Red States series editors Jon Smith, Simon Fraser University Riché Richardson, Cornell University advisory board Houston A. Baker Jr., Vanderbilt University Leigh Anne Duck, Th e University of Mississippi Jennifer Greeson, Th e University of Virginia Trudier Harris, Th e University of Alabama John T. Matthews, Boston University Tara McPherson, Th e University of Southern California Claudia Milian, Duke University Red States indigeneity, settler colonialism, and southern studies Gina Caison Th e University of Georgia Press athens Parts of chapter 1 appeared, in somewhat diff erent form, as “Looking for Loss, Anticipating Absence: Imagining Indians in the Archives and Depictions of Roanoke’s Lost Colony,” in Indography: Writing the “Indian” in Early Modern England, edited by Jonathan Gil Harris (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). Parts of chapter 2 appeared, in somewhat diff erent form, as “Romantic Sympathy and Land Claim in William Gilmore Simms’s Native South” in the Simms Review 23.6 (2015): 5– 17. Parts of chapter 5 appeared, in somewhat diff erent form, as “ ‘Land! Hold on! Just hold on!’: Flood Waters, Hard Times, and Sacred Land in ‘Old Man’ and My Louisiana Love” in Faulkner and the Native South, edited by Jay Watson and Annette Trefzer (Jackson: University Press of Missisippi, 2018). © 2018 by the University of Georgia Press Athens, Georgia 30602 www .ugapress .org All rights reserved Set in 10/13 Kepler Std by Graphic Composition, Inc., Bogart, Georgia. Most University of Georgia Press titles are available from popular e-book vendors. Printed digitally Library of Congress Control Number: 2018003974 isbn: 9780820353357 (hardcover: alk. paper) isbn: 9780820353340 (ebook) For Mother Caison This page intentionally left blank contents acknowledgments ix a note on terminology xiii Red States: An Introduction 1 chapter one Recovery 29 chapter two Revolution 65 chapter three Removal 109 chapter four Resistance 159 chapter five Resilience 194 Rights and Returns: A Coda 217 notes 223 bibliography 243 index 263 This page intentionally left blank acknowledgments It seems nearly impossible to thank everyone who has contributed to my writing of this book. All of the best parts of this monograph are owed to the following institutions and people; the shortcomings of this project are mine alone. First and foremost, I am eternally grateful for the support of my disserta- tion committee, Mark Jerng, Michael Wilson, and Julia Coates, as well as the intellectual support I received from the Departments of English and Native American Studies at uc Davis and the Department of English at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin– Milwaukee. Mark Jerng continues to be a perfect mentor long beyond his duties as the director of my dissertation. Michael Wilson has proven unfailing in his support over the past sixteen years, and I can- not imagine my scholarly life without his steadfast advice. Julia Coates re- mains a source of constant encouragement, and much of this project emerges from our conversations about the U.S. South. My intellectual life has also been shaped by the undergraduate education I received from Auburn Uni- versity: Paula Backscheider and Hilary Wyss taught me to love the earliest of archives, and Jim McKelly convinced me that I might have a future as an English major. Additionally, several members of the uc Davis community nurtured the development of the dissertation project that would become this book: Hsuan Hsu, Michael Ziser, Martha Macri, and Judy Alexander off ered their feedback, support, and enthusiasm as I imagined what this work could become. Th is project also owes much of its early conception to conversations with Jack D. Forbes, and one of the treasures of my life is having had the op- portunity to talk to him about these ideas before he passed on. Th e Department of English at Georgia State University has off ered me in- valuable support over the last six years. I am especially grateful for the won- derful gsu graduate students and undergraduates who have shared their con- tagious enthusiasm for literature and history. In particular, David Gomez and the New Echota students have always challenged my thinking about what Native American history and literature means to the contemporary U.S. South; the best part of my job has been working with David and these stu- dents to improve the way Georgia accounts for its Removal legacy. Likewise, the Native undergraduate students I have had the pleasure to teach, includ- ing Molly Bowman, Olivia Cambern, Jessica Parker, and Lindsey Smith, are ix leading the way at gsu and in Atlanta for creating a better future for Indige- nous peoples in the U.S. South. Th ey leave me humbled and inspired to under- take this work. My department chairs, Randy Malamud and Lynée Gaillet, have supported my research. Harper Strom has consistently been the person there for me to help solve any crisis. My faculty mentor Matthew Roudané is possibly the world’s most wonderful colleague. I am proud to consider him a friend. Fellow junior faculty members Emily Bloom and Ashley Holmes of- fered immensely helpful advice on the initial proposal for this book, and I am especially indebted to Emily for encouraging me to just go ahead and call the book Red States even though I was hesitant to own such a potentially provoc- ative title. Likewise, Lindsey Eckert has listened to so many iterations, stops, and starts of this book’s evolution that I am grateful that she still allows me to come into her offi ce. Without a doubt, Scott Heath has been my closest in- tellectual companion over the last fi ve years. If not for his generous ears and mind, this book would not exist. Additionally, this book would not be possible without the material and fi nancial support from several key institutions and individuals. I thank the American Antiquarian Society, the Davis Humanities Institute, the Southern Historical Collection at unc– Chapel Hill, and the Georgia State University Research Initiation Grant for their generous support of my work. Likewise, two summer programs sponsored by the National Endowment for the Hu- manities allowed me to hone my ideas. Scott Manning Stevens of the D’Arcy McNickle Center at the Newberry Library off ered early feedback during his 2010 Institute. Th eda Perdue, Malinda Maynor Lowery, Clara Sue Kidwell, and Michael Green of the University of North Carolina’s American Indian Center helped me refi ne my argument during their 2011 Seminar, and Malinda May- nor Lowery off ered invaluable feedback about portions of the book in its fi nal stage. Th is project also benefi ted from conversations at the 2010 Clinton Insti- tute for American Studies Summer School at University College Dublin. Spe- cial thanks to Ashley Cataldo, Laura Clark Brown, Lara Cohen, Paul Erickson, Jack Larkin, Jaclyn Penny, and Laura E. Wasowicz for their archival guidance during my time at the American Antiquarian Society. I also wish to thank the reviewers and editors from the University of Georgia Press. Walter Biggins, Jon Smith, Riché Richardson, and Eric Gary Anderson as well as the anony- mous readers of the manuscript have all worked to make this book so much better than my brain alone could have achieved. In addition to the libraries and research centers that have helped make this book possible, I also owe an enormous debt of gratitude to those who took the time to talk with me about their work: Lauren Adams, Margaret Bauer, Jim Clark, Brian Clowdus, Dacia Dick, Clyde Ellis, Jeff and Shannon Hatley, Willie French Lowery, Malinda Maynor Lowery, Robert Richmond, Eddie Swimmer, and Leah Wilhelm all shaped my thinking about outdoor drama in the U.S. South. I would also like x acknowledgments to thank the Paul Green Foundation and the Roanoke Island Historical Asso- ciation for their continued support of my work. I am fortunate to be a member of two of the best scholarly communities in academia: Native American stud- ies and southern studies. None of my work would be possible without the gen- erosity and rigor of the scholars in these fi elds. In particular, Ben Frey, Todd Hagstette, Lisa Hinrichsen, Jeff Rogers, and Kirstin Squint have off ered direc- tion, clarifi cation, resources, and encouragement for parts of this research. Writing a book also requires friends and family who act simultaneously as sounding boards and reservoirs of immense patience. Th e friendship of Ken and Rebekka Andersen, Dana Arter, Chris Bates, John Garrison, Chris- toph Gumb, Angel Hinzo, Patricia Killelea, John Mac Kilgore, Jenny Kaminer, Shanae Martinez, Melissa Leal, Karolyn Reddy, Sonja Schillings, Grace Tira pelle, Kaitlin Walker, and Bryan Yazell made graduate school worth the trouble. Brook Colley and Cutcha Risling Baldy continue to be the best teammates in the world; I cannot overstate their importance to my life. Sue Kim has provided emotional, intellectual, and psychological support for the past fourteen years, and I doubt I can ever repay the debt. Boris Vormann read every word of this project in its inception, and it is much better for his careful attention. Similarly, Matthew Franks read much of this work in its late stages, and his feedback has been priceless. Since coming to Atlanta, Sheri Hall, Sally Hawkins, Kevin Hayden, Ashley Jehle, Erich Nunn, Lynette Rimmer, Stephanie Rountree, Gabe Sherry, Dustin Stewart, Kris Townsend, Reanna Ursin, and Kelly Vines have enriched my life with their humor and intelligence. Whether they know it or not, Jody Alexander, Amanda Blanken- ship, Julie Knowles, Isaac Slape, and Andrea Wolf helped make everything about my life—and by extension this work—possible. My parents, Ken and Becky Caison, built a world for me where I was free to learn without judg- ment. Th eir quick wit and laughter continue to inspire me.