in its ideological sense both as a theoretical set of ideas, some kind of contents or social practice trying to infl uence on the successful form of social participation – fully deserving of the futurological development scenario, which we present in this text. We can consider the future perspective of its growing into the cultural and organizational unity (community) of social sciences, point at constant elements but also probably change, emphasizing the variety of refl ectivity in this fi eld of knowledge. Similarly temporary adult education (or as the majority of contemporary sub disciplines of native pedagogic) is based, among the others, in Poland on the paradigm of industrial and sociocultural modernization, promoting civilized pro- west model of rationality and individual self realization. It can also form – in some spheres of human universal community – the sign of power and development dynamics, by the active (units and groups) mass social participation. This sub-discipline of education is concentrating both on the individual and group targets, in which these dominate: personal self realization and competences allowing (easing, favouring) to survive in dynamically changing reality (Walancik, 2007) and in more and more demanding (and diffi cult) employment markets. It gives the knowledge and arguments on the modernization and change of surroundings to individual structures.

Keywords: social pedagogy, perspective, future, Poland 190 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik Introduction Post-communism in Central and Eastern Europe has most recently been analyzed in reference not only to democracy and/or market economy but also to EU accession and reconstruction. The European dimension of current change in this part of Europe has been mostly ignored by educators, sociologists and other experts of social sciences in more remote areas (Kurczewska, 2000: 211). The purpose of our paper is to present several thoughts –concerning such important theoretical and practical issues consisting of diagnosing the future of institutionalisation and the subdiscipline of social pedagogy in Poland and other European countries. Social pedagogy, in relation to the whole family represented by its subdiscipline social sciences, considers that the permanent factor of development consists not only in theoretical, but also in social practice ideals. Even historically set and possibly permanent structures of social institutions can be unstable, as they are only forms of social group activities. If we see any errors or absurdities in standing diagnosis or later conclusions as failed convictions, incompetence making the reality (and it is undoubtedly the lack of rational ideas and advice decentralized to needs of economic and social politics, in contemporary civil structures, which could make the traditional archetype of organizational actions more fl exible), the main reason we should search within the low index of people with university degrees in our country. We mention by the way, these analytic refl ections are taken from a Polish perspective of interpreting the activity of this sub-discipline over the last 150 years. The aspect of this discipline by the representatives of different countries and educational schools remains diverse. Of course the environmental educational activity, based on experimentation and observation, dates from a much earlier time. With a variety of issues to choose from, most of the theoretics exposed the problems of prevention and compensation, as the principle matter, connected with the aims set of this science. The origin and development of refl ections on the social, and environmental aspects of education is connected with the great historical process of forming and making modern communities. In this way research and analysis were taken even earlier. Name recognition of this developing fi eld of science intensifi ed towards the close of last century but unfortunately has yet to be fully unifi ed in the world, in the accepted system of knowledge classifi cation (Radziewicz – Winnicki, 2004, p. 28 - 30) In many countries the issue traditionally follows set conventions to social pedagogy- dealing with sociology of education, social psychology. This fact The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) 191 surely forms the obstacle in getting objective judgment of the social pedagogy in Poland. Until very recent times, further studies on the systematisation of the problems of environmental pedagogical researches trailed behind the education. Certainly this requires determination of ambiguous borders, between the social pedagogy and the sociology of education. For purposes of classifying specifi c works and conducting empirical research it would be useful to differentiate between social pedagogy and sociology of education, and educational sociology or sociological pedagogy (Włodarek, 1992, p. 53-56). The mutual relations could be of controversy (in the author’s presentation) between the social and welfare pedagogy. We are fully aware that we are not able to present all the trends of thinking occurring in these wide time frames, in the discipline, which forms social pedagogy. We are not undertaking normatively settling division, proper interpretation of cognitive state in separate sub-disciplines in the family of social sciences, which would demand paying attention to the way of defi ning subjects of their researches and analysis. In other words it would be an analytic isolation in the category of theoretical class of phenomena typically forming the object of research presentations of other closely connected social studies, especially: sociology, pedagogy and psychology. It is known, that typical problems in contemporary pedagogy connected directly with the research of certain educational relations running in some social situations, demands an understanding of the majority of basic psychological or sociological categories. It fi nds its refl ection in the manner of formulating research questions and also in universally accepted typologicality – classifying procedures in the systematisation of cognitive results. Within the framework of each discipline inquiring the science, the history of pedagogy, sociology, psychology or political science, the same target is understood differently. (com. Strachanowska, 2008) Comparing the Czech and Slovakian lands – Poland’s southern neighbours – we dealt in the individual phases of development with the social, protective- nursery pedagogy, in a great measure protective (Bakosova, 2007, p. 387–399; Tokarova, 2007, p. 342 – 347), but in Poland the majority of the individual conceptions by Helena Radlinska and her successors (Aleksander Kaminski, Ryszard Wroczynski) or Stanislaw Kowalski didn’t limit itself to the kind of actions signalised later (Radziewicz – Winnicki, 2008, p. 153–160). They are very similar to the origin of social philosophy and empiricism of the critical realism by Arnost Blacha, Emanuel Chalupny, Josef Karl, Karel Galla or Anton Stefanek (Macku, 1968, p. 339–442). The main target in the entire three countries – despite the visible differences in topics or selection of the contents is becoming the reliable knowledge of the social reality 192 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik (structure), surrounding the educator before making intentional preventive, compensative or modernizing activity (Bakosova, 1994; Jedlicka Kota, 2002; Kraus, 2001; Hroncova, Nemec, 2002; Hroncova, Emmerova, 2004; Hudecova, Matulayova, 2001; Malach, 2007, p. s-134 143; Tokarova, 2007., p. 263 - 270; Ondrejkovic, 2007; Sekera, 2001, p. 5 – 6 et al). The future of the social pedagogy demands particular risk. We don’t deny that preparing this text is an arduous task Such vision has a serious diffi culty. We don’t have any precise scientifi c method, which would allow us to make objective, but also reliable hypotheses concerning the social development in the next 20-30 years and with this background settling the tasks and instrumental role of this sub-discipline.

The new economic order, social, cultural and educational - future scenarios We would like to present some situations, which can appear and should not, in any case, be treated as a scenario of development,– We truly trust, that a probable and real one – made on the basis of assumed easing theories, which determines and will create the new economic, social, cultural and educational order. We become at this time the individual narrators of this peculiar universal science, whose trial we are presenting to the Readers. In presented opinion or promoted views we are trying to release you from the infl uence of traditional analysis standards, used as a scientifi c truth regarding the future development of social pedagogy. The decision about future aspect of our world and its dynamics lies defi nitely in the competence of central institutes and its links of economic knowledge, as opposed to the political sense. Regardless of the accuracy of our expectations issues will become the object of social consensus. So pertinent question of nowadays: what will the nearest future be? There is no clear and uniform answer. More generous in their statements are the publicists (Ostrowski, Szostkiewicz 2001, p. 8), who on the basis of careful scientifi c speculations, are expanding their journalist-essay interpretative vision of the future civilization, by using four popularised scenarios of development elaborated by the scientists clustered by the Millennium Project in the year 2050. It is worth approaching in a very universal way these different and investigated refl ections. The fi rst is connected with the cyber trophy. The world will be better and richer thanks to the further development of technology. Two Asian countries- China and India will rise as the new computer powers. The difference between the rich and the The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) 193 poor will be greater, but thanks to the intensive development of the economy, medicine and education will be able to record the restraining of negative development tendencies in rather poor and slowly developing countries. The World Trade Organization should guarantee the global, social protection. The second scenario is much more pessimistic. It assumes that there will be further massive increases in population in South Asia and Africa. Other facts and consequences are a huge widening of the gap between the richest and the poorest countries from the contemporary level 50:1 to the unprecedented 80:1. This scenario assumes a serious increase in migration on a global scale, that will bring about trials and tribulations. Third scenario forecasts very probable stagnation of development in over-developed countries. The world could be slow and, passive in the matter of global control of its own development dynamic. The main problem, with almost no solution, will be the work places. There will be more able bodied workers than available jobs. Around the year 2025 regional economic blocks could develop many confrontations or strikes. Protectionism and the sharing of public funds will force politicians from the central decision bodies, who prefer frequent actions to gain the subventions and donations than to gain projects and programs with more optimal strategies to further develop. Fourth – and the last scenario perceives the world in the categories of the “huge bazaar”. These will dominate, after assuming this vision, development of East and South-East Asia economy, these regions will effectively and easily compete with the USA, European Union and Japan economy. Slowly, but noticeably the differences between the rich North and poor South will start to diminish. Besides the progress, we see also many catastrophes and break ups surrounding our individual human reality. Fraud, lawlessness, pragmatism or even progress are closely connected to each other. All the ideals of contemporary societies coming from different cultural constellations will be mixed together. Dissenting public opinion will manifest in increasing number of preferential options: from extremely liberal, through economic, social socialistic phobia, to defi nitely mixed appearing in many alternatives, but usually unclear options representing rather incoherent outlooks, containing a composite of some, often opposite ideological and economic alternatives (Miszalska, 1993, p. 83–87). This type of political options, and even intellectual arguments will probably increase in the future. As in this current decade of XXI century the rows between the left and the right, only fi nd their common dominator in the trust of the promethean myth of human mobility and the ability to transform contemporary post- industrial society in accordance with another social agreement. It would be another agreement between the strong – having the 194 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik collaboration in power and privileges – and the weak co-participators of the occurring radical changes. Current problem will be searching for a reliable explanation for the necessity of moving appearing social claims with the simultaneous burdening of responsibility of the development, organization and wide social distribution and also the group of the “weaker”, “without success”, who on the market of profi t shares were always in the worse and uncomfortable situation. Also this agreement could improve previous size, often-slim usage, by the participation of many groups, of many benefi ts, which has to attract the high-developed free market economy. Social agreements are always partly stabilizing for the whole society role. It is a complex of rights and duties between the young and the old, the rich and the poor, the employers and employees. They have to establish moderately proper and acceptable locales, own “situs” of an average unit within the bounds of global democratic society. General interest in the future “post-industrial” world seems to concentrate on the unavoidable results of the rapidly developing biotechnology and serious and sometimes unpredictable consequences of customizing the results of contemporary experiments over the next generations of humanity. The results of carried out events will deal with the constant debate over our human obligations – witnesses and participants in the running process of experimenting and restructuring – according to our next generations. Permanently current will be numerous questions about the results of admissible experiments and lots of overvalues, which will occur in the area of basic patterns of social and political reactions in the middle of XXI century (Perri, 1990, p. 16-19). On the background of conducted DIVAGATIONS, what is divagations? it is hard not to mention the future of the Church, whose future should be noticed in varied and differently formed ways, throughout the World. However, in general cultural pluralism (occurring in Europe) labels even nowadays a kind of relativity of “churchness”, as some (not always new) interpretations of the sense of life undermining the obviousness of salvation, which fl ows from the orders or current guidance of the Church. Appearing orientations and standards of behaviour guides to general use are of the Christian nature or – (as in the case of numerous Buddhism believers) non-Christian. They are – as claims priest Janusz Marianski, marvellous sociologists– also popularised by so-called political religion and also professionals of non-religious culture. Such infl ux of alternative living orientations rather modifi es our contemporary traditional position of Church in the area of global education. Contemporary religious pluralism favouring more man’s indifference towards faith than any religious deepening. Unistitutionalisation of the religion should not be, in any case, identifying with the drastic decline of religion, but with visible The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) 195 changes of form, in which religion (in the individual or group procedure) will appear (Marianski, 1999, p. 89-90). Since in the pluralistic society, under the infl uence of general changes occurring in the social situations somehow will deepen the heterogenisation of attitude to the Church education, and in the same time the individual life orientations will be different, we can expect the growth of the role of social science representatives (also the social pedagogy) in the individual and group compensating (we can not defi ne how extensive crisis) of living with the appearing ethical, moral or philosophy of life revolution. As we know the “myths” of modernity can lead to alienation, psychical marginalization or just social trauma / politrauma. The future is associated with the ability to popularise the education to all of its participants. Information, education and knowledge are happening – in accordance with the mass canon of transfer – Generally global goods, will contribute to the change, and what’s more important will favour reduction of dangerous inequalities. In the face of constantly articulating challenges, multidimensional aims and tasks of education will still occur as a basic change, which should certainly exploit the human desire for peace, freedom, egalitarianism justice ideals and social prosperity (Hochleitner, 1999, p. 12– 13; Szczepańska-Woszczyna, Dacko-Pikiewicz, 2013, p. 179-184). Undoubtedly further disturbances will appear, not only in the national, but also in the global market. Back to the concept of classical (full employment) it seems to be – in the face of contemporary economic forecasts – rather impossible, deceptive and even a utopian dream. Between multiple concepts and arising opposition a new offer should be developed, especially a radical vision of rebuilding the work force in accordance with creating a defi nite strategy of work initiation predicated for the youth. Civil work and local employment exchanges are some of the interesting alternatives to known traditional models of paid work. Employment biographies of many of the social groups, especially in the high-developed countries will obviously change. Full time jobs (because of the continually growing effi ciency and technological progress) will be replaced by part-time jobs. A hundred years ago people spent about 35% of their life working. Today it is not even 13% and in the near future – as the contemporary economic planners claim – paid jobs will require only 6% of the whole, some years longer human life. To make bigger, the satisfying participation of a single human in the favourable development of both the whole community and the local one, it is recommended to search one’s own mother cultivated space as a basic organizational- economical unit. So the personal household is to be not only the place of consumption and leisure, but also – in the light of forecast – will change into a contemporary very important place of production, doing own 196 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik work, providing services, giving help etc. Such a metamorphosis with the new technologies in the situation of permanent growth of free time budgeting using not only for the rest can conducted not known till now radical peak of households. Learning stocks – different from the capital and work – are unfi nished, while familiar to us, the classical free market economy seems to be slowly getting out of date as it stubbornly deals with the allocation of limited resources. It can in the not so distant future lose its previous position and credibility. Necessary will be in the new reality – the consultants – partners and coordinators (social pedagogies) expected to conduct in close cooperation with the local societies inhabitants, in order to make the diverse range of work offers suited to the needs of different groups of citizens. We can assume that, in the near future, in the framework of the evolution of the active and mobile civil society will be made a new, integrating and attractive infrastructure of work for the whole, making the freedom of choice in life models and expressing by its share in the public life its own unique identity with its own pluralistic and different character (Saiger, 1999, p. 44-45). The main idea of the new future social – protecting system existing in everyday practice will be making such form of common social protection to reduce (eliminate) the mission activity, charity or benefi cial activity to benefi t the professional and high civilized services in a pragmatic and skillful manner.

Social pedagogy as a fi eld of knowledge useful and used in the practice of everyday life We are deeply convinced that the usefulness of social teachers and their sub-discipline will arise in multi-dimensional situations (connected with the idea of creating the universal state of good and the duty of making numerous ventures for the benefi t of order and lasting social use) and will be unique and unchallenged. We can identify (specify) only some of the special problem lots tasks and duties, which could be entrusted to this specialist. Included can be: diagnosis of the needs, expectations and many hard, sensitive and also urgent matters (appearing between the societies of marginalized people) and making the frames of social supervision for their successful compensation; articulating and identifying the needs, offences, faults and local community interests, showing it to the proper branches of local, national authorities etc. in the purpose of reaching conclusions leading to social homeostasis; formulating various plans of development (also the alternative visions of transformation), which by the approval of local community, or authorities decisions will take on as the institutional assimilated innovation, universally The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) 197 accepted while introducing an effective program of instituting a defi nite educational function (and self–educational) among the residents of local community (region) connected with the socialization of many charges (clients) including active consultations, also occupational; stimulating the development (cultural socialization) and also forming the culture adequate for the next step of social transformation in the XXI century, among others by stimulating participations by many teams, committees, associations or different formal (informal) local groups, with the task character of initiative group responsibility (co-responsibility) for the cultivation of different spheres (mainly non–commercial) connected with the creation of prosperity of the unit in the area of local population and more other partial offers, which we are not mentioning because of the text and volume Constraints. Finally, we want to mention the future role of social pedagogy as a branch of useful knowledge, in everyday life, omitting nota bene the evidential future professionalization of this sub-discipline within scientifi c researches. However, we are not excluding but are aspiring to the opinion that looking for the better, different forms of higher education, which will stay in the correlation with numerous restrictions appearing on the local employment markets, can come into fusion of some of the specializations in general education profi le in the ground of social education. Even now, we see radical reduction on limits of the global number of vacancies ex. School educators, psychologists or sociologists trained by the individual institutions and available in the many spheres of social life. We experience still enlarging disproportions between education and employment, with situations affl icting the graduates of some social education disciplines. Moreover we are dealing with the growing costs of academic education, so the funds of even the more prosperous, countries of European Union are able to invest in the higher education. In the education of social studies representatives, it will begin to refer to the legitimacy of using the interventional – specialistic model in the cognitive and sociotechnic practice of life, in the modifi ed form taking into consideration further, long lasting realities of our present. The model, we are mentioning, was introduced by the Scandinavian humanists (in the 60’s of the previous century) and consisted of spontaneous recognition by the sociologists (but also the representatives of other disciplines) important social problems, group suggestions for making specifi c solutions and taking part in the fi nal determination (Kwaśniewski, 2002, p. 82). With such collective forms of education, future researches over the changes appearing in the institutional, economic, cultural and educational factors, could lead to a Master of Social Science representing a defi ned professional specialization (pedagogy, sociology, political science, psychology, etc.). Independent 198 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik from accepted future solutions, a social educator, even now has to pretend to be a reliable, impartial arbiter of many basic matters dealing with social sciences. The evident considerations closest to him are numerous thematic matters realized in the education program from the fi eld of: socialization and education, protection or social work. In any case by the conventionally assumed changes it won’t be able to contest the autonomy of our sub-discipline as an intellectual cognitive subject. The above situation of probable changes in signalised forms of education won’t concern the making of other rich educational offers and further pragmatic contacts and cooperation of high schools with the local authorities and economic sector and also with other social organizations (Dacko- Pikiewicz, 2012, p. 105-109) in the time of increased educational expansion of many academic centres on our European continent. Peculiar character of the traditional mission connected with service activity is presently very hard to defi ne. Temporary development tendencies are allowing to foresee, that the polytechnics will try to rather intensively develop their researching service and the pedagogical academies (higher pedagogical schools) will discover different types of services adjusted to the expectations of social surroundings (mainly local), consisting of creating many paid different forms of higher education, as well as postgraduate studies. In the case of universities the most probable will be further inside difference on the organizational units appearing in the academic structure set more on the realization of research functions similar to higher pedagogical schools – on the intensifi cation of educational aims (Wnuk – Lipiński, 1999, p. 63, 66). Carried out analysis unambiguously suggests that the social pedagogy retaining its own identity will be the subject to further modifi cations, whose sources should be researched in the remaining dynamic of many socio – cultural processes amended with updated knowledge (Piekarski, 2007, p. 304).

Conclusions What we inherited from the twentieth century is the problem of ensuring safety and development for individuals, social groups, communities, organizational units, states as one of the basic objectives of a democratic state (Walancik, Chmiel, 2014, p. 5). Whatever pessimism in the end of these fi nal and partly polemical considerations was not proper. Advanced society of the XXI century must deal with the whole changes and own, not completely The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) 199 known impetus. Social pedagogy – as the other disciplines / sub disciplines – standing by the next great challenges, has to resolve another important problem, exploding as never before with the quantity of new knowledge. Though the revolutionary changes we will still have to go back – as in our social time – to the psychosocial scope of running constant process of social change and progress. As in this moment surely the inevitable confl icts and tenses, animosities infl uencing the condition of units and social groups will feel known, or unknown to our generation form of social, political or economic degradation. In many local communities people are preventing , new standards of behaviour or value. Preventing, compensating actions, organising adequate relief, self-help, animation or activity allows making such ideal types for formulating the society of tomorrow, which will be friendly to the social unit. Development as usual will be made in the way of other experiments. Drawn possibilities will maybe change the social awareness and knowledge even more precisely and deeply than now, giving the future generations verifi ed, reliable and correct new practical solutions. “For the teachers the 20th century is the time of very intensive work, everyday diffi culties and simultaneously the time favorable to displaying oneself, implementation of own patents for a better life, time to undertake actions for the sake of another person. However, it should be remembered that this work cannot be limited only to the child or another person as an individual but the activity has to concern family, community and in the era of globalization environment - this most direct and distant one changes, takes on other colors – metaphorically speaking and other overtones and responses to cultural, religious needs, another infl uence – literally” (Walancik, 2013, p.78).

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The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations...

Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland) Ewa KAROLCZAK-WAWRZAŁA MA The University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland)

The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations in the Young Generation

Abstract: For a few years the number of young Poles diagnosed with addictions or other disorders has been constantly growing. The author diagnoses this problem searching for its sources in new family disorders (increase in divorces, economic migration of one of the parent, new models of employment), risky behaviors promotion, poor quality of school prevention, undermining of axiology models for social living by so called new ideologies, (for example gender) and in educational neglect in families.

Key words: family, education, social pathology, addiction, social prevention.

Instead of introduction In the year 2013 young Poles achieved a great international success taking the second place in the ranking of various drugs use (for population of 15- 17 year olds). They enhanced it with also the second place in “experiments” with an especially dangerous drug which is ecstasy. The above thesis is not a cynical attitude of the author towards an important problem, which is psychoactive substance use, but an attempt at indicating that this “success” would not be possible without active partaking of the older people – those producing and dealing drugs, parents busy with subsequent stages of family life 204 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała commercialization, the stewards of Polish education being lost in unrealistic educational projects and EU political correctness and politicians giving still more numerous examples of moral confusion and demoralization. Harshness of this reasoning should not and cannot surprise as education and educators are responsible for unambiguous manifesting of social and moral reefs, as well as faults in education and upbringing, defects and imperfections whose victims are most of all, the young people. In social work, prevention, education, shaping health awareness and in promoting models of recreation and sport we should look for factors protecting children and youth against more and more numerous destructive elements. The argument undertaken by the author is an attempt at socio-educational insight into the key hazards and their sources.

Change as a source of constant fl uency When, several years ago, Zygmunt Bauman introduced a term fl uent reality into sociology, it was not fully realized what this notion meant for defi ning specifi c features of modern times. Therefore we know – also taking advantage of studies by Ritzer and Castells – that dynamics of change gains momentum embracing all the spheres of children, young people, middle generation and older generation functioning. It is not possible to protect ourselves against these changes and a part of them makes us continuously verify knowledge assets (every 10 years the supplies of knowledge on the Internet get doubled) and skills (each new telephone and TV set model has new functions and apps). For a part of older generation (so called the third age) some of these changes are so diffi cult to capture that they result in new forms of exclusion and distance towards accelerating reality. However, young people who developed a new skill – multitasking- deal with these changes (especially technological and manual) generally successfully1.Together with new skills also new hazards appear. As American researchers noticed: “In general youth from Japan, China, Germany and Poland preferred online communication to face to face contacts” (Trolley, 2010, p. 12 and further). It implies diminishing of skills in the fi eld of interpersonal communication. Aggression often takes the form of cyber bullying.

1 We already know that multitasking qualities get shaped very quickly in individuals taking advantage of many digital technologies at the same time. Their use takes place parallel to other important activities as learning, interpersonal contacts, nutrition, hygiene, sport or recreation.. It is assumed that multitasking may increase pupils’, students’ or employees’ potential, but under a condition that it does not constitute an overload for central nervous system functioning of for manual abilities. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 205 Table. 1. Technical devices (digital) change and digital relations in the chosen age groups as an example of ﬂ uent reality Age group Age group Age group Comments 14-20 year 30-40 year 50-60 year olds olds olds How many cell phone 3,9 4,3 2,1 Average result models have you had – the group of during the last 5 years? 30-40 year olds was composed in 88% of people professionally active How many times during 2,2 2,1 0,4 27% of people the last 5 years have you over 50 years of replaced your computer age do not possess with a new one? a computer How many Internet sites 11 9 23 Result rounded to do you visit a day? a unit How many text messages 10 6 0,7 do you send on average in one day? How many text messages 12 5 0,5 do you get on average in one day? How many new apps have 4 3 0,2 you installed in your phone this year? How many people have 29 14 0,3 you met on the net this year?

Source: author’s own materials. Survey accomplished on 14th April to 11th May on groups of inhabitants from Sosnowiec, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Częstochowa, Radom, and districts of Grodzisk Mazowiecki, Wolborz and Warsaw. Respondents population – 403 individuals. Without any question, the last 20-25 years are characterized by a deep change concerning all the spheres of human functioning which is the result of rapid economical acceleration, socio-demographic changes and a phenomenon which we could collusively deﬁ ne as moral revolution. 206 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała Picture 1. Examples of great changes in the 21st century exerting strong inﬂ uence on shaping personalities of children and youth

In economy sphere: growing rate of working women (including shift work) economic migrations, change of working time (especially in commerce and services); longer time of commuting to work; big cities satellites

In knowledge sphere: mass supply of lies and half-truths; possibility of veriﬁ - cation and comparison of knowledge in the net, unlimited access to information for young recipients; development of education

In technology sphere: life in technology “vortex”; constant technology progress connected with mass technologies exchange

In moral sphere: attempts at revolutionizing customs, undermining natural law; dictates of minorities; attempts at legal regulations of deviant behaviors

The thesis about the change may certainly be perceived as a truism because change has always been an indispensable part of socio-economic development – another words we constantly change together with constantly changing world around us. But the pace of change (of all kinds – economic, technological, social) has never been so fast and their consequences so serious. Searching for the key transformations implying individual’s functioning but also social environment (especially family), societies and often all the macro- region nations’ operations, from the Polish perspective we should indicate the following ones: • (1) widening of the democratic models of nations and societies’ operations and the range of individual freedom; (2) dissemination of new economic models, including the relation human – labor (professional activity of women, globalization in economy, commerce and services development, economic anxiety, economic migrations, professional activity of youth); (3) digitization, mass Internet and mobile telephony access; (4) new models of schooling and education of children and youth (we live in a country where, since 1989 the rate of university graduates has tripled) and mass access to higher education; (5) new culture of life based on consumerism and a shallow survival culture2;

2 We live in the world where the questions concerning material sense of life are being multiplied whereas those about its moral dimensions are vanishing. All the mass culture directs recipients’ attention to consumerism, not to spiritual-emotional part of the human existence. It is not a casual trend as experiencing is always accompanied with The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 207 (6) moral revolution (in the sphere of relation to key notions as marriage, family, gender, sex); (7) increase in economic living standards of substantial part of Polish society and growth in economic disproportions (great stratiﬁ cation of income leading to widening of the two extreme groups – the rich and the poor). The phenomena quoted do not close the list of changes and they are not only the Polish speciﬁ city as similar processes take place in the neighboring countries. We can also speak about hard facts which, according to the author, are the following: (a) In the Polish society, together with high level of education and its wide range, with public healthcare and multi-level prevention, for almost three decades the number of people entering personal contacts with risk has been increasing (drug experiments, use of party drugs, abuse of OC medicines for intoxication, alcohol drinking, risky sexual behaviors, night life, cyber-aggression);

In the year 2013 : - 8,5 million of adult Poles smoked cigarettes regularly[social diagnosis 2013]; - 153 thousand of women are addicted to alcohol; beer consumption has been increasing for a decade; the Poles drink about 9,51 liter of spirit (calculated into pure alcohol) [PARPA]; - we occupy 2nd place in Europe in terms of rate of teenagers smoking marijuana (17,1%) [KBPN 2013]; - in 2013 - 73 new psychoactive substances appeared in circulation [KBPN 2013]; - in 2013 - 6079 individuals committed suicide (in 2021 – 4177 individuals) [GUS].

(b) Violence n individual and social relations accumulates. Peer aggression and aggression directed towards property have become a social problem requiring special tools (for instance a “Blue Card”) and their result is hazard for health (psychical, somatic). Aggression and violence have become a “standard” in politics; (c) Increase in divorce rate and children brought up by one parent or a third party (for example as a result of parents’ economic migration); (d) Accelerated adolescence of children and their growing into the adult world (it is diffi cult to strictly demarcate the world of youth and adults – they eat, drink and watch almost the same as their parents). question about the sense of life, legibility of signposts, a real dimension and aim of promoted ideas. Such a formula is not accepted by directors and creators of post-modernity for whom the fl uent reality is the only element within the frames of which they can realize their goals. 208 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała It is also worth emphasizing that the quoted problems can be observed in the world where there are theoretically all the possibilities of obtaining reliable information about the essence and consequences of both the old and the new hazards. Robert Ptaszek while analyzing those questions writes what follows: „The contemporary human more and more often has an impression that despite easier access to various sources of information, in diffi cult life situations he/she is at the crossroads.” (Ptaszek, 2013, s. 15). In a wider sense, this problem was noticed many years ago by John Paul the Second who, in one of his encyclics, stressing needs to shape young people wisely in the process of upbringing, pointed out an essential fact: „ A human remains an incomprehensible creature for himself, his/her life is without any sense if a Love does not manifest itself, if he/she does not meet Love, if he does not touch it, if he does not fi nd a living participation in it.” (Jan Paweł II, p. 10). Let us also stress the rapid growth of negative and positive factors “clash”, which is graphically expressed:

Picture 2. Clash of contemporary culture and civilization

Common access to knowledge Information dumpster – and information information mud

New digital and information Cyber-addictions + information technologies development confusion

Education and psychology sci- Increase in number of people ences development with disorders and deviations

Remarks formulated in such a way encourage to diagnose sources of this state, describe the phenomena and issues observed, to forecast consequences and look for effective remedies.

Between positive changes and growing threats In the light of numerous research, the last decades have been the time of explicit civilization progress, marked with such facts as : Internet technologies and digitization development, introducing new solutions in manufacturing, trade and services, new polytechnic education quality, technology and environment protection spread, progress in medical diagnostics and The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 209 healthcare, life prolongation, elimination of malnutrition and famine as social problems. Still, despite those positive phenomena and trends – so to say for “balance” – we have been witnessing a constant attack on fundamental values which are life, health and dignity. These attacks have been of both material character (for instance: organized crime, aggression and violence, drugs and smart drugs, stimulants and tonics) and of moral-ideology one (for example: extreme gender forms, euthanasia and abortion promotion, homosexuality and new family models promotion, celebrity nihilism, demoralization in politics, corruption).Not only the fact of these hazards existence is important, but the way they develop and act offensively being addressed mainly to young and middle generation, which is not accidental. Their presence in entertainment broadcast (see the Warsaw Shore program, exhibitionistic leisure), media message (eccentric celebrities’ behaviors, dazzling by outrage performed by gutter press), Internet (pornography, cybersex) and in public space (for instance “Free Cannabis” marches, homosexuals’ marches, football hooliganism, immoral politicians’ behaviors, callousness and arrogance on some part of authority institutions) lead to a speciﬁ c saturation with this matter and behaviors accompanying them. In educational perspective, it seems reasonable to ask a question about the far-reaching consequences of such a state for young generation conscience growing in a constant transfer of eccentricities – aggression – excitement – elation, pushing subsequent boundaries and lack of respect for an average citizen. Let us emphasize that it carries visible changes – that, what even 20 years ago was perceived as pathology (eg. homosexuality, marijuana smoking) gained almost normative attitudes status. At the same time the “normality” crossbar has been raised, conformist, socially accepted attitudes underwent a distinct reduction and and as it seems, this trend will still prevail.

Educational remark: one of the key feature at the turn of 20th and 21st centuries is lowering the moral-ethic standards in almost all walks of social and economic life. Such phenomena as usury, greed of ﬁ nancial markets, new types of slavery, workaholism ,thrash contracts, unequal access to medical services of high quality, putting oneself above the law, nepotism, low standards of higher education, lie in politics, dishonest enrichment, obscurantism in pop culture are the part of our life, they constitute the basis for weakening social bonds and diminishing respect for the state as the common welfare.

Thus, the thesis may be formulated that the above mentioned hazards concern mostly young people because this generation is the “addressee” of all the contemporary risks and traps, especially those connected with non- 210 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała normative behaviors, change in life organization3, new substances and digital technologies. It is not a coincidence that social change researchers indicate a two- way addiction threats development – new chemical addictions appear and behavioral addictions increase, especially in the young generation and in people seeking economic success. Hence, Czesław Cekiera having researched the described questions for many years, in analyses from the years 2000 to 2010 shows the portrait of a society in which its still growing rate has a regular contact with psychoactive substances and risky behaviors (Cekiera, 2011, p.14), and what will be characteristic for the coming years is, according to the author, increase in especially risky behaviors generating danger of serious psychic and somatic complications and coming into the spheres of another pathologies. Another problem, an important and developing fast one is pointed out by Jacek Kurzępa, according to whom a part of young people experience on a daily basis an eroticized culture and is involved in exhibitionism mechanisms. This author writes, among others, as follows: „We could include into fundamental questions: bluntness of boundaries and principles in which they should/can exist in social relations; dissimilarity of interpretation and framing for the basic social reference points including family as a relationship of a man and a woman, nation as community and obligation, […]sexual identity […] (Kurzępa, 2013, p. 62). Remark by Kurzępa is important because still more abundant part of the young generation grows up in the conditions of ﬂ uid attitude to values and treating those values as something unsteady, dependent on time and place. It results in relative attitudes towards problems as fundamental as marriage, family, gender.

Educational remark: in Poland the programs of integrated prevention against risky behaviors are not introduced in primary education (primary schools, lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools) and in teaching students. The state policy towards addictions prevention is outdated and not adapted to contemporary challenges.

On the other hand, having analyzed works by Polish scienses Jan Śledzianowski, Zbigniewa B. Gaś, Czesław Cekiera, Lidia Cierpiałkowska, Maria Ryś, Zygfryd Juczyński, Teresa Sołtysiak, Ewa Wysocka, Urszula Dudziak, Iwona Niewiadomska, Krzysztof Ostaszewski, Bronisław

3 According to the author, the key meaning have here: shortening of sleeping time and new nutrition models (containing a lot of chemical ingredients – colorants, adju- vants, conditioners, substances prolonging shelf life; ﬁ zzy drinks, drinks containing caffeine, guarana; sugars and fats). The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 211 Urban, Janusz Morbitzer, therefore outstanding personalities in the Polish contemporary education and psychology and while studying available research reports we can indicate fast growing problems taking shape of behavior disorders, addictions and risky behaviors. Let us here add that supposing that elation itself is a natural feature in adolescence period (see: Kendall, 2012, p. 43 and further), insomuch its contemporary character and manifestations have reached far beyond the norms observed so far.

Graphics 3. The fastest developing pathologies, non-normative and risky behaviors in Poland after the year 2000 Access to pornography and life eroti- Experimenting with drugs, OC medi- cisation cines and party drugs

Homosexuality and sexual deviations Prostitution development

E-cigarettes use Abuse of stimulants and tonics

Early sexual initiation and sex in Fast increase in divorce rates minors

Gambling Cyber-addictions – cyber-disorders

Cyber-addictions – cyber-disorders New forms of “slave” work

Extreme forms of visualization and Evening-night activities of teenagers plastic surgeries

Source: author’s own elaboration.

Consequence of those phenomena is necessity for creating new prevention programs connected with risks unknown before, for example: smart drugs use, cybersex, cyber-violence, Internet pedophilia. As an outstanding expert on prevention - Zbigniew B. Gaś notices – limiting and eliminating risk factors present in direct psychological and social environment surrounding teenagers includes many various variables (Gaś, 2011, pp. 8-9), and typology 212 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała of those behaviors has great dynamics4. It turns out that the most important ones are connected with peer environment, family, school, local community and with speciﬁ c features of an individual. And what is characteristic for them is the great dynamics of change – the peer pressure increases, the educational role of family diminishes, in substantial part of schools the “ﬁ re” prevention dominates5. We present this problem in a tabular approach.

Table 2. Demand (per cent approach) for prevention programs applied to the Mazovian Center for Addictions Prevention (2006-2013) and the Center for Social Prevention (January-May 2014) Subject of programs 2006-2009 2010-2012 2013-2014 Drugs and party drug problemsa) 28% 45% 44% Cyberspace problems 22% 32% 30% Risky teenagers behaviors 3% 8% 8% Aggressive behaviors of children and 11% 3% - youth Specialist programs for probation 9% 8% 8% ofﬁ cers Abuse of energy drinks and other 7% 3% 10% stimulants and tonics Other trainings 20% 1% -

a The ﬁ rst demands for party drug programs were recorded in the year 2009.

Together with risk factors, there are also protective factors diagnosed. However, as numerous research indicates, they lose their previous meaning and power, especially those connected with youth’s social activity (for example scouting), spirituality, educational role of family. As sports activities remain at the same level in so called marital sports and team games, the number of offers in new areas increase (dancing, musical forms of gymnastics), the forms of many years which effectively inﬂ uence desired moral attitudes systematically decrease.

4 In educational practice of the Social Prevention Center we notice that educational institutions and psychological and educational counseling institutions increase demand for trainings from the ﬁ eld of drug and party drug experiments, compulsive use of digital technologies, risky sexual behaviors in minors and “arming” parents with basic educational competences. These subjects constitute over 80% of all the applications with dominant part of drug and party drug subjects. 5 Around 40% of the trainings realized by us is a sequence of appearance of one risk. This phenomenon concerns not only individual schools but also activities realized at the request of medium and big towns authorities. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 213 Graphics 4. Clash of risk factors and protective factors

Weakening protective factors: Growing risk factors: - weaker parental inﬂ uence - increase in supply of new psychoac- - weakening of upbringing and preventive substances tive role of school - information overload (cyber-addic- - leave of the axiological education in tions) schools - promotion of risky behaviors - lack of necessary support from the - extreme behaviors of celebrities and state for organizations educating pop culture icons children

Source: author’s own elaboration.

Let us also add that these are not the only problems noticeable in social diagnoses, scientifi c research and medical, legal or psychology-educational practices, but also by teachers6, and parents: • A school counselor [12 years of experience, junior high school]: „The pupils are getting bolder in presenting all the proteus and eccentric attitudes and, I think, they are permitted to do so at home. Every third girl has several earrings, piercing is popular, we also have a pupil who underwent plastic operation of nose and ears, though nobody of us, parents would notice such a need.”; • A school counselor [16 years of experience, junior high school]: „Dur- ing the training fi nanced by local government of the Mazovian Prov- ince and dedicated to children education, a representative of authority used scurrilous language. What can we require of children if we have such education pseudo-elites.”; • A school counselor [11 years of experience, primary school]: „None of the three attempts at limiting bringing of cell phones to school brought expected results. When we organized a class for parents about netiquette, only 40-50 people came […] Parents do not want to take part in a really useful prevention.”; The practicians’ remarks show complexity of problems existing in the educational practice, but they also constitute the picture of internal condition of the young generation’s part. Analyzing especially dangerous acts we notice that the year 2013 brought increase in attempts and successful suicidal acts of young Poles (such an increase scale in two-years cycle has not been observed for nearly 20 years). The phenomenon is diffi cult to explain unambiguously (as causes are concerned).

6 Statements from the author’s surveys from CSP, January-March 2014. 214 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała Even if some police statistics indicate decrease in crimes and misdemeanors committed by minors, those statistics have been (for years) methodologically faulty, as a result of which we deal with self-sedation of decision-makers7. If we signal such trends, it is justifi ed to search for answers about their causes both in individual dimension (personality traits, and individual defects) and in social structure. Formulating opinions and conclusions, the author is close to Erich Fromm attitude pointing out essential role of environmental infl uences (From, 2012, p. 14), which, as we can notice, in contemporary times, grow in importance mostly thanks to dynamic development of digital media transfer and greater “social mobility” of the young generation (this remark will be thoroughly explained in the further part of the article). But even on the outset it is reasonable to ask a question - whether the increase in dangerous behaviors in young people does not have an important connection with their lessening internal assets as a result of which they cannot compensate for defi ciencies and satisfy their needs in manner suffi cient for their psychic and somatic health. Researchers of the issue being discussed here undertake multi-threaded studies over etiology of behavior disorders, addictions and risky behaviors in the young population which show that they are repercussions of numerous socio-economical and cultural processes with the key importance of defragmentation and weakening of family as educational institution, “shifted time vector” as well as “new moral revolution” processes. Those processes have been going on for several dozen years and they have been accompanied with, among others life commercialization, extreme consumerism, digital “culture”, economic migrations, socio-economic inequalities – 4xB process8, as a result of globalization and “mcdonaldization”of life. Those phenomena were “enhanced” in the years 2013-2014 with strong promotion of gender ideology (Ryś, 2013, p. 62).

7 For years the Police have reported the data in absolute numbers, in no way relating them to the population size. The author has repeatedly persuaded representatives of the National Police Headquarters and the Mazovian Province Police Command to prepare such analyses according to scientifi c standards – however without any result. So a result of this, the periodical police reports have mostly been “a black and white photos” and not the analyses of the problem with showing a real scale (for instance measured in 10.000 scale) and the problem characteristcs. 8 A model formulated for the fi rst time in the Polish education byZbyszko Melosik as “the poor get poorer, the rich get richer”. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 215 Parents and children in the fl uent modernity “traps” If we have earlier noticed - people have a growing problem with needs satisfying and consistent with norms problem solving which leads to more compulsive behaviors due to lack of positive alternatives. The lack of positive assets itself is not suffi cient enough to undertake risks connected with tobacco, e-cigarettes, drugs, stimulants or visualizations (intellectual emptiness is replaced by visual casing, which has a classic example in number of Polish celebrities’ behaviors). There are also necessary some suffi cient, systematically reproduced “codes” and social patterns for taking decisions by the young (and not only young) about non-normative behaviors (anomic ways of achieving success). As it turns out - nowadays they exist in excess (Jędrzejko, 2013, pp. 143-147): • A popular singer with a thesis: “I did not order marijuana, it was sent to our dog – Ramona”, a Member of Parliament smoking pot during a demonstration in front of the Parliament; a Member of Parliament exciting TV audience with fast driving from Brussels; fourth lover of a popular actor; TV reporter admitting marijuana smoking for fi ve years; attacks on the Church and mocking religiousness; obscene celebrities’ behaviors; drunk Members of Parliament in the “escort agency”. We could multiply similar examples. Hence, let us notice that the ending of the previous and the beginning of the 21st century brought about new “signposts” and “burdens” as a result of which a part of the adult generation was very violently drawn into the vortex of the racing world. The characteristic features of this process are as follows: • Change of working models in parents, especially a substantial increase in rate of women working afternoons and evenings (the result of transformation into commercial-service economy) and new ideologies, namely the phenomenon described as “a family on the crossroads” (Ryś, 2013, pp. 62-65); • Economic migration – inside and outside the country including the phenomenon of long-term migration with leaving a child under the care of one parent or other family member; • Social functioning of a family in front of electronic media (TV trap); • Increase of digital media importance in shaping opinions and attitudes of young people (see: Błaszczak 2012); • Models of macro and micro-communities concentrated on victory and success (in the youth’s consciousness an opinion is instilled that their satisfying functioning requires success achievement); 216 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała • Underestimation of moral norms and acceptation of the “lesser evil philosophy” (a classical example are the attempts at legalizing marijuana as “an evil lesser than alcohol”); • Stimulating and exciting in order to create “a consuming individual” and mass consumption society (this model has even gained parliamen- tary legitimacy through rejection of a draft on closing big shopping malls on Sundays); • Emergence and development of the advertising market directed to a young addressee which often has the character of advertising forcing pressure with pro-sumption models. The scale, variety and specifi city of offers directed by commerce, services, culture and entertainment is not only unbelievably vast but at the same time, their psychological framing makes that being somewhere, seeing something, taking part in something, having something becomes not merely an internal need, but also the result of external pressure. Thus we can see cases (for example in youth peer groups), when absence (somewhere), not possessing (something) or not recognizing (somebody, something) may be a source of exclusion, stigmatization or social ostracism, which is especially visible in social environments characterized with fi nancial success9: • A woman [47 years of age, lawyer, mother of a 14 years-old girl]: „There is no single month when my daughter does not have to have something because her friends got it. She attends a renowned junior high school, where the children are being “showered” by parents with everything what is new. Most of the children do not understand how big money it costs because they do not know what it means to earn 100 PLN. […] We have spoiled our own daughter […]”; • A girl [17years of age, a student in secondary school LO]: „[…] I spend about 300 PLN monthly on clothes, sometimes more, if my Grandma gives me some money. If, at school, you do not have anything new, you will not be cool […].Twice a month I have my nails done, almost every Saturday, before a party I go to a make-up artist […].”; • A couple [45 and 42 years of age, freelancers, parents of a 15 years-old girl]: „We made a terrible mistake which takes its revenge on us. For some years our daughter had unlimited access to a computer, which as it turned out, she also used at night. She neglected school which ended in her transfer to a community-owned school. The computer has cap- tured her completely. She said that if we limited her Internet access, she would stop going to school. We do not know what to do.”

9 Statements from author’s surveys form CSP, January 2013-April 2014. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 217 The above quoted statements of educational diagnoses taken from participants of the Social Prevention Center meetings, exhibit a speciﬁ c process within which a part of parents lost control over accelerated “growing up” of their children and the parents completely surrendered to consumerism trends and to the “racing world vortex”.

The key problems The problem and range of this article makes covering of all the defi ned risk areas where the young people engage impossible, hence it was decided to refer to two – important and fast developing – problems: drug and alike substances use and reaching for stimulants and tonics. As scientists from all over the world utter loudly – the period of forming drug habits is without any doubt adolescence. This issue has been strongly documented (Bachman, Wadswortth, O’Malley, Johnston, Schulenberg, 2013, p. 11). The Polish drug issue was for the fi rst time widely defi ned at the beginning of the 70-ies of the 20th century, which was connected with infi ltration of drug trends form the United States and Western Europe into Poland. In relation to that period, we can speak about the drug model with dominant role of heroin and Polish heroin, marijuana and inhalants (glues and solvents). During the next 30 years, the situation was considerably changed due to, among others, appearance of amphetamine, OC medicines and smart drugs. As far as it was possible to take control over opioid addiction (mainly through methadone substitution) still the Polish illicit drug market has extended (Safjański, 2013, p. 111). Let us here quote an important remark credited to Czesław Cekiera: „[…] Attempts at their counteracting are faint and government and NGO activities are indolent” (Cekiera op.cit. p. 130). A new and very dynamic phenomenon is the introduction of new substances in the market – herbal, half-synthetic and synthetic ones, including further modifi cations of the earlier known drugs and smart drugs. As authors of reports concerning the scale and types of drug experiments notice, the changes in this fi eld during the last two decades are explicit and can be a basis for a thesis about “qualitative leap”. Only in the years 1992- 2003 the number of pupils who used drugs during last year increased from 5% to 24% - thus we speak about the situation where in the year 2003 every fourth pupil had a personal “experience” with a drug. In the following years, the observed dynamics variables – in 2008 it was 15%, and in 2013 – 18% (see: PORC Report). 218 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała Table 3. Declared typed of drugs used in Public Opinion Research Center report 2013, by pupils who admitted taking drugs during the last 12 months. Type marijuana amphetamine cocaine hashish LSD Hallucinogen mushrooms DXM Mephedrone Rate 88% 10% 4% 3% 2% 1% 1% 1%

Source: Młodzież 2013, Public Opinion Research Center Report.

Concluding the drug issue we should assume that it will be one of the most important challenges for prevention in this decade (and maybe longer) and it requires: • change in drug policy at the central and local levels, mainly through designing perennial, interdisciplinary prevention programs directed on limiting various types of risky behaviors in parallel; • creating locally integrated programs by their coordination between educational institutions at the municipal-communal level and at district level (essential is mostly coordination of preventive measures in junior high schools and upper secondary schools); • introduction of the drug prevention starting from the 5th or 6th grade in primary school; • co-existing with addiction prevention, development of school and extracurricular forms of children elicitation in their free time10; • creating systemic solutions for developing knowledge and skills of school counselors about drugs and party drugs and principles of proceedings. A new phenomenon which development can be observed is use of various types of stimulants and tonics11. The introductory diagnosis of this phenomenon allowed to specify three groups of problems (often they co- exist): • the ﬁ rst: use of energy drinks (and alike substances) as a way to limit tiredness (mostly being a result of night Internet and computer use or as a way to gain strength before and during leisure time);

10 According to the author it is justifi ed to provide a big budgetary support for scouting and similar social organizations and increase the sport classes in junior high schools to 8-10 weekly. 11 Market of those substances is one of the fastest growing in Poland. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 219 • the second: use of substances like “session” during examination time in junior high schools and before fi nal exams in secondary schools; • the third: use of stimulants and tonics during intense sport practicing and body building. We can investigate this issue on the basis of research results. The research was conducted in the fi rst quarter of 2014 in four spots in the Mazovian District, Upper Silesia, Zagłębie Dąbrowskie.

Tab. 4. Declared use of energy drinks by junior high schools pupils in Polish town Radom, Wyszków and Mińsk Mazowiecki Declared use Town During last During last Remarks 30 days week Radom 27% 12% Dominating model is use of those drinks on the way to school, which may be associated with a long evening and night presence in the net. Belsk Duży 29% 18% Even 8% of pupils declared using those drinks every day Wyszków 22% 12% 11% of respondents declared mixing energy drinks with alcohol Mińsk 24% 15% The rate of everyday use declarations is 5% Mazowiecki Source : own elaboration of Business Academy Education Department and Center of Social Prevention –February-June 2013,research group - 814.

The conducted analyses show that the main causes for increase in use of such substances can be sought in mass advertising addressed most often to young generation – as well on TV, in cinemas as direct advertising. We should consider mixing energy drinks with alcohol and their use by younger children dangerous. In the performed research we recognize growing rate of junior high schools and secondary schools students using these substances not incidentally but regularly what provokes a question about the possibility of addiction mechanisms existence, which is particularly probable because most of energy drinks contain big amounts of caffeine. The European and American sources state similar phenomena all over the world raising the same questions indifferently on the country (see: Malinauskas, Aeby, Overton, Carpenter, Barber-Heidal, 2007). Here, other important questions arise, prompting to include these issues into school prevention programs: • what will be the inﬂ uence of high doses of niacines, vitamins of B group, riboﬂ avin, taurine, guarana use on young peoples’ health? • Whether the use of “energizers” at such a young age will not constitute a harmful burden for circulatory system? 220 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała Common availability of stimulating substances together with their mass promotion and also their impact on children and youth’s comfort increase their popularity. In the own research, the users’ declarations presenting subjective experiences following use were conspicuous (we present four, characteristic ones below)12): • A girl [junior high school pupil, 16 years of age]: „Without a “Tiger” nothing enters my mind, I am sleepy, I have to drink a can before school. I drink the second around noon and one more in the evening […].”; • A boy [sport school pupil, 15 years of age]: „I drink before each training and before a competition I also add a guarana drink. Everybody in our class do so. Sometimes the coach brings us cans.”; • A boy [secondary school student, 19 years of age]: „At night I play games, if I stopped, I would drop off, every day I play till 2 or 3 o’clock, then I use a liter of “Black”. […] everything is detrimental, but I do not drink vodka.”. As it results from our research – use and abuse 13 of such type substances is frequently connected with other compulsive behaviors, especially with those linked with extreme sports, marital pseudo-arts, weekend leisure activities (discos, parties) and with night life in front of multimedia.

Attempt at recapitulation A contemporary human lives under increasingly stronger pressure of “to be and to have” which is caused by a great information opening and access to new areas, thanks to among others, the iconic invention which is the Internet. New technologies onrush with their almost unlimited offer led to “a day contraction”, a pressure of time as a result of which we are not able to get to know the available sources and spaces. Natural – especially at the young age – desire to know leads to falling by the young into dangerous traps connected with lack of time and will to be active for longer than natural organism abilities allow. Additionally the contemporary young recipient is a victim of massive “information attack” encouraging to be “here and everywhere, now and always”. If we look at the title “troubled world” from such a perspective, it becomes a sphere of growing, multidimensional risk

12 Statements from author’s surveys, Center for Social Prevention, November 2013-March 2014. 13 It is estimated that drinks of this type should not be drunk by minors at all. The key issue is use of multiply exceeded daily doses of individual substances The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 221 in the form of new chemical addictions, cyber-disorders and addictions to new technologies (Pisarska, 2013, p. 111), enhancing the organism beyond borders of its biological stability, strong sexual stimulation of teenagers (simply exciting them with sexual sphere) (see: von Gersdorff, 2008, pp. 15-19), experimenting with “new potions” and entering into realms hard for rational grasp by a teenager (for instance Internet pornography, cybersex). In the “troubled world” the temptation to get adult fast increases, without an afterthought about consequences of making choices and undertaking actions. The result of such a state is undertaking such activities by a substantial part of young generation, which were reserved so far for the adults, being not only experiments, but a part of youth life. Hence, we may assume that contemporary education faces the old and the new challenges. The power of the latter is incomparably greater what generates not only new research ﬁ elds but also challenges for prevention (Dziewiecki, 2009, p. 141). All of them come down to legitimacy and maybe even necessity of constant answering the question: how, in the racing world, should a young man behave towards Fromm’s question “to be or to have”. This outstanding humanist writing about modi of existence (modus of having and modus of being) draws attention to a dangerous feature of contemporary times in which consumption became a basic and in wealthy societies directly a key form of possessing (Fromm, 2012a, p. 46). Meanwhile, the contemporary world makes consuming everything, being everywhere, experiencing everything impossible and education should encourage people to make wise choices including rejecting many offers of the “troubled world”.

Bibliography: 1. Andrzejewska A., Dziecko w świecie rzeczywistym i wirtualnym, [in:] Patologie w cyberprzestrzeni, (ed.) S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek, Pub- lishing House of WSH, Radom 2012. 2. Bachman J.G., Wadsworth K.N., O’Malley P.M., Johnston L.D., and Schulenberg J.E., Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adult- hood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities, Psychol- ogy Press, 2013. 3. Błaszczak I., Negatywny wpływ mediów na rozwój inteligencji emo- cjonalnej dzieci i młodzieży, [in:] Patologie w cyberprzestrzeni, ed. S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek, Publishing House of WSH, Radom 2012. 4. Cekiera Cz., W obronie życia i zdrowia, Publishing house of Niepań- stwowaj Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna in Białystok, Białystok 2011. 222 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała 5. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profi laktyka uzależnień, Publishin House Jedność, Kielce 2009. 6. Fromm E., Zdrowe społeczeństwo, Publishing House vis-a-vis, Kracow 2012. 7. Fromm E., Mieć czy być?, Publishing House Rebis, Poznań 2012a. 8. Gaś Z., Profesjonalna profi laktyka w szkole: szanse i zagrożenia, [in:] Profesjonalna profi laktyka w szkole. Nowe wyzwania, ed. Z.B. Gaś, In- novatio Press, Lublin 2011. 9. Gersdorff M., Rewolucja seksualna zagraża dzieciom, Stowarzyszenie Kultury chrześcijańskiej im. Piotra Skargi, Cracow 2008. 10. Jędrzejko M., Młodzież poszukująca na rozdrożach zmieniającego się świata – spojrzenie socjopedagogiczne, [in:] Człowiek na rozdrożu. Zrozumieć, aby pomóc, ed. Z.B. Gaś, Publishing House Innovatio Press, Lublin 2013. 11. Jędrzejko M., Człowiek i multimedia – poszukiwanie granic w nie- uchronności, [in:] Edukacja wobec wyzwań społeczeństwa informacyj- nego, (ed.) D. Morańska, M. Jędrzejko, Publishing House of Business Academy, Dąbrowa Górnicza 2012a. 12. Kendall P.C., Zaburzenia okresu dzieciństwa i adolescencji, Gdańskie Psychology Publishing House, Sopot 2012. 13. Kurzępa J., Młodzież w obliczu wielkiej zmiany, [in:] Pedagogika spo- łeczna wobec procesów żywiołowych i zachowań ryzykownych, Publis- hing House Akapit, Toruń 2013,. 14. Malinauskas B.M., Aeby V.G., Overton R.F., Carpenter-Aeby T., and Barber-Heidal K., A Survey of Energy Drink Consumption Patterns among College Students, Nutrition Journal 6 (1)/ 2007. 15. Młodzież 2013 – Report of Public Opinion Research Center, Warsaw 2014. 16. Narkomania – spojrzenie wielowymiarowe, Jędrzejko M. (scientifi c edition.), Publishing House ASPRA-JR, Warsaw 2009. 17. Pisarska B., Uzależnienie młodych ludzi od multimediów – skala problemu a profi laktyka społeczna, [in:] Profi laktyka w przestrzeni publicznej, ed. I. Bieńskowska, I. Fajfer-Kruczek, M. Kitlińska-Król, I. Olszówka, Publishing House Scriptum, Cracow 2013. 18. Ptaszek R.T., Jak fi lozofi a może pomóc współczesnemu człowiekowi, [in]: Człowiek na rozdrożu, ed. Z.B. Gaś, Publishing House Inovatio Press, Lublin 2013. 19. Ryś M., Rodzina na rozdrożu, [in:] Z.B. Gaś, Człowiek na rozdrożu. Zrozumieć, aby pomóc, Publishing House Inovattio Press, Lublin 2013. The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations... 223 20. Safjański T., Podaż narkotyków – uwarunkowania, tendencje i kierunki zagrożeń, w: Człowiek wobec uzależnień, (ed.) M. Jędrzejko, M. Netczuk -Gwoździewicz, Publishing House ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2013. 21. Trolley B.C., Cyber Kids, Cyber Bullying, Cyber Balance, Corwin Press 2010. 22. Wojcieszek K., Profi laktyka używania substancji psychoaktywnych – wybrane problemy, [in:] Narkomania – spojrzenie wielowymiarowe, Pub- lishing House ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2009.

Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue?

Małgorzata PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Prof. Dr. Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland)

Aggression and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue?

Abstract: Escalation of aggression and violence at school more and more often intensifi es researcher’s interest, who investigate these issues and look for determinants which release aggressive and violent behaviours in children and youth. Exemplifi cations, illustrations and explications, as well as results of conducted research let show multiplicity and multitude of classifi cations, categorizations and typizations of aggression and violence what enables showing scale and rank of this issue. The literature and social observations show that all countries in the world contend with problem of aggression and violence at schools. The fi nal part of the paper contains conclusions and implications for educational practice which are indispensable in designing, improving and also creating innovative preventive programmes.

Keywords: aggression, violence, prevention, school.

Introduction As a result of the fact that the world is globalizing permanently, more and more often we have to deal with signs of aggression and violence, which nearly every day ”barge” into schools. Numerous authors suggest that aggression and violence are a constitutive problem faced by contemporary schools. Some of them state that school is “infected” by violence – such view is particularly expressed in reference to junior high schools: “the psyche of youth attending these schools is not shaped yet, their behaviour 226 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba is ruled by instinct and emotions – they examine the borders and make experiments”(Przybysz-Zaremba, 2011, p. 186). The school in its principles should be a place, which is safe and where educational and care processes are carried out. However, it is becoming a place of fear, threats, aggression and violence, which when face digitization and computerization take new, innovative forms. Aggression and violence used to take physical form most frequently – it was characterized by attack directed to another person (e.g. blow, beating, jostling, kick, jerking etc.) – so it was visible to naked eye and verbal one, characterized by harmful verbal utterances like: badmouthing, gossiping, complaining, informing etc. (see: Ostrowska, 2007). The literature points also on sings of aggression of symbolic character – aggression manifested is on objects, which for aggressor constitute unit, whom they wants to hurt (Adamczewska, 2006, p. 21). Nowadays we deal with variety of different forms of aggressive and violent behaviours of children and youth, which very often are revealed in eclectic way. Authors, who provoke deliberations, refl ections and explorations on aggression and violence classify, categorize and typize them. Infi ltration of literature, as well as constatations and explorations let expose displayed aggression and violence by means of technological novelties. Jacek Pyżalski (2013, 2009a, 2009 and subsequent) in his works points at electronic aggression and violence, which belong to group dominating among behaviours of children and youth. (R)evolution among new communication technologies has led to situation in which cyberbullying and cyberstalking have become key problems faced by contemporary schools, which requires change and/or reconstruction of the former prevention programmes, which have been carried out by schools. The aim of the Author’s deliberations and refl ections is to make the Reader familiar with the problem of aggression and violence faced by contemporary school. Making the review of selected exemplifi cations and explorations carried out by authors both in Poland, as abroad, the Author wants to show and at the same time make educationalists, psychologists, parents, as well as Directors, who manage institutions which carry out educational and care process realize what the scale and the range of the problem is, which because of the constant and dynamic process of globalization of life – becomes indiscernible. Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue? 227 Aggression and violence – school’s strategic problem. Exemplifi cations and explorations. Literature often undertakes issues of aggression and violence. Multiplicity and diversity of conducted explorations concerning these issues could mean that these problems have been already investigated suffi ciently. However, it turns out that the reality is different. Evaluation of everyday life caused by social and economic transformation involves newer and newer forms of aggressive and violent behaviours. Numerous research indicate that there are acts of aggression and violence all the time and they do not always occur on the student – student plane, but also in relations between student – teacher and teacher – student. A. Giza- Poleszczuk, A. Komendant-Brodowska and A. Baczko-Dombi (2011, pp. 68-69) point at different forms of aggressive behaviours of students towards teacher, which are not only expressed in ignoring teacher’s verbal orders, provoking outbursts of anger, persecuting, or terrorizing, but more and more often take physical form e.g. pushing, or tripping them up. Such kinds of behaviours constitute determinants of releasing aggressive behaviours by teachers. Research conducted as part of the ”School without violence” programme, demonstrate improper teachers’ behaviours towards students, which are mainly characterized by public humiliation, using offensive words, terrorizing, throwing students out of the classroom, and even “blowing”, “nudging” and “jostling” (Giza-Poleszczuk A., Komendant-Brodowska A., Baczko-Dombi A., 2011, p. 68-69). Nearly 75% of primary school students experience aggression, or violence at school, are perpetrators, victims, or observers (Przybysz-Zaremba 2013, pp. 275-285). Józef Górniewicz (1999, p. 5-15) points out that this is a problem, which concerns nearly every student at school. According to this author almost all students of high schools have experienced aggression, or violence at least once at school, or on its area. The report1 of research conducted under supervision of Krystyna Ostrowska (2007) in 1997-2003-2007 shows that problem of aggression and violence at

1 2567 students took part in the research in 1997. 1611 students from 144 schools placed in following voivodeships took part in the research in 2003: Lower Silesian (dolnośląskie) - 11 schools; Kuyavian-Pomeranian (kujawsko-pomorskie) – 9 schools; Lublin (lubelskie) – 14 schools; Lubusz (lubuskie) – 6 schools; Łódź (łódzkie) – 9 schools; Lesser Poland (małopolskie) – 9 schools; Masovian (mazowieckie) – 19 schools; Opole (opolskie) – 4 schools; Subcarpathian (podkarpackie) – 9 schools; Pod- lachian (podlaskie) – 5 schools; Pomeranian (pomorskie) – 6 schools; Silesian (śląskie) – 9 schools; Świętokrzyskie – 4 schools; Warmian-Masurian (warmińsko-mazurskie) – 10 schools; Greater Poland (wielkopolskie) – 15 schools; West Pomeranian (zachod- niopomorskie) – 5 schools. 2141 students including 652 students attending to junior high schools i.e. 30% of respondents, took part in the research in 2007. 228 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba school occurs at all stages of education. Aggression and violence has been taking different forms over the years (Figure 1).

Picture 1. Kinds of aggressive behaviours performed by the students

aattendingttet nding to thethe juniorjunioor high schools.

Source: own work out, on the basis of data from the research on aggressive behaviours of students in Poland in 1997, 2003, 2007 (Ostrowska 2007, p. 59).

Other countries also face the problem of escalation of aggression and violence at schools. International research Heath Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) conducted among students from 29 countries shows that percentage of tormented students at school fl uctuated from 69% in Lithuania to 16% in Sweden and amounted to 39% on average (HBSC 2000). The report Violence and aggression at schools – ways of counteracting worked out for the Ministry of National Education indicates also expansion of aggression and violence at schools at shows that such countries, as: Austria, Finland, France, Greece, or Spain contend with this problem. Aggression and violence at school is noticed both among girls and boys. Laurence D. Owens (1997) points out that there is crucial differences in destructive behaviours between these groups, as the taken form shows – girls more often take the indirect forms, whereas boys undertake physical violence. According to Charlesa E. Bascha (2011, p. 619-625) the problem occurs twice as often at schools located in cities, or outskirts. More often acts of aggression, or violence occur among African youth (about 45%) and Latino youth (41%), than students of the white race (about 32%). In South Africa problem of school violence Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue? 229 becomes crucial matter and requires immediate intervention and practical prevention. Johan Prinsloo and Jan Neser (2007, p. 320-330) pointed that substantial number of students from these schools are victims of aggression, or violence once a week, and sometimes even every day. Intensifi cation of the problem makes researchers undertake explorations concerning conditions of students’ pathogenic behaviours. P. S Leff, T. E. Waasdorp and N. R. Crick (2010, pp. 508-535) prove that engagement in aggression and violence is result of problems bound with adjustment to conditions, situation, or place. Apart from destructive behaviours of students, internalization of problems (e.g. depression) can also occur, what in consequence can lead to skipping school. Motives which underlie improper behaviours have most frequently egocentric nature and are connected with lack of understanding and respect towards physical and psychosocial integrity of victims and their property (Prinsloo & Neser, 2007, p. 320-330). Internalization and expression of aggressive behaviours is connected with aggression and violence and also other photogenic phenomena occurring in a family. One of the main factors, which underlies signs of aggression and violence is problem of alcohol abuse. According to the Institute of Mental Health - about 70% of families in which problem of alcohol abuse occurs experiences acts of aggression and violence performed by the drinking person (PARPA, 2010, p. 8). Data worked on the basis of the Blue Card procedure show that in 2012 general number of victims of domestic violence reached the level of 77 thousand and more than 50 thousand of victims were women and 19 thousand under aged. More than 30 thousand of perpetrators were under infl uence of alcohol (Main Police Station). Aggression and violence performed by parents, grandparents, siblings, or other family members towards children cause fear, pain and also teach the same behaviours, which are become visible at the time of shaping personality. Mikołaj Winiarski (2000) points at number of adverse (from the point of child’s development view) infl uences of family in which there is problem of alcohol abuse and signs of aggressive – violent behaviours. These are: inhibition and disorder of psychosomatic development of children and social orphanage. Mental disorders of these children are expressed mainly in extreme emotions – once they are angry, once very unhappy and such feelings accompany them during whole childhood to maturity. These children cannot function in relations with social environment. They are susceptible to destructive infl uences of their peers, they experience alcohol, nicotine, or drug initiation very early. Pathological family environment of a child shapes in it behaviour disorders, destructive attitudes and social actions, in consequence leading to social maladjustment and in extreme situations to social aberration (see: Korneshov, 230 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba 2010, pp. 58-70; Rehm, Room, Brink, Jacobi, 2005, pp. 377-388; Kawula, 2012, pp. 130-131; Radziewicz-Winnicki, 2004). Nowadays, the most crucial determinant releasing, and at the same time shaping improper behaviours of students are media especially the Internet, which when is used in improper way seem to be the most dangerous one. Aggression and violence preformed in the cyberspace by means of communication technologies which are offered by the Internet acquires newer and newer character year by years and takes newer and more”innovative” forms constructed as a result of constantly globalizing world (Przybysz-Zaremba, 2014). Aggression expressed by means of the new technologies: the Internet, or mobile phone is a dangerous form, as it is diffi cult to diagnose the aggressor. Research conducted as part of the Ybarry project on the group of 476 victims of electronic aggression show that persecuted persons at school often are victims of cyberbullying (Pyżalski, 2009, p. 12-15). There are numerous sources of aggressive behaviours of children and youth and they constitute series of factors stuck in main life environments i.e. family, school, peer group and local environment. Nowadays, the new educational environment of a child, which shapes its personality, way of thinking and acting is “cyberspace” as virtual society giving access to everyone at any time. It is space which was not possible to be experienced earlier. It is egalitarian, without limits and borders enabling to communicate, providing entertainment and “ocean” of information (Walancik &Sarzała, 2012; Taper & Śmiałowski, 2013, pp. 151-158).

Conclusions The review of presented illustration, exemplifi cations and explorations presenting only part of the problem of aggression and violence with which most schools all over the world have to contend, shows that this problem becomes much more serious year by year and takes newer forms. Holistic prevention – intervention actions in this direction, which are of dynamic character and take into consideration conditions, individual situations and possible consequences are of key importance. These factors should become basis of forming, or improvement of prevention programmes which are carried out by schools. Holistic prevention actions (including intervention ones) should take into consideration all environments of child’s life among which family, school and local environment are the most important ones. Each of these environments Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue? 231 should be included in multidimensional and at the same time long lasting intervention-prevention actions. A crucial issue in holistic prevention actions is proper cooperation of the above mentioned environments. School, as professional institution responsible for not only carrying out educational and care process of a child, but foremost for its safety at school and on its area has competences and predispositions as instruments, which are indispensable in forming and carrying out prevention of destructive behaviours of students. According to the provisions it is their task to carry out prevention and intervention actions, which are to minimize problem of aggression and violence at school. Unfortunately, the responsibility for ”inept” carrying out prevention is only born by schools. The Supreme Audit Offi ce’s report (2013) shows that school is not able to deal with victimization and destructive behaviours of students. Lack of broadening, complementing and improvement of knowledge of teachers, educationalists and psychologists employed at schools is result of week prevention actions. The Supreme Audit Offi ce (2013, p. 10) showed that in about 30% of controlled schools headmasters did not provide teachers with participation in any trainings, workshops or scientifi c seminars. Taking into consideration escalation of the problem of aggression and violence at school and especially in the social environment one should investigate prevention actions, which are carried out on many areas – their evaluation will provide researchers with data as basis for creation of new, innovative programmes for prevention of addictions an behaviour disorders. It is necessary to work out so called ”new generation” programmes, which will take into consideration changing world in which a child more and more often is susceptible to disintegrative infl uences. “New generation” programmes should be multidimensional, long – lasting, integrated and foremost “fl exible” i.e. adjusted to individual situations and child’s behaviours (Ozkol, Zucker, Spinazzola, 2011, p. 733-748, Jędrzejko 2013, p. 61 and subsequent). Necessity of doing verifi cations and evaluations of their effectiveness is of fundamental meaning and constitutes basis for introduction of changes and improvements.

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Aggression as Exempliﬁ cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth

Anna PRUSIK Dr. University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn (Poland)

Aggression as Exempliﬁ cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth

Abstract: Behavioural disorders hinder functioning of child in basic educational environments concerning different requirements resulting from necessity of adoption to social roles. Aggressive behaviour is an example of behavioural disorder, which constitutes deviation from behaviour that is expected and is in accordance with generally accepted norms of social behaviour, and which violates order. Escalation of aggression, multitude of its forms arouse interest of researches, who are looking for answers for questions concerning genesis and conditions which are favourable for its expansion in social relations, as well as possibilities of its prevention.

Keywords: behavioural disorders, social maladjustment, aggression.

Introductions to issues concerning behavioural disorders The notion of “disorder” is used by educationalists most frequently in the context of analysis of problems, which children and youth cause at schools and other educational institutions (Urban, 2000, p. 16). An attempt to explain notion of “behavioural disorder” is not an easy task, because of different ways of its interpretation. Depending on adopted scientifi c perspective and theoretical assumptions there are few ways of understanding and defi ning this notion. Tendency for using following notions interchangeably namely: 236 Anna Prusik “behavioural disorders”, “emotional disorders”, “social maladjustment” can be observed in scientifi c works of educationalists, psychiatrists and psychologists (Urban, 2007, p. 141). Henryk Cudak (2008, p. 135) underlines that apart from notion of ”behavioural disorders” in the literature concerning these issues, other notion which describes improper, different from the generally accepted norms, relation of a child with social and family environment i.e. “social maladjustment” can be found. The notion of “social maladjustment” refers to further stages of developmental disorders, or emotional disorders (Urban, 2000, p. 18). In order to identify emotional disorders and behavioural disorders with social maladjustment and popular notion of ”antisocial behaviour” inclines also attitude of Polish psychiatrists who concentrate mainly on active, external form of emotional disorders which objectify in destruction of social norms and interpersonal relations (Urban, 2007, p. 142). Interdisciplinary character of issues concerning behavioural disorders were described by H. Sulestrowska (1989, p.118), who defi nes ”behavioural disorder” as any kind of children’s and youth’s behaviours which constitute deviation from expected, corresponding to adopted norms of social behaviour, violating social order behaviours, whether they already cause confl ict, or not. In such understanding disorder comes down to problems included in the notion of “social maladjustment”. Behavioural disorder is when behaviour is characterized by permanence or lengthy duration with possibility of different degree of improvement. H. Sulestrowska (1989, p. 118) refers to two kinds of notion of disorder namely: • For description of different kinds of behaviours directed against moral and legal rules. These are such behaviours which in socioeducational literature are treated as signs of social maladjustment (skipping school, escapes) and antisocial actions (thefts, aggression). • For determination of disordered personality. In this view “behavioural disorder” is synonymous notion with “improper personality”, “personality disorders”. The issues concerning behavioural disorders have been also worked out by the American Psychiatric Association – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). According to DSM-IV notion of behavioural disorder means repeating and long-lasting pattern of behaviour in which basic principles, social norms and rules are broken (quotation of: Cudak, 2008, p. 134). Researches underline that such understanding of this notion contains following categories: • aggressive behaviours; Aggression as Exemplifi cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth 237 • non-aggressive behaviours (destruction of other people’s possessions with intention of doing serious harm); • deception and theft; • breaking rules, social rules and orders, running away from home, skipping school, (quotation of: Cudak, 2008, p. 135). Bronisław Urban (2000, p. 17) underlines that disorder in behaviour hinders functioning of a child in different spheres of requirements resulting from necessity of adopting to various social rules and taking position towards oneself, siblings, colleagues, parents, teachers. On earlier developmental stages this is child’s and its closest environment individual problem, whereas when it grows up it becomes social problem gradually. This paper concentrates on category of aggressive behaviours which constitute exemplifi cation of disorders in children and youth. Because of the requirements concerning volume of the paper the author has just indicated selected forms of aggression, which require separate, deep analyses.

Closer description of the defi nition of the notion of “aggression”1 The notion of “aggression” is used in many different meanings. According to psychological and educational encyclopaedias the notion “aggression” means deliberate action, which aims at doing harm, damage, and pain to somebody, or something. Such action has usually violent and open character. There are numerous defi nitions of aggression in literature (Reykowski, 2002, p. 276; Frączek, 1996, p. 37). Janusz Reykowski (2002, p. 276) defi nes it in following way: aggression is behaviour (action) which aims at doing damage – physical or mental – or destruction of some items – physical or social ones. A. Frączek (1996, p. 37) assumed that aggression and interpersonal violence can be treated, as actions undertaken deliberately by people which constitute threat, or cause damage in physical, mental, or social welfare of these people i.e. causing pain, destruction, leading to loss of appreciated values. Phenomenon of aggression and violence is in fact treated as self-obvious, normal part of life (Fatyga, 2002, p. 239). Available statistics show unbelievable dynamics of aggressive behaviours, what causes justifi ed concerns resulting from the size of the phenomenon of aggression in the social debate, in everyday life nearly in all educational environments: in family, school, peer group,

1 “Violence”, which is derivative of aggression, is used as synonym of the notion “aggression” both in literature and informal language. 238 Anna Prusik institutions (Prusik, 2013, s 219). The age of young aggressor falls down systematically, as well as the age of their victims. What worries are not only the waves of aggression and violence in different form, but also brutalization of such kinds of behaviours and emotional coldness of offenders who are becoming younger (Pufal-Struzik, 2007 p. 7). Maria Jarymowicz (2002, p. 173) adds that aggressive behaviours are copied, regulated by factors which are different from anger.

Selected kinds of aggressive behaviours as category of behavioural disorders Aggression may have different forms, and one can distinguish a lot of kinds of aggression. Tadeusz Pilch (1995, p. 422) underlines that in educational praxis aggression and violence are permanent elements of reality with which an educationalist deals. Authors of reports (Giza-Poleszczuk, 2011; Surzykiewicz, 2000, Ostrowska, 2007; Fatyga, 2002) showing phenomenon of aggression at school – peer aggression point at increase of the aggressive behaviours among pupils and brutalization of verbal and mental aggression. Phenomenon of aggression and violence among children and youth is illustrated in the latest research by Anna Giza-Poleszczuk and group (2011), in which N=3169 pupils took part. More than half of an investigated pupils of the 4th grade (62%) regards aggressive behaviours and violence as serious problem at their schools, whereas only 13% of 3rd grade high school pupils share this opinion. Considerable majority (88%) of the Poles thinks that aggressive behaviours constitute serious social problem. Surzykiewicz’s research (2000) shows that pupils are victims of verbal aggression – they are foremost offended (50%) and badmouthed (49%). As aggression and physical violence are concerned, they are jostled by another pupil (53%), pulled by ears by a teacher (11%), beaten by another person without any reason (16%). The results of presented researches prove that mental aggression towards pupils occurs more often in such forms, as: forcing to do something (23%), threatening by a teacher (20%), throwing out from the classroom by a teacher (26%). Moreover 15% of respondents were victims of vandalistic behaviours such as destroying, or taking their possessions. Research conducted by K. Ostrowska (2007) also show that aggression at school is noticed in such forms as: cheating teachers, making it impossible to conduct a lesson, offending, insulting other pupils, jostling others on purpose, getting drunk, spreading lies about others, fi ghts. The number of pupils who admitted to respective forms of aggressive Aggression as Exemplifi cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth 239 behaviours fell down in 2007 in reference to 2003, as well as to 1997, but the fall of the number of victims was not observed. The number of victims of verbal aggression and threat of using gun increased. Irena Pufal-Struzik (2007, p. 30) points also attention to aggression as parent’s educational failure and result of mistakes made during bringing up. In turn Edmund Wnuk – Lipiński (2002, p. 251) draws attention to relation of aggression with politics and aggression notices that making public becomes a factor of creating patterns for some part of society. It must also be mentioned that massive sport events are very often excuse for aggressive, brutal, loutish behaviours of young people. In such cases we deal with stadium aggression (Sochacka, 2010). Particular attention should be paid to certain form of aggression – namely electronic aggression/cyber-aggression, which is relatively new and requires terminological organization (Pyżalski, 2011, p. 23). Currently nobody doubts that electronic media constitute unrepeatable chance for development of human and humanity, however on the other hand they bring along threats for spheres of social life and development of individual’s personality becoming at the same time tool used for doing harm to others. Internet is more and more popular among children and youth and more and more often concerns for harassment of Internet users by means of net are expressed. Not many researches concerning this phenomenon have been published yet. Research published in 2006 revealed that 29 % of young Internet users had been at least once victim of peer aggression on Internet. In turn the research conducted in 2007 on Internet users between 13 and 17 years old, showed that 43% had been victims of cyber-aggression in the previous year (Pyżalski, 2009, p.24). Jacek Pyżalski (2009, p. 58) points at urgent need of organizing defi nition issues connected with electronic/ cyber- aggression. Therefore he suggests that aggression which is indirectly directed towards the victim should be called Internet harassment, for peer electronic aggression carried out by children and youth from the same social group, whereas in case of repeated, deliberate action, when the offenders are in majority the author proposes the notion of cyberbullying. It is important to notice that notion of electronic aggression refers to substantial number of different cases and situations. Particular types of aggression differ not only with signs, mechanism of their origin, but also consequences for persons, who are indirectly engaged in the process of this aggression, as well as whole society. Jacek Pyżalski (2011, p.42) presents different kinds of electronic aggression with regard to type of a victim and these are: (1) electronic aggression towards aggrieved – a victim is a person who is ”weaker” than perpetrator; (2) electronic aggression towards celebrities 240 Anna Prusik – aggression towards well-known people, who are present in media; (3) electronic prejudice aggression – victims are not respective individuals, but whole groups e.g. of particular nationality; (4) electronic aggression towards strangers (accidental) – a victim is an unknown person, who is chosen at random while surfi ng the Internet; (5) cyberbullying – a victim is a young person who belongs to a group (class, discussion forum) and the perpetrator belongs to the same group as well. About this issue in Polish schools often write M. Jędrzejko and D. Morańska (see: Jędrzejko, Morańska, 2013) Already quotedJ. Pyżalski (2011, p. 76) research prove that peer aggression (including cyberbullying) is only one of kinds of aggression in which young people are engaged. Among investigated middle school students (N=719) 15 % engaged in aggression towards strangers, 14,5% engaged in prejudice aggression; aggression towards aggrieved was performed by 7 % of respondents, aggression towards celebrities was performed by 6% of investigated pupils. Every twentieth respondent that they has performed electronic aggression towards teachers. The literature concerning these issues presents the view that experiencing different forms of aggressive behaviours disturbs personality development and has negative effect on functioning of an individual in different spheres of life. It is commonly known that experiencing of aggressive behaviours has similar consequences whether it is traditional or electronic/cyber aggression. Jacek Pyżalski (2011, p. 29) refers to results of research which prove that victims of peer aggression have worse results at school because of problems with concentration of attention during lessons and frequent skipping school, weaker relationships with peers. At emotional level the victims of aggression feel humiliated, unhappy, lost, and lonely. Victimization can lead to such problems as depression, fear, and low self-assessment, negative perceiving of oneself, feeling lonely. In extreme situations chronic experiencing of aggression can have tragic effects such as homicide, or suicide.

Conclusions Aggression constitutes serious social problem which requires detailed theoretical analyses, as well as practical, preventive actions aiming at its elimination, or limitation. Nothing can justify passivity within the scope of counteracting aggressive behaviours (Prusik, 2013, p. 230). However, B. Fatyga (2002, p. 222) underlines that spreading wave of aggression does not fi nd adequate refl ection in social actions, in intensifi cation of work of institutions which are responsible for sense of security and bringing up and Aggression as Exemplifi cation of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth 241 care of children and youth. It is crucial to educate, introduce preventive programmes in schools within the scope of augmenting problem of aggressive behaviours among children and youth. Preventive programmes referring to phenomenon of aggression and violence can be created, but without making real contact with young people, without personal engagement of educationalists, parents, tutors, teachers in providing help these programmes will be useless. It is crucial to develop in children and youth, as well as adults’ social skills and competences e.g. dealing with stress, solving problems, and it is important to promote appropriate patterns of cooperation. Aggression Replacement Training, which one of components training developing pro-social behaviours, can set as an example of such actions. It is necessary to broaden offer of extracurricular classes and other institutions. It is advisable to take into consideration interpersonal trainings while creating curriculum for the universities which prepare students for the teacher’s profession, as they teach communication and behaviours which suppress aggression. It is also crucial to support parents, tutors in work on aggression on the way of e.g. organization of trainings, courses, workshops which focus on these issues. Numerous bodies should be engaged in the fi ght against aggression – starting from family, educational institutions, pupils themselves, local society. The role of a family is underestimated within this scope. It should be underlined that lack of support in family, failure to provide by it basic needs of safety, love, respect can lead to situations in which aggressive behaviours will be form of “protection” against dangerous world (Prusik, 2013, p. 228). Everything should be done in order to mobilize society and bring up young generation without aggression. The authors of World Report on Violence and Health (WHO, 2002) underline that aggressive behaviours are present in nearly every sphere of life and are quite diffi cult problem of the contemporary world to solve, but human’s determination and creativity can counteract it. Among recommended solution in the WHO report it is crucial to take into consideration following ones (quotation of: Prusik, 2013, 229): a. it is necessary to strengthen cooperation of institutions and facilities which task is to exchange information concerning counteracting aggression and violence, so that actions undertaken by e.g. the Police, Municipal Social Welfare Centre, Commune Social Welfare Centre, District Family Support Centre, Courts, Schools were integrated and aimed at better support of aggression victims and at their better protection. It is also crucial to integrate actions aiming at counteracting aggression and violence with state’s social and educational policy; 242 Anna Prusik b. it is necessary to promote preventive actions which example can be i.a. workshops School for Parents and Tutors within the frames of the Family Support Programmes which are carried out at schools and psychological and pedagogical centres successfully; c. it is crucial to observe international law, agreements and mechanisms which defend human rights, which typical example is Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. It is incomprehensible why it has not been ratifi ed yet; d. it is important to set priorities and support researches on causes, consequences, prevention and cost of phenomenon of aggression in society.

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Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors

Violeta JEGELEVIČIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Asta RAILIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

Social Pedagogical Aid to Children who Avoid School: the Attitude of Class Tutors

Abstract: School non-attendance is a complex and multi-dimensional problem, and the settlement of the problem should also be executed in an integrated and systematic way. Through the analysis of a quantitative survey results the article discloses the reasons for school non-attendance, the providers of social pedagogical aid to children who avoid school and possible aid forms; as well as the opportunities for the improvement of social- pedagogical aid to children who avoid school.

Key words: school non-attendance, children who avoid school, class tutor, social- pedagogical aid.

Introduction The researchers (Civinskas and others, 2006) defi ne a child avoiding school as a child who avoids school without good reason. School non- attendance is an urgent issue requiring a well-coordinated and effective cooperation/communication of specialists of educational, social, legal and other institutions. In academic year 2011-2012, the number of children between the age of 7 and 16 who didn’t attend school amounted to 13 462 (The Analysis of Educational Problem, 2013). This shows that school is not 246 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene able to realise one of the main goals of the National Education Strategy for 2013-2022 “to ensure adequate access to education and equal opportunities for all children”. School non-attendance could also be perceived as a phenomenon determined by multiple causal networks depending on the emotional and behavioural problems (Civinskas and others, 2006; Lehmann, 2009). According to the Lithuanian research analysis (Civinskas and others, 2006; Successful Learning: Dropping-Out from the Education System, 2010), children avoid school because they lack motivation to learn; due to an inadequate organisation of the teaching process and, consequently, the unwillingness to learn; children’s psychological characteristics; and due to inadequate children’s social-economic and family conditions. Pursuant to relevant educational documentation (On the Approval of the Information System and Data Security Provisions for Children Who Don’t Attend School, 2010; the State Education Strategy for 2013-2022 (2013); The Law Amending the Law on Education, 2011; The Description of the Procedure for Provision of Social Pedagogical Aid, 2011), social-pedagogical aid is the most effective preventive and intervention measure in educational institutions dealing with children who avoid school. Only joint efforts of various specialists can ensure effective organisation and provision of social- pedagogical aid, coordination of work of individual specialists, effective assessment/identifi cation of needs for social pedagogical aid, and development of inter-institutional and inter-agency cooperation in considering social and pedagogical problems of school children (Merfeldaitė, 2007). Social pedagogues, class tutors and teachers are referred to as main providers of social-pedagogical aid. A class tutor is a teacher who is committed to educate class community. A class tutor’s activities include the following functions: child supervision, education and counselling (Bitinas, 2004; Jovaiša, 2004). Thus, a class tutor plays a signifi cant role in identifying and managing school non-attendance issues, since he/she is a person who knows the children best of all and is able to adequately evaluate the aid provided by pedagogues and other specialists. The Child Welfare Committees have been established in order to reduce the number of children avoiding school. One of the key functions of these committees is to analyse the causes of children’s reluctance to attend school, the fears related to school; the causes of underachievement; and to take appropriate actions so as to facilitate children’s return to school and ensure a successful learning process (Description of the Procedure of the Establishment of a School Child Welfare Committee and Organisation of its Work, 2011). The National Education and Information System NEMIS directed Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors 247 toward children who avoid school has been developed and implemented in 2011. The system collects information on causes of school non-attendance and reluctance to learn, and on the children avoiding school (On the Approval of the Information System and Data Security Provisions for Children Who Avoid School, 2010). Establishment and implementation of the above system, as well as effective work of the school Child Welfare Committees create the necessary preconditions ensuring effective social pedagogical aid to children who avoid school. The problems related to school non-attendance and social-pedagogical aid have been extensively analysed in the recent works of Lithuanian researchers. The causes of school non-attendance have been analysed by P. Dereškevičius, V. Rimkevičius, V. Targamadzė (2000); M. Barkauskaitė, R. Vasiliauskas, M. Gaigalienė, V. Indrašienė, R. Prakapas, D. Survutaitė, V. Rimkevičienė and A. Guoba (2003). The role of a social pedagogue in the context of school non-attendance has been investigated by L. Rupšienė (2000) and S. Navasaitienė (2002). Effectiveness and effi ciency of social- pedagogical aid, as well as activity of a social-pedagogical team have been analysed by O. Merfeldaitė (2007a, 2007b, 2009). V. Indrašienė and V. Suboč (2008a, 2008b, 2009) analysed provision of social-pedagogical aid to children facing learning problems or underachieving children, and parental approach toward organisation of social-pedagogical aid in schools. L. Rupšienė (2004) analysed individual work of a social pedagogue with children avoiding school; R. Civinskas R., V. Levickaitė and I. Tamutienė (2006) investigated institutional support to children who don’t attend school. The object of the research: class tutors’ attitude toward social-pedagogical aid to children who avoid school. The aim of the research: to analyse peculiarities of social-pedagogical aid to children who avoid school. The objectives of the research • To analyse causes of school avoidance. • To identify providers of social-pedagogical aid to children avoiding school, and specify the forms of aid. The research methods: analysis of the scientifi c literature and a questionnaire survey. The survey was based on the methodological provisions which have been specifi ed in the scientifi c works (Dereškevičius and others, 2000; Rupšienė, 2004; Civinskas and others, 2006; Bagdonas and others, 2010). The research was based on the main principles of survey ethics: ensuring the anonymity of the respondents, presented the aim of the research (in general terms) and how the results of the survey will be used. 248 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene Analysis of the results of the research on a class tutors’ attitude toward social-pedagogical aid to children avoiding school A quantitative research was carried out. The main tool of the research was a questionnaire survey for class tutors. The questionnaire survey was prepared in order to provide very precise indicators of an object under analysis covered by the questionnaire. This is necessary in pursuance of valid verifi cation conclusions, thus, the elements of multi-dimensional statistics should be applied to the data analysis. Cronbach’s alpha coeffi cient was used to provide an overall reliability coeffi cient for a set of variables. Cronbach’s alpha coeffi cient of the questionnaire statements varied from 0.64 to 0.70. Cronbach’s alpha coeffi cient of the questionnaire statements about the causes of school avoidance was 0.68. The data of the survey was processed with the SPSS 18 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software. Multi-dimensional statistics was applied in analysing the statistical signifi cance parameters. In order to specify statistically signifi cant differences it is anticipated to analyse the data with the signifi cance level p<0.05. The sample questionnaire (n=124) included class tutors working in the randomly selected four secondary schools in Vilnius city and four schools in Vilnius district. The respondents were mainly the pedagogues with more than 10 years pedagogical work experience. Thus, it could be stated that respondents of the survey were highly experienced and competent pedagogues. One of the main tasks of the survey was to identify the causes of school avoidance (Picture 1). According to class tutors the majority of children (70%) avoid school due to insuffi cient learning motivation. Nearly half of class tutors (42%) highlighted that confl icts with teachers have direct infl uence on school non-attendance. 35% of class tutors indicated that children don’t know how to study/learn. It should be noted that 32% of respondents noted huge workload of children. Such breakdown of the data supposes that the inability to pursue learning process could be treated as child’s inability to manage school workloads independently. On the other hand, this is a clear message from teachers that children need the assistance of specialists in realising learning programmes. One third (27%) of respondents highlighted that children skip lessons and avoid school because they are afraid of the knowledge testing. It could be assumed that such children’s behaviour is determined by the fear of negative evaluation/marks. Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors 249 Picture1. Causes of school non-attendance (class tutors’ attitude in percent)

According to more than half of respondents, about 58% of children skip from 1 to 5 lessons without good reason; according to 32% of class tutors, children skip from 5 to 10 lessons without good reason. Such a breakdown of data demonstrates that the phenomenon of school non-attendance is quite frequent and can reach a critical level if appropriate preventive measures are not taken. The breakdown of the results demonstrates that children who skipped from 1 to 5 lessons per week without a reason most often (42%) do this because they are afraid of testing and (35%), are not prepared for lessons or haven’t done homework (χ2 =11.24, p<0.05). Whereas the children who skipped from 5 to 10 lessons per week without good reason usually had weak learning motivation (54%) and were not able to learn (41%) (χ2 =32.84, p<0.05). Respondents have unilaterally acknowledged that only they and social pedagogues are responsible for the organisation of aid to children who avoid school (Fig. 2). It should be noted that class tutors have reasonably evaluated the contribution of each specialist to the organisation of aid to school children. Of course, school heads’ commitments and operational ﬁ elds sometimes 250 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene prevent them from active involvement in tackling school non-attendance problems.

Picture 2. Providers of social-pedagogical aid (class tutors’ attitude in percent)

It was revealed that the majority of respondents (48%) identiﬁ ed the following main problem-solving measures: individual social pedagogue’s conversation with the child and communication with the class tutor (49%), and the activity of the Child Welfare Commission (46%). 22% of respondents indicated the following social-pedagogical activity measures: checking the presence of the child and involvement of a subject teacher in the problem settlement process (concerning additional learning aid). The breakdown of the results presupposes that one of the most effective solutions is a systematic approach toward the problem providing for a comprehensive evaluation of social factors determining problems, situations and assumptions. It turned out that most often (52%) social pedagogues organise individual conversations with children skipping from 1 to 5 lessons per week without good reason (χ2 =16.43, p<0.05); whereas when children skipping from 5 to 10 lessons per week without good reason, usually social pedagogues (45%) communicate with class tutors and with the Child Welfare Committee (38 percent) (χ2 =20.48, p<0.05). According to the respondents, the main trends in providing social- pedagogical aid to children who avoid school should be development of children’s social skills (47%) and improvement of the effectiveness of the Child Welfare Committee (Fig. 3). The respondents have also highlighted the importance of individual work with the children who avoid school (49%). Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors 251 39% of class tutors indicated the necessity to increase effectiveness of the work with parents.

Picture 3. Possibilities of the improvement of social-pedagogical aid to children who avoid school (class tutors’ attitude in percent)

Such a breakdown of the results suggests that (according to class tutors) individual work with children is the most effective measure in tackling school non-attendance problems.

Conclusions (1) According to the survey, children avoid school because of poor motivation, conﬂ icts with teachers and reluctance to learn. (2) The analysis of the survey data demonstrated that social pedagogues and class tutors are the main providers of social-pedagogical aid to children who avoid school. The most frequently applied means of social-pedagogical aid are individual work of a social pedagogue with the child and cooperation with the class tutor; the main trends for the improvement of social-pedagogical aid to children avoiding school are enhancement of the development of children’s social skills and improvement of the effectiveness of the Child Welfare Committee. 252 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene Bibliography: 1. Bagdonas A., Jankauskienė I., Paskaitų nelankymas: problemos raiška ir sprendimo galimybės. Šiuolaikinio specialisto kompetencijos: teorijos ir praktikos dermė, 1/ 2010. 2. Bitinas B., Hodegetika. Auklėjimo teorija ir technologija, Kronta, Vilnius 2000. 3. Civinskas R., Levickaitė V., Tamutienė I., Vengiančių lankyti mokyklą vaikų problemos ir poreikiai, Garnelis, Vilnius 2006. 4. Dėl nesimokančių vaikų ir mokyklos nelankančių mokinių informacinės sistemos nuostatų ir duomenų saugos nuostatų patvirtinimo 2010 m. balandžio 13 d. Nr. V-515, Vilnius. Prieiga per Internetą [Žiūrėta 2014- 04-01] 5. Dereškevičius P., Rimkevičienė V., Targamadzė V., Mokyklos nelankymo priežastys Žuvėdros leidykla, Vilnius 2000. 6. Indrašienė, V. Suboč, V., Tėvų požiūris į socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos mokykloje organizavimą. Socialinis ugdymas, 5 (16), VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2008. 7. Indrašienė, V., Barkauskaitė, M., Vasiliauskas, R., Gaigalienė, M., Prakapas, R., Survutaitė, D., Rimkevičienė, V, Guoba, A., Nesėkmingo mokymosi mastai ir priežastys, ŠMM Švietimo būklės tyrimai 2003 8. Indrašienė, V., Suboč, V. (2008). Sociopedagoginės pagalbos vaikams, patyrusiems mokymosi nesėkmes, prielaidos. Pedagogika, 89, VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2008. 9. Indrašienė, V., Suboč, V., Socialinė pedagoginė pagalba nesėkmingai besimokantiems moksleiviams. Socialinis ugdymas, 8 (19), VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2009. 10. Jovaiša L., Hodegetika, Kronta,Vilnius 2004. 11. Lehmann I. (2009), Motyvacija: kaip tėvai galėtų padėti savo vaikams, Gimtasis žodis, Vilnius 2009. 12. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymas,Valstybės žinios, 2011-04-13, Nr. 38-1804. 13. Merfeldaitė, O., Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos efektyvumas mokykloje: klasės auklėtojų požiūris, Socialinis ugdymas, 3 (14), VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2007. 14. Merfeldaitė, O., Socialinių pedagoginių problemų bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje analizė: mokinių ir klasių auklėtojų požiūris. Pedagogika, 88, VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2007. 15. Merfeldaitė, O., Tėvų ir mokyklos bendradarbiavimo stiprinimas Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors 253 sprendžiant vaikų socializacijos problemas. Socialinis ugdymas, 8(19), VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2009. 16. Mokyklos Vaiko gerovės komisijos sudarymo ir jos darbo organizavimo tvarkos aprašas, Valstybės žinios, 2011-04-13, Nr. 45-2121. 17. Mokymosi sėkmingumas: iškritimas iš švietimo sistemos. Prieiga per Internetą [Online 2014-04-01]. 18. Navasaitienė S., Mokyklos nelankymo Lietuvoje socialinė determinacija: daktaro disertacijos santrauka: socialiniai mokslai, sociologija, Technologija, Kaunas 2002. 19. Rupšienė, L., Nenoras mokytis – socialinis pedagoginis reiškinys. Klaipėdos universitetas, Klaipėda 2000. 20. Rupšienė L. (2004), Individualus socialinių pedagogų darbas su vengiančiais lankyti mokyklą mokiniais. Pedagogika 70, VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2004. 21. Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos teikimo tvarkos aprašas, Valstybės ži- nios, 2011-08-04, Nr. 99-4675. 22. Švietimo problemos analizė. ŠMM, 2013 spalis Nr. 8 (24). 23. Valstybinė švietimo 2013–2022 metų strategija, Valstybės žinios, 2013- 12-30, Nr. 140-7095.

The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities

Vida GUDŽINSKIENĖ Prof. Dr. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Rimvydas AUGUTAVIČIUS, M.Ed. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania) Živilė BARKAUSKAITĖ LUKŠIENĖ, M.Ed. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities

Abstract: The importanceand signifi cance of the self-suffi ciency skills of the inhabitants of the care homes is disclosed in this article. The social workers’rolein the fi eld of development ofchildren’s independent living skills is also discussed. The analysis of the social worker’sattitudetowards the development of the independent livingskills and the evaluation of these skills for their future life is been also disclosed.

Keywords: development of the independent living skills; social skills; care homes for children residents, children in care, care homes for children.

Introduction Relevance of the study. The childhood socialization would take place when the child is adapting social experience, which is gained when interacting with the social environment. A child growing within a family would adapt the experience of his/her family. A child who is in residential care home would simulate his or her experience on the basis of example of the social workers, who would form the basis for the dependent of independent living skills while educating the children. Therefore, one-off the most important 256 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė tasks in the child socialization process – the development of the socialand independent living skills (Juodaityte, 2002; Ambrase, 2012) discusses the importance of the successful fulfi llment of the socialization process as this factor determines the realization of the personal talents and successful adaptation of the personality in the society. The children leave the residential care homes when reaching the legal age. However, Leliugiene and Djacenko, (2010) note that “the beginning of independent living of the children leaving the residential homes is complicated for a variety of social, educational and psychological factors that adversely affect a young person’s social adaptation”. According to the results of the Raudeliunaite, Paigozina’s (2009) research, too little attention is been paid to the development of the social skills. According to the Liaudaitis (2011) the children of the care homes are been rarely able to overcome the personal diffi culties as they do not feel the competent members of the society. Young people who are leaving care facilities lack the appropriate education and this is the reason for the diffi culties integrating into the labor market. It is obviously important that the social workers working in the residential care homes for children would: • Developa child’sself-control, emotions, feelings; • To develop child’ssense of responsibility; • To promote positive relationships between the child and the social network representatives; • To develop positive child’s individuality and sense of self-understanding; • To provide the knowledge in the fi eld of various real life matters: family planning, sexual and parental (maternity) skills guidance; • To develop children’s independence, personally and society wise acceptable behavior skills. Social care standards (2007) paragraph 8.4de- scribe that “the daily activities and household services for the person are organized and provided in the way to sustain, encourage and moti- vate the person to be as much self-suffi cient as possible – cook the food, managing living roomand others. Person is guaranteed the support in the household, self-expression fi elds and is equipped with a means to enable them to develop and maintain the skills of the person’s healthy living skills. Žalimienė (2007) also describes more objectives in the fi eld of social skills and independent living development that have to be implemented in child care institutions. These are – encouraging the motivation of the children to manage various daily living, household situations, fostering artistic development, personal hygiene skills and the security of the personal budgets. The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities 257 The above and similar challenges comprehensively contribute to the child’s integration into society. If the residential care home staff properly carries out such tasks they would enable children’s positive socialization, which is usually compounded by the greater social vulnerability of those getting into the care facility. What are the independent living skills developed by social worker working in child care facility depends not only on existing programs, but also on the personal social worker’s approach towards the social skills related to the preparation of the young people for independent living. Therefore, an empirical study was directed on to revealing the social workers’ attitudes towards the importance of independent living skills for the successful future life of the care homes residents. The purpose of the article is to disclose the phenomenon of the independent living and self sustainability skills development in child care facilities. The objectives: (1) To describe / defi ne the role of the social workers employed by the child care facilities in the fi eld of the children’s independent living skills development; (2) Uncover social workers’ attitudes towards the development of the independent living skills of the child care facilities’ residents.

The roles of children care home social workers in the fi eld of independent living skills development The support provided by the staff in social and independent living skills development to the children in care is really important and signifi cant. Therefore, in order to ensure adequate staff perception the legal basis has been prepared (The order of the Minister of the Social Security and Labour, 2007. February 20 “The social care standards”(Offi cial Gazette, 2007, no. 24-931). The analysis of this paper highlights the signifi cant role of the competent social workers participating and ensuring the strengthening of the principles mentioned in the document. One of the principles refl ecting the norms for the development of the independent living skills and social integration of the children in care - the development of the social and independent living skills should be implemented at as early age as possible, enabling them to manage the everyday life, encouraging social interaction with society, family, and fostering self- expression skills. The principle of participation and cooperation defi nes that “all the social care organization and delivery issues should be addressed in the presence and 258 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė cooperation of the customer”, which is based on the belief that the child’s participation in decision-making process promotes and reinforces autonomy and responsibility for the decisions taken. The principle of choice and social care expediency expresses the priority of personal interests and legitimate expectations when providing the social services for the person. Although this principle does not fully recognizes the unconditional primacy of personal opinion, but the independence is encouraged by the fact that the person’s views should be taken into account in line with combining it with other people’s choices and the individual’s own legitimate interests. In this case, the social worker’s role in ensuring the child’s autonomy is characterized by the fact that the professional should as much as possible assess the child’s interest in coincidence with his own opinion, wishes, desires, as well as the characteristics of surrounding environment. Thus, the social worker’s role in developing children’s in care independent living and social skills consist of multiple roles – the promotion of social relations and self-expression skills, securing privacy, security and children rights, the proposal and usage of positive parenting methods, encouraging the child to express his opinion and participate, protecting the child from the abuse, stereotypes and discrimination. Therefore it is important to mention that social worker roles can change in line with the exchange of public behavior, beliefs, and - depending on each child’s individuality as well. One of the main tasks of the child care home staff and the surrounding environment is to prepare the child in care for the independent living (Lipinska, 2010). Young adults leaving the care facilities often lack basic self-suffi ciency skills. The study carried out by Ruskuviene, Arnold (2008), which surveyed Lithuanian and German care home children, emphasized that cooking and shopping skills are also very important. More than a half of both Lithuanian and German children stated that they are able to buy food and clothes as well as prepare their own food. Leliugiene (2003) more than a decade ago recommended to avoid excessive care and advised to include the children in care in buying and cooking food, the implementation in daily routine tasks. However Liaudaitis (2011) argues that children living in care homes still are provided with food, clean clothes. This, of course reveals that the principle of the necessity of development of independent living skills often is not placed into practice. Social workers and other staff should be able to help the child to plan and allocate their budgets as well as encourage using them rationally and fairly. It is also important to introduce young people with the potential to earn the money during the vacation time and motivating to do so. “The Social care The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities 259 standards” (2007) guarantee the each child in care, depending on his or her age and maturity, independence, is provided with the pocket money. Samosonok (2013) identifi es the everyday life skills as the challenges of life, stating that they need to be addressed fi rmly and at the same time to look for the right decisions for the life situations as well as to use them in order to build personal well-being. Gudzinskienė (2010) thinks that life skills are personal abilities to meet the needs of everyday life, to learn how to adapt and cope in society managing the problems. Goncerovaite and Gumuliauskiene (2011) note the importance to promote self realization through domestic work and leisure forms. However Pabedinskiene, Cerniauskas (2007) argue that children are not able to set the priorities for the allocation of the available fi nances. Liaudaitis (2011) study has revealed that social workers of child care homes emphasized that the young people in care are facing problems due to inadequate fi nancial capacities. Jurevicienė, Kaffemaniene (2009) claim that social skills are acquired through the learning process – observing and practicing according to other people example in accordance with the feedback received. Samasonok (2013) notes that the children in care are not provided the opportunities to act independently and to solve real life problems. The programs developed by social workers limit the ability of the children to gain experience from natural life.

The methodology of the study and data analysis The survey sample.The target population of the survey is formed from social workers working in municipal, state and non-governmental child care homes operating in Lithuania. Respondents were randomly selected using the method, which, according to Kardelis (2007), allows selecting the respondents, which are easy to fi nd. In order to collect representative data, the respondents were selected applying the following selection criteria: The respondent has to have a university degree in social work; must be working as the social worker directly with children; should have at least 2 years of social work with children in care experience. The characteristics of the research.The strategy that was applied in the research - a survey, based on which the data was collected using the statistical calculations and inference. The following actions were conducted during the survey and data analysis: based on Social Security and Labour (2013) Lithuania orphanage list 55 municipal child care homes had been selected as 260 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė well as 12 municipal child care groups, 7 state child care homes, 20 nongov- ernmental organizations’ care facilities and 4 social care homes for children with disabilities. The e-mails were sent to all the selected care homes. A total of 258 child care social workers were involved into the survey. Research tool – the questionnaire specially designed in order to fi nd out the social workers’ attitudes towards the importance of independent living skills to the children in care. Research ethics. All respondents participating in the survey were introduced to the study and data collection purposes. It was explained that the questionnaire is anonymous, all the data is kept confi dential and used only for scientifi c purposes in the questionnaire form. All respondents answered questions voluntarily. Data analysis methods. In order to perform collected data analysis the mathematical analysis was used. Statistical processing of the survey data has been performed suing the SPSS software package (called - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) - one of the most common statistical data processing software packages (Pukenas, 2009). Demographic characteristics of the respondents. The majority of the social workers who responded to the questionnaire were female (91 per cent) and only 9 per cent of the respondents were men. Distribution of respondents by education revealed that the majority of respondents (85%) had university or non university higher social work education, and 15% of respondents reported currently pursuing a social work education at university or college. It should be noted that most social workers had suffi cient professional experience working with children in care. Less than 5 years work experience had about half (46%) of the social workers of care homes for children. 41 per cent of the specialists had spent 6-15 years working with children. The rest of the respondents had over 16 years work experience. Survey data analysis. In order to fi nd out what independent living skills, according to the social workers’ opinion are the most important for the youngsters leaving the care facility and starting the independent life, the respondents were asked to assess the perceived importance of skills in (Picture 1). As it has been already mentioned, cooking and housekeeping skills are the most important in everyday human activities. According to orphans and children without parental care independent living skills program (2007), young people should be able to prepare at least a simple dish; independently shopping and buying the necessary food and household wares; washing own clothes; storage the food products properly; keeping living environment clean. The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities 261 Picture 1. The attitude of the social workers towards the importance of independent living skills for the independence of children in care

The study revealed (Pic. 1) that most of the social workers (91%) working in care facilities, believed that it is important for the children to gain cooking and housekeeping skills. Therefore, it is appropriate to involve children in a variety of domestic and household tasks, shopping, and support them in cooking activities. Orphans and children whose parents had been limited or banned from parental rights and/ or care should, according to The Independent living skills program (2007 ) be able to pay the bills for their services; spend money wisely; thoughtfully plan their income and expenses. Therefore, daily activities are no less important as fi nancial management skills. The study revealed (Pic. 1) that the majority (95%) of Social workers working in care facilities believe that it is very important for the children to be able to manage fi nances properly and effectively. It is necessary for the same reason to give some pocket money or to create conditions to make petty cash for the children and to teach properly handling money, planning spending and savings. 87% of the respondents believe that the ability to search for job and career planning is a very important group of independence skills (Pic. 1). The subjective understanding of the importance of employability skills and career planning can be justifi ed theoretically. According to Petroliunaite (2009) the successful employment, career advancement and participation in the labor market is preconditioned by a number of skills and personal characteristics: motivation, interests, values, self -awareness, self-confi dence and few others. It is necessary to note that the children growing in child care home would 262 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė statistically have lower motivation for learning, lower self-esteem as well as fewer expectations and interests. This means that they may have more diffi culties entering the labor market. The social worker addressing the impact of these factors should work individually with a child encouraging him or her to identify the professional goals, capabilities which have to be doneworking in partnership with youth career planning centers, labor market training services and other entities that may participate in the development of a young person’s career process. Accordingly, the preparation for vocational activities of children should be a long-term and continuous process. Samasonok and others (2008), Jaseviciene (2011) argue that the children in care are often are using ineffi cient, destructive, reckless solutions in problem solving. Problem-solving skills were mentioned as important according to more than two-thirds (87%) of respondents (Pic. 1). In order to develop children’s problem-solving skills effectively, social worker, according to Johnson (2003), should be able to determine when and how to teach the client to solve problems; it is equally important to include the client in to theproblem solving process. In this way, according to Johnson (2003), the client is enabled to solve the everyday problems independently as he or she already has got positive experience from the practice fi eld. Goal reaching skills is a group of skills that help the child to function successfully in the community (Lipinska, 2010). Compared with other skills (cooking, household management, fi nancial, educational), slightly fewer respondents (Pic. 1) identifi ed goal reaching skills as highly important for young people becoming independent (80%). It should be noted that slightly more than one tenth of the social workers working in child care homes believe that goal reaching skills are only partly important and less than one tenth of the respondents thought that these skills are not important at all. Indeed, the important question should be raised - why the respondents believed that the goal reaching skills a less important than cooking, education and other skills. It is surely obvious that the basis for gaining all the other skills is motivation, planning and in general proposing the certain goals in everyday situations. We could assume that the interviewed social workers who identifi ed the goal reaching skills as not important (85%) or somewhat important (12%) underestimate the importance of these skills towards child’s development and building own independence. The values are one of the most important factors determining the choices taken in any person’s life. Braslauskiene (2000) claims that one of the biggest problems existing in care facilities for children is defi cient child value system and basis formation. According to the scientist the care home staff performing the functions of care would excessive care for the children physical wellbeing The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities 263 fear for the lack of physical ways of meeting the needs. Therefore, it is important to support the children to understand the importance of values as much as to give them food or clothing;social workers should explain to children how the values are formed; help them to understand the hierarchy of values and the relationship between values and behavior (Orphans and children without parental care independent living skills training program, 2007). About two - thirds (69%) of social workers participating in this study, argued that the formation of values are very importantto child’s (Pic. 1). Thus, the respondents’ opinion on the value skills formation can partially confi rm Braslauskiene’s (2000) arguments. She thought that care home staff do not fully realize that children moral values, choices taken and their positive formation is more important than the exaggerated care.

Conclusions (1) The role of social worker in the ﬁ eld of developing the independent living skills of children in care consist of multiple roles: coordinator who is managing the processes of socialization; educator who would focus mainly on the education of independent living and social skills; service and support provider; mentor – the role of social worker as a mentor would be perceived through the direct participation in the young person’s life and offering him support required at the time; carer role in developing moral values; (2) The analysis of the social workers’ attitudes towards the independent living skills importance revealed that the respondents prefer to attribute the greatest importance to the ability cooking and doing routine household tasks, planning and managing the ﬁ nances; a bit less important but still critical skills, according to the respondents, are the formation of moralvalues and goal reaching skills. Based on these perceptions we can conclude that the social workers working in care facilitieslack the awareness of theimportance of the values system andgoal reaching skills in the process of the young person gaining independent living skills and abilities before leaving the care and starting the own life beyond the care facility.

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Family in Human Sickness and in Health

Wojciech PIESTRZYŃSKI Dr. University of Social Studies and Economics in Gdansk (Poland)

Family in Human Sickness and in Health

Abstract: Year 2014 is another year devoted to the family. At this time, it is difﬁ cult not to write at least one article on this subject. The previous family oriented year was announced in 1994. Thus, it can be noted that the family said goodbye to one generation and at the same time welcomed the next one. The parents have become grandparents, and their children play parenting roles. Is that all that has changed in the structure and functioning of the family?

Keywords: family, health, sickness, liability.

Modern family Nowadays it is more and more diffi cult to fi nd a family of three generations. It is true that grandmothers and sometimes grandfathers act as nannies for their grandchildren. It is diffi cult, however, to link such a state of affairs to a family where all three generations function in parallel. These nannies are just closer to their families purely because of economic reasons. When their grandchildren take over educational institutions, they are being put on a side track and pushed away from the rest of the family. Every day, the intergenerational ties weaken. A man, even living in a family, does not fully identify himself with it. It also happens that the family is created and then connected only by a common address, nothing more. Obviously, this forms a very critical picture of the modern family. At the opposite end there are families, where daily and potent emotional ties can be seen. In these families all members feel mutually responsible. 268 Wojciech Piestrzyński In fact, whether the family functions properly or not depends on many factors, both psychological and social. It cannot be denied, that the founders of newly formed family, the spouses, bring in their skills, competencies, but also their vices, and unpleasant experience. They create a new world which cannot and must not be stripped from the past, especially the good kind. Blocking contacts with the family of one spouse or discarding of interaction with families from both sides seems to be a big mistake. Building a new cultural institution - a family, cannot be based on “resetting” other emotional relationships, even with one’s father, mother, siblings or more distant relative. Of course, it happens that these ties become a hindrance to building new emotional relationships with a wife, or a husband. No one who professes love to another individual can simultaneously require this person to renounce other bonds created for many years. Bearing in mind the principle that for the new family a marriage becomes the foundation, it is also responsible for good communication within the family, as well as with families of spouses and other social groups (see: Braun-Gałkowska, 2003, p. 11 and others). The modern family has only few children. It ceased to be productive household. Its control function has become minimized. Some families also released themselves from the function of responsibility for the formation of values . The family has become more anonymous and at the same time more versatile due to being the subject of pop culture infl uences. Everyday life in a seemingly democratic world is becoming a great challenge for the household. In such a world, it is not diffi cult for various crises to occur, both the material and the spiritual, because everything is becoming blurred, nothing is bright and clear anymore. In the case of poverty, it is problematic to identify those who should support the family, and it, internally torn, cannot fi ght for its own rights (lt. Cudak 1999, p. 11 and others). In the household of twenty-fi rst century, young and seeking people emerge. On the one hand, they have a great knowledge and ability to move in cyberspace; on the other hand, they massively migrate from rural to urban areas, from their homeland to other countries; moreover, they live in the sense of economic, political and moral instability (Jędrzejko, 2013, p. 13 and others). The family has grown into the consumer society - the product of various diseases of civilization which also affect very young people (Sarzała 2009b, pp. 146-149). These are alcoholism, drug, nicotine and shopping addiction (Kozak 2007, p. 76 and others; Walancik, Sarzała 2011; Przybysz- Zaremba 2011, pp. 97-107). Family in Human Sickness and in Health 269 Family’s selected tasks directed to its members The tasks in favor of men, that families face, include among others, the preventive measures which guard family members against demoralization, pathology, poverty and social orphanhood, which consequently lead to interpersonal violence, social injustice or coarsening (see: Kawula 2004, 177 and others; Sarzała 2011b, pp. 277- 290). The family cannot forget about shaping of values of its members. It is enclosed in the nurturing process which has two faces - a deliberate and conscious and at the same time spontaneous and natural. The family moves toward mutual enrichment of its members. The intergenerational transmission of values in the vertical aspect: parents – children is imperative, because it serves as a social inheritance. One cannot forget, however, that the inheritance may be taken as either positive or negative quality (Cudak 2002, 159). Grandparents also bring in values . They tend to have more patience and time for the youngest members of the family than busy parents. It is thanks to them that very often the younger generation can have their emotional needs met, feel important and needed. On the one hand, older people are characterized by lower performance, but on the other hand, they are more accurate in what they do and are able to accomplish their goals. In this way, they contribute to the development of qualities such as patience, responsibility, fairness, reliability and diligence in their grandchildren (see: Kukłowicz 2002,168 and others). Another key issue is to protect the health of all family members, especially children and the elderly. It depends on the material status of the family and awareness of health needs (Matyjas 2002, 175). Children from poor families are often modestly dressed, neglected educationally, neglected when it comes to health, they stay in toxic environments (Waloszek, 2002, 215). In order to fulfi ll these tasks, the family should become an optimal model of itself, which should be based on: disposition of material goods that can contribute to meeting elementary and developmental needs, children’s perception of parents as authorities, mutual respect, recognition and acceptance, parents care about education of children, taking care of health, physical fi tness, mental and physical hygiene of family members (Tchorzewski 2003, 26).

Family’s attitude toward sickness of its member It is said that health is the most important thing in life. However, the sole understanding of health issues causes many problems. It seems obvious to divide the physical and mental health. The lack of health in the fi rst area 270 Wojciech Piestrzyński is quite easy to grasp and fi nd a recipe for restoring it. On the other hand, everything which in the broad sense affects the human psyche is easy neither to defi ne nor to grant effective help or relief. Because of it, it seems that many people are not properly understood and supported by their families. Diseases affect both young and the elderly. There is really no rule of morbidity. The fact remains, that the risk of certain changes in human organism increases with age. Nonetheless, it is a statistical approach. It happens that some families must deal with incurable diseases from birth of their members. On the other hand, one can see a trend of so-called social acceptance for the functioning of the diseased elderly without any external interactions in order to halt the aging process. In every household attitudes toward the disease take various characteristics. No two families approach the problem of a disease in the same way. However, one may be tempted to express the idea that it is easier to help those who suffer from well diagnosed, readable in their symptoms diseases, where behavior of the sick person is predictable. The family members surround the small children with greater patience, whereas, they often lack understanding toward adults and the elderly. When an individual runs out of fi ne fettle in either mental, physical or social dimension, the state of discomfort automatically moves to the whole family which is institution full of mutual experiences not only the positive, but also the negative (see: Świętochowski 2003, p. 208 and others). The biggest challenge for the family is taking care of its oldest members. These are the people who most often have contracted chronic diseases. Because of the age and state of health they often fi nd themselves in confl ict with others taking care of them. At their base there is not an unwillingness toward young people, but the inner confl ict due to the reluctance to come to terms with their current state of health or loss of control over the perception of the surrounding world due to pathological changes occurring in the organism. It can also be the result of not comprehending the dynamic changes taking place in the societies and individual families. Nevertheless, the reasons for this state appear to be of secondary importance. The most signifi cant seems to be a need for acceptance and support people in their suffering, so that they do not have to depart from this world with the sense of loneliness or even abandonment. Such a mental state contributes to the acceleration of geriatric changes, which lead to more distorted relationships with others and in consequence to total dehumanization of two entities of communication. It is not surprising that in old age, both nursing and care activities are performed unidirectionally from a child or a grandchild to a parent or grandparents. In other areas of being, values like mutual enrichment, strengthening and showing love can and should be sought (Woźniak 2004, pp. 210 -211). Family in Human Sickness and in Health 271 At the opposite side, there appears the family support to people with all kinds of addictions and being in confl ict with the law (the notorious violations of legal order can also be specifi ed as a disease that primarily affects a soul of human, who via his action denies the existence of axiological governance). As Jędrzejko noted (Jędrzejko, Jabłoński 2011), drugs and other intoxicants take away one’s freedom. They close one’s choice options between good and evil. Man’s addiction of something or someone often leads to uncontrolled behavior. According Sarzała (2009a, 137), “we can talk about addiction only when the use of a particular medium begins to interfere with normal functioning, in the performance of work, interpersonal relations, when it is a sort of a substitute for real life, and when it also causes certain mental and physical consequences. The mechanism of this type of addiction works the same as with other addictions, which boils down to a narrow fi eld of human activity reaching up to its limit only to perform the duties associated with the addiction itself.” As one can see, the addiction can also occur when a person loses control over the use of the media. The family is responsible for a disease for which the young generation collapses, which is called pathology. Sarzała (see: 2011a, pp. 286 - 287), on the basis of his own research noticed that young perpetrators of crimes have grown up in families with problems such as alcoholism, a father with criminal record, unemployment, low parents’ educational level, problems of nurture, lack of emotional bonds within the family, parental aggression and formal disintegration of the family. Sikorska (2012, 331) rightly notes that an important part of healing a man with a propensity for criminal offenses is the bond with his family, ability to count on them and awareness of possibility to go back home after serving a sentence, as the family members wait for the “prodigal daughter” or “prodigal son”.

Conclusions (1) In a modern family, three generations are less likely to interact (2) Today, families are becoming social institutions of few children and are striving to achieve individual success (3) The family faces many tasks, including taking care of the health and development of its members (4) More often, family members succumb to chronic diseases which theoretically are not assigned to a speciﬁ c age 272 Wojciech Piestrzyński (5) It’s easier to grant help to a man when his disease is clear, deﬁ nite and has legible signs and symptoms (6) Very often the family cannot cope with taking care of the elderly (7) Family’s attitudes toward mental illnesses of its members often assume the character of anxiety or rejection (8) We tend to forget that in the state of addiction a person loses his freedom (9) The basis of antisocial behavior is sick soul - the rejection in the axiological dimension of life and pathological family environment (10) Life in the family should be based on mutual support and responsibility (11) Man himself is a value, regardless of social status and health (12) Rejecting the poor and the sick leads to the dehumanization of societies (13) More attention should be paid to the perception of the disease, not only in the physical, but also in the mental, spiritual and social dimension (14) Old age is a particular period of life, which requires both acceptance and support in the transition to another (permanent) reality.

Bibliography: 1. Braun – Gałkowska M. Psychoprofi laktyka życia rodzinnego, [in:] Jani- cka I., Rostowska T., Psychologia w służbie rodziny, Pub. University of Lodz Press, Łódź 2003 2. Cudak, H.,, Wpływ rodziny na kształtowanie system wartości, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Trybunalski. 3. Cudak H., Znaczenie rodziny w rozwoju i wychowaniu małego dziecka, Polskie Towarzystwo Higieny Psychicznej, Warsaw 1999. 4. Jędrzejko, M., Młodzież w zaburzonym świecie, Warsaw – Dabrowa Gor- nicza 2013. 5. Jędrzejko M., Jabłoński P.,, Narkotyki i paranarkotyki, perspektywa pol- ska, Pub. ASPRA-JR Press, Warsaw 2011. 6. Kawula S., Człowiek w relacjach socjopedagogicznych, Pub.Akapit Press, Toruń 2004. 7. Kozak, Patologie wśród dzieci i młodzieży, Pub. Difi n Press, Warszawa 2007. Family in Human Sickness and in Health 273 8. Kukłowicz T., Wartości wnoszone przez dziadków w życie rodzinne i społeczeństwo, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrków Trybunalski 2009. 9. Matyjas, B., Bezrobocie rodziców a sytuacja domowa i szkolna dzieci, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Try- bunalski 2009. 10. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Adult Children of Alcoholics in contemporary world – narrative construction of biography, ACTA Facultatis Paedagogicae Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, Acta Fac. Paed. Univ. Tyrnaviensis, Ser. D, 15/2011. 11. Sarzała D.(2011a), Komunikacja w cyberprzestrzeni a bezpieczeństwo człowieka, (in:) E. Jarmoch, A.W. Świderski, I.A. Trzpil (ed.), Bezpieczeństwo człowieka a komunikacja społeczna, Pub. Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities Press 2011. 12. Sarzała D. (2011b), Rola rodziny w zapobieganiu przestępczości i agresji wśród młodzieży. [in:] A. Rejzner (ed.): Bezpieczeństwo człowieka a komunikacja społeczna. Warsaw 2011. 13. Sarzała D., Jędrzejko M. Przestępczość, (in:) Kosyrz Z. (ed.), Człowiek w sieci zniewolonych dróg, Pub. Pedagogium Press, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiki Resocjalizacyjnej, Warszawa 2009. 14. Sarzała D., Konsumpcjonizm. [in:] Kosyrz Z. (ed.): Człowiek w sieci zniewolonych dróg. Warsaw 2009. 15. Świętochowski J., Psychologiczny kontekst procesu “chorowania” w rodzinie, [in:] Janicka I., Rostowska T., Psychologia w służbie rodziny, University of Lodz, Łódź 2003. 16. Tchórzewski A., Pomocniczość i solidaryzm jako zasady przeciwdziała- nia traumie cywilizacjii nierówności w rodzinie XXI wieku, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. VI, Piotrkow Trybunalski 2009. 17. Walancik M., Sarzała D. (ed.), Człowiek z wielkiej Sieci. Zjawisko-za- grożenia-profi laktyka, Pub. Aspra JR Press, Warsaw 2012. 18. Waloszek D., Warunki rozwoju dzieci na wsi. Studium kilku rodzin pope- geerowskiej (na podstawie badań diagnostycznych), [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Trybunalski 2009. 19. Woźniak M., (2004), Miejsce człowieka starego w rodzinie, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. VII, Piotrkow Trybunalski 2009.

Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century

Tomasz SAFJAŃSKI Dr. School of Law and Public Administration in Rzeszów (Poland)

Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century

Abstract: The article discusses the size, phenomenology and determinants of drug crime in Poland in the years 2001-2012. The subject of the research are, in particular, legal factors (changes in drug legislation, the evolution of police powers relating to combating drug-related crime) and political factors (the accession of Poland to the European Union and the integration of Poland to the Schengen Area). Temporary range of analysis (2001- 2012) is contractual in nature. Analysis of drug-related crime through the prism of police statistics leads to the conclusion that the political and legal conditions existing in Poland at the beginning of the XXI century contributed to the development of this threat.

Key words: drug-related crime, drug laws, the EU, the Schengen.

Legal and political factors affect both the development and the fi ght against drug-related crime. The representatives of the criminal world deciding to engage in the production, smuggling or drug traffi cking are asking a lot of questions related to legal and political aspects. What is the punishment for committing drug offenses? Have the law enforcement agencies got special powers to detect and prosecute drug offenses? What are the possibilities of crossing the state border? It’s just a few examples of questions. However, answering these questions confi rmed the importance of the legal and political circumstances of drug-related crime. 276 Tomasz Safjański Scale of drug crime in Poland In the years 2001-2012 in Poland more than 700 000 drug offenses were detected, and more than 280 000 suspects were determined. During this period, only the Police secured more than 3858 kg of amphetamine, 6662 kg of marijuana, 642 kg of hashish, 695 kg of heroin and 2677 kg of cocaine. Detailed data on the number of drug offenses detected in the years 2001-2012 are shown in Chart 1. The number of persons suspected of drug offences in the years 2001-2012 (including minors) are presented in Table 1. The main types of drugs secured by the Police in the years 2001-2012 are shown in Table 2.

Picture 1. The number of drug offenses detected in the years 2001-2012 in Poland

Source: Own calculations based on data from the National Police Headquarters.

Analysis of statistical data on drug-related crime indicates a signiﬁ cant increase - between 2001 and 2012 – alike the number of offenses detected, the number of suspects and the number of secured drugs. Analyzing these data, keep in mind that this is not a complete picture of drug crime threat. There is a high “dark ﬁ gure” of crime, because all parties involved in illegal drug practices are interested in hiding their activities. Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century 277 Tabel 1. The number of persons suspected of drug offences in the years 2001-2012 in Poland (including minors) Year Number of suspects Minors 2012 29340 4595 2011 29146 4440 2010 26865 4119 2009 26204 3598 2008 25971 2923 2007 27936 2945 2006 28634 3768 2005 28170 3629 2004 22969 3105 2003 16914 2357 2002 13461 2041 2001 9952 1804 Source: National Police Headquarters

Tabel 2. The main types of drugs secured by the Police in the years 2001- 2012 in Poland Type of drugs Amphetamine Marijuana Hashish Heroin Cocaine Year (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) 2001 195 74,3 9,4 208,1 45,2 2002 118,1 439,6 114,7 6,5 397,9 2003 193 198,2 33,6 6,9 401,2 2004 236,3 205,7 41 65,5 21,7 2005 308,6 201,4 72,5 41,13 12,8 2006 171,2 91 9,8 76,3 1104 2007 390,5 320,6 28,4 123,6 154,2 2008 355,6 459,8 114,2 78,6 27,6 2009 384,6 860,2 16,8 23 116,2 2010 518,1 1324,2 85,4 24,6 110,9 2011 393,9 1211,1 78,2 6,4 75,5 2012 593,8 1276,2 38,5 35,1 210,1 Total 3858,7 6662,3 642,5 695,73 2677,3 Source: Own calculations based on data from the National Police Headquarters 278 Tomasz Safjański Phenomenology of drug crime The drug crime is linked to the activities of organized criminal groups and international criminal networks, corruption of representatives of border protection services, customs, police and the legalization of income from criminal activity. The basic characteristics of drug organized crime include: professionalism and continuous improvement of methods of crime, the development of criminal cooperation, internationalization of criminal activities, expanding the range on several types of drugs, gangs desire to own their own production lines of drugs and the search for new markets. In addition to organized drug crime, there is functioning drug crime based on individuals or small criminal groups. The analytical studies of the Central Bureau of Investigation of National Police Headquarters (on CBS KGP)1 shows that the production, smuggling and drug traffi cking constitiuted in the period the main source of profi t for organized crime in Poland (CBS KGP Report 2005, p. 1). Due to the huge profi ts the drug activity were taken by almost every criminal group. These groups then were seeking to create their own sources of drug supply e.g. the channel of traffi cking or place of production (CBS KGP Report, 2002, p. 7). According to the Internal Security Agency2 greatest interest among polish criminal groups enjoyed the production, smuggling and trading of amphetamine smuggling of heroin and smuggling of cocaine (http://www.abw.gov.pl/portal/pl/34/44/Produkcja_przemyt_i_handel_ narkotykami.html access on 01.07.2013). Among the criminal groups specializing in drug crime dominated a small groups (2 to 10 members) and medium (10 to 30 members), but there were also groups of about 100 members. It should also be indicated that existenced large groups (over 30 members), which had a hierarchical structure consisting of leaders, members and management. Regarding the types of criminal connections within the group, occurred mainly economic ties. The leaders of criminal groups, if did not stay in Poland, mostly as a country of residence chosen the Netherlands and Ukraine. In addition they operated in the following countries: United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Turkey,

1 Elite department of National Police Headquarters dedicated to combating, among others, organized drug crime and cross-border drug crime. It was established in 2000 with the transformation of the Offi ce for Combating Organized Crime and the Offi ce for Combating Drugs Crime. 2 Special service that works to protect the constitutional order of the Republic of Po- land. The range of tasks, Internal Security Agency has focused on protecting the internal security of the state and citizens, including among others, include combating threats of terrorism and combating organized crime. Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century 279 Ireland, Spain, Lebanon, the U.S. and France (CBS KGP Report 2002, p. 6). Organized drug activity, in terms of geographical coverage, was conducted primarily in large urban areas (e.g. Warsaw, Gdańsk, Szczecin, Katowice, Wroclaw, Lodz). Drug-related crime often were accompanied by money laundering linked to the deployment of criminal assets abroad e.g. the Netherlands, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Germany, Luxembourg, Austria, Spain and Turkey. In the case of drug-related crime often were observed criminal cooperation, which can be defi ned as a criminal partnership. Drug crime groups used the services of criminal groups specialized for handling external frontiers of all kinds of smuggling and corruption of border offi cials. The functioning of groups of dealers contributed to further camoufl age of the actual principals and hindered the Police to reach leaders of drug organized groups. In situation of inability or lack of interest the conclusion of the criminal alliance, drug organized groups sought to displace or eliminate competing groups. Sometimes there were advanced brutalization of criminal activities, including events related to the use of fi rearms and explosives. Activities of organized drug groups became far-reaching professionalized consisting of the use of counter-investigations means in order to disguise criminal operations. In practice the means may be classifi ed according to several criteria. From the law enforcement point of view the most important division is made on the basis of the towards of the use of counter-investigations means (offensive, defensive and universal). Offensive means are usually the most complex criminal enterprises. In this framework stands out among others: direct infi ltration, indirect infi ltration, intelligence activities or disintegrating actions. Defensive means are activities whose mission is to strengthen its own group. These include among others: counterintelligence operations, disinformation operations, disciplinary measures against members and associates, the traditional tactical methods (e.g. self-control), masking operations or changes in the internal organization of criminal groups. Universal means include: the use of expert knowledge, the use of corruption or the use of information technology to commit crimes. People involved in organized drug-related crime have signifi cant fi nancial resources, which are used to provide legal protection (e.g. paying lawyers) and spread of impact through the corrupting of the judiciary and law enforcement agencies (e.g. for the favorable consideration of the matter or relevant information). There are known examples of obtaining to the criminal cooperation of public and trustworthy persons. For example, drug dealers in one case conducted by CBS in 2002 (Olsztyn) were members of the Polish Skating Team (CBS KGP Report, 2002, p. 8). The use of counter-investigation 280 Tomasz Safjański means provided a hermeticity to criminal groups. In such cases, the conduct of police operations were very diffi cult, because you could not get to the principals. In 2005, CBS KGP observed a tendency that the organised groups of criminal profi le began to transform its operations in multicriminal activities, but in most cases the main activities were related to drug traffi cking (CBS KGP Report 2005, p. 1). During this period, drugs in Poland were produced both from natural ingredients and synthetic. In Poland the cultivation of cannabis has been developed, both from imported cuttings and from seeds purchased through online orders. Domestic production of marijuana has been typically characterized by high potency. The samples collected from the liquidated by the Police in Poland illegal plantations of marijuana have much more tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) than marijuana smuggled from Western Europe. Poland became a manufacturer of high-quality meta-amphetamines and amphetamine. Illegal laboratories in general, operated periodically, and their production was dependent on foreign or domestic customers. Location of laboratories were often changed in order to avoid detection by the Police. Amphetamine was produced in Poland mainly by Leucarta Method. In 2005, in Poland for the fi rst time were discovered laboratory producing MDMA and GHB manufacturing laboratory. In 2007 and 2009, also the production of methamphetamine was disclosed. In practice, we observed drug smuggling on Polish territory from abroad, smuggling drugs from abroad and Polish transit smuggling drugs. Drugs were traffi cked across land, sea and air roads. The overland route was used mainly for heroin, cannabis and synthetic drugs smuggling. Cocaine was often smuggled using sea and air routes. Poland as a country lying on the transit route of heroin has become a „warehouse” country, where the smuggled drug was refastened and prepared for further transport. Signifi cant quantities of heroin appeared in regions where reside immigrants of Muslim origin, dealing resulting in Poland commercial activity. In reconnoitring of CBS KGP and Border Guard drugs (mainly amphetamines) were smuggled from Poland along the following routes: • Poland - Germany - Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway), • Poland - Scandinavia (mostly transfer by sea through the ports of Gdansk and Szczecin - Swinoujscie) • Poland - Ukraine, • Poland - USA (by air), • Poland - Germany - Netherlands - UK. Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century 281 The main routes of smuggling drugs into Poland were: • Netherlands - Germany - Poland (smuggling marijuana, hashish, ecstasy and cocaine), • South America (mainly Colombia, Peru and Bolivia) - Netherlands/ Spain / UK - Poland (cocaine smuggling by sea in containers or by air via courier), • South America (mainly Colombia, Peru and Bolivia) - West Africa (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Gambia, Li- beria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Ivory Coast, Island Green Cape) - Poland (cocaine), • South America - USA - Poland (cocaine by air), • Unknown country of origin - Turkey - Bulgaria - Czech Republic - Po- land (heroin), • Morocco - Poland (hashish), • Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus) - Poland (smuggling of precursors for the manufacture of amphetamine, mostly BMK). The identifi ed transit routes of smuggling drugs through Poland were: • Heroin: Afghanistan - Turkmenistan - Azerbaijan - Russia - Belar- us - Ukraine - Poland - countries of Western Europe (so-called Silk Route), • Heroin: Afghanistan - Turkey - Bulgaria - Romania - Ukraine - Poland - countries of Western Europe (so-called Balkan Route), • Cocaine: South America - Poland - United Kingdom, Ireland, • Hashish: Pakistan - Poland - countries of Western Europe (CBS KGP Annual Reports for 2002-2010, Report on the state of security in Po- land in 2011, p. 143).

Legal and political aspects Among legal factors determining the fi ght against drugs in Poland one should indicate the criminal policy primarily understood as a penalization of drug-related offenses and the powers of the Police and other statutory services in relation to the detection and prosecution of drug offenses. The fi rst comprehensive law on drugs and drug addiction in Poland, including criminal liability for acts related to illegal drug traffi cking was the Act of 31 January 1985 on the prevention of drug addiction (Journal of Laws of 1985 No. 4 item 15). Provisions of the Act of 31 January 1985 focused on the criminalization of illegal drug supply. While the law did not penalize such acts as the purchase of drugs and their possession. Another drug law 282 Tomasz Safjański was the Act of 24 April 1997 on counteracting drug addiction (Journal of Laws of 1997 No. 75, item. 468), which introduced the art. 48 to criminalize possession of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances. At the same art. 48 paragraph 4 provided immunity to offender possessing physicians or small amounts of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances for personal use (so- called decriminalization of small possession). Currently in Poland the basic act in the fi eld of drug law is the Act of 29 July 2005 on counteracting drug addiction (Journal of Laws of 2005 No. 179, item. 1485), which penalizes the number of drug actions. Article 62 paragraph 3 of the Act provided, in the case of minor that the offender to be subjected to a fi ne, the penalty of restriction of liberty or imprisonment for up to a year. In practice Police is obliged to initiate and conduct of criminal procedure against the offense of possession of small amounts of drugs. This caused that nearly 50% of all crimes recorded were related to drug possession. It often happened that people who only experimented unnecessarily fell into confl ict with the law. The amendment of the Act of 2011 in the art. 62a gave the opportunity to remit the proceedings before the initiation if the judgment against the perpetrator would be pointless because of the circumstances of the offense and the low degree of social harm (Rapacki 2013, p. 32). Although liberal drug policy concepts assume the trend to reduce the penalties for possession of drugs, stating that the imprisonment of persons with small amount of drugs does not solve any problem, it is reasonable to conclude that any decriminalization of drug possession or liberalization policy of punishment involving usage penalties within the lowest possible threat of punishment is an important stimulus for the development of drug-related crime. This is not about increasing criminalization, but building a model in which there is a close relationship in the area of prevention, education and rigorous fi ght against crime (Jędrzejko, Netczuk-Gwożdzikiewicz 2013, p. 111). It should be noted also the relationship between the effectiveness of the fi ght against drug offenses and the statutory powers of the Police and other services in relation to the detection and prosecution of drug offenses and the number of police offi cers carrying out counter-drugs tasks. In the early nineties of the twenty century, one of the obstacle to the effective fi ght against organized drug crime was the lack of a legal basis for exerciseing effective policing both at operational reconnaissance and penal proces level. However, at the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century Polish system for combating drug-related crime have got adequate legal means. First of all, the scope and applicability of the Police undercover operations were expanded. The way of managing operational control was decentralized Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century 283 so that politicians were pushed away from making individual decisions in this area, and supervision over the exercise of these means have been performed by the courts. In 1995 were introduced so-called controlled purchase, controlled delivery and sting operstions. The controll drug purchase involves the police posing as customer to purchase drugs. The controlled drug delivery involves secret monitoring of their movement, storage or handling them in order to reveal all the people involved in smuggling (organizers, couriers, middlemen). Sting operations means the ability for placing police offi cers “under the covers” into the criminal organized groups. In the same year the institution of in-cognito witness was introduced to Polish penal procedure.The principle in the art. 184 of the Code of Criminal Procedure allows to unpublish personal data of the person offering testimony, which is designed to prevent a possible witness intimidation. Simultaneously materials obtained through operational activities began to be used more effective in a criminal trial. Currently, the majority of controlled deliveries is used successfully in the penal process. After converting to process material are excellent evidence. In 1997, the Act on Crown Witness entered into force. Often drugs crimes can only be proven by the testimony of those who are implicated in the same crime or in some other criminal activity, and who seek immunity from prosecution in exchange for their testimony and/or their cooperation with the police. The use of the institutions of crown witness allowed to break dozens of drug organized groups (Rapacki 2005, s. 15). Also legal solutions adopted in neighboring countries effect on drug-related crime in Poland. In this context the Czech model is particularly interesting, where according to the amendment of the Czech Criminal Code in 2010 the practice of law “limit impunity” for specifi c drugs were introduced. As a consequence of this solution drugs available in the Czech Republic have already appeared in Poland, mainly in the southern provinces - are imported mainly by individual users (Jędrzejko 2011, p. 140). New political circumstances for drug crime in Poland at the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century have occured after Poland accession to the European Union and the Schengen Agreement. As a consequence, there has been a shift of the frontiers of these areas to the eastern Polish border, which has become at this direction at the same time the longest external land border of the EU and Schengen. Polish integration into the European Union and the Schengen Area led to the abolition of restrictions on the movement of goods and people across the borders with other EU member states. Threats of smuggling drugs both from Poland to EU member states and to Poland from other EU member states naturally have been increased. 284 Tomasz Safjański Of great importance is also the location of Poland at crossings of smuggling routes running on main geographical directions (east-west and north-south) and the fact that Polish territory is one of the easternmost areas of the EU. As always, the factors facilitating human and economic contacts also generate risks associated with potentially greater opportunities of drugs smuggling. An example (for south-north, west -east) are regular ferry services between ports situated in the member states of the EU/Schengen and the possibility of free navigation on the Baltic Sea by local recreational sailing or fi shing. In light of the known studies for the development of the drug problem prepared by Europol and CBS KGP, the geographical location of Poland predisposes the state to be used as a transit area for international drug smuggling. It should be noted that the tightening of controls at the external borders of the EU resulted in an increased demand for organized criminal groups, because only such actions could ensure the effectiveness of drug traffi cking by the external border of the EU. Other important political factor for the fi ght against drug crime in Poland at the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century were the weakness of law enforcement bodies of Ukraine and Belarus. An important role in the fi ght against drug crime in this period played a cooperation with law enforcement at such platforms as Europol, Interpol and Baltcom.

Conclusions Analyzing drug-related crime through the prism of police statistics it can be concluded that political and legal factors existing in Poland at the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century encouraged the rapid development of this threat. Poland has become an important transit country for the traffi cking of synthetic drugs from the west to the east and the north and for the traffi cking of opiates from the east and the south to the west and the north and also obtained a position as one of the leaders in the production of synthetic drugs (mainly amphetamines). Also external organised crime groups started to operate in Poland. However, putting such a hypothesis should be borne in mind that in addition to political and legal conditions a large impact on drug-related crime have also social, cultural and technological determinants. Moreover, the number of crimes recorded, the number of suspects, and the amount of seized drugs are both picture of drug-related crime, as well as the scale of the activity of the institutions responsible for combating the threats. In the case of enhanced Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century 285 efforts of law enforcement agencies, increasing both the number of reported crimes, the number of suspects and the amount of seized drugs, which is not always the growth in drug-related crime.

Bibliography: 1. Centralne Biuro Śledcze - raport statystyczny 2005 ( CBS KGP Report 2005), 1 July 2013: http://cbs.policja.pl/portal/cbs/380/9890/Raporty_z_ dzialalnosci.html). 2. Jedrzejko M., Netczuk-Gwoździkiewicz M., Człowiek wobec uzależnień. Alkohol – narkotyki – dopalacze, Warszawa-Zielona Góra 2013. 3. Jędrzejko M., Marihuana. Fakty. Marihuana. Mity, Wrocław 2011. 4. Rapacki A., Przestępczość zorganizowana w Polsce – subiektywne spojrzenie policjanta, Policja nr 1/2005, s. 15. 5. Rapacki A., Zwalczanie przestępczości narkotykowej w Polsce z perspektywy ostatnich 20 lat, Serwis Informacyjny Narkomania nr 4 (64)/2013. 6. Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa w Polsce w 2011 roku, Ministerstwo Spraw Wewnętrznych 2012 ( Report on the state of security in Poland in 2011). 7. Zwalczanie przestępczości zorganizowanej i narkotykowej przez CBŚ KGP w 2002 r., Komenda Główna Policji (CBS KGP Report 2002), 1 July 2013: http://cbs.policja.pl/portal/cbs/380/9890/Raporty_z_dzialal- nosci.html ).

Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts

Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof Dr. Centre of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland) Ewa KAROLCZAK-WAWRZAŁA MA Silesian University (Poland) Tomasz SAFJAŃSKI Dr. School of Law and Public Administration in Rzeszów (Poland)

Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts

Abstract: For many years the problem of drug use in Poland has been increasing – as far as use of marijuana and hashish are concerned, the Polish youth ranks the second in Europe. It is the result of drugs promotion, increase in criminal organizations number and weak prevention. The authors describe – from the European and Polish perspectives – the key issues for drug problem development, its tendencies and possible hazards for social and somatic health. Special emphasis is put on drug addiction.

Key words: drugs, drugs addiction, marijuana, health

Introduction to the problem We still do not know all the answers concerning the scale and essence of the drug problem in Poland, although every year The National Bureau for Drug Prevention (NBDP) publishes an objective report and many voivodships encourage objective studies of the problem. The essential reason is lack of analytical frames embracing drug addiction and drug crime phenomena in a holistic manner, that is taking into account social, economic, moral, legal 288 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański and health aspects. The article presented is an attempt at showing this complex phenomenon – as far as the framing allows – in those precise perspectives, with particular emphasis on social threats. As the published data show, the number of offences resulting from Misuse of Drugs Act1 increased in years 2001-2011 from less than 30 thousand to over 74 thousand.2 Instantaneous decrease of such type crimes in 2008 did not change visible trend of increasing drug crime. The year 2012 brought subsequent increase in offences from Misuse of Drugs Act and data of the year 2013 show that 40% of Polish youth, upper secondary school students have had, during the last 12 months, an offer to consume some drugs. In the same year, NBDP studies indicate 18% population of Polish upper secondary youth who used drugs (COPR 2014, p. 167). The analysis of this problem shows certain characteristic and stable trends which constitute a proof for speciﬁ c model of drug problem in our country: - the number of young people committing so called drug offences increases; (MIA 2011, p. 145); - the prevailing drug in Poland is still marijuana; - together with increase in drug offences, promotion of some drugs and supply of smart drugs also increases; - the key “recipients” of drugs and smarts are people between 15-25 years of age; - the number of drug experiments in the group of young people between 15-20 years of age has drastically increased reaching from 15 to 23% depending on the region. Research conducted in the areas of potentially high risk (e g. Center for Public Opinion Research (CPOR) 2008 – table below) indicate high availability of drug substances which can be one of the causes for drug problem increase.

1 Act of 29th July 2005 about Drug Misuse (consolidated text Journal of Laws of 2012, entry 124) 2 In the year 2011 out of over 74.5 thousand drug offences confi rmed by the police, 44.6% of all the cases concerned Art 62 sec 1 and 3 of the Misuse of Drug Act (possession), 24,7% – Art. 59 (trade), and 17,8% – Art. 58 (provision). The quoted data indicate inconsiderate proportion of serious crimes (production, smuggling and traffi cking signifi cant amounts of drugs). According to Report on Poland’s safety of 2011 (pp.143), in Poland prevail misdemeanors from Art 62 of the Misuse of Drugs Act involving possession of drugs (offences committed by psychoactive and psychotropic substances consumers).This may testify lack of operational potential to fi ght such threats by national law enforcement. Moreover, as K. Krajewski notices K. Krajewski (see. Sens i bezsens prohibicji. Prawo karne wobec narkotyków i narkomanii, Zakamycze Print, Zakamycze 2011), the small proportion of serious drug crimes confi rmed by the police, besides indicating executive defi cit, also questions possibility of creating through prohibition policy and criminal law any real economic barrier for aiming at activities of such kind. Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 289 Table 1. Availability of chosen drugs according to young people I do not Type of drug Impossible Diffi cult Easy know Sedatives and hypnotics 15 22 46 16 Marijuana, hashish 16 27 45 13 Amphetamine 21 34 24 20 Anabolic steroids 25 30 22 23 Ecstasy 26 33 20 22 Cocaine 26 36 14 24 Crack 28 36 11 25 Heroin 28 36 13 24 Polish heroin 28 35 12 26 Party drugs 28 31 16 26 (Salvia divinorum) 29 33 11 27 Dextromethorphan(DXM) 30 34 8 27 Source: Malczewski, A. (2010) Nielegalny rynek oraz redukcja podaży na narkotyki, pp. 16

The respondents’ knowledge about drug types and highest availability of cannabinoids should be considered essential indications. At the beginning of the presented analysis, it is justiﬁ ed to raise a thesis about exceptional weakness of the Polish state at coping with drug problem. For instance during particularly active marijuana campaigns organized by Ruch Palikota (Palikot Movement and „Wolne Konopie”(Free Cannabis), Polish decision-makers did not undertake necessary, preventive and informative activities in the scale in which the situation required (and still requires). The characteristic feature of authorities’ behavior towards the problem is inertia.

Drugs as a phenomenon and social problem Numerous studies (Cz. Cekiera, J. Śledzianowski, I. Niewiadomska. A. Malczewski, P. Jabłoński, M. Jędrzejko3) point at stabilization of the so called hard drugs problem (opioids) and distinct increase in marijuana use. Clinical data suggest also come back of party drugs which, after abolition of party drugs shops are still available on the Internet (main sources for party drugs

3 These problems have been widely discussed, together with P. Jabłoński in the paper „Narkotyki i paranarkotyki”, Oﬁ cyna Wydawnicza ASPRA JR, Warsaw 2012. The most recent report concerning drug use has been prepared by Center for Public Opin- ion Research and published in March 2014. It states, among others that 26% of upper secondary school students know several individuals using drugs or other psychoactive substances and subsequent 28% 1-2 such individuals. 290 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański delivery are situated in China, Great Britain and Holland). According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction report (see: EMCDDA 2011)4 (2011) at least 78 million Europeans, at least once used Cannabis Indica derivatives. 22.5 million of them did that during last year and 12 million during last month. Marijuana constitutes 50% of all psychoactive substances use on our continent. It should be noted here, that European state policies differ in this ﬁ eld – Dutch authorities have changed the previous policy of free marijuana trade (ban on joints sale for foreigners), the Czechs, after legalizing small amounts of drugs allow individual cannabis cropping, whereas in Poland we have observed elicitation of movements advocating legalization of this drug. The new, European trend is increase of drug sale on the Internet and constant, year after year introduction of multiple new psychoactive substances on the market (during last 3 years there were over 120 new ones).

Table 2. The newest tendencies and drug problems in Europe5 Positive Problem Negative tendencies tendencies Fast development and strengthening of international drug crime. Decelerating Increase in supply of new synthetic drugs. Increase of increase in in supply of strong marijuana variants (hydroponic, Cannabis Indica modiﬁ ed) containing even over 20% THC. Drug supply derivatives use Return of party drugs problem – development of Internet trade in these substances. Reduction in Very big differences in the scale of drug problem smuggling heroin among individual EU countries from Afghanistan Increase in cocaine supply – cocaine has become the most popular stimulant in Europe. Increase in ecstasy supply. Possible increase in local HIV epidemics among HIV - people using drugs intravenously Deaths after Lack of progress in limiting deaths after - taking drugs overdosing

4 Compare: Report on the State of the Drugs Problem in Europe, European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon 2011 5 According to the most recent report about the state of drug problem in Europe, the number of people using drugs decreased by almost 2% (from 9 to 7% in the age population of 15-64). That optimistic trend is nevertheless disturbed by the information that in 2010 nearly 9 million Europeans used marijuana. Great majority in this group is constituted by young individuals. Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 291

Fast increase in new, not so far controlled substances supply. Increase in number of multi-component New substances. phenomena Increase in synthetic cannabinoids supply. Increase in non-medical consumption of drugs containing codeine and pseudoephedrine. In 2010 the record number - 41, and in 2011 as much as 47 new substances were reported to European system of early warning.

Source: authors’ paper

While analyzing drug problem it is justifi ed to write it in wider “set” of contemporary problems threatening safety of citizens. Such a thesis is supported by the following arguments: • drug supply constitutes one of essential sources for international and national crime6 and drugs are strongly connected with other forms of pathology (prostitution, organized crime, smuggling and human traffi cking, production of porn fi lms); • drugs are a source of serious problems in individual and social dimension; • drug addiction disorganizes human life for many years and, more often than not, its consequences are experienced by the victim till the end of his/her life; • mechanism of addiction is a danger for its victim as much as for the third parties; • state (citizens) bears still growing costs of both fi ght with drug crime and treatment of the addicted. Researching the drug problem in the aspect of safety threat shows its complexity and one of the specifi c areas, a signifi cantly destructive one,

6 Main roads of smuggling drugs to Poland : 1) Holland – Germany – Poland (marijuana, hashish, ecstasy and cocaine smuggling); 2) South America (mainly Colombia, Peru i Bolivia) – Holland/Spain/Great Britain – Poland (cocaine smuggling by sea in containers or by air by couriers); 3) South America (mainly Colombia, Peru i Bo- livia) – West Africa (Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Gambia, Liberia, Mali, Mauretania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire, Capo Verde) – Poland (cocaine); 4) South America – USA – Poland (cocaine by air); 5) unknown country of origin – Turkey – Bulgaria – Czech – Poland so called Silk and Balkan Roads offshoots (heroin); 6) Morocco – Poland (hashish); 7) Eastern Eu- rope (Russia, Ukraine, Belorussia) – Poland (smuggling precursors for amphetamine production, mainly phenylacetone) – source Central Bureau of Investigation Police Headquarters 2013 292 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański according to the author is marijuana addiction (see: Jędrzejko, 2011). Here, new phenomena trends and activities are being observed. Among them the following deserve attention: • elicitation of movements advocating full legalization of marijuana (they obtained strong representation in the Polish Parliament and they continually raise this problem in socio-political discourse; • this drug has become more and more daringly promoted by some celebrities and representatives of new artistic bohemians which results in many young people’s drug behaviors (this is an essential part of the post-modernist mode of social life and socio-political discourse promoted in our country bringing out a principle to liberalize everything possible); • school prevention which does not keep up with real hazards (according to the author education department does not have any concept to cope with the problem of teenagers’ risky behaviors). Let us also turn our attention to new information strategy mode used by groups promoting drugs (especially marijuana) evoking numerous discussions and debates in which representatives of Health Ministry or institutions fi ghting with drug crime are absent. The preconceived problems are mostly discussed: THC (marijuana active ingredient) medicinal use, penalization of young people for possession of small amounts of drugs; potential state profi t in case of drugs legalization (taxes);the alleged weakening of crime world in case of marijuana legalization. This method defi ned by the author as “falsifi cation of knowledge” wreaks havoc in awareness of signifi cant part of youth, as a result they accept half-truths about drugs as scientifi c knowledge (ignorance), the effect of which is increase in risky behaviors connected with use of such kind of substances.

Marijuana7 – an element of social destruction In studies examining consequences of drug problem development it has been indicated for many years that the most dangerous drug is heroin (and other Papaver somniferum derivatives). It has been justiﬁ ed by destructive course of addiction illness, social and somatic consequences and also by

7 The active agent of Cannabis Indica is tetrahydrocannabinol THC. This is what is responsible for psychoactive reactions experienced by people reaching for marijuana and hashish. In scientifi c type of cannabis, over 420 substances belonging to 18 different chemical groups of substances have been identifi ed. The strongest modifi cation of the plant is the above mentioned sinsemilla (from Spanish “without seed”, feminine, not producing seed specimens of the plant). Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 293 fatal examples resulting from sustained abuse of this drug. Long-term drug prevention introduced into social circulation a strong belief about extreme harmfulness of this drug model and security services operations signifi cantly reduced heroin and opium supply as well as illicit circulation of morphine. However, the parallel process (essentially strengthened at the beginning of the previous decade) is supply increase of another drug – marijuana which had an effect on signifi cant growth in those substances experiments among teenagers and youth. Marijuana has become a key drug on the Polish market and its use has already been declared by 28% of upper secondary school students living in towns over 500 thousand inhabitants (see: CPOR Reports, p. 161-167). Marijuana is also the most often promoted and de-stigmatized drug, which has already had the character of an unequivocally planned campaign aiming at Cannabis Indica derivatives legalization8. In 2013 - 40% of surveyed by CPOR admitted having used this drug at least once (CPOR, p. 169).

Picture 1. Key elements of pro-marijuana campaigns in Poland

Development of central and local structures promoting marihuana legalization De-stigmatizing marijuana by celebrities and part of politicians (models „I also smoked”) Argument of „lesser evil” – alcohol kills more often and alcoholism costs are bigger Popularizing arguments about medical marihuana use in other countries (marijuana is a medicine)

Promotion of foreign models – Czech, Holland, Portugal

„Innocent young people are sent to prisons for 1 gram of marijuana” – „humanitarian” argument for changing law

8 There have been heated scientiﬁ c debates for some years concerning addictive properties of marijuana. According to most recent tests supervised by the American National Institute on Drug Abuse – NIDA, evidence for psychological addiction existence is convincing but it does not apply to all the users population because some of them are able to discontinue use without long term negative side effects (it is estimated that taking advantage of therapeutic support withdrawing from addiction is possible even after over a dozen weeks of abstinence).Nevertheless, according to most recent research by Charles R. Schuster, regular marijuana use causes addiction – both physical and psychological (see; Ch. Schuster, Addiction 99/2004, pp. 667-677; also: O. Sauer, S. Weilemann, Drogen: Eigenschaften – Wirkungen – Intoxikationen, Schultersche, Han- nover 2000). 294 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański Let us here indicate that any analysis of human safety problem (both individual and collective) in the drug aspect calls for accepting an unequivocal criterion: any attempt at drug legalization will weaken this safety. However, it should be emphasized that many national drug policies based on determined, often strict activities towards dealers and drug users did not bring expected results. It is often the case that drug crimes in the form of possessing small amounts of drugs lead to giving sentences and penalization of thousands of young people for having a proverbial one gram of weed. Such a situation, especially in relation to this drug is a source of accusing the authorities of excessive restrictiveness and “destroying young peoples’ lives”. I raise this aspect because it contains two separate but related issues: • there are consequently introduced opinions into social circulation that “a small amount of drug is not yet a crime”, which would be equiva- lent to such theses as: “a small lie is not yet a lie”, “a small theft is not yet an offence:. Such a criterion is nothing else as values relativiza- tion, which is a feature of post-modern models of social functioning; • Polish state lost initiative in attributing contents and direction to social discussion about drug problem, having passed it either to pro- marijuana organizations or to advocates of deﬁ nite softening of anti- drug policy (let us notice, that this policy has been supported by two ex-presidents, former Minister of Health and many celebrities). The marijuana debate seems to be nothing but an attempt to undertake a big moral and axiological revolution in social approach towards the drug, which can in the future, open the path for other illicit substances permissive use. According to the author, the attempt to introduce marijuana to legal circulation has also been a planned operation by group of its users who gained a wide access to Polish politics, and at the same time to big media coverage. Their “information” success ( the result of which is, among others increase in drugs experiments in young people, thousands of participants in marijuana marches and increasing supply of this drug) is the evidence of a faint effectiveness of the previous prevention and information campaigns connected with harmfulness of drug taking.9 The essential causes for this situation may be sought in:

9 Most recent biology literature provides important information about strength of each part of Cannabis Indica plant and the specifi city of this drug effect: the greatest concentration of THC is found in infl orescence, then in leaves and substantially less in stalks, the least in roots, Cannabis are very vulnerable to modifi cations which resulted in meaningful increase of THC in the plant, from 1-2% on average in the 80s of 20th century to 2-10% in the present decade, very individual effect of THC causes that not everyone reaching for marijuana gets addicted straight away(the proportion of fi rst dose addictions does not exceed 10% in Poland); THC does not cause physical dependence, whereas it causes psychological dependence. Occurrence of tolerance shows big Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 295 • lack of a synchronized state policy and basing this policy on incomplete methodological foundations (key planning, treatment, therapy and education institutions co-operate only in a formal manner); • lack of fast reaction to new threats – as it was observed in case of party drugs; • separation of addiction counteracting policy into lots of institutions (Main Sanitary Inspectorate, The National Bureau for Drug Preven- tion, National Agency for Solving Alcohol Problems); • “convulsive keeping posts” in key institutions for drug addiction and alcoholism fi ghting; • submitting to drug legalization trends in other countries; • low sense of responsibility on the side of some local authorities which have not elaborated long-term prevention strategies focusing on casual activities only (studies conducted result in conclusion about lack of long-term consequences of noticeable drug problem development, including those connected with safety); • phenomenon of drug use which is strongly burdened with social stigma, it is still being hidden which impedes the problem diagnosis on preliminary use stage; • Poland’s location on a great international drug route which stimulates drug crime increase and growth in substances supply;10 • low analytical competences of some services engaged in a foreground drug problem recognition (police, community guards, commissions for alcohol problems solving, addiction plenipotentiaries); • formalism of prevention at the level of signifi cant number of schools, especially upper-secondary ; • low methodology qualifi cations and essential knowledge of signifi cant educationists and school psychologists in the fi eld of chemical addictions.

individual differences; the active substance affects numerous brain systems and can be detected both in blood and urine. THC may remain in organism up till even 30 days after the last use. 10 Factors substantially infl uencing drug supply are widely perceived social-culture-economic conditions of our country functioning. One should point here at integration of Poland within the European Union and functioning in the Schengen area. It is not without importance that our national border in some sections abuts with Russian Federation, Be- lorussia and Ukraine and it also constitutes the EU border. On the strength of EU treaties Poland is responsible for outer EU border protection, wherein national borders with the above mentioned countries are the longest section of the EU outer border on the East (at the same time it is one of the longest national sections of the EU overland border). Poland situation at the crossroads of communication and contraband routes running in main geographical directions (west-east and north-south) is of big importance and the fact that our territory constitutes one of the most extended areas of the EU towards the East. 296 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański If the theses formulated by the most important Polish drug addiction researchers (Polish scienses - Zygfryd Juczyński, Józef Kocur, Czesław Cekiera, Zbigniew Gaś, Janusz Sierosławski, Jan Śledzianowski, Marek Dziewiecki, Iwona Niewiadomska, Piotr Jabłoński) are true, annually about half a million Poles reach for drugs experimentally and the number of individuals abusing them in a way defi nitely harmful for their health amounts to around 150 thousand, of whom some thousand are treated full-time and another several thousand are under constant psychological or medical care.11 The vast majority of them are individuals abusing Cannabis Indica, particularly in the form of marijuana. In the group of 500 and maybe even 600 thousand “experimenters” there are people who stop merely at the fi rst try, those for whom marijuana is a week-end recreational drug, a substance which allows to relieve occupational stresses, an element of subculture functioning or one of many systematically used drugs (this group is estimated at 50-60 thousand people). What should cause social anxiety is a great number of people who want to try “this one time”. Attention should also be drawn to evident links of drugs with organized crime (as the main source of income and as a substance used by criminals).

Picture 2. Speciﬁ c features of marijuana problem in Poland

- over 70% of the ﬁ rst drug experiments involve marijuana; - prevailing group of this drug users constitute people in the age group of 16-30 ; - the number of marijuana experiments among upper secondary school students increases; - around 12-15% of the Polish marijuana market is determined by strong variants of sinsemilla type coming from chemically strengthened cultivations; - demand for marijuana among young customers increases; - amount of small cultivations (for the owner’s use) and industrial ones grows fast.

„Absolving” marijuana12 and medical facts In chemical sense the psychoactive factor contained in marijuana (THC) is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. THC enters the organism

11 The reader will fi nd a full review of drug problem state in Poland in scientifi c descriptions by National Bureau for Drug Prevention, Warsaw 2010-2013. 12 The problem analysis allows to provide a thesis that during the last years the share of Cannabis cultivation in the structure of drugs supply has signifi cantly increased. On the Polish Cannabis market marijuana prevails, especially stronger variants, so called skunk – enriched in THC. Hashish is far less available and comes almost exclusively from imports. According to the Police estimations, around 30% of the consumed Can- nabis is cultivated in Poland. Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 297 most often as a result of smoking marijuana weed (pulmonary tract and the circulatory system are the fi rst to be exposed to its effects), as a result of which the active ingredient is transported into the central nervous system (the process of THC activation in the brain begins several minutes after the fi rst inhalation and persists for about 40-50 minutes). During smoking, part of THC decomposes, which gives effects in the form of absorbing into the lungs (depending on the smoking technique) from 20 to 70% of THC active substance. THC penetrates quickly from blood to adipose tissue, hence its concentration there is thousand times greater than in blood. Research on THC activity showed that it penetrates blood-brain barrier very fast, hence its concentration in CNS is 3-6 times bigger than in the circulatory system (Szukalski, 2005, p. 101)13 Biological half-life period of THC equals to about 20 hours (op.cit. p. 95). Although the strongest effect subsides after 40-50 minutes, in many cases “the altered states of consciousness” may last even to 4 hours while smoking and after adding to food, even to 12 hours (Jędrzejko, ed., 2008, p. 35). Period of THC (marijuana and hashish) presence in urine when used seldom is from 2 to 7 days, when used frequently, even up to 30 days. The key to understanding marijuana harmfulness and accepting that this substance should not be legally perceived unlike other drugs (even assuming that its effects are weaker comparing to e g cocaine or amphetamine and that it does not cause fatal incidents), is understanding its destructive infl uence on the central nervous system functioning.14 Let us also add that THC penetration from circulatory system into the brain causes increase of reactions in CNS, of which some are short-lived, others however, do not subside for a longer period of time. In turn, THC transmission into the hippocampus leads to partial impairment of memory function, especially the short-term memory. One of the key research areas for marijuana impact on health and behavior of human beings are analyses of relation THC-psychoses. The fi rst reports on that subject appeared as far back as 19th century and were based

13 Though there have been no full scientifi c evidence for effects of Cannabis products on circulatory system yet, we know from cardiology examinations that the active substance worsens health in patients suffering from coronary artery disease by strongly increasing possibility of myocardial infarction and sudden death. 14 In the contemporary medical literature, the psychotic infl uence of marijuana is recognized in three groups: acute symptoms where the patients experience strong fears, suspiciousness, anxiety, violent behaviors and perception distortions; the second group displays idiosyncratic reactions in the course similar to acute psychotic reactions; the third group (other mental disorders) reveals mania and schizophrenia (schizophrenia as a result of marijuana abuse was diagnosed in population from 5% (American Natives) to 58% (Swedish research). 298 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański on observations of hallucinations which were experienced by people under the infl uence of marijuana. In the contemporary literature, many American, British and Australian researchers indicate visible relations between marijuana use and psychoses and hallucinations occurrence, even in the period when this substance is not used. First analyses of this problem appeared in the 30s and 40s of the 20th century (see: Allentuk, Bowman, 1942). Research conclusions concerning THC-psychoses relation can be found in the complex work about marijuana „A cannabis reader: global issues and local experiences” (see: ECMDDA, 2008), where there is evidence presented among others for: • existence of signifi cant relation between taking big THC doses and occurrence of acute psychoses resulting in symptoms of disorientation, amnesia, delusions, hallucinations, anxiety, stimulations, hypomania. Those symptoms refer to big doses and subside after discontinuation of abuse Cannabis derivatives (see: Hall, Degenhardt, 2000; Joy, Watson, Benson, 2000); • Defi nitely negative impact of marijuana on clinical course in schizophrenia, which is potentiated in this drug users (see: Tien, Anthony, 1990)15; • relation between marijuana use and psychotic recurrences. Contemporary research on marijuana impact on human health indicate also reproductive system disorders: sperm decline in men, ovulation disorders in women declaring regular smoking, menstrual cycle disorders, THC transfer to fetus. There is defi nite evidence indicating that pregnant women smoking marijuana are subject to miscarriages; infants born by marijuana addicts are smaller, have low birth weight, are at high risk of Cerebral Palsy and congenital disorders in CNS; marijuana addicts’ children have lower (even by ten points) IQ and high susceptibility to schizophrenia. These questions have been also analyzed by the quoted B. Szukalski (2005, pp. 101-102) who states that as a result of Δ9-THC infl uence, reproductive system development slows down and regular marijuana smoking by women may lead to periods of infertility. Those questions should also be discussed in terms of safety if they are holistically perceived.

15 Epidemiological studies US National Epidemiological Catchment Area (1991) show that in 50% of people treated for schizophrenia, disorders diagnosed were the effect of psychoactive substances use (abuse or dependence). Individuals using Cannabis every day display 2.5 times greater tendency to inform physicians about psychotic experiences than individuals not using, after taking into account various factors, such as misleading socio-demographic factors, social roles and mental disorders. Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 299 Multidimensional hazards In very interesting studies of the drug problem by Jan Śledzianowski (2004, p. 15) there is implicitly stated that the drug problem should be investigated in numerous dimensions and one of the key plane are health losses. The author, quoting great many research, emphasizes the essential motivation factor for the addicted person actions – gaining next drug doses indifferently of price and manner, which generates his/her destructive behaviors. Śledzianowski’s remark reveals the most harmful side of addiction – inability to control oneself. Other Polish researchers Czesław Cekiera (see: Cekiera 2005), Iwona Niewiadomska and Marek Dziewiecki are of the similar opinion, stressing social losses (family breakdown, inability to perform most of social roles, loss of occupational opportunities, lower ambitions and educational gains). In the above mentioned works as well as in works by other authors (see: Ruden, Byalick, 2003) the common denominator is the thesis about absolute harmfulness being a result of any drug use. Polish research on drug hazards reveal features of particular threats, which can be synthetically expressed in the following way: • social hazards: family functions disorders, aggression, divorce, destructive infl uence on children (sibling), lower social opportunities, social exclusion, codependency, organized crime; • health hazards: somatic and mental diseases; • economic hazards: shadow economy, high treatment costs, low occupational opportunities of the addicted; • moral: values decline as a life foundation, destructiveness in individual and social dimensions. Close studies of the problem reveal also signifi cant transformations on the Polish drug market, which becomes a part of international criminal links – we are a manufacturing country (amphetamine, marijuana), transit area (almost all the drug groups) and a destination (marijuana, hashish, ecstasy, cocaine, party drugs). As it seems, the above mentioned problems are of great educational signifi cance, especially as regards to educational practices in schools and parents’ educative goals. It is at the same time justifi ed to state that the drug problem will be increasing because: • there is strong pressure of groups promoting postmodernist models of life on so called “soft drugs” legalization, what was enhanced by a frac- tion of politicians (mainly among the left wing) and artistic bohemians; • potentially high profi ts will generate criminal groups development engaging in drugs manufacturing and distribution; 300 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański • debates around this drug, together with lack of unambiguous stance (medical, not political) are a contribution to increase in drug interest among the youth and constitute a “driving power” for its promotion. Let us here present illustrious example of drug prevention demand, concerning two large Polish regions: Mazovian and Łódź voivodships. So, as in the period of March – November 2011, schools from these regions booked in the Mazovian Center for Social Prevention 120 specialist trainings from the fi eld of drug prevention for students, parents and teachers, for over 12 000 trainees, as in the fi rst half-year of 2013 the number of such trainings rose to 140 for over 14 000 trainees.

Conclusions While drugs are harmful substances in many dimensions, the most often recognized are their health and social consequences. There is no evidence that their use enhances physical or intellectual effi ciency or facilitates social functioning – same as they do not eliminate any educational or occupational problems. Although drugs do not constitute the most pressing health hazard – far more damage is caused by alcohol abuse and tobacco smoking – the balance of drug supply and demand is distinctly destructive. Because illicit substances presence is accompanied with existence and development of organized crime, they pose hazard to social and economic safety. This argument is valid, all the more that lots of transit routes for drugs lead via Poland16 In a wider plane, the drugs are a part of destructive frontline degrading Latin civilization social model. This argument is justifi ed by, among others, strict relation between heroin and marijuana manufacturing in Afghanistan ( the key opium supplier) with Muslim terrorism. Effects of democratic systems confrontation with drugs and their aftermath is diffi cult to evaluate unambiguously. On one hand, we have already been able to help the addicted and the fact of drug dependency has ceased to be a heavy stigma, on the other however, it is very diffi cult for us to deal with lack of understanding from a part of democratic societies citizens that freedom

16 Drugs smugglers’ transit routes via Poland: 1) Afghanistan – Turkmenistan – Azerbai- jan – Russia – Belorussia – Ukraine – Poland – Western European countries, so called Silk Road (heroin); 2) Afghanistan – Turkey – Bulgaria – Romania – Ukraine – Poland – Western European countries, so called Balkan Road ( heroin); 3) South America. – Poland – Great Britain, Ireland (cocaine); 4) Czech – Poland – Germany (smuggling so called Czech PIKO, that is a psychoactive substance manufactured on the basis of pharmaceuticals containing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine which contains methamphetamine); 5) Pakistan – Poland – Western European countries (hashish). Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts 301 cannot be equal to legalization of destructive substances. In this sphere, failures are still very severe. The change may follow after an open, content- related debate about drugs and drug policy – however, such an initiative does not emerge from the authorities and the advocates of legalizing part of drugs attribute it a falsely scientiﬁ c tune. Those questions will be, at the same time an increasing educational, psychological and medical challenge and the area for interesting research.

Bibliography: 1. Allentuk S., Bowman K., The psychiatric aspects of marijuana intoxication, American Journal of Psychiatry 99/21/1942. 2. Bromberg W., Marihuana. A psychiatric study, Journal of the American Medical Association, 113/1934. 3. Cekiera Cz., Toksykomania, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1985. 4. Cierpiałkowska L. (ed.), Oblicza współczesnych uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań 2007. 5. Connors G. J., Galizio M., Maisto S., Narkotyki: zażywanie i nadużywanie, Fundacja Karan, Warsaw 2000. 6. Hall, L. Degenhardt, Cannabis use and psychosis, Australian and New Zeland Journal of Psychiatry, 34/2000. 7. Jabłoński P., Jędrzejko M., Narkotyki i paranarkotyki, Oﬁ cyna Wydawnicza ASPRA JR, Warszawa 2012. 8. Jędrzejko M., Marihuana – fakty. Marihuana – mity, Wydawnictwo Atla 2, Wrocław 2011. 9. Joy J., Watson J., Benson J. A., Marijuana and Medicine, Assessing the Science Base, 2000. 10. Krajewski K., Sens i bezsens prohibicji. Prawo karne wobec narkotyków i narkomanii, Wydawnictwo Zakamycze, Zakamycze 2011. 11. Młodzież 2013, CPOR, Warsaw 2014. 12. Narkomania – zjawisko, zagrożenia, (ed.) M. Jędrzejko, Pułtusk Academy of Humanities, Warszawa-Pułtusk 2008 13. Niermann I., Sack A., Breites Wissen: Die seltsame Welt der Drogen und ihrer Nutzer, Berlin 2009 14. Popik P., Dlaczego narkotyki, Wydawnictwo Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa 2000. 15. Raport Krajowy, National Bureau for Drug Prevention, Warsaw 2011 16. Raports EMCDDA, Lisbon 2008, 2009, 2011 17. Ruden R., Byalick G., Żarłoczny mózg. Pułapki uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Gunter + Jahr, Warszawa 2003. 302 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański 18. Sauer O., Weilemann S., Drogen: Eigenschaften – Wirkungen – Intoxikationen, Schultersche, Hannover 2000. 19. Seligman M., Walker E., Rosenhan D., Psychopatologia, Wydawnictwo Zysk I S-ka, Warszawa 2003. 20. State of the drug problem in Europe Annual report 2009, 2010, 2011, EMCDDA, Lisbon 2009, 2010, 2011. 21. Szukalski B., Narkotyki. Kompendium wiedzy o środkach uzależniających, Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2005 22. Śledzianowski J., Uzależnienia wśród dzieci i młodzieży szkolnej, Świętokrzyska Academy Printing House, Kielce 2004 23. Tien A. Y., Anthony J. C., Epidemiologic Analysis of Alcohol and Drug use as Risk Factors for Psychotic Experiences, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 178/1990. The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome

Silvia DONČEVOVÁ Dr. Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius (Slovakia)

The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome

Abstract: The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome. The study analyses a problem of violence in a gender context, especially in the problem of the CAN syndrome, and also compares many scientiﬁ c views on aggressiveness and violence in our society. An important part of the study is founded on ﬁ ndings of research carried out within a dissertation thesis. Findings of research give a new view on problems of families facing domestic violence and also try to make a proposal for an amendment of the existing theory.

Key words: gender, gender stereotype, gender equality, social justice, CAN syndrome, domestic violence.

Introduction The gender viewpoint is a different view on the life reality enabling to reveal the real causes of many socio-pathological phenomena abstracting from gender inequality and social injustice. It enables to see the reality from a different, more critical point of view, in other connections and contexts. It extends both human knowledge and experience (often presented as predominantly male) with a female dimension enriching the life reality, one- sidedly aimed at performance and separation, by dimensions of tolerance, empathy, co-operation, and intimacy. The humanities should reﬂ ect gender differences as one of the possible effective alternatives of humanization, but mainly of modernization of its subject and content. The need to apply the 304 Silvia Dončevová problem of gender in assisting professions, social pedagogy, social work and so forth seems to be extraordinarily useful.

The problem of gender in various theories: aggressiveness and violence vs social justice The gender is usually defi ned as a socially formed attitude and model of behaviour, divided in male and female. It is a social category which is not subject to biological (i.e. „natural“, as it is often erroneously presented), but to social relations. They refl ect the development of society, traditions and customs that have been constructed on the background of a patriarchal society, i.e. by the male dominant potential. The gender refl ects social and cultural disparities, and the condition of the real relations between men and women in our society. In the gender-conditioned process, a transfer of characteristic models of behaviour and gender relations, expected and required by society, is secured (Kiczková, 2006, p. 20, Przybysz-Zaremba, 2014, 2012, p. 337-356). For our needs, it is important to know that the gender is a power relation (Smetáčková, 2006, p. 9). Power is no characteristic of individuals, but the basic aspect of social life, part of the existing social relations. Those whom it concerns do not realize their privilege because they take it for granted. From the gender point of view, men as a group have more power than women – within these two groups there exist big differences as for power. Since men dominate the vast majority of social hierarchies and control a majority of social resources (economic, symbolic, social, political, etc.), this is why they have much more favourable conditions to affect the everyday regime of society and its development than women do. This results in disparities proceeding from the gender hierarchy and affecting people´s future based on their sex. Why should we look for the problem of gender in such phenomena as aggressiveness and violence? According to Ondrejkovič, the author of many studies in this phenomenon, the so-called domestic violence (at present unequivocally defi ned as gender-conditioned violence) takes in this millenium the same place beside other violent demonstrations of people to their own species, such as war confl icts, religious or social disorders. Moreover, he points out the phenomenon which is typical for domestic violence – the so-called banal evil. „It is a case when people commit evil without their realizing it. However, in this case they loose their ability to distinguish evil, to realize and name it. Mainly the mass media signifi cantly contribute to this.“ (Ondrejkovič, 2008, p. 395) Owing to them, we are becoming passive The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome 305 and sensation-seeking recipients of news concerning this kind of violence which, however, leaves us cold after we have heard or read it („this does not concern me, this cannot happen to me“). Karsten (2003, pp. 93 - 94) explains the presence of violence in the life of a man based upon an analysis of self-conception of adolescent boys. During their adolescence, boys have a need to distance themselves from the behaviour and actions of their mothers, in order to more adapt themselves to the behaviour and actions of their male models in their families or near environment. „The future men are not only allowed to stand their grounds, they are even expected to assert themselves – in case of need even by force and harshness. If a woman behaves aggressively in an escalated dispute, it is considered a forbidden, „inappropriate“, „hysterical“ action. On the other hand, an aggressive action of a young man is not met with criticism, but with understanding. Excuses – common up to now – correspond to the traditional cliché of sexual roles: „the real man is assertive and, if need be, he asserts himself also by force“. The boys are thus instilled to be harsh, insensitive and adamant in case of confl icts when in touch with the other sex (Karsten, 2003, p. 93). Experience gained in a gender stereotypical environment and in contact with equally old girls only confi rms this view, and the boys have in this period only very few possibilities how to obtain competency in interpersonal relations, feeling and understanding for other people. In extreme cases, however, their behaviour tends to degenerate into violent attacks, and the aim need not be only a concrete person of female sex, but anybody who differs from the aggressor (a foreigner, disabled person, child, old man, etc.). This knowledge should initiate an inevitable change in the choice of the educational style of parents and other educating persons and it should be based on stressing of emotionality, empathy, pro-social behaviour and tolerance of differences (the characteristics that are usually considered female) already with small boys at the preschool age.

Research The general aim of our research was to describe and analyze how the presence of gender inequalities and stereotypes is shown in families where domestic violence occurred or occures. A research concept of our research was the grounded theory. The essence of our research was formed by in-depth interviews which represent the most important part of the grounded theory. In our research, we used semi-structured interviews, taking into account the particularities of the selected sample. The in-depth interviews with children 306 Silvia Dončevová and adolescents, the direct actors of domestic violence, have been analyzed and interpreted. In the interviews, the ways and dynamism of behaviour of parents to each other, how they behave to their children, and how children behave to each other, the interaction with close relatives and the surroundings of a family, how housework is divided, the care of children, how free time is spent, but also the ideas of our respondents concerning a happy family, their future family, views of violent behaviour and so forth have been studied. The research sample was formed by both the present and former clients of crisis centres for victims of domestic violence, Centrum Nádej (Bratislava), Maják Nádeje (Bratislava), Náruč (Žilina), and Amoret (Lučenec) at the age of 12+. The research interviews were carried out in the facilities of the individual crisis centres (except one interview, carried out in the home of our female respondent). The sample contained 8 respondents, out of these 6 girls and 2 boys at the age of 12 to 23 years. The basic data of our research were made up of the data obtained during an open coding which is the basic analytical process of the grounded theory. This process was followed by an analysis based on a constant comparison by way of analytical techniques, axial and selective coding. By the method of an open coding, the basic text of the interviews had been divided in subcategories that were integrated in the basic categories based upon their characteristcs. By way of open coding, a set of codes (sub-categories) was created and categorized based upon their characteristics and relations to each other, i.e. they were integrated in the individual higher categories having the same characteristics of all subordinated sub-categories. In the initial phase of the open coding (after the fi rst two analyzed interviews), a basic general hypothesis had been created: the atmosphere in a family is given by a measure of the father´s participation in what is going on in a family and the mother´s support. That was why we focused mainly on this studied sphere in the subsequent interviews, and the obtained data have confi rmed the truth of the basic hypothesis that the measure of the father´s support and participation in what is going on in a family (free time, housework, care of children, fi nances, psychical and cultural background) is an extraordinarily high determinant of not only the overall atmosphere in a family, but mainly of the position of the mother in a family, of how she perceives, accepts and realizes her expected role of the mother sacrifi cing her free time to satisfy the needs of all family members at the expense of her own needs and interests. After the open coding and repeated data collection had been fi nished, the main categories and relevant sub-categories, their characteristics and dimensions with links to the direct quotations of parts of the interviews could be The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome 307 formulated within the primary interpretation. In the secondary interpretation, these categories have been subjected to analytical methods following the open coding, to the axial and selective coding. The fi rst step has been to determine the central category of our research, which is the father´s participation in what is going on in a family, and the mother´s support. The second step has been to place the central category and auxiliary categories in mutual relations based upon the obtained characteristics and their dimensions.

Results We are persuaded that the present paradigm concerning violence in a family shows anomalies misrepresenting the objective and true view of this problem. Under such anomalies are understood the myths concerning violence in a family, for instance a connection of this phenomenon with the presence of addictions, weak economic conditions, many children in a family, an incomplete family, etc. The danger of these anomalies consists in their negative effect on the quality of work of experts and workers in assisting professions. Our aim was to re-evaluate the old paradigm and to formulate a new one, enriched with a category of gender and a view of violence through a gender perspective. Based upon the obtained data, we can say that violence in a family environment is a phenomenon that is independent of a family type (incomplete, complete – complemented, with many children, etc.) and of other socio-pathological phenomena which are present in a family (addictions, poverty, etc.). These factors are often present in families facing violence, but their presence is no condition or reason to accelerate it. The cause of violence in a family environment is contained in a generally accepted idea of the father as a central personality in a marital relation and family as a whole, and of the mother as a complementing person „predestined“ to ensure the running of a household and the care of her husband´s offspring. On the background of this premise, through a connection of a man and a woman is created the traditional environment of family whose framework is made up of the father with his „natural“ power, authority and generally positive position in family (in the eyes of his partner, children and often also in reactions of the outside world) and the child having no power and subordinated to all in a wider environment of a family. The mentioned image of a family environment results in the atmosphere in a family where the father, mother and children are variables forming the measure and intensity of aggressiveness and violence. Inclinations to aggressiveness and violence are natural part of personality of each man, and 308 Silvia Dončevová their manifestation and intensity are the result of personality (subjective) factors, coming from environment (objective factors). One of the most relevant objective factors is upbringing in a family environment. If this signifi cant forming environment is based on imbalance of power, authority and position between the father and the mother, it is a family environment with a high precondition of violence occurrence. According to us, it is not relevant to study if it is direct or indirect, visible or hidden violence, because every manifestation of „innocent“ use of power at the expense of some other family member is violence committed on him or her, and it should be considered as such. In this way, inequality of power between sexes creates a „vicious circle of violence“ from the process of upbringing in a family, and this circle is taken over by children in their behaviour and actions, and so on. How does the imbalance of power manifest itself in a family? Both the father and the mother are equally the parents and husband and wife, having equal duties to each other and to their children. However, here is the end of their equality. According to our research, in the real family environment the father is not equally present nor is he equally engaged as the mother. Throughout the development of the human society, his duties have been reduced to biological and material ones. The mother´s position is characterized by a syndrome of double burden which together with the absence of a psychical and emotional support from the side of the father destructively affects the wife / mother. The mother often takes over the duties of the father´s role and has absolute tangible responsibility for her family (every failure of a child produces a bad image of the mother, not of the father), while the father´s role is characteristic of „formal“ responsibility, resulting from the role of the father. How is it related to aggressive and violent behaviour of the father? The father who admits the male superiority of his position in a family and the inequalities and stereotypes connected with it is not able to naturally participate in what is going on in his family, because the opposite would mean to admit (personally and publicly) that: • there exists no „male and female“, but common family work, • there are no „your“, but „our“ children, • it is not true that a good mother is always able to take better care of her children than their father, • if a woman is married, this does not mean she is „left to the mercy of her husband“, but it means a duty of both parents to behave and act responsibly and tolerantly to each other. What are the consequences for the mother? If the father does not fulfi l his duties towards the mother and children, i.e. he is no support for his wife and a positive model for his children (he does not participate in what The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome 309 is going on in his family, in housework and care of children), the mother fails in the relation to herself and to her children and reaches for crisis strategies of solution of a negatively excessive situation. This results in a high incidence of aggressiveness and violence against the children, mainly in a form of neglecting the care and needs of them, disproportionate physical punishments and overall negative atmosphere in a family. And it is the very negative, aggressive atmosphere in a family, reproaches and verbal attacks of the mother against her partner which is very often the incentive of violence against the mother and children. The manifestation of violence of the father against the mother is then the culmination of neglecting the roles resulting from the role of the father. The whole process, beginning with not meeting the needs of both the mother and children from the side of the father (but the other way round, adopting these needs to his own needs, yielding to gender stereotypes), results in multiple damage of the role of the mother because: • the mother´s role is transformed into the servant´s role, this resulting in the so-called double burden (work in a job plus housework), • since she has almost no free time, the mother sactifi ces her hobbies and time to relax for her family, • those for whom she does it almost never appreciate her effort, and her work and everything connected with the mother´s role is depreciated, • the father´s negative approach to family duties is almost always connected with aggressive and violent behaviour whose essence is a deformed view of the role of both a man and woman in family and society, • the mother is not able to cope with such a burden without strategies which are a reaction to the father´s behaviour and action; these strategies are always a source of the mother´s frustration and of her self-accusation of failure. Regardless of the form of the strategy of behaviour and action of the mother in a family, the role of the child is endangered in all respects. The child is a fully-fl edged percipient of what is going on in the family, even in the case of both direct and indirect forms. According to our fi ndings, resulting from our studied sample, the further functioning of the child is negatively affected by: • interiorizing the father / man´s role as dominant and that of the mother / woman as subordinate, • interiorizing the gender stereotypes in connection with concrete activities and actions in a family, • the absence of positive models in both sexes, • the direct and indirect forms of violence affecting the child, 310 Silvia Dončevová • the intolerance and violence being natural ways of behaviour in interpersonal relations. The external effect of environment is a distinct determinant of what is going on in a family. Based upon our fi ndings, in the father´s case it is a matter of: • a strong deforming effect of his own family: the father as a model of behaviour and action in the family, and the mother whose relation to her son is pathologic for both parties owing to the effect of the gender stereotypes in a family environment, • friends and leisure activities which are almost always at the fi rst place for the father, and the family accommodates to them, not the other way round. Why is the father´s role often connected with his not carrying out his duties towards both the mother and children? What leads the father / partner to his not being able to be a fully-fl edged support of his partner and not being willing to effectively participate in what is going on in the family in such a way that the mother´s role is not deformed to an unpaid executor of service work, and she could have time for herself as well? Why, in principle, the man / father / partner believes the activities connected with a family dishonour the man´s role? The answer is the presence of gender inequalities and stereotypes surviving in the society-wide thinking, but mainly in upbringing.

Bibliograpy: 1. Karsten, H., Weiblich- männlich (geschlechterrollen durchschauen). Munchen: Reinhardt 2003. 2. Kiczková, Z., Rod - gender vo výskume v oblasti spoločenských vied. [in:] Macháček, L. (Ed) 2006. Rod - gender v pedagogickom výskume a praxi. Trnava: FF UCM 2006. 3. Ondrejkovič, P., Násilie − spoločensky nežiaduci jav. [in:] Sociológia - Slovak Sociological Review. Volume 40, 2008. 4. Przybysz – Zaremba, M., Rodinný a pracovný priestor životnej oblasti žien. Problémy, konﬂ ikty a úspechy, Vydavateľstvo Litovskej edukologickej inoverzity, Vilnius 2014. 5. Przybysz – Zaremba, M., Pomiędzy pracą a domem – narracja kobiety przeciążonej rolami, [in:] Labor czy opus? Socjopedagogiczne konteksty pracy ludzkiej, (Ed.) A. Dobrychłop, E. Kowalska, P. Prufer, Oﬁ cyna Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Zielona Góra 2012. 6. Renzetti, C., M., Curran, D., J., Ženy, muži a společnost. Praha: The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome 311 Karolinum 2003. 7. Smetáčková, I. 2006. Gender ve škole II. Příručka pro budoucí i současné učitelky a učitele. [online]. Otevřená společnost: Praha. [cit. 2010-17-01]. Dostupné na: 8. http://www.osops.cz/cz/projekty/genderova-rovnost/publikace- gender-ve-skole

Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. University of Social Scienses (Poland) Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr. Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland) Agata KATKONIENĔ M. Ed. Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)

Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour

Key words: aggression, social relations, theories of aggression

Abstract: Aggression becomes one of the key features of social relations and media coverage, as a result of which essential part of children experiences various types of aggression – from aggression on the roads, through computer games and cartoons to transfer of politicians’ behaviors. The number of offensive gestures and words passed on by people increases what makes them a “normal” part of interpersonal relations. The authors analyze the problem of aggressive behaviors from the perspective of chosen psychological and educational theories, indicating a destructive inﬂ uence of aggression on interpersonal relations.

The modern world is characterized by paradoxes: we live longer and constantly create new situations, behavior (behaviour) or substances that make our lives- both individually and socially- more and more sick; the more we know about what disturbs social relations, the more such problems are generated; although we design devices that help with the functioning of various aspects in our life, these same devices tend to be the source of threats and addiction; the 314 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ more we expand freedom, the more we turn it into willfulness and playfulness. Thus, almost every positive deed of a man is accompanied by his denial, among others, taking a form of risky behavior, addictions, compulsive or aggressive actions. Often negative behavior and consequences coexisting together make even greater havoc in social, somatic and mental health. We are making this observation as critical hazards to a man generates a man himself, and his life in the twenty-fi rst century, the age of technology and insatiable desire to possess is full of numerous stresses, aggression and self-destruction. As Erich Fromm writes: ‘As the society which we live in is overwhelmed with the desire to acquire properties and crave for profi t, we rarely see the evidence of existential modus being, and most people see the modus of possessing as the most natural way or realizing existence…’ (Fromm, 2012, p.47). We emphasize that it is precisely the relation to the world in which material goods are becoming more and more a key factor in ‘defi ning’ position and values of a man, and the man alone lives in an ever deeper stress. Interesting reference is also presented by Jan Borkowski who points out that a modern man is not only unsafe, but also…dangerous. The author points out that ‘[…] a threat is any factor, a phenomenon, a natural and (or) civilizational process having destructive potential, which in certain broadly defi ned diffi cult situations can harm important material and (or) immaterial values’ (Borkowski, 2011, p.15). In the light of large literature, factors which threaten a man can be cataloged as tangible or intangible, including in the former, among others, physical violence, drugs, alcohol, crime, war, terrorism, unemployment, work overload; the latter includes dependence of a man, destructive ideologies, psychological violence, digital overload (information) and the entire package of behavioral addictions. There are also types of risk in between both groups, such as behavioral addictions. Sometimes what threatens a man is described as a social pathology (extreme deviation from the norm), resulting in a syndrome of assumed threats affecting an individual or a social group, the outcome of which is weaker individuals becoming their victims. The most common disorders threatening a man in psychological and/or somatic sphere include aggression- below are some of its symptoms from March 2014: • violent behavior of supporters at the game of Polish football teams Jagiellonia Białystok- Legia Warszawa, which led to its break and required intervention of large police formations; • TV media coverage with manifestation of various forms of violence accompanying the Russian invasion of the Ukraine (Crimea), showing not only brutality, but also the powerlessness of the international community; Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 315 • the language of aggression in Polish politics, far from conciliation and dispute through dialogue; • aggression on the road by cutting off, insulting, dangerous maneuvers, threatens and aggressive gestures (TV reports and personal experiences); • new aggressive computer games (addressed to a young audience), where killing is the most effective way of survival ‘in the battlefi eld’. In the literature aggressive behavior is portrayed as a feature of modern times, with what is characteristic of recent decades is the emergence of entirely new types of aggression, such as cyberbullying, stalking, grooming, aggressive advertising. Their plurality, severity and disclosure in almost all age groups of the society encourages to study the etiology of this phenomenon (see: Braslauskiene, Jonutyte, 2005).

Picture 1. Some features of modern threats of aggression Prevalence of mass media on ag- Increasingly lower age of contact gression- TV, the cinema, computer with aggression games Language of hatred and enmity in New types of aggression (cyber ag- politics and social interaction gression, football fans fi ghts, labour exploitation, false fi nancial offers) New types of aggression The diffi culty of identifying the actual aggressor Complex models of aggression- mul- tifaceted aggression (e.g. emotional Promotion of new electronic devices abuse at work and home psychologi- that teach children and the youth cal and physical violence) various forms of violence and killing

Source: own work.

Although aggression for years has been focusing attention of researchers interested in human behavior, it was impossible to fi nd a single defi nition and concept to explain it in terms of psycho-social aspect, however, it seems reasonable that the social space itself, types of economic life and models of human life1 create the conditions for aggressive human attitudes- below there are fi ve such examples (see: Indrašienė, Suboč 2012, s. 233-242): • work, one of the key human needs, has adopted many antihumanist faces, for example, workaholism, physical fatigue, new forms of exploitation, the so-called junk contracts, unemployment, economic migration;

1 E.g. getting longer evening-night and weekend work. 316 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ • family, as a key form of collective human functioning, goes through a multidimensional crisis (divorces, aggression as a form of relieving marriage crises, unstable partnerships, economic separation); • socio-economic dichotomism (e.g. social development according to the model 4xB - the poor get poorer, the rich get richer2); • quickened growing of children and adolescents (as a result of a ‘chemical’ nutrition of children and the strong impact of media technologies); • system aggression in which state institutions or model of its functioning is based on aggression and violence. Colloquially, aggressive behavior is understood to be hostile aimed at harming someone: physically or mentally. Most researchers believe that aggression can be discussed only when accompanied by a clear intention to harm someone (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini, 2002 p.487). On the other hand, other scientists consider it regardless of intentions, treating it as a tool to achieve personal goals of a given person (Hamer, 2005, p.76). No matter what analytical perspective is, we see that the result of aggression are multidimensional losses, some of which are revealed immediately, while others can accompany a man for many years- even a lifetime. There are many concepts seeking answers to the question what the causes of aggression are. Some authors are of the opinion that it is innate instinctive human trait, others argue that aggressive behavior must be learnt (Skorny, 1989, p.188). These theories can be ordered in two basic groups: • psychosocial theories • biological theories. Let us emphasize here that the speciﬁ city of aggression compels the researchers to diagnose entirely different conditions and processes of ‘states of aggression’: the other conditions will be sought in the diagnosis of aggression directed towards the supporters of democracy in Afghanistan, the forces of radical ideology, another in the’ collisions’ of supporters of football teams, yet another in aggressive attitudes of Internet users. However, despite these differences, one can see some ‘grounds’ and speciﬁ c features that, despite dissimilar aspect of aggressive behavior, indicate the existence of primary common parallel similarities of a state development which leads in the end to an aggressive attack. Relevant is also indication that a man has internal ‘features of aggressor’ which should be understood not as assurance of its occurrence, but of its potentiality.

2 In 2013 14.5 thousand Poles (in 2012- 13.3 thousand) declared income over 250 thousand euro. In the same year the number of families applying for social assistance increased. Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 317 Tabel 1. „Activating” potentials of aggression through external factors- example3 External condidion Rections ohserved Long stay among the same soldiers on - verbal aggression in relations among duty in the event of an external threat soldiers, (Polish battalion of UNPROFOR force - jostling, on the area of the former Jugoslsavia) - taunting and insulting other person, - beating attempts, - serious injury to a soldier, and as a result the victim dies,

Long-term use of amphetamines - son’s aggressive behaviour towards parents, - thefts of house property, - physical extortion of money from the mother, - severe beating of a father standing up for the mother, No modeling of child - digital - verbal aggression towards parents, technology relation - repeated long - physical resistance during attempts to limit hours of playing playing, - physical attack on the mother with the use of the knife, Source: own work Aggression as an inborn tendency One of the ﬁ rst psychologists who analyzed aggression in this perspective – and then gave to this a broad theoretical dimension- was Sigmund Freud. He assumed that since the day of being born a man has two contradictory instincts: the instinct of life (Eros), which promotes the fact that the body develops and maintains the life, and the death instinct (Tanatos) working towards self-destruction of an individual. He believed that the death instinct is often directed outward, against the surrounding world, in the form of aggression towards others. According to Freud, the energy of death instinct is constantly generated in the human body, and if it cannot ‘unload’ in small doses and in socially acceptable manner, then it will accumulate and eventually discharge in an extreme and socially unacceptable form. (Zimbardo, Ruch, 1998, p. 584). Freud presented graphically the energy, comparing it to the water accumulating in the tank and ﬁ nally pouring out from it in some aggressive action. However, it may be discharged in different, more ‘safe’ ways, including here catharsis, in which emotions are expressed

3 Based on personal research and analysis resulting from professional practice of the authors from the years 1996, 2009, 2010. 318 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ with full intensity, e.g. by crying, by words, by verbal behaviour or other symbolic measures. Some experimental support for this concept can be found in studies by William Sears and Geoffrey Megargee. Let us remind, however, that Freud’s theory, despite some data supporting it, is criticized by many psychologists for not specifying precisely the factors which could be used to predict the occurrence of aggression or direction and form which it will take (Browne, Herbert, p.41). Another theory which emphasizes inherent nature of aggression is presented by Konrad Lorenz. Based on animal studies, he alleged an argument that ‘aggression is an innate spontaneous readiness to fi ght, which is essential for the organism to survive’ (Zimbadro, Ruch,1998, p.584). However, in the case of other species, acts of aggression between individuals belonging to the same species rarely cause their actual injuries or death, because one of the animals in the end indicates surrender or submission, which, for example, can be observed in packs of wild dogs, herds of lions. It can be assumed that in this case aggression is a way to position the group hierarchy. According to Konrad Lorenz, in the relations between human beings ways of inhibiting aggression have been lost while maintaining at the same time the instinct of aggression and the ability to escalate it till the critical fi nal. Despite the fact that the researcher is trying to prove the analogy between aggression among humans and animals, there is no doubt that there are fundamental differences between them. Firstly, due to the characteristic of the human ability to remember and evaluate, their actions are often a reaction to the memories and ideas, not to the current situation. Secondly, because of their ability to make tools and to plan, they can intentionally infl ict almost unlimited damages, not even experiencing aggressive feelings and not going into personal interactions with their victims. Let us also add that the work of a man can activate numerous acts of aggression, which once initiated no longer require additional parts of a perpetrator, for example, as a cyberagression. Noteworthy is the fact that more systematic observations have shown that the only difference between humans and animals given by Konrad Lorenz, in fact, does not exist. The reactions of animals to submissive behavior on the part of others are very diverse, as it is in the case of humans. It is diffi cult to predict the circumstances in which signs of weakness and submission will cause sympathy and in which they will simply stimulate even more intensive acts of violence (Zimbadro, Ruch, 1998, p.589). Nowadays the concept of innate biological conditions is treated with reserve, as the concepts of genetic or biological ‘inferiority’ have been once and for all disgraced by genocide, as a method for introducing ‘racial purity’. It should be believed, however, that the same social and environmental Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 319 conditions do not give rise yet to predict whether someone will become a perpetrator of violence or not? Another factor contributing to the development of aggression is a personality type, and personality tests show that offenders differ psychologically from the so-called honest people.

The research shows that criminals are assertive, aggressive, unconventional, extro- vert and unﬁ t. A typical criminogenic personality included: lack of respect for the value, social maladjustments, lack of inclination to conformism and lack of understanding social control.

The known examples- and including thousands of boys- are spectacular studies which have shown that juvenile offenders, even three years before they turned to crime, differed from colleagues in terms of instability, hostility, impulsivity, irritability, self-centeredness and lack of contentment. Other retrospective studies, involving 6,000 students, after 7 years have shown a correlation between personality disorders in childhood and subsequent crime (Górska, 2002, p.2) It is assumed therefore that personality factor may be an important predictor of aggressive behavior, whereas environment factors may enhance them signiﬁ cantly.

Physiological basis of aggression In literature there are also positions suggesting that aggression is an innate phenomenon, as well as opinions indicating that the models are learnt. Still, other researches put up the thesis that it comes to us instinctively. Studies conducted in many research centres are looking for clues as to the actual strength and signifi cance of the causative agents of aggression. But what is the truth? Having looked for the answer for years, there appear studies and analyzes indicating that the source of man’s aggressive behavior may be inherent in the mechanisms and structures of the brain functioning. This might be related, among others, to diseases involving the limbic system or the temporal lobe, where people with this disorders are stated with the so-called syndrome of lack of control, characterized by senseless brutality, pathological excitement, sexual assaults or multiple causation of car accidents (Moir, Jesel, 1998, p.85). It should be emphasized, however, that despite multiple studies providing evidence of a hereditary, the base of aggressiveness is not clear. The popular concept of ‘bad genes’ or ‘bad blood’ was supported by the 320 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ results of early studies, but in the subsequent analyzes it was stated that the conclusions were sometimes biased and unreliable. In turn, in the 60s in 3% of examined men staying on treatment in prison mental hospital the presence of an additional chromosome Y was detected. However, although a statistically signifi cant percentage of inmates of prisons and mental hospitals belongs to the type XYY, the numbers are too small and these people do not show more aggressive behavior more than other inmates. Further studies on a larger group of population showed that most of the extra Y chromosome carriers are people whose signs of aggression have not gone beyond the statistical norm (Szymborski 1996, p.23). However, the research aimed at providing the genetic determinants of aggression are still in the process. Perhaps the use of modern technology in the fi eld of research into human DNA will soon allow to settle the role of genes in the mechanisms of aggression. This issue is waiting for the fi nal decision.

Neurological and chemical determinants of aggressive behavior Any aggressive behavior of a man has its origin in the amygdala, and intense stimulation of this area of the cerebral cortex can turn docile and calm animals into aggressive beasts. Similarly, animals become mild after discontinuation of supply of that stimulation to the amygdala (Moir, Jesel 1998, p.87), which honestly explain in their research Anne Moir and David Jesel. The inﬂ uence of social factors on this relationship can be seen, for example, among the apes4 In the neurological theories the ‘blame’ for aggression is put to the damage within the frontal and temporal lobes- the former are responsible for our plans and actions, the latter however for consciousness and self - awareness. Depending on where the damage is, we deal with other consequences. Damage to the left frontal lobe and both temporal lobes triggers aggression, because they control the emotions occurring in the amygdala (Górska 2000, p.2.)

4 If the area of the amygdala in the male monkey will be irritated and the individual will stay in the presence of other members of his group then his behavior will depend on the male position in the hierarchy, which is taken by an individual standing closest to him in relation to the male. If this individual will stand lower in the hierarchy, then the male will attack him. In the case where the same individual will become higher in the hierarchy, then the male will prepare to ﬂ ee. Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 321

Already quoted Anne Moir and David Jessel, reviewing studies of criminals’ brain, they are of the opinion that the degree of the brain damage is proportional to the difﬁ - culty of the committed offense. The study of these authors show that 90% of the 2000 recidivists had organic damages mainly at the level of the frontal lobes.

Supporters of the explanation described here claim that brutal, impulsive, insensitive and mindless behavior is associated with damages to the frontal lobes or the limbic system and also temporal lobes; disorders occurring in the latter may also cause sexual deviation. In turn, according to James Dabbs, the cause of aggressive behavior is testosterone. He found that free testosterone concentration was the cause of violent crimes committed in 11 out of 22 patients (Gilbert, 1999, p.67). However, one cannot forget about the other factors that affect this type of behavior, for example, hormones are responsible for shaping the overall patterns of behavior, whereas neutrotransitters mobilize the body to concrete actions, allowing communication between different areas of the brain. Control of our emotions and motivation is dependent on neurotransmitters secreted in the neural pathways in the limbic system and brain stem- a particularly important role in the regulation of aggressive behavior plays serotonin. Interesting is also the fact that among women suffering from ‘premenstrual syndrome’ the level of this neurotransmitter lowers, which can affect the amount of crime committed by them at the time (Rutter, 1998, p.78). The search for sources of aggression has led to a variety of tests conduct, both animal and human studies that involved biochemistry of aggressive behavior. It was found that reactions of this type promotes low concentration of the metabolite (waste product) of serotonin in cerebrospinal fl uid (Toch 1969, p.66). The conducted tests showed for example low level of serotonin among American soldiers who could not control the aggressive behavior, children maltreating animals, impulsive people and those who performed acts of self-destruction. The studies have also shown that the level of serotonin depends on biological and environmental factors, but it is generally higher in men by 20-30% than in women (Moir, Jesel 1998, p.56) The relationship between aggressive behavior and serotonin is not simple. Relying on research by Coccaro, the researchers Olivier and Oorschota emphasize that aggression is positively related with serotoninergic activity, and the inverse relationship exists between the serotoninergic activity and impulsive aggression with violent character (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini 2002 p.501). Lewis presents a correlation between high level of serotonin in the blood and aggression, whereas Goveas and colleagues showed an inverse correlation between aggression and serotonin level in the blood of patients 322 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ with personality disorders, which according to the authors, may refl ect a similar change in the central serotoninergic system. An important role in the level of serotonin also play factors relating to the economic situation of the family, type of diet, stress level and all socio-economic factors. It is believed that more impulsive people have lower level of serotonin. The essential amino acids needed for serotonin production can be provided to the body only with food. The fact is that serotonin level drops when we do not eat. Thus, there is a relationship between hunger and aggression (Rutter, 1998, p.48). Also, changes in the amount of serotonin with age have been observed, and thus: the level is high in infancy, it begins to fall in a diffi cult period of puberty, and then it rises again. Due to the fact that impulsive people who typically have low level of serotonin, the mechanisms responsible for glucose concentration are damaged. Thus, the insulin concentration is high and this results in aggression. Also, low levels of adrenaline and cortisol (reticular activating system) causes this type of behavior (Moir, Jessel 1993, p. 56). It is also believed that the offender needs a stronger incentive to achieve the same effect than a person without confl ict with the law. The study also confi rmed that in each of the hemispheres there is another concentration of neurotransmitters – in the right hemisphere there is more serotonin and noradrenaline, which are responsible for causing and suppressing emotions, while the left one comes under control of dopamine, which manages the concentration and selective attention deciding when to retrain and control the emotions of the right hemisphere. Zimbardo thinks that dopamine causes inhibition of impulses and thus further socially undesirable behavior (Zimbardo 1998, p.584). For the brain chemistry what is also important is lowered concentration of glucose. Among impulsive people with lower concentration of serotonin, mechanisms responsible for maintaining appropriate concentration of glucose are damaged. We already know that high concentration of glucose in blood and its defi ciency occurs among aggressive people and antisocial individuals. It is believed that there is a relationship between the concentration of serotonin, alcohol consumption and crime, although this hypothesis still requires clarifi cation. Other studies have shown that people whose urine and blood has less adrenaline are generally more aggressive and have the tendency to be destructive (Gromska, 2002, p.241). It also turns out that a violent offender needs a stronger stimulation than an average person (Gelles, 2000, p.67). As it was already mentioned, serotonin defi ciency causes the same effect as an excess of testosterone in the body, that is, increased level of aggression (Zimbardo 1998, p. 592). Prisoners convicted of offenses with the use of physical violence were found with higher level of testosterone than other Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 323 prisoners. On this basis, it is therefore evident analogous relationship which applies to both men and women. This raises the question of whether or not, due to the fact that men have more testosterone, they are more aggressive than women? Experiments and laboratory tests conducted by Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin, which included children from different social classes and cultures prove the truth of this thesis (Aronson, 2006, p.56). They proved that no matter the circumstances boys tend to be more aggressive than girls. Moreover, this relationship is evident, as mentioned before, among adult offenders where the vast majority is men who commit crimes with the use of physical violence (murders or assaults), where women are usually guilty of the crimes against properties (thefts or forgeries) (Herzberger,1999, p.56). So what is the cause of the stated differences? Do they have a social or biological character? These questions are still unanswered, but according to James Wilson and Richard Hermstein, the existing differences in the severity of aggression between the sexes have their biological background (Gilbert, 1999, basis (Gilbert, 1999, p.45).

Over the last 35 years there has been no increase in crimes committed against life and health among the population of adult women (considering the data on male population), while there has been an increase in the number of offenses committed by them without the use of physical violence. This may be related to the changes in the role a woman plays in the society. Other researchers point to the particularly rapid increase in aggressive behavior among young teenage girls and the fact that physical aggression performed by them is nearly as intense as the boys.

In the recent references in literature and conference speeches we have also found other suggestions on possible reasons for the increase in aggressive behavior among teenagers: • consumption of large quantity of products containing high doses of preservatives, dyes and other chemicals; • copying aggressive behavior seen in the media and society; • copying patterns of aggression from aggressive computer and network games; • overwork of young people as a result of shorter sleep; • very fast pace of life, beyond the psychophysical strength; • increase of aggression in the so-called problematic families.

From numerous studies, we know that men, regardless of their culture, are more likely to show aggressive behavior, and on the basis of data on the number of crimes and offenses it can be concluded that in 9 male offenders there is 1 woman. 324 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ Similarly men are more likely to risk with alcohol, cigarettes and drugs, for example, in Poland in the group of over 16 – year olds about 70% of those experimenting with drugs are men. However, Alice Eagly and Valerie Steffen, on the basis of a review of previous studies, argue that in this case there are no such signiﬁ cant differences between the sexes (Aronson, 2006, p.50). Summarizing the factors which genetically determine crime the following should be mentioned: low intelligence, low susceptibility of the brain to stimulate, low concentration of serotonin, injuries and diseases in the life of an individual and negative environmental effects ( copying patterns of aggression5). These are factors of behaviour.

Alcohol and aggression Based on observation and research, it has been proved that 75% of suspects of a crime (such as robbery, rapes or murders) is under the inﬂ uence of alcohol while being stopped (Zimbardo, 1998, p.600). This is because alcohol effectively frees from any limitations revealing all the original aspirations and desires6 and it works as a remedy lowering the resistance against the behaviour disapproved by society. It triggers aggression in people who are prone to it and, analogically, calm and affection in someone who longs for closeness. Alcohol apparently interferes with the normal mechanisms of information processing (Kinney 1996, p.35). We know that the cases of sexual abuse7 among children or their emotional, economic, educational, biological neglect are clearly more frequent among women with alcohol problems than women who do not have such problem.

5 The theory of social learning developed by Albert Bandura (1973) – a man learns aggressive behavior as a result of receiving rewards for such behavior, or watching someone else is being rewarded for it. 6 According to numerous studies, there is a bidirectional relationship between alcohol and violence (see Reiss, A.J., Jr., Roth, J.A., eds. Understanding and Preventing Violence, vol. 3. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994). They show that not only may alcohol consumption promote aggressiveness but also the victims of violence may drink excessive amounts of alcohol. 7 These thesis can be found in the discussion of the study presented by B.A. Miller entitled Investigating links between childhood victimization and alcohol problems, [in:] S.E. Martin, S.E.(ed.) Alcohol and Interpersonal Violence, .NIAAA Research Mono- graph No. 24/1993, s. 315-323. Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 325 Could external conditions, pain and discomfort be the cause of aggressive behaviour? The best studied out of welfare environmental factor which causes violent relationships is high temperature. Its effect on aggression is conﬁ rmed not only by common observations and experimental studies, but also by statistics- the biggest number of violent crimes are committed in those states in the USA where the summers are long and hot. Many studies have also indicated an unfavourable role of crowding, as highlighted for the ﬁ rst time, while observing the burst of aggression in rats forced to live in crowded places (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini, 2002 p. 498).

Long lasting trafﬁ c jams and unfavourable situations on the road are a strong stimulator of aggressive behavior. Also, a relationship between verbal and physical aggression with those gatherings where there is a confrontation team, e.g. grandstands- where there are fans of opposing teams.

Similarly, one can refer to the example of people in prison and those causing riots, in which the most frequent reason is seen in an excessive crowding, leading to uncontrolled aggression. According to the study by Leonard Berkowitz, which included s group of students, it was found that those who had their hands dipped in cold water more often reacted with aggression to the people standing nearby (Aronson, 2006, p. 29). It was also found that factors such as heat, air pollution and low humidity may also affect the increase in the tendency to aggression among humans. An interesting experiment was conducted in laboratory conditions by William Grifﬁ t and Russel Veitch. The students were divided into two groups that were placed in two separate rooms in which the temperature was different (in one, it was normal, in the other it was 27 degrees Celcius). The respondents from the ‘overheated’ room said about growing aggression and hostility towards the people whom they had to evaluate and describe (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini, 2002, p.498).

Conclusions All psychosocial and environmental factors associated with the formation and regulation of aggressive behavior remain in mutual relationship, and also in interactions with biological factors. We are not able to fully understand all the factors that cause the phenomenon of aggressive behavior. However, our knowledge of the subject is wide enough to make attempts to prevent 326 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ aggression, we can make more effective interventions in the form of psychological counseling for families and people who are particularly at risk. Various ways of explaining the causes of aggression are useful because they highlight the diversity of factors involved in the occurrence of violence. Paul Gilbert claims that violence cannot be explained by a single factor, as it is a multi-faceted phenomenon (Gilbert 1999, p.35). In contrast, Irena Pospiszyl-like many other researchers- is of the opinion that there is no need to look for speciﬁ c clinical reasons for motives of using violence (although certainly they are also present), it is enough to say that in most repeated cases such behavior simply pays off (Pospiszyl, 1998, p.56). Violence is attractive because in most situations it is effective. It gives instant results, a sense of power and possibility of immediate use, from an attempt to discipline to the enforcement of appropriate behavior.

In all probability, a part of aggressive behavior is the result of the offender’s deliberately planned strategy, under which they intend to achieve their goal, knowing that the victim of this violence will not cope or will be scared of them. In this sense, violence is nothing but a means to achieve the goal.

Bibliography: 1. Aronson E., Psychologia społeczna - umysł i serce, Pub. „Zysk i S–ka”, Poznań 2006. 2. Braslauskiene R., Jonutyte I., Vaike agresyvaus elgesio prevencija ugdymo institucijose: mokomoji knyga, Klaipedos universiteto leidykla, Klaipeda 2005. 3. Browne K., Herbert M., Zapobieganie przemocy w rodzinie, Państwowa Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Warszawa 1999. 4. Gelles R. J., An exchange/control theory. The Dark Side of Families: Current Family Violence Research, Beverly Hills 2000. 5. Fromm E., Mieć czy być?, Pub. Dom Wydawniczy Rebis, Poznań 2012. 6. Gilbert P., Male voilence: towards an integration. Routledge Press, London 1999. 7. Górska J., Anatomia przemocy. Przemoc a neurobiologia, Psychiatria w Praktyce Ogólnolekarskiej, tom 2, nr 4/2002. 8. Hamer H., Psychologia społeczna. Teoria i praktyka, Pub. Diﬁ n, Warszawa 2005. Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour 327 9. Herzberger S. D., Przemoc domowa. Perspektywa psychologii społecznej, Warszawa 2009. 10. Kinney J. Lepton G., Zrozumieć alkohol, Państwowa Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Warszawa 1996. 11. Indrašienė V., Suboč V., Šeimos pagalba vaikui patiriančiam mokymosi nesėkmes, (w:) L. Hurło, M. Przybysz-Zaremba (eds.), Społeczno- pedagogiczne aspekty życia rodziny, Oﬁ cyna Wydawnicza Prospekt, Olsztyn 2012. 12. Kenric D. Neuberg S., Cialdini R., Psychologia społeczna, Pub. Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2002. 13. Moir A., Jesel D., Zbrodnia rodzi się w mózgu. Zagadka biologicznych uwarunkowań przestępczości, Pub. Wydawnictwo Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1998. 14. Moir A., Jesel D., Płeć mózgu, Pub. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1993. 15. Pospiszyl I., Przemoc w rodzinie, Pub. Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1998. 16. Reiss, A.J., Roth, J.A., (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Violence, vol. 3, National Academy Press, Washington 1994. 17. Rutter M., Aggression and the family, London 1998. 18. Szymborski J., W poszukiwaniu genu agresji, Wiedza i Życie, no 10/1999. 19. Toch H., Violent Man, Chicago 1969. 20. Zagrodzka J., Skąd w nas tyle zła, Wiedza i Życie, no. 11/2009. 21. Zimbadro P. G., Ruch F., Psychologia i życie, Pub. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1998. 22. Wolfgang M., The Subkulture of Violence. Tavistock, London 1998.

Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving...

Artur GOŁĘBIOWSKI Dr. Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland) Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr. Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland) Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr. Centre of Social Prevention (Poland)

Sense of Coherence Versus Styles of Stress Management Among Soldiers Leaving for Peacekeeping Missions

Abstract: The project addresses the problem of a sense of coherence and styles of life management among soldiers leaving for a mission. The study area consisted of 75 professional soldiers with overseas missionary experience from the 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade from Świętoszów. In their military career, they lived for a long time in harsh conditions performing demanding tasks that required combat. According to the previous studies1, the relationship between the sense of coherence and the choice of style of managing in a stressful situation was observed. It has been veriﬁ ed that the sense of coherence is connected with the style of coping in stressful situations. The higher the level of sense of coherence, the more one can expect the style of coping focused on the task.

Key words: sense of coherence, styles of coping, health, combat stress 330 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko Stress in military service Stress accompanies us every day, in the street, at home, especially at work. There are professions, in which it plays a signifi cant role. Often diffi cult decisions, that might decide about someone’s life, are made in diffi cult conditions. Such profession for sure is the work in the army. Since the dawn of time a soldier was a man who was strong and formidable among people (Łosiak, 2007, p. 45). It was usually believed that a warrior is someone deprived of emotions, feelings, someone who is always able to ruthlessly kill another human being. The myth went down after many years, when the problem among soldiers with stress related to combat was noticed. At fi rst, it was considered a sign of weakness, therefore these disorders were named differently, which was aimed at protecting fi ghting people from shame of cowardice. In subsequent years the problem was recognized and people began to study it (Figley, Nash, 2010, p. 32). The fi rst publication discussing battlefi eld stress problems in the medical literature appeared in 1678. Its author Hoffer described the disease, which affected Swiss mercenaries serving in France. There appeared symptoms that Hoffer described as depression, persistent melancholy, constantly thinking about home, sleep disorders, insomnia, fatigue, loss of appetite, anxiety, heart palpitations, stupor, fever. It happened that soldiers fell into madness and died4. These symptoms started to be commonly called as nostalgia. Until the nineteenth century, many people thought that nostalgia symptoms were caused by pathological changes in internal organs of patients, but they were not connected with mental health problems (Strelau, 2004, p. 56). The concept of nostalgia was widely used until the World War I, when there appeared changes in the diagnosis and methods of treatment of soldiers suffering from stress connected with chronic exposure to the front line. Initially, the soldiers who did not cope with the combat stress were diagnosed as suffering from hysteria, which was, as it was believed, caused by the loss of the will to fi ght, laziness or demoralization. These soldiers were evacuated to the hinterland and provided with rest. In some cases, the symptoms subsided, but most of them were dismissed from service (Figley, 1978, p. 22). After a long stay at the front and participation with battles, soldiers suffered from headaches and dizziness, concentration problems, forgetfulness, nightmares. The symptoms were exacerbated, interalia, due to lack of sleep. Doctors pointed to combat stress - related disorders called artillery shock or trenches neurosis. It was noted that the trenches neurosis affected mainly soldiers with no injuries. Practically they were not present among the injured ones, as a result of being shot or hit with shrapnel wounds. Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 331 The experience of War World II, included in the works of Kardiner, Spiegel and Grinker, provided a new perspective on nosology and treatment of stress- related consequences of the war. Of great signifi cance was the scientifi c evidence that the anxiety may be rooted in the realities of the battlefi eld, and that the stress of combat is not a homogenous phenomenon, but rather a process developing with acute and chronic phases which must be carefully monitored so that it can be properly diagnosed (Terlak,2001,p. 54). In the seventies of the twentieth century, due to the neuropsychiatric conditions 60% of soldiers were withdrawn from Vietnam. Alcohol abuse and drug addiction took on the nature of epidemic. A major problem became the assimilation of veterans into civilian life and their re-assimilation with American society (Figley, 1978, p. 32). Based on the Israeli experience of the war in 1973, we can conclude that just a few hours of fi ghting can lead to large losses of mental health. They could not be caused due to the exhaustion. Among other reasons, Israeli scientists prefer the term CSR – Combat Stress Reaction - battlefi eld stress response, fi ght fatigue – manifested by anxiety, psychomotor inhibition, withdrawal, increased sympathetic nervous system stimulation, stuttering, loss of control, dissociation, nausea, vomiting, confusion (Figley, Nash, 2010, p. 24). In many armies, CSR is defi ned as a disorder of functioning, taking place when the soldier ceases to perform his duties and acts in a way that threatens him and his fellow fi ghters. It can be said that CSR is a soldier’s inability to cope with traumatic stress and to take appropriate action in the face of stress. During operations in the Persian Gulf, apart from fi ghting exhaustion syndrome, there were disorders caused by remoteness from family and fatigue (Bryant, Harvey, 2011, p. 24). Thanks to the doctors of psychiatry and psychologists, the evacuation from the area of military action was reduced by half due to psychiatric reasons12. An Israeli defi nition of CSR is another option of naming the reactions of some of the soldiers in the face of combat stress. The term operating stress (Figley, 1978, p. 32) is also used. However, there is a widespread use of the term PTSD. Among the population exposed to stressors, PTSD is in the range from 36% to 75%. Currently, terrorism and numerous confl icts around the world have transformed the foreign policy of many countries. The strategy of safety in their own countries is involving soldiers in foreign missions, often in distant lands and harsh conditions. In addition to stabilization missions, Polish soldiers are sent on a typical combat missions, such as in Afghanistan. A sense of danger and the related stress is common among soldiers (Korzeniewski, 2008, p. 43). Deprivation of human life, especially when it is not our intention and happens to 332 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko be under the infl uence of increased excitement and stress, becomes a traumatic experience and carries a heavy psychological cost. Personality and anxiety disorders, persecution manias are only some of the troubles that literally keep one awake at night (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, 2003, p. 32). Grossman writes: the burden of killing is so huge that most people try not to admit to have human life on their conscience. They deny killing in front of others and try to deny the murder out of their own consciousness (Grossman, 2010, p. 45). Among the veterans, nearly 10-30% meet the criteria for post-traumatic stress. The scale and the importance of this phenomenon indicates, inter alia, the need to improve the method of selecting soldiers to units designed for military and peacekeeping operations17. The Scandinavian experience shows that a good mental condition before taking actions signifi cantly affects the good functioning during the operation, as well as after returning home. What becomes important is to recognize the risk factors of PTSD and the occurrence of traumatic events and PTSD among various population subgroups (Dudek, 2003, p. 35).

The sense of coherence and stress management styles A detailed issue which was attended relates to the sense of coherence and the styles of managing stress among soldiers leaving for missions. An interested approach to health seemed to be presented by Antonovky. The researcher’s revolutionary character of the idea to defi ne health is based on using the salutogenetic perspective that is health - oriented. The researcher assumes that the normal state of human functioning is a dynamic state of unstable balance. A man constantly experiences stimuli (stressors) to which he reacts and adjusts in order to maintain a dynamic balance of life processes at a certain optimal level of functioning (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 23). The sense of coherence has been defi ned by Antonovsky metaphorically as ‘the key to health’. It is an internal, central factor that causes people to cope with stress, not to get sick and quickly to return to health. According to the researcher, people with a strong sense of coherence have a tendency to pro-health behaviour. Taking into account the concept of a sense of coherence, one could detect the new rules governing human resistance to disease (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 24). The sense of coherence is a general attitude of orientation, expressing an ongoing and dynamic belief in the predictability and rationality of the world and one’s own position in life (Heszen, 2008, p. 98). Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 333 The components of coherence are: • Asense of rationality – arises from the fact that a man perceives the incoming information as ordered, consistent and clear, allowing it to be understood. Thus, there arises the feeling that events can be understood. • A sense of resourcefulness – determines the extent to which a man perceives availableresources as suffi cient in order to meet the requirements posed by incoming stimuli. Having a sense of resourcefulness, a person does not feel helpless but feels that the diffi culties and sur- prises of life can be remedied. • A sense of reasonableness – determines the extent to which a person feels that life makes sens, that the demands of life are worth the commitment and effort. It is a motivational-emotional component. People with a high sense of reasonableness take the challenges of life, search for meaning and make an effort to solve problems and deal with them (Heszen, 2013, p. 78). The components of a sense of coherence remain with each other in certain relationships. It is assumed that the most important is the sense of reasonableness. When it is strong, the other components tend to increase, and when it is weak, the whole complex is in decline. A sense of coherence is a changeable personality that has the structure of beliefs about the world, the person itself and its relation with the world (Brzeziński, Cierpiałkowska, 2008, p. 67). Functionally speaking, this variable is motivated to undertake activities to cope with the requirements and thanks to regulatory functions it controls the choice of resources to meet the requirements. Empirical studies show that the sense of coherence has a positive effect, in a differentiated manner, direct and indirect, on health and effectiveness of coping with stress. Highly developed sense of coherence mobilizes a person to act (probably due to a sense of reasonableness (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 32). In the course of this activity, cognitive schema and and competences are activated in order to help one to reduce the effects of stressors or to evaluate them as positive stimuli or burdensome regulatory mechanisms (Łosiak, 2004, p. 33). When assessing stressors, challenge dominates; a human mobilizes his abilities, so that he can cope with the requirements of life. This allows the tension not to turn into chronic stress and negative health consequences. Success, on the other hand, has an infl uence on fulfi llment and development of resources, as well as on strengthening the sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 2005, p 22). If, however, the stressors are numerous and strong, a man suffers from a lack of resources, and if the sense of coherence is weak one can expect that the tension will not be effectively reduced and will change in stress, and this could cause the collapse of health (Lis-Turlejska, 2002, p.56). 334 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko This model refers to the interactive concept of stress and managing by Lazarus and Folkman. Its essence is to focus on effective coping. This paradigm is focused on the search for the factors, forces and the properties which can be described as negentrophical, or eliminating, overcoming or at least weakening the state of entropy, which is assumed – as the natural state of the human body (Heszen, 2013, p. 57). Each of us presents various methods and strategies of coping with stress that we have developed in the process of socialization. Wrześniewski introduced a distinction between three concepts: style, strategy and the process of coping with stress. In our research, we focus on styles of managing stress, which can be defi ned as a style typical of the individual behaviour in a variety of stressful situations. It is regarded as a stable, personality disposition of the individual to a particular struggle with stressful situations (Terlak, 2001, p. 76). According to Lazarus and Folkman, there are four basic ways to deal with stress: the search for information, direct action, refraining from actions and intrapsychic processes. Theoretical basis in the scope of stress coping styles is the theory of coping styles by N.S. Endler and JD Parker. The authors distinguish three styles of stress management: • style focused on the task- characterized by people who, in stressful situations, make an effort to solve the problem by cognitive transforming or by trying to change the situation with a focus on solving the problem, • emotion - focused style- characterized by people prone to wishful thinking and fantasizing, who in a stressful situation concentrate on their experiences and emotions, the purpose of these activities is to reduce the tension associated with the stressful situation, • style focused on avoiding- which may take two forms; engaging in alternative activities, such as watching television, overeating or seeking social contacts (taking up another tasks) (Łosiak, 2007, p. 56). Dealing with environmental requirements by a unit depends on intelligence, special aptitudes, skills, knowledge, personality and temperament traits, physical appearance characteristics, past experiences and current physical and mental condition of the individual (Strelau, Jaworowka, Wrześniewski, Szczepaniak, 2005, p. 56). Taking onto account the purpose and the nature of peacekeeping missions and formulated on this basis tasks for the soldiers taking part in them, the ability to cope with various threats not only has a direct connection with their safety, but it mainly involves the provisions of collective security (Gruszczyński, 2000, p. 67). It is clear that the areas covered by the war are the territories commonly encountered threatening Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 335 situations, in which soldiers are forced to make many decisions, including diffi cult moral choices.

Methodological basis of the research The aim of our study was to examine the level of sense of coherence and stress management styles among soldiers leaving for peacekeeping missions. We were interested in: What is the sense of coherence and styles of stress management among soldiers leaving for missions? To give an exhaustive answer to the question posted in the above mentioned main problem, the following detailed issues were formed: • Is the sense of coherence associated with stress coping among people going on missions? • Are the people leaving on a mission different from each other in terms of level of coherence?

The subjects The study was conducted in 2012, with the participation of 75 soldiers from 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade from Świętoszów preparing to go on missions. These were men. The age of the subjects ranged from 27 to 41 years old, SD 8,04. In the given group dominated higher education 67%, the remaining 23% had secondary education. People were tested individually; the standard procedure consisted of a questionnaire survey conducted during one meeting. The rate of sense of coherence and its components was based on: • Life Orientation Questionnaire (SOC-29) by Antonovsky, consisting of 29 items. The tool includes three scales: intelligibility (11 items), resourcefulness (10 items), meaningfulness (8 items) (Antonovsky, 2004). Research in original and Polish version indicates that it has a satisfactory level of reliability (Pasikowski, 2001, p. 45). The indicator of stress management styles were the results of: CISS questionnaire (Endler and Parker, 1999). The authors included in the questionnaire three scales corresponding to the categories of distinguished stress management styles. The fi rst is focused on the specifi c task (16 items), the second is the style focused on emotions (16 items), the third one is focused on avoidance (16 items). The latter consists of two subscales: engaging in alternative activities and seeking social contacts. The questionnaire consists of 48 items (Sapolsky, 2011, p.67). 336 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko To describe the variables, descriptive statistics and distributions of variables were used. The estimation of differences was based on F Fisher’s analysis of variance test. The test compounds were performed by using Pearson’s correlation coeffi cient. The test values satisfying the condition that p <0.05 were considered as signifi cant statistical data. The analysis was performed using STATISTICA 6.0. Analysis and interpretation of test results The analysis of the data shows that the average age of the respondents was 31 (the youngest person was 27, the oldest 41 SD 8.04). Assessment of the level of coherence and its components (Table 1)

Table 1. Differences in the level of coherence and its components in the test group Variable Descriptive statistics (Coherence) N Average Trust Trust Mini- Maxsi- Standard Standard impor- -95,000 +95,000 mum mum Diver- Mistake tant % % gence

75 47,3600 45,3697 49,3503 24,00000 66,0000 8,65032 0,998853 Sense of rationality

75 50,5067 48,7012 52,3121 25,00000 66,0000 7,84714 0,906110 Sense of resourcefulness

75 44,5333 42,8966 46,1700 24,00000 55,0000 7,11362 0,821410 Sense of reasonableness

75 142,4000 137,7020 147,0980 98,00000 184,0000 20,41925 2,357812 SUM OF GLOBAL SOC

In the tested group of the three subscales of the sense of coherence resourcefulness achieved the greatest result. The average was 50.50, the minimum score was 25, maximum 66, standard divergence of 7.84. This demonstrates the considerable diversity of the subjects. In the case of intelligibility, the average was 47.36. It was lower than in the case of resourcefulness, a minimum score was equal to 24, while the maximum was 66, which is the same as the maximum result obtained in the case of resourcefulness. The standard divergence of resourcefulness was 8.6, Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 337 with an average of 47.36. It can therefore be concluded that the intelligibility differentiated the subjects. When evaluating the reasonableness: a minimum score was 24, while the maximum obtained by the respondents was 55, the standard divergence of 7.11, with an average of 44.53, it also exceeds 15% of the average value. The average result of the global level of coherence was equal to 142.4, the minimum score comprised 98, the maximum 184, and the standard divergence was 20.4. The ratio of the standard divergence to the average value exceeded 39% of the average value. This indicates that the subjects were signiﬁ cantly different from each other in a global sense of coherence. Comparing the results of the study group with the research presented by Antonovsky, it can be concluded that the respondents have a high sense of coherence. Among the presented groups, they achieved a high level of the sense of coherence.

Tabel 2. The result of the sense of coherence with the use of the questionnaire (SOC- 29) Population Average American students 133.13 American psychology master’s students 139.71 Factory workers of the New York state 133.01 An attempt represented by residents of Israel 136.47 Tested group 142,40 Source: Based on A. Antonovsky, Rozwikłanie tajemnicy zdrowia, Jak radzić sobie ze stresem i nie zachorować.

Further evaluation was related to the application by the respondents of different styles of tress management (Table 3). The most common task was the style of the task. The average value was 62.44. Another frequently occurring style was the emotional style, with the average equal to 38.32, while signifi cantly less preferred style was the style focused on avoiding, with the average of 8.1. The subscales of the style focused on avoiding – alternative activities achieved and average of 17.28, while social contacts- comprised an average of 16.13. In the case of the task- style, the minimum score was 45 points, with a maximum of 78, standard divergence of 7.6. There is no difference in the task style. Analyzing the emotional style, the average score was equal to 38.32, minimum 25, maximum score of 60, the standard divergence equaled 8.4. That is highly variable as it exceeded 20% of the average value. It can therefore be concluded that the respondents differed strongly in terms of emotional style. 338 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko Variable isowe (Koherencja) Variable Statystyki op- opisowe (Koherencja) Variable Statystyki cult situation in the study group fi opisowe (Koherencja) Variable Statystyki 75 62,4400075 38,32000 60,6803475 64,19966 17,28000 36,38200 40,25800 45,00000 78,00000 16,1474375 18,41257 25,00000 60,00000 16,13333 7,648070 0,883123 8,00000 8,423198 15,24117 30,00000 0,972627 17,02550 4,922535 0,568405 8,00000 25,00000 3,877633 0,447750 opisowe (Koherencja) VariableVariable Statystyki Statystyki opisowe (Koherencja) Style Focused on the Task Style Focused on Emotions Style Focused on engaging in Avoiding alternative activities (EAA) Style Focused on Avoiding seeking social contact (SSC) Table 3. Differences in the styles of coping with a dif 3. Differences Table Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 339 The data obtained in the case of the avoiding style were the following: the minimum score of 3, maximum 14, and the standard divergence of 8.04. The respondents exceeded 27% of the average value, as in the case of strong emotional style, they differed signifi cantly. Alternative activities also diversify the group. The minimum score was 8, the maximum 30, and the standard divergence of 4.9. In the case of social contacts, the standard divergence comprised 3.8, with an average of 16.1, which comprises approximately 23% of the average value. This allows one to fi nd much greater variation among the respondents. Analyzing the obtained results, it can be concluded that the subjects did not differ in the style focused on the task, but they differ in the style focused on emotions and in the case of the style subscales focused on avoiding, that is alternative activities and social contacts. The analysis of the correlation between the variables of the sense of coherence and the variables of stress coping styles showed the presence of statically signifi cant (with p < 0.05) strong correlation between the style focused on the task and the sense of meaningfulness and global sense of coherence. The results are presented in the Table 4.

Table 4. The connection between the level of the sense of coherence and its components and styles of coping in the study group Variable Correlations (Coherence) Marked coordination correlates are signifi cant with p < ,05000 Sense of Sense of Sense of Sum Intelligibility Resourcefulness reasonableness of SOC Style Focused ,1232 ,2072 ,3568 ,2561 on the Task N=75 N=75 N=75 N=75 p=,292 p=,074 p=,002 p=,027 Style Focused -,5654 -,5991 -,5126 -,6483 on Emotions N=75 N=75 N=75 N=75 p=,000 p=,000 p=,000 p=,000 Style Focused -,1157 -,0667 -,2316 -,1553 on Avoiding N=75 N=75 N=75 N=75 (engagement in p=,323 p=,570 p=,046 p=,183 alternative activities) Style Focused on -,0135 ,2362 ,1360 ,1324 Avoiding (searching N=75 N=75 N=75 N=75 for social contacts) p=,908 p=,041 p=,245 p=,257 Style Focused -,0328 ,0302 -,1885 -,0680 on Avoiding N=75 N=75 N=75 N=75 p=,780 p=,797 p=,105 p=,562 340 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko The correlation ranged from 0.35 to 0.25, which means that the higher the sense of coherence the tested person had, the more frequently the style of coping with stress focused on the task is used. According to Antonovsky’s theory, people with a strong sense of coherence tend to take effort to solve the problem, change the situation or to restructure cognitively (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 56) However, in the case of the emotion-focusd style, strong negative correlations were achieved with the level of the sense of coherence; they ranged from -0.51 to -0.64. The lower the sense of coherence, the more often the tested person applied the style focused on emotions. People with a low sense of coherence tend to focus on themselves, on their own emotional experiences, they often feel anger, guilt, tension and have wishful thinking (Sęk, 2001, p. 67). In the group of soldiers leaving for missions, two groups were distinguished, which differed signifi cantly in the level of the sense of coherence. In the fi rst group there were people with a low sense of coherence, while in the second group there were people with a strong sense of coherence. In order to check, whether these two groups differ in the frequency of the use of particular styles management stress, factor analysis with ravimax rotation was performed.

Table 5. Factor analysis Variable Factor Loadings (Varimax normalized) (Coherence-ost1) Extraction: Principal components (Marked loadings are>,500000) N (valid observation) Average Sense of Intelligibility 0,821087 0,055195 Sense of Resourcefulness 0,871002 0,232534 Sense of Reasonableness 0,737741 0,458243 Style focused on a Task 0,031922 0,960743 Style focused on Emotions -0,849588 0,173942 Expl.Var 2,699909 1,220388 Prp.Totl 0,539982 0,244078 Style focused on a Task 0,031922 0,960743 Style focused on Emotions -0,849588 0,173942 Expl.Var 2,699909 1,220388 Prp.Totl 0,539982 0,244078

The conducted analysis showed the presence of differences in the average frequency of using the style focused on the task and emotion-focused style for selected groups. And so, the respondents from the second group- with a high degree of coherence – often use the style focused on the task in comparison Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 341 with those of the fi rst group – with a low sense of coherence. It indicated that individuals with a higher sense of coherence using the style focused on the task put the main emphasis on the task or on solving the problem. The analysis of the use of the emotion-focused style for selected groups also showed the presence of statistically signifi cant differences in the average frequency. Those of the second group – with a high degree of coherence – rarely use the style focused on emotions, compared to those of the fi rst group- having a low sense of coherence. The subjects of the fi rst group – with a low sense of coherence – more often than those with a high sense of coherence concentrate on themselves, on their own emotional experiences, they often feel anger, guilt, tension and have wishful thinking (Bacon, Staudenmeie, 2003, p. 89). The results of the analysis showed that the soldiers going on missions show differences in the global level of the sense of coherence and its components: meaningfulness, resourcefulness and intelligibility. The given results indicate that people with a high sense of coherence often use the coping style focused on the task. As Antonovsky puts it, the sense of coherence has a very specialized functions in stress management. It is the kind of resource, thanks to which a man has a feeling and belief based on experiencing the environment as a constant, optimally loading and giving guarantee in making important decisions (Dudek, 2003, p. 3). The conducted research on the sense of coherence and the stress coping styles allow to refer to the made hypothesis in our work. (1) The results obtained by the soldiers leaving for missions testify to the fact that they have a high sense of coherence and use the task-focused style of coping with stress. (2) The sense of coherence is associated with the preferred style of coping with stressful situations. Soldiers with a higher level of coherence often use the style of coping with stress focused on the task than on the emotions. The obtained results may help to answer the question of: how a person will behave in the key moments of stress development and during treatment. This will allow to avoid the development of emotional disturbances, and to obtain better treatment effects. Therefore, it is so important to observe the behaviour and the performance of soldiers by commanders during the realization of tasks and missions in order to pre-diagnose the degree of ‘shock’ stress and suitability for the use in the fi ght of a particular man as soon as possible. Every person has different physical and mental strength, which do not always go together. Until the twentieth century, the military thought assumed the ideas of full exploitation of soldiers, and therefore there was no tendency 342 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko to diagnose the mental state of the soldiers. At the same time, in the armies of NATO it is assumed that the cases of battlefi eld stress will comprise one- fi fth (20%) of the total combat loss rate. NATO medical planning indicator also implies that a signifi cant proportion of soldiers who develop battlefi eld stress cases (BSC- Battle Stress Cases) may return to service providing that the proper treatment towards them will be applied (Materiały do zajęć z kształcenia obywatelskiego. Stres bojowy. Przyczyny, oznaki, zapobieganie, 2008, p. 43). Combat stress is generated by many factors. The elements that affect the soldier are the main components of the complex process of the combat stress formation process. It mainly consists of physical and mental factors (Tomaszewska, 2008, p. 27). It is similar in terms of emotional and social issue, which is infl uenced by other people. Colleagues from the subdivision and the commander have a signifi cant impact on how a soldier returning from a tragic mission will feel. Their own ways of coping with stress are also important. A soldier as a person acting quickly and defi nitely should have the style focused on the task. The examination conducted before joining the army can give us the answer to the question whether this is the right person who can cope with a stressful situation. Each soldier can be provided with discussions on behaviour in a stressful situation, but their individual predispositions defi ne how they will be prepared for tough situations. The study confi rms the assumed hypothesis that the soldiers are properly focused on styles of coping with stress. The existing condition should be maintained and there should be focus on the adaptation of young soldiers who are particularly susceptible to combat stress. The soldiers should be also encouraged to talk with a psychologist and to use the help of specialists.

Conclusions The research on a group of professional soldiers show that it should be a group of people with the style of coping with the task-oriented stress. These people focus on solving the problem. Their approach to the phenomenon of stress is less emotional and they do not avoid confrontation with it. This helps to control the stressful situation and to e lesser extent, affects a person. Thus, the behaviour of the person who is focused on the task is easier to predict, which is especially important in the use of weapons. This is especially important on military missions, where very often there are situations in which soldiers are exposed to high stress impact on their minds. Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving... 343 In the case of soldiers departing on a mission, determining the level of the sense of coherence can be used as an index in predicting care for returning from a mission. It seems that the proper selection for military service, training based on the development of imagination and innovation can signifi cantly reduce the consequences of traumatic experiences of war. Analyzing the fi ndings of confl icts, combining them with new forms of training and soldiers support, we can more effectively cope with the aftermath of war trauma. The studies on the sense of coherence and various factors that may moderate them in Poland have been conducted since recently. The relationship between the sense of coherence and the functioning in terms of salutogenetic paradigm of health is an important topic of scientifi c discussion. It is reasonable to continue to conduct research in this area, which would include different and more numerous groups of subjects, enabling objectifi cation and generalization of the conclusions.

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ALEKSIENĖ Vilmantė - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences), Associate Professor at the Department of Social Education, Lithuanian Uni- versity of Educational Sciences; areas of scientiﬁ c interests: music therapy, socialization through arts, supervision. Contact: [email protected].

AUGUTAVIČIUS Rimvydas - Master in Social Work, Lecturer at MykolasRomeris University; coordinator of Family Strengthening Programmesat SOS Children Villages of Lithuania, a member of General Social Care Council. Fields of particular interest are family social case management and mediation, social environment and inﬂ uence of experience on human behaviour. He is the leader of the group of social workers – supervision, tutoring and management of the multidisciplinary professional groups. Contact: [email protected]

BARKAUSKAITĖ LUKŠIENĖ Živilė - Master of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences), Lecturer at MykolasRomeris University. She is a lecturer in the project Tools of Creation and Implementation of National Science Popularisation System and in the project Educational Science and Technology Promotion Activities for Preschool Children „Preschooler“. She participates at national and international scientiﬁ c conferences. Areas of research interests are modelling of educational process, (self-) development of life skills, development of social competences, training of social workers and teachers. Contact: [email protected]

BUTVILAS Tomas - Assoc. Professor at the Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work at Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania). An author of more than 50 scientifi c and public articles, participant of many international and local conferences. Tomas has participated in 6 internship programs abroad. Scientifi c interests focus on children socialization, loss phenomenon, social education issues and social research methodology. Contact: [email protected] 346 Notes about the Authors DANIELA Linda - Dr.paed., Associate professor and Senior researcher at the University of Latvia; Expert in education at the Council of Sciences of the Republic of Latvia; Scientifi c adviser of doctoral research and master’s theses. Research interests include educational processes in school, behavioural problems and solutions for reducing social exclusion in educational process. She is an author or coauthor of 25 publications and several books. Contact: [email protected]

DEVENSON Miglė - Bachelor Music Education, music teacher; areas of sci- entiﬁ c interests: music education, pedagogical psychology, music therapy. Contact: [email protected]

DONČEVOVÁ Silvia - graduated from master and doctor study in the Department of Philosophy and History of Philosophy and the Department of Pedagogy of the Faculty of Arts of Comenius University in Bratislava. At present, she works as a fellow lecturer in the Department of Public Policy and Public Administration at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius at Trnava, where she was a vice-dean for study and accreditation prior to her maternity leave. Contact: [email protected]

DROMANTIENĖ Leta - Doctor of Humanities, Doctor Habilitus and Professor of Social Science, Dean of Faculty of Social Technologies at Mykolas Romeris University. Scientiﬁ c interests: European social policy and social cohesion, lifelong learning, management of higher education. Contact: [email protected]

DUDAITĖ Jolita – Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science), Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania, Faculty of Social Technologies, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Lecturer. Research interests: methodology of Social Sciences, test theory, comparative educational research, entrepreneurship, quality of education, quality of life. Contact: [email protected]

GOŁĘBIOWSKI Artur – Cpt. - assistance lecturer at the Department of Humanities at the General Tadeusz Kościuszko Military Academy of Land Forces in Wrocław. Contact: [email protected] Notes about the Authors 347 GUDŽINSKIENĖ Vida - Doctor of Social Sciences, Professor at MykolasRomeris University; The member of Vocational Sector Committee Health Care, Social Work, Beauty and Service. She is the Leader of the work group of the project Multicultural Volunteering Centre: Mutual Harmony of Lithuanian Society and Third-country Nationals. She is also Leader of the work group of the project Food Consumption Quality and Social Exclusion. She is scientiﬁ c supervisor of doctoral students. She participates at national and international scientiﬁ c conferences. Areas of her research interests are self-development of life skills; development of social competences; training of social workers and teachers. Contact: [email protected]

INDRAŠIENĖ Valdonė - Professor has been developing research in directions: facilitation activity of an educator with respect to management of learning problems and promotion of interest and motivation in learning; analysis of the opportunities of social/pedagogical facilitation in team work; and analysis of effectiveness; education of risk group children. She has a long-term experience in preparation and management of national and international projects, including research activity. Recently has done a three-year scientiﬁ c research study of assistance for children with socio-educational problems and their family. She has 15 years experience of project work and 20 years experience of preparation and implementation social work training programs. Contact: [email protected]

JEGELEVIČIENĖ Violeta - Assoc. prof. of Social Communication Department, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Mykolas Romeris University. Scientiﬁ c interests: unsuccessful learning and motivation, research methodology. Contact: [email protected]

JĘDRZEJKO Mariusz – associate profesor; pedagogue, sociologist; scientiﬁ c director of the Social Prevention Centre; scientiﬁ c interests: phenomenon of drug addiction and new addictions, paradrugs, risky behaviour of juvenile, pathological use of digital technologies. Contact: [email protected]

KAROLCZAK–WAWRZAŁA Ewa - an English teacher at the University of Silesia in Katowice and the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza. Contact: [email protected] 348 Notes about the Authors KATKONIENĖ Agata - a lecturer at Mykolas Romeris University for seven years. Her main teaching subjects are Social Work Methodology and Social Work with Family. Her scientiﬁ c interests area includes such objects as social assistance, social services, social welfare, career planning. Agata has practice in social worker’s training courses and raising their competences. She is a doctoral student of management and public administration, her thesis topic is focusing on quality management models in social services for the family. Contact: [email protected]

KIRLIAUSKIENĖ Rasa – Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences), Associate Professor at the Department of Music, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences; areas of scientiﬁ c interests: training of music teachers, stage fright, self-Regulation. Contact: [email protected]

MERFELDAITĖ Odeta – a Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science), an associate Professor, at Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Educational sciences and Socialwork, Faculty of Socialtechnology. Scientiﬁ c interests: socialpedagogicalaid; child welfare and socialization. Contact: [email protected]

NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Marzena – psychologist, psychotherapist, special educaton teacher. Her main area of academic research interests concerns the application of psychological knowledge for the issues of health, illness and healthcare system. She is particularly interested in issues of promoting healthy lifestyle and maintaining healthy form, the impact of psychological factors on health and illness and the application of psychotherapeutic techniques in assisting treatment. She conducted the study, the aim of which was to describe psychosocial functioning of women – victims of domestic violence undergoing therapeutic interactions and to examine the effectiveness of the proposed therapeutic offer. Through the researches based on the salutogenetic model, she analyzed: A Life stress of soldiers departing on a mission – a sense of coherence and coping mechanisms. Contact: [email protected]

NORDSTRÖM-LYTZ Rita, PhD in the fi eld philosophy of education, at Åbo Akademi University in Finland. The dissertation is written in Swedish and the title, translated into English, is “Encountering the Other. The twofold educational task from the perspective of Martin Buber´s philosophy of Notes about the Authors 349 dialogue”. Working as a university teacher at the faculty of education, Åbo Akademi University. Publications: Om språk för pedagogik i senmodern tid (2008). In Michal Uljens (red.), det händer i pedagogiken. Röster om bildning i det senmoderna (ss 99-110). Rapport från Pedagogiska fakulteten vid Åbo Akademi, nr 23. Presence as silence in the educational encounter (2013) In Henny Fiskå Hägg & Aslaug Kristiansen (Eds.), Attending to Silence. Educators and Philosophers on the Art of Listening (ss 81-92). Kristiansand: Portal Academic. Att leva med eller bredvid den andra - om närvaron som en didaktisk dimension. I Birgit Schaffar (red.), Filosofi ns didaktik. Filosofi ska betraktelser om att lära sig tänka (ss 139-152). Stochkolm. Thales. Contact: rita.nordstrom-lytz@abo.fi

PIESTRZYŃSKI Wojciech - Assistant Professor in the University of Social Studies and Economics in Gdansk. Research interests: psychological and pedagogical aspects of aging, psychology of human development in the context of one’s psychosexuality, social pedagogy, health security. Contact: [email protected]

PIVORIENĖ Jolanta - an associated professor at Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Educational sciences and Social work, Faculty of Social technology (Vilnius, Lithuania). Research interests: social problems, social changes. Contact: [email protected]

PRAKAPAS Romas - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science), Associate Professor at Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social Technologies, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Scientiﬁ c interests: law education, education of children from the risk groups, research methodology. Contact: [email protected]

PRAKAPIENĖ Dalia - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science), Associate Professor at General Jonas Zemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania, Department of Management. Scientiﬁ c interests: education, human recourses management, leadership. Contact: [email protected]

PRUSIK Anna - Dr., pedagogue and social educationalist; lecturer at the Department of Social Pedagogy at the University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn; Dean of the faculty of Sociology and Pedagogy at the 350 Notes about the Authors University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn; till 2013 she was the deputy dean at this faculty. Member of the Polish Pedagogy Association. Her professional interests focus on issues concerning contemporary family especially its transformations. She is author of scientiﬁ c papers and chapters in joint publications concentrating on family and current social issues. Contact: [email protected]

PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Małgorzata - Ph.D., professor in the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza Social Prevention Centre (Poland). Expert in the Robert Hołowczyc Foundation “Safe driver”. The author of nearly 100 scientifi c publications published in Poland and abroad including 3 monographs: Family, work, education as the women’s space of life. Successes, confl icts, problems (2013), Addiction of the youth to contemporary media (2008), Professional and mutual therapy in the alcohol addiction (2006) and 7 works – scientifi c edition. Participant of numerous international conferences organized in Poland and abroad. Scholarship holder – twice. In 2013 she was honoured with the Safety Shield for the scientifi c research conducted within the frames of the project: “I’m clear headed, so I drive sober”. Contact: [email protected]

RADZIEWICZ-WINNICKI – Prof. Ph.D., pedagogue, sociologist at the University of Zielona Góra and Social Pedagogic Department at the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza. He has years of experience in the ﬁ eld of social pedagogy, sociology of education.

RAILIENĖ Asta - Assoc. prof. of Social Communication Department, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Mykolas Romeris University. Scientiﬁ c interests: Career education, Child welfare and socialization. Contact: [email protected]

SADAUSKAS Justinas – Assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University, seven years works as full time teacher at. has seven years of direct social work practice with homeless people and two years of administrative social work practice in NGO sector, two years worked as Senior Specialist at State Child Rights Protection and Adoption Service. He participates in two educational networks: European Social Educational Network for Cooperation and Exchange and Adult Life Long Learning in Social Work. Publications on topics: social exclusion, community social work, education and competence of social workers. Contact: [email protected] Notes about the Authors 351 SAFJAŃSKI Tomasz – Doctor of Juristic Science, long-term ofﬁ cial in the Central Bureau of Investigation and Europol. Specializes in analyses of drug problem in Poland.

SARZAŁA Dariusz, PhD. - University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Dr. Dariusz Sarzała, Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Warmia - Mazury in Olsztyn. His research interests focus on issues of social pathologies, social maladjustment and rehabilitation. It also performs research on the impact of cyberspace on human pathological behavior. It also deals with issues concerning the role of the family in the process of socialization and upbringing. Author of several scientiﬁ c publications in the mentioned range of subjects. Contact: [email protected]

ŠERSTOBOJEVA Auksė - Master graduate from Vilnius University the Department of Education. Auksė is mainly interested in multiligualism issues in childhood. Also her scientiﬁ c interests cover such areas as children socialization, diverse families, migration contextualization etc. Contact: [email protected]

ŠIMAITIS Algimantas - Lecturer and doctoral student of Klaipeda University, Faculty of Pedagogy, Department of Social Education. Chief specialist of Lithuanian Ministry of Education and Science in the Department of General Education and Vocational Training Department, Division of Non-formal Education and Education Support. Since 2000, A. Šimaitis have worked as a coordinator of the establishment of social pedagogues in Lithuanian educational institutions. Together with other members of the working group, he developed a Lithuanian Government Resolution on the establishment and funding of social pedagogues. Together he developed legal documents, which regulate preparation of social pedagogues in Lithuanian institutions of higher education, and documents related to the organization and operation of social pedagogues in educational institutions, qualiﬁ cation requirements, and exemplary job instructions. A. Šimaitis coordinates ongoing Lithuanian ESPAD study. He is interested and works on such issues as child and youth socialization, education assistance, global education, student self-government, parent education and other related problems. Contact: [email protected]

ŠINKŪNIENĖ Jautrė Ramutė - PhD, Doctor of Social Sciences (Education Studies), assoc. prof. at Mykolas Romeris university, faculty of Social 352 Notes about the Authors technologies, Institute of Education sciences and social work. Scientiﬁ c interests and areas: Socio-cultural work and community, socialization of disabled and art, music therapy and communication. Educational and practical experience – practice of Music Therapy and Drama methods with mentally and physically Disabled people, Piano play, Art social projects and events. Contact: [email protected]

VALANTIEJIENĖ Sandra - Social pedagogue in the Centre of Special Education and Psychology. Since 2010, she coordinates pedagogical- psychological services provided by social pedagogues and developed the recommended forms of activity for this category of specialists. The main area of her activity is drug abuse prevention. Sandra is also the instructor of two preventive programs she is interested and is working in development and deployment of prevention programs, as well as training of social skills, socialization of children and youth, education assistance, social pedagogical education of parents. Contact: [email protected]

VIRBALIENĖ Rita - assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Research interests: special pedagogy, social pedagogy, entrepreneurship development. Contact: [email protected]

WALANCIK Marek - Ass. Prof., Ph.D., social educator in Social Pedagogic Department at the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza. His scientiﬁ c achievements portraits a classical form of the borderland of several social studies subdisciplines. He locates his science interests in social education, sociology of education and securitology. Contact: [email protected]

ŽIBĖNIENĖ Gintautė – assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Research interests: teaching/ study quality assurance, quality assessment of study programmes, assessment methodology, assessment of competencies and individual achievements, entrepreneurship development. Contact: [email protected].