POVERTY AFFECTS THE LIVES OF History
THE GENESIS OF OLYMPIC MATTERS IN CHINA (1895-1948)
China can be traced to 1895.^ Some he purpose of this text is to by Pei Dongguang* trace the formation and months before the first modern Tearly development of the Olympic Games were opened in Chinese Olympic Movement, an Greece in the spring of 1896, the evolution which is documented Ging government received an invita by historical incidents that are tion sent to them through the hardly known in the Western French Embassy. This government world. had never heard of the Olympic Games.^ No reaction from China Origins of international sport in was forthcoming. China In fact, long before the Olympic The history of China is long, event Movement finally became rooted ful, and illustrious. Evidence exists in China, there already existed that inhabitants formed villages some forms of Western sport, some 6,000 years ago. The devel underscored by Western sport most of which were reflective of opment of a writing system of idio- which, in the eyes of progressive military exercises (1840-1911). graphic characters can be traced to Chinese, had incomparable advan Such exercises developed rapidly almost 4,000 years past. However, tages over traditional Chinese and widely, for they meshed with the China's geographical separation sports. Chinese martial spirit and the tradi from Western cultures and its inten Ancient China had no term corre tional Chinese ideal of a unified tional isolation from its neighbours sponding to the term "gymnastics" regime known as the "Central have obscured information about employed, for instance, in ancient Kingdom." Though the Central Chinese civilisation, even in recent Greece, and not have organised Kingdom's political authority had times. games resembling the original deteriorated by the end of the XIX FOOTBALL PLAYERS. China was closed to the outside Olympics. However, this is not to century, much of its cultural values world until the Opium Wars com say that the ancient Chinese pos remained intact, including disposi Whal's more surprising: the fact that we now live in a world where almost a c:i:,:)rii;: mencing in 1840.' The treaties sessed nothing resembling sport. tion towards physical exercises of a he population live in absolute poverty? Or the fact that for the first time ever, we i resulting from the Opium Wars pro Terms which originated in early military nature. Western sport prac vided Westerners with freer access times, such as Wu Young (martial tices which were not perceived to wealth, technology and knowledge to create a poverty free world in less than a yer.:-";! to China than had ever been the valour), Quanyoug (boxing valour), have direct military value and did case before. During this period, Xi (game), JiJi (art of attacl
UNDP, Palais des Nations, CH-1211, Geneva 10, Switzerland Everyone will be richer ivit! 45
Source : Bibliothèque du CIO / IOC Library History History
YMCA (Young Men's Christian between China and the times.In 1912 William meeting ever held in China, Association) Inad become an Philippines was estab Tutherly, Frank. L. Cron, and thus, from a Chinese effective agent in promoting lished. Resulting from and Elwood S. Brown point of view, is considered Western sports and physical the Spanish-American announced that they would the most significant event education in many Asian coun War at the end of expand upon previous ath in the entire series of FEGs. tries, including the construc the XIX century, the letics at the Carnival and This event had the strong tion and installation of sporting Philippine Islands were hold a formal international support of Chinese official grounds and facilities, organi reduced to little more athletic meet in conjunc dom. On the organising sation of sporting competi than being an American tion with the next carnival committee (headed by J.H. tions, and providing of sporting colony by 1901. in February of 1913. Crocker of the YMCA) were specialists. In 1924 a group American culture pene Arising from their organisa such illustrious Chinese as of Chinese men were sent trated the Philippines, tional efforts was the first Wu Ting-fang (onetime to Springfield College in one aspect of which edition of the FEGs in Chinese Minister to the Massachusetts (United States) was sport. Proposed by February 1913. The estab United states) and T'ang to study physical education. Elwood S. Brown, sent lishment of the FEGs Shao-yi (Premier of the Included in the group were to the Philippines by the organising committee in Republic of China).'® The Hoh Gun Sun, Ma John, and Chicago YMCA as sport 1912 was approved by the attitude of the Chinese Tung Shou Yi,^ who all played secretary in 1910, the IOC and supported by its leaders toward the FEGs is significant roles in the develop Philippines Amateur President, Pierre de illustrated by the reply of ment of the Western sports in Athletic Federation Coubertin. The IOC sent a several government minis China. (PAAF) was formed and representative to help ters to the question posed The first YMCA was founded in Brown himself presided direct the first FEGs.'® The by YMCA officials: "Can we Shanghai in 1876,^ others were over the Federation.'^ FEAA was not only the ear count on your support for established throughout China, In September 1911, liest regional sports organi such a movement?" "It Is many of them under the direc Brown visited China to sation, but also the first not a question for us to tion of sports-minded secre put forward a proposal regional association to gain decide. You are doing so taries and physical directors to establish a Far East official recognition from the much for the young men of "Polo player", (painted terracotta from the Tang era, Gulmet Museum). "Chess piece", (Chinese Ceramic, Gulmet Museum). from the United States. Olympic Committee IOC. This occurred in China that it is our duty to Chinese youngsters became (FEOC) and to stage Far 1920." As requested by help you. We want our men acquainted with the Western sports. track and field meeting; a national East Olympic Games (FEGs) in Asia. the IOC, the Far Eastern of China's colleges and universi to have strong bodies, and your Sport activity spread to many of the tennis tournament; a national soc Brown's proposal was approved by Championship Games were known ties.^^ China's best performances work will do more to make this pos church-affiliated schools though the cer tournament; and a national bas both Chinese and Japanese offi originally as the Far Eastern Olympic were in the decathlon (first and sec sible than any plan that we could government schools at first lagged ketball tournament.'This meet was cials.''' As a result, the Far East Games. The word "Olympic" was ond places), 120 yard high hurdles think of or carry out. " behind in this respect, a gradual considered a success, featuring a Athletic Association (FEAA) was subsequently changed to (first and second), running broad Financial support from government change occurred between 1910 and daily average attendance of some established with the Chinese Wu "Championship" before the 1915 jump (first), and running high jump officials was not lacking either. For 1920 as the YMCA began to initiate 40,000.® It was sponsored by the Ting-fang as President, Elwood S. Games.'® (first).'® instance. President Yuan Shih-kai sports programs in government YMCAs and a group of university Brown as Secretary, and J. H. The first FEGs proved to be a great A newspaper commented on the donated 2000 silver dollars for the schools. athletic associations which con Crocker, Physical Director of the success. Over 150,000 people paid meeting: "The greatest athletic 2nd edition, plus an additional 500 From the growth of the YMCA sisted of 25 members representing YMCA system in China, as their way into the carnival ground in meeting ever heid In the Orient was to bring a baseball team of overseas movement in China evolved the first the cities of Shanghai, Naijing, Treasurer. China, Japan and the Manilla."' The Games were high more than a success, it was a tri Chinese from Honolulu to compete attempts at establishing national Shuzhou, Wuchang, Tianjing, and Philippines were the competing lighted by an Olympic-style opening umph. It took three thousand years for China." Held in Hong Kew Park sporting organisations and national Hong Kong. However, most of the nations.'^ In fact, the FEGs resulted parade of athletes and elaborate or more for the Olympiad to reach in Shanghai, the 1915 edition regis athletic meets. From 18 to 22 athletes were from missionary from a cultural festival. For several closing ceremonies.The Chinese the Far East in its westward moving tered the participation of almost 350 October 1910, in the city of Najing, schools.'' Part of the Organising years prior to 1913, it had been team of about 40 (who took part for global circling tour But It hit the athletes, in front of over 100,000 the first national athletic meeting Committee was composed of 12 customary to hold international ath the first time in an international Asiatic shores with a twentieth cen spectators during the eight days of was held,® actually six meetings in Westerners, but this organisation letic events in conjunction with the competition and were all placed tury bang when It came."^" the meet, which led to the state one: a national track and field meet was only temporary.'" The American annual Manila Carnival. Japanese under the leadership of Alfred H. Ten editions were held between ment made by Elwood S. Brown: "/ ing for teams representing the five M.J. Exner, an YMCA sponsor of baseball teams, groups of athletes Swan, Physical Director of the 1913 and 1935; in 1915, 1921 and have never seen such enthusiastic sections of China; a middle school sport, was in fact the initiator and from Hong Kong, and occasional Shanghai YMCA) competed in all 1927 there were held in Shanghai. rooting and cheering in my life at national track and field meeting for organiser. " contestants from Singapore had events except baseball,^' most of The 1915 (15-22 May) can be called any athletic event. " '® These Games the five sections; an intercollegiate By 1910, too, a sporting link entered the events at various the Chinese athletes were products the first major international sports were most significant for China with
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Source : Bibliothèque du CIO / IOC Library History History
respect to long range ramifications Japan, Jigoro Kano representing known person in field of sport in Yale. They were both Christians. The election of Tung Shou-Yi to the assume practical duty"." Tung for sport and physical education. IOC, delivered a speech at the China. Secondly, he had nurtured an Kong had served in the government IOC in 1947 prompts a comment. In Shou-Yi, born in China in 1895, The FEGs were originally planned to opening ceremony.®^ A more definite extraordinary relationship with the as minister of finance."" Though June 1945, C.T. Wang put forward a studied at Springfield College from occur biennially, the ninth edition relationship with the IOC evolved in YMCA. Because early Chinese Kong was unknown to Chinese proposal that China request the IOC 1923 to 1925."® In 1947, as recom was held in 1931, after an interval of 1922 when Chengting (C.T.) Wang, physical education and sport was sports officials, Wang's endorse to nominate one more member. This mended by C.T. Wang, he was offi three years. The next edition took a member of the organising team of organised and supervised, indeed ment of him was sufficient to get proposal was approved by China's cially elected as a new member of place in 1935 after an intentionally the 5th FEGs, was elected as IOC manipulated, by the YMCA, many Kung elected. C.T. Wang recounted National Sport Association."^ the IOC. prolonged interval of four years in member. Chinese people counted on YMCA all this to Tung Shou-YI in 1947 Subsequently, China's third IOC order to fit with the quadrennial individuals to assume prospective when Tung himself was elected to member was elected in accordance Earliest participation in the Olympic calendar.^®' In 1931 Japan Figures in China's earliest rela leadership positions. the IOC. Said Wang on that occa with the Olympic Charter's Olympic Games invaded and occupied the northern tionship with the IOC By 1922, when the IOC reached a sion: "Personal income, government Fundamental and Principal Rules China sent delegations to view or to part of China and produced a 'pup Several Chinese figures played decision to elect a member from subsidy, and social standing are the and Regulations in effect at that compete in the Olympic Games in pet' regime called "Manchukou", important roles in the early history of China,it had formed a positive gate tickets for election to the IOC. time, that being a country is allowed 1928, 1932, 1936 and 1948. Upon which established a sports body China's relationship with the IOC, view of the FEG, which were largely Thus, we needed a person who had to have one to three members on their return, a number of participat called "Sports Association of the most important of which were organised and administered by a high position and direct rela ing athletes and sports offi Manchukou". In order to gain inter C.T. Wang, Xiangxi Kong and Tung YMCA officials of the participating tionship with the govern cials wrote articles in various national support, Japan attempted Shou Yi. countries. Elwood Brown kept in ment"," this statement under- newspapers and journals to have "Manchukou" admitted to C.T. Wang, who was a Christian, close touch with the IOC, reporting lining that Kong was praising the Olympic Games the 10th FEG, but failed, due to the obtained a doctorate from Yale on Asian sport activities.®'^ IOC inter recommended and appointed and the spirit of friendliness resistance of China and the University in the United States. Born est in Asian sport affairs became on the basis of his wealth and which issued from them. In Philippines. Later, the Philippines in China in 1882,^^ he moved to apparent when IOC's vice-president. position. This is somewhat 1928 China sent only an were forced by Japan to withdraw Japan at an early age, where during Count Henri de Baillet-Latour, supported by the fact that observer to the Games of the from the "Far Eastern Sports his youth, he was president of the expressed a desire to visit the Far Kong was said to have given IX Olympiad in Amsterdam. He Association". Japan then formed Chinese Brotherhood Association. East to observe developments for 20,000 French Francs to the was a YMCA sport functionary the "Eastern Asian Amateur Sports Later, upon his return to China, after himself.®' Chinese Athletic Federation by the name of Song Ru Hal, Association". Manchukou, of the Republic of China was founded In August 1924, resulting from and, several years later, nothing has been recorded of course, was a member. The Chinese in 1911, he was elected vice- Wang's election to the IOC, China's cabled 3,000 US dollars to his impressions. government was opposed to all president of the Chinese parliament. first National Athletic Federation the Chinese delegation taking In 1932 China sent its first ath these manoeuvres. The overall He settled in Shanghai Najing and was established. At a meeting in part in the Games of the lete to Olympic competition. result was that the "Far Eastern became the head of the Najing Najing, C.T. Wang was named its XIV Olympiad in London in His name was Liu Chang Sports Association," having a his Youth Association. A short time later Honorary President and Zhang 1948."^ Once elected to the Chun, a sprinter who com tory of 23 years, was dissolved and Wang embarked on a diplomatic Bailing was elected to act as chair- IOC, it appeared that Kong peted in both the 100 and 200 the FEGs disappeared.™ career. He was a Chinese delegate man of the Management had little interest in Olympic meter events. Liu's appear With the origin and evolution of the to the Paris Peace sessions held Committee. The executive commit affairs. He never did attend an ance in Los Angeles for the FEGs, the spirit of the Olympic after the end of World War I. He tee of the Federation was com IOC Session. In accordance Games of the X Olympiad was Movement, as well as Western sport remained in the service of the for prised of 15 people, all Chinese.®® In with the Olympic regulation somewhat of an achievement culture, began to influence Chinese eign ministry until 1938, serving as 1931, the National Athletic which reads: "An individual for the Chinese government. sport values and practices with ambassador to the United States Federation officially became the shall cease to be a member If Japan, which had occupied regard to international sport matters. from 1936 to 1938. His activities in Chinese National Olympic he changes his nationality, Northern China by 1930, had China began to enter into interna the realm of sport and physical edu Committee.®® falls to attend meetings, fails desired to send a Chinese ath tional sport affairs and initiate a cation were avocational in nature,®" Three years after the Games of the to take an active part In com Chengting (C.T.) Wang. lete of its own selection to the stronger relationship with the IOC, but he used such involvement to XI Olympiad in Berlin in 1936, a sec mittee affairs for four years, or Games. But China had insisted relationship started in May 1915, obtain social position and interna ond Chinese, Xiangxi Kong became pays his subscription for three the IOC. The regulation was modi on sending its own representative. during the 2nd FEGs. The IOC sent tional reputation. One might say that a member of the IOC. Kong had lit years, or by reason of circumstance fied in 1956 to permit no more than The following chronology is pre a telegram of congratulations to the his avocational activities were hardly tle relationship with Chinese sport. that may arise Is not In a position to two people from each country."® In sented on date order. On 1 July organising committee and invited separated from those political in He was never an athlete, nor was he properly carry out his duties as early September 1945, at a meeting 1932 a graduation ceremony was China to take part in the next scope. particularly an advocate of sporting member"."'' Kong should have been of the National Sport Association held in the Department of Physical Olympic Games and IOC session. Two reasons underscore his nomi exercise. How was he elected? His disenfranchised by the IOC. But, he convened at Chun Ging, C.T. Wang Education in the Northwest But, because of World War I, both nation as the first Chinese member election stemmed from a recom was not. Instead, he did not leave suggested: "First of all, we should University located in Manchuria, dur were cancelled.^' At the 5th FEGs in of the IOC. First, at the time of his mendation by C.T. Wang, his class the IOC until 1955, when he finally recommend a young man who ing which General Zhang Xue Liang May 1921, an IOC member from co-option to the IOC, he was a well mate when the two had studied at resigned."" understands sport and is able to officially announced: "Liu Chang
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Source : Bibliothèque du CIO / IOC Library History History
Chun and Yu Xi Wei as athletes Berlin in 1936, the Chinese around Southeast Asia to earn sporting culture towards a and Song Jang-fu as coach preparations for participation money by means of selling development which better fit will represent China in the were made in an orderly fash tickets for its exhibition con ted the needs of an emerging Games of the X Olympiad".*^ ion. A training camp was tests against other teams. In Chinese state in the XX cen The Chinese government at established at Tsingtao by the Berlin, only one Chinese tury. Drastic social changes first declared that China would CNAAF in the summer of athlete, Fu Baolu, passed the required a new culture and not tal 50 51 Source : Bibliothèque du CIO / IOC Library History History means to hold seven national 1842. It was the first of the humil Meet", in Sport and Contest, Jonathan Kolatch, Sports, Politics Ibid. Shi You Ouan, "Brief i-iistory of games, to organise and participate iating "unequal treaties" forced on Institute Nacional de Education and Ideology in China, New York: Tung, op. cit., p. 1 5. China's Participation in the in ten Far East Games, and China by the foreign powers, Fisica Madrid, 1993, p. 389. Jonathan David Publishers, 1972, Ibid. Olympics", Journal of Chinese observed and participated in four some of which are below: ® Olympic Movement, op. cit., p. p. 55. Ibid., p. 36. Sports History, Vol. 3, 1988, p. Olympic Games. As well, regional - The cession of Hong Kong to 274. Ibid., p. 57. Citius, Altius, Fortius: The 18. and university games were held British interests. ' Hoh Gun Sun, Physical Education Olympic Movement, op. cit., p. Olympic Games' Fundamental Ibid. from time to time. Then, one might - The opening of five ports- in China, Shanghai: Commercial 278. Principles and Regulations, 1962. Ibid. conclude that if it were not for Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fu-zhou, Press, 1926, p. 96. Ibid. p. 279. IOC Session minutes, 50th See Wun Yun-jui, Brief Chinese Chinese involvement in the Modern Ningho and Shanghai to British ® "First National Athletic Meet", in Ibid, p. 276. Session, 13-18 June, 1955, Paris. Sports Flistory, op. cit., p. 526. Olympic Movement, the road to trade; North China l-lerald, 28 October Tung, op. cit., p. 6. " Tung, op. cit., p. 18. Fan Hong, "Women, Sport and modern transformation would have - The payment of an indemnity of 1910, p. 359. Olympic Movement, op. cit., p. Tung, op. cit., p. 17. Emancipation in China", The been long delayed. 21,000,000 silver dollars. ® Wu Yun-jui, Brief Chinese Sports 277. " Tung, op. cit., p. 18. International Journal of the - The fixing of tariff rates on Flistory, Shanghai: Commercial Tung, op. cit., p. 16. Olympic Movement, op. cit., p. History of Sport, Vol. 10, No. 1, 'Olympic Studies Centre scholarship- British goods by mutual agree Press, 1931, pp. 225-241. IOC General Session Minutes, 277. April 1993, pp. 108-111. Fan holder, Olympic Museum. ment, thus depriving China of her Tung Shou-Yi, The Olympics and 20th Session, 7-10 June 1922, The Chinese TV Series: Chinese Hong's article is a brief overview, sovereign right to determine China, Beijing: Sports Press, Olympic Light, China Centre without documentation and with import duties. 1962, p. 3. Paris. out exploration of any particular - The fixing of a limit of five per " Olympic Movement, op. cit. IOC General Session Minutes, 18th Television, September 1993 References / Notes cent on import tariffs for British Ibid., p. 278. Session, 17-30 August 1920, Li Chen, "Zhang i-isuch Liang theme. Toward the end of the XVIII cen goods. " Ibid. Antwerp; and Tung, op. cit., p. 6. Financed Liu Chung Chun to Shi, op. cit. tury, the British merchants found - The handing over to the British Preliminary Announcement, Far Untitled note, Chinese Journal of Participate in Tenth Olympic Shi, op. cit. the sale of opium the easiest way consulate of British nationals East Championship Games, the Flistory of Sport, Vol. 13, 1991, Games", Journal of Chinese Sport ™ Liu, op. cit. to make great profits from their involved in disputes with Chinese YMCA archives, Shanghai Library, p. 117. Flistory, Vol. 3, 1987, p. 16 Tung, op. cit., p. 4. trade with China. The Chinese merchants. 1914, p. 5. ''"Tung, op. cit., p. 6; and Olympic Ibid. government, under the dynastic - Permission for British settle Preliminary Announcement-FEG Movement, op. cit., p. 276. Li, op. cit. rule of Emperor Dao Guang, ment in certain districts of the Championship Games, YMCA became alarmed by the enor treaty ports, embryos of foreign archives, Shanghai Library, 1914, mous drain of silver from its terri concession in the large cities of p. 5. tory. Late in 1838, Commissioner China. Wu Chih Kang, "The influence of Lin Zexu was appointed to deal - Most-favoured-nation status, the YMCA on the Development of with the problem. Upon his arrival extending to Britain all privileges Physical Education in China" Olympic Quiz' in Guangzhou, Lin forced the which might be granted to any (unpublished Ph.D dissertation. British and a number of American other power in the future. University of Michigan, 1956, pp. merchants to surrender their - The Second Opium War broke 130-2). Olympic Sports stocks of opium. Some 20,000 out in 1856 because Great Britain " Liu, op. cit., p. 390. chests (of which over 1,000 and the other Western powers Wu Wen-Chung, Sports Flistory, belonged to American merchants) were not satisfied with what they Taipei: Taipei Press, 1962, p. 400. ^ Questions (answers on page 62) were confiscated and publicly had acquired in the First Opium Hoh, op. cit., p. 108. 6. At the XIX Olympic Winter Games in 2002, men competed in destroyed on the beaches. The War. ™ El wood S. Brown, "Far Eastern 1. There are only considered to be seven sports in the Olympic Winter Games, but one often hears of many more - figure skating, speed seven sports. How* many sports did women compete in at Salt result was the Opium War of ^ Shi You Quain, "The Olympic Olympic Games", in Physical skating, alpine skiing, cross country skiing, and so on - perhaps as Lake City? many as 14. What causes this discrepancy? 1840. In 1840, under the banner Committee and China", Journai of Training, Vol. 10 (April 1913), pp. 7. There were 28 sports contested at the Games of the XXVII Olympiad of "free trade," British troop carri Chinese Sports i-iistory, Vol. 3, 173-174. 2. What are the requirements for a sport to be included on the pro in Sydney. How many sports did women compete in at these Games? gramme of the Olympic Games? ers and men-of-war were dis 1984, p. 6. Hoh, op. cit., p. 108. 8. What new sports will make their Olympic debut at the Games of the patched eastward to force open ® Fan Hong, untitled note, Journai "Far Eastern Olympic Games", in 3. What are the requirements for a sport to be included on the pro XXVIII Olympiad in Athens in 2004? gramme of the Olympic Winter Games? China's "closed door". The First of Chinese Sports i-iistory, August North China l-lerald, Vol. 106, 25 9. What were the demonstration sports at the 1996 and 2000 Olympic Opium War lasted more than two 1990, p. 22. January 1913, p. 255. 4. Which of the following sports have never been contested at the Games? Olympic Games: golf, rugby football, lacrosse, and motorboating? years, from June 1840 to August " Olympic Movement, Beijing, Ibid., 22 February 1913, p. 540. 10. Rule 53 of the Olympic Charter states that how many sports must be 1 842. The Chinese were China: Sports Press, 1993, p. Wu, Chih-kang, op. cit., p. 134. 5. Which sports have appeared on the programme at all Olympic contested at the Olympic Games? Games? defeated. The First Opium War 275. July 1914 report by J.H. Crocker, was brought to an end by the ® Liu Yue, "The Far Eastern Games: YMCA archives, Shanghai Library. signing of the Treaty of Nanjing in The Earliest Regional Sports Ibid. 'Compiled by Bill Mallon, president of the international Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) 52 53 Source : Bibliothèque du CIO / IOC Library